The Regional Organization for the
Conservation of the Environment of
the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
(PERSGA)
Regional Action Plan for the
Conservation of Breeding Seabirds
and their Habitats in the Red Sea and
Gulf of Aden
Draft 27 April 2004
April 2004
PERSGA is an intergovernmental organisation dedicated to the conservation of coastal and
marine environments and the wise use of the natural resources in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
region.
The Regional Convention for the Conservation of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Environment
(Jeddah Convention) 1982 provides the legal foundation for PERSGA. The Secretariat of the
Organization was formally established in Jeddah following the Cairo Declaration of September
1995. The PERSGA member states are Djibouti, Egypt, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Sudan,
and Yemen.
PERSGA, P.O. Box 53662, Jeddah 21583, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
Tel.: +966-2-657-3224. Fax: +966-2-652-1901. Email: persga@persga.org
Website: http://www.persga.org
This document was prepared through the Habitat and Biodiversity Conservation component of the Strategic
Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, a Global Environment Facility project executed by
PERSGA and implemented by the GEF partners - United Nations Development Programme, the United
Nations Environment Programme and the World Bank. Supplementary funding was provided by the Islamic
Development Bank and the PERSGA member states.
© 2004 PERSGA
The text of this publication may be reproduced in whole or in part and in any form for educational or non-profit
purposes without the permission of the copyright holders provided that acknowledgement of the source is
given. PERSGA would appreciate receiving a copy of any publication that uses this material as a source. This
publication may not be copied or distributed electronically for resale, or other commercial purposes, without
prior permission, in writing, from PERSGA.
This publication may be cited as:
PERSGA/GEF 2004. Regional Action Plan for the Conservation of Breeding Seabirds and their Habitats in the
Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. PERSGA, Jeddah.
Table of Contents
List of Tables ........................................................................................................................................................ii
List of Figures .......................................................................................................................................................ii
Preface................................................................................................................................................................. iii
List of Abbreviations and Acronyms ...................................................................................................................iv
1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY.............................................................................................................................1
2. INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................................2
2.1 The Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Region ......................................................................................................2
2.2 Breeding seabirds of the RSGA Region .....................................................................................................2
3. DEVELOPMENT AND SCOPE OF THE REGIONAL ACTION PLAN ................................................3
3.1 Background to the Regional Action Plan ...................................................................................................3
3.2 Scope of the Regional Action Plan.............................................................................................................4
4. STATUS OF BREEDING SEABIRDS IN THE RED SEA AND GULF OF ADEN ................................5
4.1 Status of species .........................................................................................................................................5
4.2 Ecology of breeding seabirds in the RSGA Region....................................................................................5
4.3 Priority bird species....................................................................................................................................5
4.4 Key sites for breeding seabirds Important Bird Areas.............................................................................7
5. THREATS FACING BREEDING SEABIRDS IN THE RSGA REGION ................................................8
5.1 Human disturbance at nest sites..................................................................................................................8
5.2 Human exploitation of seabirds..................................................................................................................9
5.3 Introduced predators and invasive species................................................................................................10
5.4 Habitat destruction and degradation .........................................................................................................11
5.5 Pollution ...................................................................................................................................................13
5.6 Impact of fisheries ....................................................................................................................................14
5.7 Global warming ........................................................................................................................................15
5.8 Threats to individual species and key sites in the RSGA Region.............................................................15
6. CURRENT CONSERVATION ACTIONS FOR BREEDING SEABIRDS IN THE RED SEA AND
GULF OF ADEN...........................................................................................................................................20
6.1 International environmental initiatives covering the RSGA Region ........................................................20
6.2 National legislation and implementation of international agreements in PERSGA countries..................22
7. OVERALL CONSERVATION OBJECTIVES .........................................................................................25
Specific objectives..........................................................................................................................................25
i
8. FRAMEWORK FOR ACTION .................................................................................................................. 26
8.1 Introduction to the Framework ................................................................................................................ 26
8.2 General approach to implementation ....................................................................................................... 27
8.3 Component 1: Integrated Coastal Zone Management Planning for Seabirds .......................................... 29
8.4 Component 2: Education, public awareness and community participation ............................................. 30
8.5 Component 3: Site and habitat protection and management.................................................................... 32
8.6 Component 4: Regulation of human exploitation .................................................................................... 35
8.7 Component 5: Research and monitoring.................................................................................................. 36
8.8 Component 6: Strengthening legislation.................................................................................................. 39
8.9 Component 7: Institutional capacity building and training...................................................................... 40
9. REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................................. 41
Recommended additional reading.................................................................................................................. 44
ANNEXES......................................................................................................................................................... 47
Annex 1. Number of breeding pairs of true seabirds recorded in different PERSGA countries where known
(from PERSGA/GEF 2003a) ......................................................................................................................... 47
Annex 2. Feeding and nesting habits of the 17 true seabirds that nest in the RSGA Region......................... 48
Annex 3. National and international conservation status of breeding seabird species in the RSGA Region. 50
Annex 4. Summary of Important Bird Areas in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden of special importance to
breeding seabirds from (EVANS 1994 and FISHPOOL & EVANS 2001)........................................................... 52
Annex 5. Major global and regional conventions and agreements relevant to seabird conservation in the
RSGA Region ................................................................................................................................................ 56
Annex 6. Impacts of recommended actions on threats .................................................................................. 61
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Distribution and population of breeding seabirds in the RSGA .........................................................6
Table 2. Conservation priorities for seabirds in the RSGA Region based on their global and regional
conservation status and the biogeographical importance of their RSGA populations ......................................7
Table 3. Assessment of impacts of threats on individual species of breeding seabird in the RSGA Region..17
Table 4. Preliminary assessment of impacts of threats to key seabird breeding sites in the RSGA Region ...18
Table 5. Ratification status of biodiversity- and marine-protection related conventions relevant to seabird
conservation in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, as of July 2003.....................................................................21
Table 6. Existing and proposed marine protected areas in the RSGA Region that are important for
breeding seabirds ............................................................................................................................................23
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Map of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden ............................................................................................. 3
Figure 2. Priority sites for the conservation of nesting seabirds in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden ............... 33
Figure 3. Map of Important Bird Areas given in Annex 4............................................................................. 55
ii
PREFACE
The Red Sea and Gulf of Aden region is recognised as an important area for seabirds, with 17
species breeding regularly. One species and two sub-species are endemic to the region. A further
group of taxa, at both specific and sub-specific levels, is endemic to the northwest Indian Ocean and
important sub-populations breed in the region. One species is Globally Threatened and three are
considered to be Near Threatened.
During the last decade there has been an upsurge in seabird research and knowledge. There are
several reasons for such progress. Increased exploitation of natural resources has led to a greater
awareness of potential conflicts with seabirds, and pollution research has shown that seabirds are
useful as an indicator of the health of our environment. The Red Sea and Gulf of Aden contain
several internationally significant areas for breeding seabirds. Some species in the region have
suffered serious declines in numbers and require conservation actions to be taken to reduce the
threats they are facing.
PERSGA has taken several steps towards the conservation of these key species. Initially a set of
regionally applicable Standard Survey Methods (SSM) for Breeding Seabirds was developed. The
second step involved training regional specialists in these methods. Surveys were then conducted to
determine the status of breeding seabirds within the region. The fourth step was the preparation of
this Regional Action Plan (RAP) for the Conservation of Breeding Seabirds in the Red Sea and Gulf
of Aden.
Immediate adoption and implementation of the Seabird RAP will lead to a reduction in threats to
seabirds and to their breeding areas. An attempt has been made to predict and quantify the impacts of
these threats to seabird populations over the next twenty years. Particular attention is given to
identifying actions that can be taken to alleviate the threats that are considered to be most severe. The
RAP identifies and prioritises a set of actions related to the key seabird conservation components.
Furthermore, PERSGA has already implemented a number of actions that serve its
primary objective, namely the conservation of the marine and coastal environments of the
Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. Some of the actions mentioned in this RAP are complementary
to the major outputs of the Strategic Action Programme (SAP) components:
1. Development of a "Regional Outline for ICZM"
2. Establishment of a "Regional Network of MPAs"
3. Development of a "Regional Master Plan for MPAs"
4. Development of "Site-specific Management Plans" for four regional MPAs
5. Enhancement of the capacity of regional specialists through a series of training
courses, and
6. Development of a "Regional Management Plan for the Sustainable Use of Living
Marine Resources".
We are positive that the integration of the actions recommended by this RAP with the results
from the SAP components will be both harmonious and synergistic.
Prof. Dr. Abdelelah A. Banajah
Secretary General of PERSGA
iii
List of Abbreviations and Acronyms
ALECSO
Arab League Educational, Cultural and Scientific Organization
CBD
Convention on Biological Diversity
CITES
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and
Flora
EEAA
Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency
EIA
Environmental Impact Assessment
GEF Global
Environment
Facility
IBA
Important Bird Area
ICZM
Integrated Coastal Zone Management
IUCN
The World Conservation Union
MARPOL
International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships
MPA
Marine Protected Area
NCWCD
National Commission for Wildlife Conservation and Development
PERSGA
Regional Organization for the Conservation of the Environment of the Red
Sea and Gulf of Aden
RAP
Regional Action Plan
ROPME
Regional Organization for the Protection of the Marine Environment
RSGA
Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
SAP
Strategic Action Programme
UNCLOS
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
UNDP
United Nations Development Programme
UNEP
United Nations Environment Programme
UNESCO
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
UNEP-ROWA
UNEP - Regional Office for Western Asia
WHC
World Heritage Convention
WWF
World Wide Fund for Nature
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This Regional Action Plan (RAP) for the Conservation of Seabirds in the Red Sea and Gulf of
Aden was initiated following national surveys of the status of breeding seabirds arranged by
PERSGA and builds on information collected over many years by dedicated ornithologists
throughout the region. The RAP was prepared by Dr. Nigel Varty, Dr. Omar Al-Saghier and
Dr. Graham Tucker, independent ecological consultants under contract to BirdLife International, with
project management from PERSGA. Valuable comments and information were also supplied by
participants at a PERSGA workshop on the Seabird RAP, held in Jeddah from 27th-28th September
2003. Participants included: Abdoulkader Ahmed Aouled (Djibouti), Khaled Said Nassar (Jordan),
Abdul Latif Ibrahim Abdo (Egypt), Mohammed Y. Shobrak and Mohammed Ibrahim Al-Salamah
(Saudi Arabia), Mahmoud Saied Mahmoud (NE Somalia), Mohamed Egal Kileh (NW Somalia),
Maeen Lutf Al-Sewari (Yemen), Dr. Saiyed Al-Khouli, Dr. Mahmoud K. El-Sayed and Mr.
Mohammed Y. Abdul Salam (PERSGA). We acknowledge the commitment and dedication of the
late Secretary General of PERSGA, Dr. Nizar I. Tawfiq for his leadership and inspiration. Financial
support for the preparation of this document was made available through the Strategic Action
Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden (SAP) executed by PERSGA and implemented by the
GEF partners, UNDP, UNEP and the World Bank, with supplementary funding from the Islamic
Development Bank and the countries of the Region. Valued assistance in the preparation of the Plan
was provided by the BirdLife International and representatives of all the participating countries.
iv
1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This Plan provides a set of priority actions for the conservation and sustainable development
of seabirds and associated habitats in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden (RSGA). The Region1 is
recognised as being important for its seabirds, with 17 species of true seabirds breeding
regularly. One species and two sub-species are endemic to the Region. A further group of taxa,
at both specific and sub-specific levels, is endemic to the northwest of the Indian Ocean area and
important sub-populations breed in the RSGA Region. Of the seabirds in the Region, one species
is Globally Threatened and three are considered to be Near Threatened. However, the population
status of most species is poorly known.
The RSGA has a wide range of suitable habitats for breeding seabirds, but there are many
well documented threats to seabirds and their habitats within the Region. Of these, the principal
threats are considered to be from:
· Human disturbance of nest sites
· Human exploitation of seabirds
· Habitat destruction and degradation
· Pollution, both terrestrial and marine
· Impacts of fishing and associated activities
· Introduced and invasive species
In most cases the threats occur across the Region but vary in intensity between and within
countries. An attempt has therefore been made to predict and quantify the impacts of these
threats to seabird populations in the RSGA over the next twenty years. Particular attention is
then given to identifying actions that can be taken to alleviate those threats that are considered to
be most severe.
The RAP identifies and prioritises a set of actions related to the following seven key seabird
conservation components:
· Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) Planning for Seabirds
· Education, public awareness and community participation
· Site and habitat protection and management
· Regulation of human exploitation
· Research and monitoring
· Legislation
· Institutional capacity building and training
The actions identified in the plan have been prioritised into three levels, based on their
potential impacts on the prioritised threats to seabirds. It is suggested that a Steering Committee
should be established to coordinate the implementation of all of the RAPs. The Steering
Committee should include representatives from each participating nation and other major
regional and national organisations. These will act as the interface between government, major
donor agencies and international mangrove initiatives, and will identify national responsibilities
and priorities for actions in relation to the needs of all the RAPs and available funding.
1 The Region (capital `R') denotes the geographical coverage of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden region as
defined in Article II of the Regional Convention for the Conservation of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
Environment, 1982.
1
2. INTRODUCTION
2.1 The Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Region
The Red Sea and Gulf of Aden (RSGA) region, herein referred to as the Region, is a complex
and unique tropical marine ecosystem, with extraordinary biological diversity and a remarkably
high degree of endemism.
The Red Sea is one of the most important repositories of marine biodiversity on a global
scale and supports a particularly high diversity of corals (PILCHER 2003). It lies within a deep
trench (depths exceeding 2,000 m) formed by the northerly extension of the African rift valley
system, is 1,932 km long and has a surface area of approximately 435,000 km2.
The Gulf of Aden (1,400 km long) is one of the least well known areas of the Indian Ocean
in terms of its biology. It holds fishery resources of international importance due to the
upwelling of cool, nutrient-rich water during the southwest and northeast monsoons and is
characterised by a prevailing high-energy climate. Rocky cliffs, alternating with long stretches of
littoral and sub-littoral sand along coastal plains, dominate Yemen's coastline. Little is known
about the coastal and marine resources of the Gulf of Aden off Somalia.
The Socotra Island Group, consisting of Socotra Island and three outlying islands (Abd al-
Kuri, Samha and Darsa, with the two rocky outcrops of Sabonyiah and Ka'l Farun), is situated at
the eastern extreme of the Gulf of Aden, some 400 km south of the Arabian Peninsula. It
contains unique aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems and species, with limited impacts from human
activities. The World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) has described the archipelago as an "Indian
Ocean version of the Galapagos" based on the high degree of endemism and unique vegetation
types on the islands and it is thought to be an extremely important area for marine biogeography
(PERSGA/GEF 1998).
2.2 Breeding seabirds of the RSGA Region
Although the fauna of the RSGA have been relatively poorly studied, the Region is
recognised as important for its seabirds, with 17 species of true seabirds breeding regularly.
Several endemic taxa occur, including the White-eyed Gull (Larus leucophthalmus) and sub-
species of the Red-billed Tropicbird (Phaeton aethereus indicus) and Brown Noddy (Anous
stolidus plumbeigularus). A further group of taxa, at both specific and sub-specific levels, is
endemic to the northwest of the Indian Ocean area and important sub-populations of many breed
in the RSGA Region, including Jouanin's Petrel (Bulweria fallax), Sooty Gull (Larus
hemprichii), Swift Tern (Sterna bergii velox), White-cheeked Tern (Sterna repressa) and Socotra
Cormorant (Phalacrocorax nigrogularis). Many of these populations face human threats and
therefore need conservation.
2
3. DEVELOPMENT AND SCOPE OF THE REGIONAL ACTION PLAN
3.1 Background to the Regional Action Plan
PERSGA, the "Regional Organization for the Conservation of the Environment of the Red
Sea and Gulf of Aden", is an intergovernmental body responsible for the development and
implementation of regional programmes for the protection and conservation of the marine
environment of the RSGA. The PERSGA member states are: Djibouti, Egypt, Jordan, Saudi
Arabia, Somalia, Sudan and Yemen.
Figure 1. Map of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
PERSGA's Strategic Action Programme (SAP), funded through the Global Environmental
Facility (GEF) implementing agencies (United Nations Development Programme, United
Nations Environment Programme and the World Bank), the Islamic Development Bank and the
PERSGA member states, aims to protect biodiversity and the wider environment of the RSGA. It
was formally launched in 1998 and comprises eight Components, one of which is "Habitat and
Biodiversity Conservation" (Component 4). One of the main activities under Component 4 is the
3
preparation of Regional Action Plans (RAPs) for the conservation of key taxa and habitats, such
as coral reefs, mangroves, seabirds and sea turtles.
Prior to the development of the RAP for breeding seabirds, PERSGA initiated a programme
to collect, collate and update information on the Region's seabirds. This involved:
· Development of Standard Survey Methods (SSM) for surveying the Region's breeding
seabirds
· Training of national seabird specialists in the use of the SSM
· Field surveys to assess population sizes and collect additional information on habitats
and threats and
· Preparation of National Reports presenting the current status of seabirds in PERSGA
countries.
Field surveys were carried out in Djibouti, Sudan and Yemen, including the Socotra Island
Group (AL-SAGHIER et al. 1999; AL-SAGHIER 2002b; SHOBRAK et al. 2002a, 2002b). In addition,
regional experts compiled national reports to document the status of seabirds in three PERSGA
countries that were not surveyed: Egypt, Saudi Arabia and Somalia (SHOBRAK 2002; SHOBRAK et
al. 2002c; BAHA EL DIN et al. 2003). Jordan was not surveyed as there are no islands within the
Jordanian Red Sea territory and there are no documented records of seabirds currently breeding
in the country. From these reports and other relevant literature, a report titled Status of Breeding
Seabirds in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden was produced (PERSGA/GEF 2003a). The
background information in this RAP is largely drawn from these regional and national reports.
3.2 Scope of the Regional Action Plan
This RAP presents a summary of the current knowledge of the status of the breeding seabirds
of the RSGA Region, a review of the threats facing these species and their key breeding sites,
and information on current national and international legislation influencing seabirds and their
habitats. This information is used to assign conservation priorities for each seabird species and to
quantify the significance of the threats to them. Building on this the RAP then presents a
prioritised Framework for Action that consists of seven components:
1. Integrated coastal zone management planning for seabirds
2. Education, public awareness and community participation
3. Site and habitat protection, and management
4. Regulation of human exploitation
5. Research and monitoring
6. Legislation
7. Institutional capacity building and training
For each of the components, regional priority actions are identified by relating the actions to
their potential impacts on the prioritised `threats to species'. Finally, an outline strategy for
implementing the actions, in relation to other RAPs and national priorities, is proposed.
4
4. STATUS OF BREEDING SEABIRDS IN THE RED SEA AND GULF OF ADEN
4.1 Status of species
Seventeen species of true seabirds have been recorded breeding in the Red Sea and Gulf of
Aden. True seabirds are those that are dependent on the sea for the majority of their food and
usually breed on islands or along coasts. These include petrels, tropicbirds, boobies, cormorants,
gulls and terns. Other species in the Region, notably pelicans, herons, egrets, osprey (Pandion
haliaetus), Crab Plover (Dromas ardeola) and Kentish Plover (Charadrius alexandrinus), also
use the coastal marine environment but are not restricted to it. Only true seabirds are covered here.
The most common of the 17 species is the Bridled Tern (Sterna anaethetus fuligula) with an
estimated population of 240,000 pairs (Table 1). The rarest, in terms of numbers breeding in the
RSGA Region, is the Little Tern (Sterna albifrons), which is believed to nest (still to be
confirmed) in very small numbers in the northern Egyptian Red Sea, but is on the very edge of
its Palaearctic range.
Estimates of the number of breeding seabirds in each of the PERSGA countries are given in
Annex 1.
4.2 Ecology of breeding seabirds in the RSGA Region
Most of the breeding seabirds in the RSGA Region, particularly the terns, feed largely on
small fish and invertebrates such as squid and shrimp in shallow water coastal habitats, such as
lagoons and around islands. The exceptions are Jouanin's Petrel (about which little is known),
Persian Shearwater (Puffinus persicus), Masked Booby (Sula dactylatra), Socotra Cormorant,
Sooty Gull, Sooty Tern (Sterna fuscata) and Brown Noddy. However, these species probably
feed mostly in coastal waters during the breeding season.
All 17 species usually nest in colonies, some in association with other species. For many
species, notably the terns and gulls, nests are located on sandy or coral offshore islands or
beaches.
Annex 2 gives a summary of the main feeding and nesting habits of the 17 seabird species
breeding in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. More details can be found in PERSGA/GEF (2003a)
and the various national seabird status reports (AL-SAGHIER et al. 1999; AL-SAGHIER 2002b;
BAHA EL-DIN et al. 2002; SHOBRAK et al. 2002a, 2002b, 2002c).
4.3 Priority bird species
Of the true seabirds that occur in the Region, only the Socotra Cormorant is recognised as
Globally Threatened by BirdLife International (on behalf of IUCN), and is classified as
Vulnerable (Table 2). However, three other species are considered to be Near Threatened:
Jouanin's Petrel, Persian Shearwater and White-eyed Gull. Some species are also listed under the
Convention on Migratory Species (see Annex 3).
Table 2 gives a `priority' coding for each species based on their national and international
threat status and their distributions. Species that are both internationally threatened and have a
restricted range (top right-hand corner), such as White-eyed Gull, rank higher and are in greater
need of conservation action than species that are common and widespread (bottom left-hand
corner), such as Brown Booby or Bridled Tern.
5
6
Table 1. Distribution and population of breeding seabirds in the RSGA
Species
Distribution of species or subspecies
RSGA population
Reference PERSGA/GEF 2003a and
estimate (pairs)
others as given
Jouanin's Petrel Bulweria fallax
Endemic to northwest Indian Ocean
3,000 **
AL-SAGHIER et al. (unpublished)
Persian Shearwater Puffinus persicus
Endemic to the Indian Ocean and Gulf of Aden
10,000 **
Red-billed Tropicbird Phaethon aethereus
Subspecies endemic to RSGA and Arabian Sea to
700
indicus
Arabian Gulf
Brown Booby Sula leucogaster plotus
Subspecies occurs throughout Indo-Pacific
15,000*
Masked Booby Sula dactylatra melanops
Subspecies endemic to western Indian Ocean
1,000
Socotra Cormorant Phalacrocorax
Endemic to Arabian Sea and Gulf of Aden
15,000***
JENNINGS 2003 and AL-SAGHIER 2002a
nigrogularis
Sooty Gull Larus hemprichii
North-west Indian Ocean
4,000
White-eyed Gull Larus leucophthalmus
Endemic to RSGA Region
11,000*
Caspian Tern Sterna caspia Widespread
beyond
Region
500*
Swift Tern Sterna bergii velox
Subspecies endemic to RSGA Region
3,500*
Lesser Crested Tern Sterna bengalensis
North African coast, Arabian Sea, Indo-Pacific
14,000
White-cheeked Tern Sterna repressa
RSGA Region, Arabian Sea, northwest Indian
27,000*
ocean
Sooty Tern Sterna fuscata
Tropical and subtropical zones of Pacific, Indian
7,000 DELANY & SCOTT 2002
and Atlantic oceans
Bridled Tern Sterna anaethetus fuligula
RSGA, Arabian Gulf, Arabian Sea, Indo-Pacific
240,000*
and locally West Africa
Little Tern Sterna albifrons albifrons
Widespread, west Palaearctic, India, Pacific, West
- -
Africa, North America and Caribbean
Saunder's Little Tern Sterna saundersi
RSGA, northwest Indian Ocean and east African
200* DELANY & SCOTT 2002
and north-west Indian coasts
Brown Noddy Anous stolidus
Widespread in tropical and subtropical zones in
26,000*
Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans
* = Count of breeding birds from surveyed coasts and islands; ** = Estimated breeding population on Socotra Island Group; *** = Estimated breeding population on
islands off Bir Ali and Socotra
Table 2. Conservation priorities for seabirds in the RSGA Region based on their global and
regional conservation status and the biogeographical importance of their RSGA
populations
Wide distribution
Near endemic species or
Endemic species to RSGA
endemic sub-species
Region
Globally
PRIORITY B
PRIORITY A
PRIORITY A
Threatened1
Socotra Comorant
Regionally
PRIORITY C
PRIORITY B
PRIORITY A
Threatened2 or
Jouanin's Petrel
White-eyed Gull
globally "Near
Persian Shearwater
Threatened"1
Masked Booby
Insufficiently
PRIORITY C
PRIORITY B
PRIORITY A
Known
Swift Tern
Non-
PRIORITY D
PRIORITY C
PRIORITY B
threatened
Brown Booby
Sooty Gull
Caspian Tern
Red-billed Tropicbird
Lesser Crested Tern
White-cheeked Tern
Sooty Tern
Bridled Tern
Saunder's Little Tern
Little Tern *
Brown Noddy
Sources: 1 BIRDLIFE INTERNATIONAL (2000) Threatened Birds of the World. & BIRDLIFE INTERNATIONAL
2003 BirdLife's Online World Bird Database: the site for bird conservation. Version 2.0. Cambridge, UK:
BirdLife International. Available: http://www.birdlife.org (accessed 29/9/2003). `Globally Threatened' is given
according to the IUCN status of the species.
2 `Regionally Threatened' species were identified at the PERSGA Seabird RAP workshop taking into account
information provided in this RAP and the Regional Status Report (PERSGA/GEF 2003a). `Insufficiently
known' signifies that there is not enough data to be able to determine the threat status for the species, but it is
assumed to be regionally or nationally threatened.
* - Red Sea is on the very edge of its range.
4.4 Key sites for breeding seabirds Important Bird Areas
The regional report on the status of breeding seabirds in the RSGA (PERSGA/GEF 2003a)
lists 31 Important Bird Areas (IBAs), identified through consultation with seabird experts at
national and regional levels, that are particularly important for (true) breeding seabirds in the
Region (Annex 4). IBAs are sites of high importance for their avifauna and are selected using
internationally accepted criteria developed by BirdLife International's Important Bird Areas
Programme (see EVANS 1994 and FISHPOOL & EVANS 2001). The sites listed in Annex 4 should
be considered priority targets for protection. Unfortunately, only 11 of the 31 IBAs (35%) are
currently fully protected.
Further information on the most important IBAs for breeding seabirds in the Red Sea and
Gulf of Aden Region is given in PERSGA/GEF (2003a). Additional IBAs have been
identified during recent seabird surveys in Yemen.
7
5. THREATS FACING BREEDING SEABIRDS IN THE RSGA REGION
The Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, their coastal areas and islands, offer ideal habitats for
breeding seabirds. However, as noted by several authors there are many threats to the marine
environment in the RSGA (UNEP/PERSGA 1997) and to seabirds (e.g. GALLAGHER et al. 1984;
EVANS 1987). The national and regional seabird status reports for the RSGA Region also
identified threats to species and sites. These sources suggest that the principal threats are from:
· Human disturbance of nest sites
· Human exploitation of seabirds
· Habitat destruction and degradation
· Pollution, both terrestrial and marine
· Impacts of fishing and associated activities
· Introduced and invasive species.
In most cases, the threats occur across the Region but vary in intensity between and within
countries. Impacts on individual species also vary according to their distribution, their use of
habitats and their ecological requirements. The threats to seabirds in the Region are therefore
described in more detail below, and this is followed by an assessment of impacts on individual
species.
5.1 Human disturbance at nest sites
Most of the seabird species of the RSGA Region breed in colonies and are therefore
susceptible to disturbance. Furthermore, because many species are concentrated in relatively few
colonies, harmful activities at one site may have a major impact on national or even regional
populations. Disturbance affects birds and colonies in a number of ways. Disturbed incubating
birds can leave their nest exposed to predators and heat, and `stampeding' birds can crush eggs.
Chicks of small species like terns are very susceptible to heat-stress and can die from heat-stroke
and dehydration if they are not protected by their parents. Once the chicks are able to move
independently, disturbance may cause them to break cover and range out of their natal territory,
making them vulnerable to predation and harassment from other birds. Excess disturbance in
other parts of the world have been shown to result in adults abandoning nests, shifts in colony
location, interruption of feeding patterns, and delayed breeding (e.g. TUCKER & EVANS 1997;
GREAT BARRIER REEF MARINE PARK AUTHORITY 1997).
Human disturbance is, of course, most intense in coastal areas and islands close to urban and
tourist centres but takes a number of forms.
Tourists and recreational users
Disturbance and damage to nesting and feeding habitats of breeding seabirds by tourists and
recreational users is a major and now permanent problem in some areas of the Region,
particularly in the northern Red Sea (GRIEVE AND MILLINGTON 1999; BAHA EL-DIN 2001).
Numbers of weekend and casual urban visitors to once isolated beaches, islands and reefs have
increased as old urban centres have expanded or new ones have been established along the
coasts, with access to offshore islands made easier by the availability of high-powered boats.
8
In some countries, such as Saudi Arabia, access to islands is forbidden and controlled by the
coastguard in order to reduce human pressure on sites important for biodiversity. However,
disturbance by tourists and recreational users (and fishermen) still occurs (SHOBRAK 2001). Even
relatively brief visits to breeding seabird colonies by wildlife-aware tourists, with no deliberate
interference, can cause significant disturbance to nesting birds and result in lowered reproductive
success (GREAT BARRIER REEF MARINE PARK AUTHORITY 1997).
Other causes of disturbance
On some Red Sea islands fishermen have established semi-permanent dwellings or erected
summer camps leading to disturbance of nesting seabirds. Sheep and goats are also kept on some
islands and these have been known to disturb breeding seabirds and trample nests and eggs
(SHOBRAK 2002b).
5.2 Human exploitation of seabirds
Egg collecting
Collection of seabird eggs for human consumption is a traditional activity among fishermen
in the RSGA Region (SHOBRAK et al. 2002). In the past, seabirds' eggs formed an important
addition to the diets of fishermen and coastal populations (GALLAGHER et al. 1984), and this is
still the case today, particularly in areas with low fish stocks or among poorer communities.
Soldiers stationed on islands with seabird colonies also take eggs to supplement their diet.
Today, any known offshore breeding site is easily accessible with the availability of powerful
motors fitted to even small boats in most countries in the Region.
Egg collecting is not uniform across the Region. In Saudi Arabia, evidence indicates a
decline in egg collecting among fishermen and local people, whilst in Egypt the situation is not
clear (BAHA EL-DIN 2003). The activity still occurs in Sudan, is reported to be common in
Djibouti and is considered severe in Somalia, where the economic situation has probably led to
an increase in the activity in recent years (WELCH AND WELCH 1998; SHOBRAK 2002; SHOBRAK
et al. 2002a, 2002b). In Yemen, egg collecting is still practiced and could be significant on the
mainland but in the Socotra Island Group, where eggs and chicks were an important food during
the monsoon season, it has been largely abandoned due to improved availability of imported
foods and the difficulty and risk of collecting from cliffs and islets (TALEB 2002; JENNINGS
2003).
The impact of egg collecting has not been well documented in the Region but it is clear that
the combined impacts of fishermen and soldiers may significantly affect the distribution and
overall breeding success of seabirds. The numbers of eggs collected may be significant even
where small numbers of collectors are involved.
In Yemen, fishermen have been observed eating Socotra Cormorant and Persian Shearwater
chicks (TALEB 2002).
Hunting and trapping
None of the national seabird reports indicated serious hunting of adult seabirds in RSGA
countries for food or for sport. This is probably because of the wide availability of cheap poultry
and the generally poor taste of seabird meat. However, shooting/trapping of terrestrial birds such
as warblers, orioles, shrikes, wheatears and robins for food in coastal areas and on islands of
southern Saudi Arabia and Yemen is a common practice during their spring migration, and there
9
is always a risk that some seabirds may be caught accidentally in nets or `limed' vegetation at
the same time.
5.3 Introduced predators and invasive species
The introduction of alien species into new environments, especially onto islands, has
probably had the single biggest impact on seabird populations on a global scale (MOORS &
ATKINSON 1984; ATKINSON 1985; PRIMACK 1993; BURGER & GOCHFIELD 1994). A variety of
predators, chiefly mammals, deliberately or accidentally brought to the islands of the RSGA,
threaten nesting seabirds, especially ground nesting species. They may prey on eggs, chicks and,
if possible, adult birds. Several other species that have spread into the Region due to land use
changes and possibly climate change also pose a direct threat. The impacts of mammalian
predators may not be serious in population terms if there is a surplus of suitable mammal
predator-free islands for nesting. However, it is not known if this is the case for any seabirds in
the Region. Furthermore, expansion of predators may eventually deplete such sites so that, even
if predation does not limit seabird populations now, it may do so in the future, potentially leading
to a rapid and catastrophic population crash.
Introduced mammals
Introduced mammalian predators were reported to cause severe impacts on breeding seabirds
in all RSGA countries (PERSGA/GEF 2003a). Fishermen or coastguards deliberately brought
cats and dogs to offshore islands, whereas rats and mice were probably introduced accidentally.
A severe infestation of rats was reported on Darsa Island in the Socotra Island Group
resulting in heavy mortality among Sooty Gull chicks and the abandonment of the breeding
colony. High populations of island rats have led to the introduction of cats on some Red Sea
islands when military bases have been established (NEWTON & AL SUHAIBANI 1996;
PERSGA/GEF 2003a). In Sudan, rats appear to be the main mammalian predator in the coastal
areas and islands.
The White-tailed Mongoose (Ichneumia albicauda) is probably the principal reason ground
nesting seabirds do not occur on certain islands in the Red Sea and it has been shown to have a
severe adverse effect on the breeding success of the Osprey in the Farasan Islands (FISHER
2001). Similarly, the introduction of the Lesser Indian Civet Cat (Viverricula indica) to Socotra
along with feral cats resulted in the disappearance of ground nesting seabird species, apart from a
small number of Saunders Little Tern (AL-SAGHIER 2000).
Invasive species
The spread of the Indian House Crow (Corvus splendens) to all major cites and many small
villages along the RSGA coast, and recently to offshore islands such as the Socotra Island
Group, poses a major threat to breeding seabirds and is a cause of deep concern among the local
conservation community (AL-SAGHIER et al. 1999; SHOBRAK et al. 2002a, 2002b). In the last ten
years the range and population of this species has expanded dramatically to cover all coastal
habitats along the Red Sea and parts of the Gulf of Aden (in the Red Sea it is believed to have
first arrived at Port Sudan).
The species will prey on other birds' eggs and chicks, is a strong competitor for food, is
highly adaptable, a strong flier and breeds quickly. In 1996 a pair was transported by ship to
Socotra and within three years there were 26. Trapping and shooting have proven relatively
unsuccessful. An attempt at control in the Yemeni city of Aden in the mid 1980s killed 250,000
10
birds but the population recovered within a few years. Destroying chicks while in the nest may
offer a more effective population control technique. Along with mainland seabird nesting sites,
islands close offshore are the most vulnerable and have been targets of Indian House Crow
predation (SHOBRAK 2002; AL-SAGHIER 2002a).
As yet there is no evidence that breeding seabirds on Socotra have been affected (although
terrestrial species have been predated) and a control campaign has had some success (AL-
SAGHIER 2000). However, if the species does become well established, breeding colonies of
Brown Booby (Sula leucogaster), Masked Booby and Socotra Cormorant could suffer heavy
losses.
5.4 Habitat destruction and degradation
The Region's seabirds are threatened by a direct destruction of nesting and feeding sites,
particularly by uncontrolled development, and indirectly through a gradual degradation of their
key habitats through a variety of human activities.
Land use change and uncontrolled economic development
In recent years there has been an enormous surge in development of urban, industrial and
tourist areas along some parts of the Red Sea and, to a lesser extent, Gulf of Aden coasts. This
has been associated with an inevitable increase in transport infrastructure such as roads and
ports. Over the past three decades Saudi Arabia has undergone a rapid transformation into a
modern industrialised country (PERSGA/GEF 2001). By the mid 1990's, over 15.2 % of the
population were living along the Red Sea coast (MINISTRY OF PLANNING 1995), and a
considerable number of large scale projects recreational facilities, hotels and restaurants had
been developed, particularly around the Jeddah area.
Development in some countries has been undertaken with little planning, control or foresight
and usually without any form of environmental impact assessment conducted prior to
construction. In many cases this has led to the direct destruction of seabird nesting sites and, to a
lesser extent, feeding areas. In Egypt, for instance, the national policy to shift the concentration
of population from along the Nile to Red Sea coastal areas has led to the loss of large areas of
coastal and reef habitats through the development of urban infrastructure. In addition,
construction of associated roads has altered surrounding hydrology, impacting mangrove stands
along the Egyptian Red Sea coast.
The attractive marine life and favourable climate have encouraged the rapid development of
a major tourist industry on the coasts of the Red Sea. Tourism in Egypt, a large proportion of
which is nature-based, represents the main economic activity along the Red Sea coast and is a
growing sector in the nation's tourism industry (PERSGA/GEF 2001). Large expanses of the
coast have been developed into beach resorts, particularly around Hurghada and Sharm el Sheikh
but also at Dahab, Nuweiba and Taba on the Gulf of Aqaba coast, at Safaga and Quseir on the
Red Sea coast, and along the northern sector of the Gulf of Suez. It has been reported that areas
such as Hurghada and Sharm el Sheikh have been developed and exploited beyond their
ecological and social carrying capacities and are already showing signs of environmental
degradation, even in protected areas such as the Ras Mohammad National Park in Egypt. Tourist
pressure has already caused a negative impact on breeding terns on some inshore islands (HOATH
et al. 1997) and a similar situation is reported on Moucha and Maskali Islands protected area in
Djibouti (SHOBRAK et al. 2002a).
11
Development does not need to occur at an actual breeding site to have an impact. The
increased noise, pollution, visitor disturbance, and predation by cats and rats from nearby
developments can lead to nesting sites being abandoned. For instance, urban expansion on the
mainland has caused breeding failure of seabirds at the nearby Sa'adadin (Saad ad-Din) Islands.
Similar situations have been recorded from the Moucha and Maskali Islands off Djibouti, Zuqar
Island, the Hanish Islands, and Al-Zubayr Island off Yemen (some of these due to occupation by
military bases).
Habitat degradation
Many coastal marine habitats such as shallow bays, mangroves and seagrass are of
considerable importance to the seabirds of the Region because they are key feeding grounds or
habitats. Seagrass beds are particularly important because they occur in shallow and sheltered
waters throughout much of the Region and their productivity is greater than comparable areas of
both coral reefs and mangroves. Many species of fish and crustaceans, including commercially
important species, use seagrass beds as nursery grounds. Seagrass beds are therefore a major
feeding habitat for nesting seabirds, especially terns and gulls, but their location in shallow
waters close to the shoreline renders them susceptible to urban, industrial, tourism, and fishing
related impacts. These problems are compounded by a lack of awareness about the importance of
seagrasses, and a lack of information on their distribution. Although seagrass beds are legally
protected from trawling, they are destroyed by illegal trawling due to poor law enforcement.
Mangroves are also important for seabirds as they are nurseries and feeding grounds for
many marine fish and crustacean food sources. However, they are also subject to significant
degradation and are, therefore, themselves the subject of a PERSGA RAP (KHALIL 2003).
Although there are still healthy stands of mangroves fringing many parts of the RSGA coasts and
islands, particularly in the southern Red Sea, many areas are threatened by overgrazing of
livestock such as camels and extensive cutting and collection for firewood (PERSGA/GEF
2001). Apart from damage to mangroves around urban areas, establishment of military bases
(which has increased in recent years) and new settlements of fishermen, have led to a dramatic
increase in fuel wood collection and damage to fragile vegetation on some islands in the Region.
Wood may also be cut for construction purposes and fish traps. In addition, the damming of
rivers and wadis has reduced natural freshwater inputs to the coast and degraded mangrove
stands, and causeways constructed across bays have reduced the tidal exchange of seawater
leading to extensive mangrove death.
The number of shrimp farms is growing in the Region and this poses a potential threat to
marine life including seabirds. Shrimp farming activities are often very damaging to the
ecological equilibrium of neighbouring lagoons. Shrimp farms are usually sited in low tide and
mangrove areas and inevitably affect these fragile ecosystems.
In addition to direct destruction of coastal areas, suspended fine sediments from dredging and
infilling operations in shallow water areas, excavation of artificial lagoons, construction of huge
marine structures and coastal mining and quarrying can inflict widespread damage to important
seabird feeding habitats many kilometres from the source.
12
5.5 Pollution
Pollution in the Region comes from oil production and transportation accidents, sewage
discharges and the disposal of solid, industrial and agricultural waste, all of which impact on
seabird populations. The situation may be made worse by inadequate or insufficient use of
Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) and Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs),
together with the lack of national environmental strategies and action plans in some RSGA
countries. Such measures could help considerably to reduce pollution from land-based sources.
Pollution in small or semi-enclosed seas where there is little water exchange, such as the Red
Sea, can cause severe damage to the marine environment. The situation is most serious in the
Gulf of Aqaba where retention time of the water is about two years. Hence, the pollutants that
enter the Gulf will remain, with little dispersion, for long periods of time and consequently will
have particularly detrimental effects on marine life and habitats.
Oil pollution
Oil pollution is major hazard to the RSGA environment. Much of the world's crude and
refined oil cargoes pass through the Region, with between 20,000 and 35,000 oil tankers entering
the Region each year (PERSGA/GEF 1998); thus the likelihood of an accidental oil spill is high.
The Red Sea receives 6,836 mt or 14.61 kg of oil per square kilometre per year from shipping
(AWAD 1995). Dirty ballast water dumped from ships results in the formation of tar balls and
these have been found along the coastline of both the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden (RUSHDIE et al.
1991; EC & MFW 1995; PERSGA/GEF 2001). Globally, average pollution from oil refineries
amounts to 0.56 kg per square kilometre per year, whereas the Red Sea receives 6.64 kg per
square kilometre per year, nearly 11 times higher.
The impact of oil on seabirds and other marine life can be devastating as evident from major
spills in other parts of the world (for example, see review by NISBET 1994), and the RSGA
Region has had its fair share of `tragedies'. In 1960, for instance, more than 800 Socotra
Cormorants were found near Aden killed by oil pollution (GALLAGHER et al. 1984). Although
there has been no formal assessment of the recent Limburg oil spill that occurred between Al
Mukalla and Bir Ali in the Gulf of Aden, a tour party reported that beaches were badly fouled
with oil and covered with thousands of feathers (JENNINGS 2003).
Although oil pollution mostly affects diving birds such as cormorants, auks and divers, it can
also cause damage to other seabirds at various stages of their life cycle. Large numbers of adults
can be killed by oil-fouling and washed up oil can have a severe impact on flightless chicks on
beaches near the colonies. Oiling of eggs by contaminated incubating birds can also cause
serious problems (FREEDMAN 1989). Oil spills also affect seabirds indirectly through the food
chain, as toxic hydrocarbons can damage the ecosystems which support the birds' food
resources, and can disrupt the breeding cycles of prey fish species.
Sewage
Sewage is an important environmental problem in some parts of the Region. Sewage is
generally only treated from major urban areas and many, if not most, of the treatment plants
along the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden are overloaded and inadequate. Most small towns and many
tourist facilities along the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden discharge directly to the sea, although this
varies by country and location. Considerable amounts of sewage are also discharged directly into
the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden by cargo vessels, tour boats, ferries and private yachts, which
typically do not store sewage for later treatment on land.
13
In high concentrations sewage can negatively impact fish and invertebrates in important
feeding areas for seabirds, such as mudflats, and can kill off mangroves. However, overall
impacts on seabirds are likely to be slight, or even beneficial for some scavenging species, such
as gulls.
Solid, industrial and agricultural wastes
Solid waste is another (largely indirect) threat to breeding seabirds in coastal areas and
islands of the RSGA Region. This originates from domestic and industrial materials washed out
to sea, thrown overboard from ships, or deliberately dumped from land. Solid waste washes up
on nesting beaches causing a particular hazard to young birds and chicks, and may entrap adult
birds while foraging. There is also the possible threat of leaks from landfill sites situated near the
coast. In some countries, wetland and marine areas are often favoured areas for dumping of
building wastes. Solid waste is considered a particular problem in most countries, where beaches
and near-shore reef and seagrass areas are heavily polluted by discarded plastic and other refuse
materials.
Coastal industries in the Region include power and desalination plants, oil refineries,
petrochemical plants, tanning factories and fertilizer and food manufacturers, as well as loading
and transport facilities. These industries and their effluents (oil, organic pollutants, heavy metals,
large amounts of heated brine and chlorinated cooling water) are considered important problems
in every country of the Region and are often major polluters. Problems are likely to be most
severe where there are particular concentrations of industries, such as along the Jordanian
coastline of the Gulf of Aqaba, around the Jeddah and Yanbu areas in Saudi Arabia and in the
Suez area. Regulations governing acceptable levels of industrial discharges into the coastal and
marine environment are inadequately enforced in the Region and the resulting impact on the
marine ecosystems of the RSGA and the region's seabirds in particular is poorly known.
Fertilizer and pesticide residues are discharged into the RSGA as a result of agricultural run-
off, probably most often as concentrated bursts following rain when wadis (dry river beds) fill.
The effects of these discharges on seabirds are most likely to be indirect through poisoning of
prey species and disruption of the food chain. Extensive use of pesticides, insecticides and
herbicides for agriculture and other purposes is known to occur along the coasts of Sudan,
Yemen and Somalia. For instance, potential hazards along Sudan's Red Sea coast include
effluent from the Tokar Delta Agricultural Scheme and the country's Locust Control
Programme, which is probably the largest in Africa and the Middle East.
5.6 Impact of fisheries
Over-fishing
Despite the importance of fisheries to national economies, the status of fisheries in some
nations of the Region is not well known because of deficiencies in stock assessments and
incomplete fisheries statistics. However, over-fishing has been documented as one of the threats
to the living marine resources in all countries of the Region (PERSGA/GEF 2001). Apart from
fish, catches of lobster and strombids have declined, cuttlefish stocks have collapsed and there is
evidence that shrimp populations (a major food source for many seabirds) are being depleted.
In Yemen, over-fishing is a particular problem. This is attributed to badly monitored foreign
vessels trawling close to shore causing massive damage to coral reefs and shallow waters;
shrimp fishing, particularly at khawrs and bays near Kamaran Island, the islands around
Hodeidah (Al-Hudaydah) and islands close to the border with Saudi Arabia; and trawling in
14
shallow waters using fine nets which harvest most small fish (important food sources for
seabirds). Collectively, these practices are causing massive depletion of the fish stocks.
Unsustainable and environmentally damaging fishery practices impacting seabirds have also
been recorded in Egypt (BAHA EL DIN et al. 2003) and Saudi Arabia (TATWANY et al. 1995). It is
also believed that an increase in poverty among coastal communities in most of the RSGA
countries has led to an increase in the numbers of fishermen, causing extra pressure on marine
resources.
Studies in the Farasan Islands, Saudi Arabia, have shown that terns tend to feed in water
close to their nesting colonies (SWEET 1994; SIMMONS 1994) and the same is true for many other
seabird species (see Annex 2). Consequently, unsustainable fishing activity around islands in the
RSGA is likely to adversely impact the breeding success of their seabirds.
Ultimately, indiscriminate over-fishing, destruction of spawning, nursery and feeding
grounds, inappropriate resource use and inadequate fisheries regulations, coupled with poor law
enforcement not only affect seabird populations through reduced food supplies but threaten the
livelihoods of a wide range of people engaged in potentially sustainable activities such as
artisanal fishing, aquaculture and tourism.
Incidental catch of seabirds
Long-line fishing is not considered a big problem in the RSGA Region, unlike other seas of
the world where it is a major cause of mortality to albatrosses and petrels. None of the fishermen
interviewed by AL-SAGHIER (2002a) in the Yemeni Red Sea reported catching seabirds using
line fishing, probably, in part, because of the short lengths of line employed. Although little is
known about Jouanin's Petrel it does not appear to commonly follow ships, which would put it at
increased risk from long-lining.
There are reports of seabirds occasionally getting trapped in fishing nets in the Region, such
as feeding flocks of Socotra Cormorant, and fishermen do sometimes kill cormorants and
pelicans found in their fishing nets (GALLAGHER et al. 1984). However, numbers killed are
probably low.
In general, there is a lack of data on fisheries and their impact on seabirds in the RSGA
Region and research is needed at both national and regional levels.
5.7 Global warming
The now uncontested rise in global temperatures due to the accumulation of `greenhouse
gases' such as carbon dioxide and methane is predicted to have major impacts on all life on this
planet. Coastal areas and low-lying islands, such as those along the RSGA, are likely to be lost to
significant rises in sea level as glaciers and land-locked ice sheets in Antarctica and elsewhere
melt and other physical processes intervene. Thus, important seabird nesting areas are expected
to be lost leading to changes in feeding areas and possibly food sources. Exact effects are still
difficult to predict, particularly at the species level, as are timescales. However, one clear
example of the impact of global warming that has already occurred in the Red Sea is the
bleaching and death of corals (PERSGA/GEF 2001).
5.8 Threats to individual species and key sites in the RSGA Region
The threats described above are generic in that they probably affect all the breeding seabird
species of the RSGA, although their impact will differ between species and areas.
15
Threats to individual species
Many species, particularly the gulls and terns, are considered at high risk from a multitude of
threats but some threats, notably human disturbance, introduced predators and invasive species,
habitat destruction and degradation, and human exploitation are of particular concern.
Table 3 shows an attempt to quantify these threats, presenting an assessment of the degree of
threat from the above activities for each of the 17 breeding seabird species in the Region. The
assessments are based on analysis of the country seabird status reports, unpublished data and the
opinions of experts from around the RSGA Region, but they are not based on comprehensive,
detailed, quantitative research. Therefore, the predicted impacts on individual species should be
treated with caution (especially for species that have been less well studied). However, it is
considered that the combined assessment across all species is sufficiently reliable to give a broad
indication of the likely total impact of the threats on priority species. Two points are particularly
noteworthy. Firstly, these assessments are at a regional scale and the magnitude of impacts may
vary considerably when assessed at smaller scales (national, local or site populations). Second,
where a threat is not listed as having an impact on an individual species, this should not be
interpreted as proof that there is no effect or impact, but merely that no harmful effects or
impacts have been discovered so far.
Adding all values for the 17 species to obtain a total score for each threat shows that human
disturbance, human exploitation, marine pollution, habitat destruction and degradation, and
introduced predators and invasive species are all important threats, although marine pollution
appears to be a particularly common threat. Furthermore, `weighting' the scores according to the
conservation importance of each species shows a similar ranking. Thus, the threats to important
seabirds are common to other species. In turn, this indicates that focusing actions on key threats
will address the conservation needs of the most important seabird species and the seabird
community in general.
Threats to important sites for breeding seabirds in RSGA
Table 4 gives a similar assessment for the IBAs in the RSGA Region considered most
important for breeding seabirds, identified in Section 4.4.
16
Table 3. Assessment of impacts of threats on individual species of breeding seabird in the RSGA Region
Key to threat scores. If threats continue as expected from current knowledge, it is predicted that RSGA population impacts will be: * = Low (occasional losses of
birds and eggs but no population decline >20% over the next 20 years); ** = Serious (predicted RSGA population decline of over 20% over next 20 years);
*** = Critical, (extinction as a breeding species within the RSGA Region over the next 20 years); ID = Insufficient data.
In order to assess the relative importance of the various threats a `Threat Score' and `Weighted Threat Score' has been derived for each threat. The former is the sum of
all impact scores for a particular threat. The latter is the sum of each threat score weighted (multiplied) according to the priority status of the particular species affected.
Threat scores are: Low = 1; Serious = 5; Critical = 10. Priority weightings for species (based on Table 2), are: Priority Species A = 10; B = 6; C = 3; D = 1.
Habitat
Pollution
Priority
Human
Human
Impact of
Invasive/
Global
Total threat
score*
disturbance
exploitation
destruction and
fishing
introduced
warming
score
Species
degradation
Marine Terrestrial
predators
Jouanin's Petrel Bulweria fallax 6
*
*
*
**
*
ID
*
*
11
Persian Shearwater Puffinus persicus 6
*
*
*
**
*
ID
*
*
11
Red-billed Tropicbird Phaethon aethereus indicus 3
*
*
*
**
*
ID
*
*
11
Brown Booby Sula leucogaster plotus
1 ** ** ** **
* ID ** * 27
Masked Booby Sula dactylatra 6
**
*
**
**
*
ID
**
*
23
Socotra Cormorant Phalacrocorax nigrogularis
10
** ** ** **
* ID ** * 27
Sooty Gull Larus hemprichii 3
**
**
**
*
*
ID
*
*
19
White-eyed Gull Larus leucophthalmus
10
** ** ** **
* ID ** * 27
Caspian Tern Sterna caspia
1 ** ** ** **
* ID ** * 27
Swift Tern Sterna bergii velox
6 ** ** ** **
* ID ** * 27
Lesser Crested Tern Sterna bengalensis
1 ** ** ** **
* ID ** * 27
White-cheeked Tern Sterna repressa
1 ** ** ** **
* ID ** * 27
Sooty Tern Sterna fuscata
1 ** ** ** **
* ID ** * 27
Bridled Tern Sterna anaethetus
1 ** ** ** **
* ID ** * 27
Little Tern Sterna albifrons albifrons 1
***
***
**
**
*
ID
***
*
42
Saunder's Little Tern Sterna saundersi
1 ** ** ** **
* ID ** * 27
Brown Noddy Anous stolidus 1
*
*
*
**
*
ID
*
*
11
Low
impact
4 5 4 1
17
0 5 17
Medium
impact
12 11 13 16
0 0 11 0
High
impact
1 1 0 0
0
0 1 0
Total threat score
74
70
69
81
17
-
70
17
Weighted threat score
236
212
231
283
59
-
224
59
17
18
Table 4. Preliminary assessment of impacts of threats to key seabird breeding sites in the RSGA Region
Key to threat scores. If threats continue as expected from current knowledge, it is predicted that impacts will be: * = Low (occasional losses of birds and eggs, but no
site decline >20% over the next 20 years); ** = Serious (predicted population decline of over 20% over next 20 years); *** = Critical (extinction at site predicted over
next 20 years); ID = insufficient data.
Habitat
Pollution
Introduced/
Predicted
Human
Human
Impact of
IBA No.
destruction and
invasive
impact of
disturbance exploitation
fishing
Site
degradation
Marine Terrestrial
species
global warming
Djibouti
Isles des Sept Frères
DJ004
**
**
**
***
***
ID
**
*
Moucha and Maskali Islands
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
*
Egypt
Hurghada Archipelago
EG015
***
ID
***
***
***
***
**
*
Tiran
Island
EG016
**
** *** ID
ID
ID
* *
Wadi Gimal (Jimal) Island
EG017
***
**
*
***
**
**
*
*
Qulân Islands
EG018
***
**
*
**
**
**
*
*
Zabargad Island
EG019
***
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Siyal Islands
EG020
**
**
*
*
*
**
*
*
Rawabel Islands
EG021
**
**
*
*
*
**
*
*
Saudi Arabia
Al Wajh Bank
SA011
**
**
***
**
**
***
***
*
Madinat Yanbu al-Sinaiyah
SA016
*
*
*
**
**
**
**
*
Qishran
Bay
SA025
*** *** *** ID ID * *
*
Umm
al-Qamari
SA026
*** ***
**
* ** ** * ID
Farasan
Islands
SA038 ** ***
**
** ** ** **
*
Somalia
Jasiira Ceebaad (Aibat island) and SO001 ***
***
***
ID ID * ***
ID
Sa'adadin Island (Jasiira Sacaada
Din or Saad ad Din Island)
Jasiira Maydh (Mait Island)
SO002
***
***
***
ID
ID
ID
***
ID
Habitat
Pollution
Introduced/
Predicted
Human
Human
Impact of
IBA No.
destruction and
invasive
impact of
disturbance exploitation
fishing
Site
degradation
Marine Terrestrial
species
global warming
Sudan
Mukawwar Island and Dungonab SD002 ***
**
***
ID ID ID ***
*
Bay
Suakin Archipelago
SD004
**
***
***
***
ID
***
***
*
Yemen
Midi Luhayyah
YE001
**
**
***
**
***
**
**
*
Islands north of Al-Hudaydah
YE004
***
***
**
**
**
**
***
*
Bahr Ibn Abbas-Ra's Isa
YE007
***
***
***
**
**
**
***
*
Al-`Urj YE010
***
**
***
**
**
**
***
*
Jaza'ir Al-Zubayr
YE012
***
**
**
*
*
*
***
ID
Nukhaylah-Ghulayfiqah YE015
*** *** *** **
**
**
*** *
Jaza'ir al-Hanish
YE 019
***
***
**
**
*
**
***
ID
Bab-al-Mandab-Mawza (incl.
YE022
*** ***
***
*** ** ** ***
*
Mayun Is.)
Islands off Bir Ali
YE 030
***
***
**
*
*
**
***
ID
Jabal Ma'lih Escarpment/Badiya
YE036 *
*
*
* * * *
*
Qalansiya
Ra's Momi and Fikhah
YE051
*
*
*
*
*
*
**
*
Sabuniya and Ka'l Fir'awn,
YE 054
**
**
**
*
*
ID
**
*
(Socotra)
Abd Al-Kuri (Socotra)
YE 055
**
**
**
*
*
ID
***
ID
Al-Ikhwan YE
056
*
*
*
*
*
ID
***
ID
19
6. CURRENT CONSERVATION ACTIONS FOR BREEDING SEABIRDS IN THE
RED SEA AND GULF OF ADEN
6.1 International environmental initiatives covering the RSGA Region
International environmental conventions and agreements
The global conventions most relevant to the seabirds of the RSGA Region are those dealing
with conservation of biodiversity, such as the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the
Convention on Migratory Species (CMS or Bonn Convention) and with pollution, particularly
marine and oil pollution agreements such as MARPOL 73/78. There are also several relevant
regional environmental conventions, the most important of which is the Jeddah Convention
(which has led to the creation of PERSGA and its current Strategic Action Programme). The
ratification status of each in the RSGA Region is given in Table 5, and brief descriptions of each
convention or agreement are given in Annex 5.
The various global and regional conventions and directives listed in Table 5 represent a
strong basis for international co-operation among PERSGA members for the conservation of the
wider environment and shared natural resources.
PERSGA programmes
As part of its Strategic Action Programme PERSGA has developed and implemented several
regional and national programmes that directly benefit seabird conservation. These include:
· The development of a regional environmental monitoring programme (REMP) in co-
operation with the Coordinating Unit of the Mediterranean Action Plan and the Marine
Environment Laboratory of the International Atomic Energy Agency (Monaco).
· A new vessel traffic separation scheme for the southern Red Sea, initiated through
PERSGA and supported by The World Bank and the United Kingdom Hydrographic
Office (UKHO). This was approved by the International Maritime Organization (IMO)
and came into operation in July 2003. It will make a substantial improvement to
navigation safety in the Region and reduce the risk of shipping accidents and marine
pollution.
· Preparation of a regional Programme of Action for the protection of the marine
environment from land based activities, with the support of UNEP/GPA and the
implementation of two national Programmes of Action (Egypt and Yemen), in co-
operation with UNEP/GPA.
· In addition, the IMO's Marine Environment Division, in close co-operation with
PERSGA, has funded the preparation of a Regional Action Plan to cover the
development of National Systems and Regional and Sub-Regional mechanisms to
prepare for and respond to major marine oil spills in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden.
Some initial funding through the IMO's Integrated Technical Co-operation Programme
will allow this Plan to be started. The IMO will work with PERSGA to find donors who
will support the full implementation of the Action Plan.
Regional legal instruments in development
Drafts of two protocols have been prepared: a Protocol on the Protection of the Marine
Environment from Land-based Sources of Pollution in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, and a
Protocol Concerning the Conservation of Biological Diversity and the Establishment of
Protected Areas for the PERSGA Region.
20
Table 5. Ratification status of biodiversity- and marine-protection related conventions
relevant to seabird conservation in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, as of July 2003
Saudi
Countries signed/
Djibouti
Egypt
Jordan Somalia
Sudan Yemen
Arabia
ratified
Global
CBD
CP CP CP CP CP CP
6
Ramsar
CP
CP
CP
3
WHC
CP
CP CP
CP
4
CMS
CP CP CP CP
4
AEWA
CP
CP
CP CP
4
CITES
CP CP CP CP CP CP CP
7
UNESCO
MAB P P
0
UNFCCC
CP CP CP CP CP CP
6
UNCLOS
CP CP CP CP CP CP CP
7
Basel
CP CP CP CP
CP
5
MARPOL
73/78
CP
CP
2
Regional
Jeddah
CP CP CP CP CP CP CP
7
IGADD
P
P
0
ACCNNR
CP
CP CP
3
Nairobi
CP
1
PPAWFEAR
CP
1
PCCCMPCEEAR
CP
1
CP = Contracting Party (has ratified or acceded to Convention), S = Signatory, P = Participating Member
Global
CBD: Convention on Biological Diversity
Ramsar: Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat
WHC: Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage
Convention)
CMS: Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (Bonn Convention)
AEWA: Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Waterbirds (Agreement under the Bonn
Convention)
CITES: Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
UNFCCC: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
Basel: Convention on Control of Trans-boundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal
MARPOL 73/78: International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973, as modified by
the Protocol of 1978
Regional
Jeddah: Regional Convention for the Conservation of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Environment, together
with its Protocol concerning Regional Co-operation in Combating Pollution by Oil and Other Harmful
Substances in Cases of Emergency
IGADD: Inter-governmental Authority on Drought and Development
ACCNNR: African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources
Nairobi: Convention for the Protection, Management and Development of the Marine and Coastal Environment
of the Eastern African Region
PPAWFEAR: The Protocol concerning Protected Areas and Wild Fauna and Flora in the Eastern African
Region
PCCCMPCEEAR: Protocol Concerning Co-operation in Combating Marine Pollution in Cases of Emergency
in the Eastern African Region
21
6.2 National legislation and implementation of international agreements in PERSGA
countries
Implementation of international agreements
Most countries in the region have well-established environmental legislation, although in
some this legislation probably needs updating to take into account the increased pressures on the
environment and threats to biodiversity of the RSGA Region in recent years. A summary list of
some of the key environmental legislative instruments affecting seabirds is presented in the
Regional Seabird Status Report (PERSGA/GEF 2003a) and PERSGA is currently carrying out a
further detailed review of its member states' ratification and national implementation of
international agreements.
Parties to the CBD are required to prepare national strategies, plans or programmes for the
conservation and sustainable development of the nation's natural resources and to integrate these
into other relevant sectoral and cross-sectoral plans, programmes and policies. Usually, this is
achieved through National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans (NBSAP), or similarly titled
documents. Although six of the seven PERSGA countries have ratified or acceded to the CBD,
only four have so far produced NBSAPs. These are Djibouti, Egypt, Saudi Arabia and Yemen.
Site protection measures Marine Protected Areas
Most marine protected areas (MPAs) in the region follow the IUCN multiple-use model,
whereby different habitats or areas are afforded various levels of protection and use through
application of a zoning plan (CHILD & GRAINGER 1990). There are only 11 established MPAs in
the RSGA Region that are important for breeding seabirds, although a further 23 have been
proposed, making a total of 34 MPAs. This figure is different from the number of IBAs
considered important for seabirds (31) because the IBAs and MPAs do not overlap in all cases
and several IBAs may be located within the boundaries of an MPA and vice versa. Many of the
existing MPAs suffer from lack of resources and political interest, and have been little more than
`paper parks', although the GEF-sponsored Strategic Action Programme (SAP) has been trying
to address these problems through one of its eight Components.
A list of the existing and proposed MPAs in the RSGA Region that are important for
breeding seabirds is given in Table 6.
22
Table 6. Existing and proposed marine protected areas in the RSGA Region that are important for breeding seabirds
Size
Status
Breeding seabirds
Comments
(km2)
Djibouti
Red-billed Tropicbird, White-eyed Gull, Sooty Gull, Bridled
Moucha Island
Established
Tern, White-cheeked Tern, Lesser Crested Tern, Swift Tern,
Brown Noddy
Red-billed Tropicbird, White-eyed Gull, Sooty Gull, Bridled
Maskali Island
Established
Tern, White-cheeked Tern, Lesser Crested Tern, Swift Tern,
Brown Noddy
Also has breeding Western Reef Heron, Little Green Heron, Osprey and
Red-billed Tropicbird, Brown Booby, White-eyed Gull, Sooty
Isles des Sept Frères
Proposed
Sooty Falcon; important for migrating raptors crossing the Bab al Mandab
Gull, Swift and Lesser Crested terns.
Straits
Egypt
Seabirds breed on Tiran Island and in mangroves at Ras
Tidal flats along the Gulf of Suez coast are feeding and roosting sites for
Ras Mohammed National Park
Established
480
Mohammed
seabirds
Contains most extensive mangrove in the northern Egyptian Red Sea and
Nabaq Protected Area
Established
most northerly mangrove in the world
Seabirds said to breed on the islands and in mangrove areas
Gabel Elba Protected Area
Established
Largest protected area in Egypt with largest area of mangroves in country
but have never been adequately surveyed
Wadi El Gimal-Hamata
Established
Egypt's newest reserve, established January 2003
Protected Area
Originally an extension of the Gabel Elba Protected Area now being
managed as a separate protected area; includes the islands off the coast of
Red Sea Islands and Mangroves
Established
Hurghada, Zabargad Island and the other islands to the south that are not
Protected Area
part of the other protected areas and coastal mangroves from north of
Hurghada south to Wadi Gimal
Saudi Arabia
Yanbu Royal Commission
Established
c. 5
Saunder's Little Tern and White-cheeked Tern
Protected by the Royal Commission through an agreement with MEPA
Protected Area
Also important breeding site for African Collared Dove, Little Green
Umm al Qamari
Established
0.1
Swift Tern, Brown Booby and Sooty Gull
Heron, Reef Heron and Cattle Egrets
Large proportion of the Red Sea's seabirds breed in the
Also important habitat for mangroves, seagrasses, coral reefs, marine
Farasan Islands
Established
3,310
archipelago
mammals, marine turtles and an endemic gazelle
Straits of Tiran
Proposed
Also contains important marine turtle and dugong habitat
Ras Suwayhil
Proposed
267
Also contains suitable habitat for dugong
Sharm Zubayr
Proposed
80
Supports the northernmost mangroves in the Red Sea
Ghubbat Bal'aksh
Proposed
33
Supports coral reefs with particularly high species diversity
Al Wajh Bank (Archipelago),
The most extensive coral reef system of the entire Red Sea, diverse reef-
including Sharm Habban and
Proposed 2,840
associated fauna, seagrass beds and mangroves and a key area for dugong
Sharm Munaybirah
Qalib Islands
Proposed
Also important for nesting marine turtles
23
24
Size
Status
Breeding seabirds
Comments
(km2)
Al-Hasani and Libanah Islands,
including Ras Abu Madd and
Proposed
Also important for nesting marine turtles
Sharm Hasi
Ras Baridi and Sharm Al-Khawr
Proposed
Most important marine turtle nesting site in Red Sea
Shi'b al-Qirin
Proposed
30
Also important for its high quality inshore reef complex
Ras Hatiba
Proposed
c. 450
Prime site for environmental education projects
Ash-Shu'aybah and Mastaba
Proposed
c. 100
Qishran Bay
Proposed
Also important dugong habitat
Outer Farasan Bank
Proposed
Also important for nesting turtles
Khawr Itwad
Proposed
c. 70
Shi'b Abu al-Liqa and Shi'b al-
Proposed
c. 140
Support abundant fringing corals and mangroves
Kabir
Somalia
No recent information on the avifauna in the islands, but
Contains possibly the largest coral reef area in the Gulf of Aden; Sa'adadin
White-eyed Gull bred in thousands on both islands during the
Island has the largest mangrove stands and coral reefs along the Gulf of
Aibat and Sa'adadin Islands
Proposed
c. 300
first half of the twentieth century; Sooty Gull and White-
Aden coast of Somalia; in addition, numerous species of Palearctic migrant
cheeked, Swift, and Lesser Crested Terns, Brown and Masked
waders and waterfowl, exceeding 20,000 birds, occur seasonally
Booby also said to occur
Old records estimated 100,000 breeding seabirds, including
Mait Island
Proposed
c. 1
Red-billed Tropicbird, Masked Booby, Sooty Tern and
Isolated, steep-sided granitic island
Bridled Tern; no recent information
Sudan
Mukawwar Island and Dungonab
Also supports breeding colonies of Osprey, Sooty Falcon and Crab Plover;
Proposed
300
Sooty Gull, White-eyed Gull, Bridled tern, White-cheeked tern
Bay
Mukawwar Island is important for breeding turtles
Suakin Archipelago
Proposed
Yemen
Socotra Island Group Protected
Jouanin's Petrel, Persian Shearwater, Masked Booby and
Established 3,626
Extremely important area for marine biogeography
Area
probably Socotra Cormorant
Belhaf and Bir Ali area
Proposed
Socotra Cormorant
Ras Isa/Kamaran Island
Proposed
Socotra Cormorant, Bridled Tern
Bab al-Mandab
Proposed
Common Noddy, Masked Bobby
Sharma-Jathmon
Proposed
Sooty Gull, terns
Hawf Proposed
Migratory
species
Luhayyah
Proposed
Bridled tern, White-eyed Gull
7. OVERALL CONSERVATION OBJECTIVES
The overall objective of the Regional Action Plan for the Conservation of Breeding Seabirds
and their habitats in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Region is:
The conservation of the breeding seabirds of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
Region and their habitats for the use and enjoyment of present and future human
generations, and for their intrinsic biodiversity, ecological, aesthetic and other
values from which human benefits accrue.
Specific objectives
i. Prevent the global extinction of any seabird occurring in the Region
ii. Maintain existing regional and national populations within limits of acceptable
change*
iii. Restore populations of threatened species to target levels*
iv. Restore degraded key habitats and sites important for breeding seabirds to target
levels
* Limits of acceptable change and target levels for restoration of species populations will be
set at the implementation stage of the RAP to enable consideration of available resources and
priorities for action in other RAPs.
In order to meet these aims and objectives, a Framework for Action has been developed.
25
8. FRAMEWORK FOR ACTION
8.1 Introduction to the Framework
The Framework for Action takes an integrated multi-dimensional approach. It is based on the
format developed for the Regional Action Plan for the Conservation of Coral Reefs in the Red
Sea and Gulf of Aden (PERSGA/GEF 2003b), since many of the threats to the Region's coral
reefs are also faced by seabirds. Consequently, there are many common objectives and actions.
Furthermore, many of the actions are applicable to the conservation of other coastal species and
habitats because of their shared use of the same RSGA sites and habitats. RAPs are also being
produced for mangroves and marine turtles. Adopting a common approach among the RAPs
reinforces the need for action, aids integration between different programmes and increases the
likelihood of overall success of all plans.
The Framework for Action for breeding seabirds is constructed around seven key
`Components' that it is believed, if implemented will meet the aims and objectives set out in the
previous section. These are:
1. Integrated Coastal Zone Management Planning for Seabirds
2. Education, public awareness and community participation
3. Site and habitat protection and management
4. Regulation of human exploitation
5. Research and monitoring
6. Legislation
7. Institutional capacity building and training
These key areas have been identified through consultation with seabird experts at national
and regional levels and reflect recommendations set out in the Regional Seabird Status Report
(PERSGA/GEF 2003a) and the national seabird status reports.
For each component, principal objectives are defined, recommended actions briefly
described and priorities identified. Priorities are based on an analysis of the severity of particular
threats to seabird species in the RSGA Region (Table 3), the potential impact of the action on the
threat (Annex 6) and practicalities affecting implementation (such as funding constraints and
opportunities, the potential for combined actions common to other RAPs, the likelihood of
success and levels of public support). The priority and level of urgency for each action is
indicated as:
*** = very urgent action, for example, where immediate action or intervention is required;
** = urgent action, for example, where intervention is required over the five year RAP
period to ensure the continued viability of species of regional - global importance;
* = priority action, where there is an institutional set-up or there are on-going projects and
opportunities for synergies with existing efforts.
Designation of a level of priority to each specific action allows a phased approach to
implementation and aids budget, programme and project planning and capacity building.
26
8.2 General approach to implementation
Implementation
It is suggested that a RAP Steering Committee is established to promote, coordinate and
integrate the implementation of this and other RAPs. The Committee should include
representatives from each participating nation and the major international, regional and national
organisations including PERSGA focal points, the BirdLife Middle East Office, UNEP-ROWA
and UNDP. This body would oversee implementation and monitoring of the RAP and its
incorporation into national policy, legislative and investment frameworks, over its initial five
year period. The Steering Committee would act as the interface between government, major
donor agencies and other relevant international initiatives. The Terms of Reference for the
Steering Committee should be developed by PERSGA in consultation with the national focal
points. In addition, a Regional Seabird Coordinator may be appointed to work within PERSGA,
to direct the day-to-day implementation of the RAP.
It is not currently possible to identify national priorities, responsibilities, time-scales and
budgets for implementing the proposed RAP actions as these will vary considerably between the
PERSGA member countries and will need to take into account likely funding availability and the
needs of other RAPs. In some cases there may be competing requirements for funding across the
RAPs but in many other cases there will be opportunities for combined actions that meet
multiple objectives. It is therefore proposed that national implementation priorities, time-scales
and responsibilities are identified at a later stage by the RAP Steering Committee, or as part of
the development of National Action Plans.
It is envisaged that regional groups and specialists will carry out the bulk of the
implementation of this RAP but international exchange of knowledge and experience, including
establishment of international partnerships, is considered to be important for long-term success.
However, international consultants should only be involved where the required expertise is not
available in the RSGA Region. Their main task will be to transfer knowledge and experience.
Systems should be put in place to ensure that all data gathered by international consultants is
made available to PERSGA and the participating countries. NGOs should also be heavily
involved in both the design and implementation of the RAP.
In order to ensure the long-term success and sustainability of the RAP beyond its 5-year
timeframe a high priority should be given to institutional strengthening and capacity building,
and to the training and education of various target groups.
Funding
Financial resources are crucial for implementation of the Seabirds RAP and in the short and
medium term it is likely that much of the funding will need to be sought from international
donors. Although there is a high level of awareness of bird conservation needs in many potential
international donor organisations, this awareness needs to be raised in many of the PERSGA
member states. Thus, in the longer term the securing of funding for seabird conservation and
management activities should be aided by some of the proposed awareness activities.
However, there is also an urgent need to build the capacity of many PERSGA countries to
develop project proposals for efficient multi-sectoral conservation programmes. Development of
practical fund raising mechanisms in PERSGA countries would allow governmental, non-
governmental and community based organisations to access funding resources by identifying
conservation problems, setting priorities and preparing related proposals for submission to
27
donors. Thus it is suggested that the following actions are taken to secure funding for this and
other PERSGA RAPs
Securing funding for seabird conservation
i. Identify potential funding sources from bilateral and multilateral donor organisations,
including government and inter-governmental organisations, such as ministries,
endowment funds, national and international foundations, Global Environment Facility
(Large, Medium and Small Grant Program), UNEP, UNDP, overseas aid agencies, non-
profit organisations (WWF, IUCN, Ramsar), and private foundations. Co-funding
sources should also be investigated, including the Asian Development Bank, the African
Development Bank, European Union and World Bank.
ii. Develop the capacity at a national and regional level to prepare proposals which secure
sole or co-funding from government and inter-governmental programmes and non-
government institutions.
iii. Establish a network of environmental organisations concerned with the conservation of
seabirds and biodiversity in the RSGA Region.
iv. Publish a reference guide for fundraising which lists ideas for sponsorship and provides
information on successful proposals and funding sources.
v. Develop regional proposals for fundraising which address multi-sectoral and integrated
conservation approaches.
vi. Establish a trust fund for long-term administration of conservation and management
actions.
Indicators of success
It is suggested that internal reviews of the success of each Component in meeting its
objectives, are conducted annually and an external independent assessment made after two years
and again after the five year life of the RAP. It is important that all stakeholders, including
NGOs and local groups, are involved in the evaluation process. To enable an objective review to
be made the Steering Committee and member countries should agree a set of defined SMART
(Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic and Time-specific) performance indicators for each
action. Data requirements to monitor implementation should also be identified and a standard
format for analysis and reporting defined. General best practice principles for implementation of
the RAP are given in Box 1.
28
Box 1. General principles for successful implementation of the RAP (after
DE FONTAUBERT et al. 1996; BENITEZ et al. 2000; PERSGA/GEF 2003b)
1. Involve all stakeholders (from local communities to central government) in consultation and decision-
making.
2. Ensure high levels of information-sharing and technology-transfer across all scales of implementation
and among all participants.
3. Foster widespread education and awareness.
4. Strengthen institutions and implement appropriate legal instruments.
5. Develop flexible and adaptive management systems that respond quickly to changing circumstances and
new information.
6. Address socio-economic issues behind resource use and environmental degradation.
7. Collect and evaluate relevant environmental and socio-economic data with a focus on obtaining answers
to resource management questions.
8. Ensure adequate and sustained financing for all aspects of the RAP.
9. Ensure effective integration of all priority actions and targets within the RAP and with other relevant
regional plans, such as the Coral Reefs RAP.
10. Maintain consistency of approach across all spatial scales of implementation - local and national actions
should be consistent with regional and global actions and co-operation.
8.3 Component 1: Integrated Coastal Zone Management Planning for Seabirds
Concerns and needs
There is a high degree of connectedness among coastal and marine ecosystems. Effective
conservation of breeding seabirds and other marine wildlife requires successful management of
adjacent coastal development and use. Because most of the Region's seabirds breed and feed
close to or on the coast they are particularly sensitive to changes in coastal land-use patterns and
in many areas are threatened by poorly planned developments. For instance, important islands
for nesting seabirds have been targeted for tourist development in the Region, especially in the
northern Red Sea and more recently, in the south. Additionally, a growing number of shrimp
farms are being sited in important shallow-water areas. Planning needs to take place within an
ICZM programme that zones areas exclusively for specific forms of development and/or access.
Some nations in the Region, such as Saudi Arabia, Jordan and Egypt, have taken major steps
towards managing their coastal zones with the implementation of ICZM plans and their
integration into national development plans. With the assistance of PERSGA, other countries in
the Region have also initiated the preparation of their national ICZM plans. However, even in
those countries with more advanced ICZM planning, improvements can be made in co-
ordination between ministries, defining jurisdictions, avoiding conflicting objectives and in
execution of land-use plans.
Principal objective(s)
To implement ICZM planning for the conservation of breeding seabirds and their associated
breeding, feeding, roosting and wintering habitats and sites, in all PERSGA nations. This should
be supported by appropriate legislation, land-use planning, participatory approaches, socio-
economic and environmental impact assessment, monitoring and enforcement.
Actions and priorities
i.
Ensure that all national ICZM strategies and plans take into account seabird
conservation requirements and where necessary, restrict potentially damaging activities
within or in the vicinity of important breeding sites and feeding habitats (**)
29
ii.
Develop regional and national guidelines for incorporating seabird conservation
requirements into ICZM (**)
iii. Ensure potential terrestrial and marine pollution sources are adequately identified and
covered in ICZM and other local plans, paying particular attention to those located near
seabird nesting sites (**)
iv.
Develop key demonstration sites using best practice ICZM where seabird conservation
is highlighted (**)
Implementation and comments
Effective implementation of ICZM plans will reduce the incidence of inappropriate
development decisions and provide an effective mechanism for sustainable long-term use of the
coastal zone. The adoption of this planning and management process to support development
decisions throughout the Region could significantly reduce unnecessary degradation of the
coastal and marine environments and should be considered an important weapon in seabird
conservation.
PERSGA is currently preparing guidelines for ICZM. It is important that these take account
of the recommendations in this RAP and ensure that a precautionary approach is adopted
towards any future development issues affecting seabirds and the coastal zone.
8.4 Component 2: Education, public awareness and community participation
Concerns and needs
The raising of public and government awareness of the importance of the Region's breeding
seabirds and of the threats they face is crucial to their long-term conservation. PERSGA has
already taken important steps in raising general environmental awareness, through regular
publication of a newsletter (`Al Sanbouk') and other materials, and through development and
enhancement of regional and national communication networks. However, there seems to have
been little directed specifically at seabirds and their conservation in the RSGA.
Specific groups will need to be targeted in a seabird public awareness campaign, the most
important being fishermen, local planners, tourists and tour agencies, and the military. Most
fishermen are probably not aware of the laws and regulations regarding seabird collection
because it has been a traditional activity and their `rights' have never been questioned. As the
level of tourism increases in the important seabird areas the level of potential threat is also likely
to increase and tourists should also be made aware of the sensitivity of certain areas.
There is an important need to encourage young ornithologists in the Region who will take on
the future role of research, monitoring and conservation.
Principal objective(s)
To raise government and public awareness of the Region's seabirds and their conservation
through the implementation of education and awareness programmes. These should be
developed for dissemination through communication networks to decision-makers, the mass
media, schools, universities and local communities.
Actions and priorities
i.
Produce, publish and disseminate general education and awareness materials on the
importance of seabirds in the Region and the threats to them (***)
30
ii.
Develop special awareness campaigns aimed at target groups, especially fishermen, the
military and coastguards in each PERSGA country, and enlist support for the
protection of nesting seabirds among fishing communities and at the highest level in
the military and coastguard authorities (***)
iii. Develop strong links with key government departments for delivering important
findings from research and monitoring to decision-makers (***)
iv. Develop strong links with the mass media for dissemination of major newsworthy
items (***)
vii. For each country, identify and develop consultative processes with the key stake-
holders with relevance to breeding seabirds (***)
viii. Develop a public awareness campaign on the effects of pollution on the terrestrial and
marine environments, targeted at local decision-makers and planners, focused on areas
around important seabird nesting sites (**)
ix. Increase awareness among stakeholders (fishermen, the military and developers) of the
impact of introduced predators on islands with nesting seabirds, and suggest practical
ways for avoiding new accidental introductions (**)
Implementation and comments
There are a multitude of approaches to education and awareness raising, ranging from talks
in remote coastal communities to the distribution of materials via the internet. Several of these
methods are already employed routinely within the Region (see for example FLEMING 1996),
notably by NCWCD at several sites in Saudi Arabia and by Egyptian Environmental Affairs
Agency (EEAA) as an integral part of the management of the Ras Mohammed National Park in
Egypt. These programmes could serve as models for improving education and raising awareness
in the RSGA Region. The national seabird status reports suggested that environmental education
centres should be established at Moucha Island in Djibouti, the Farasan Islands Protected Area in
Saudi Arabia, on the Yemeni Red Sea islands and on the island of Socotra.
Groups developing publicity materials should liaise with regional and international groups
that have experience in developing avian education campaigns, such as BirdLife International,
regarding the development of public awareness materials and campaigns for the Region. Active
participation by local communities around important conservation areas in the early design and
operation phases of education and awareness campaigns is also likely to significantly increase
the chances of success.
Scientists and educators involved with the seabird conservation projects should submit
articles and information to PERSGA for inclusion into the newsletter, educational materials and
web pages.
Public awareness programmes should stress the linkages between healthy ecosystems and the
sustainability of fisheries resources. Those directed at fishermen should focus on persuading
them to fish responsibly to ensure the long-term sustainability of the seabird populations as well
as the fisheries in which they operate.
31
8.5 Component 3: Site and habitat protection and management
Concerns and needs
As described in Section 5, many breeding sites and wider habitats important for seabirds are
under particular threat in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. Sandy beaches and islands, rocky
coasts, mangroves and seagrass beds all need protection and appropriate management. The value
of protected areas for the conservation and sustainable utilisation of seabirds is well established,
with economic benefits from MPAs including income generation and employment through well-
managed bird tourism. Such tourism-based revenue from protected areas has proven to be a
viable source of funding for seabird management and research in other parts of the world, such
as some islands in the Seychelles. There is the potential for implementation of similar systems of
`users-pay' in the RSGA Region.
Over the past decade, most nations in the Region have taken important steps towards
establishing MPAs, encompassing a wide variety of marine and coastal habitats and a RSGA
Regional Network of Marine Protected Areas Regional Master Plan has recently been
published (PERSGA/GEF 2002).
While many of the existing MPAs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden do support significant
populations of breeding seabirds, not all of the important sites are included, nor are all species
adequately represented within these protected areas. Indeed, many IBAs important for nesting
seabirds in the Region are not within officially protected areas at all (see Section 4.5).
PERSGA/GEF (2003a) identify 14 sites (MPAs and IBAs) that should be considered priorities
for the seabird conservation (Figure 2).
Furthermore, many if not most of the Region's MPAs are not adequately protected and do
not offer sufficient safeguards to nesting seabirds. If resources are limited emphasis should be on
institutional and capacity building, including resource mobilisation, to avoid designating more
MPAs than can be managed.
Many seabird nesting sites can be conserved through site-specific measures such as the
establishment and management of protected areas. However, seabird feeding areas are much
larger and their protection is probably best addressed through habitat conservation measures.
Unfortunately, there is a general lack of accurate and up-to-date information on the distribution
and status of coastal habitats in the RSGA, particularly outside of protected areas and areas of
key feeding habitats for seabirds have not been well identified.
Introduced predators are a particularly important threat to seabirds nesting on islands in the
RSGA. However, there is little or no control over pets brought by fishermen, lighthouse keepers
and military personnel to islands. There have been no recent systematic attempts to eradicate
introduced predators from seabird nesting islands in the Red Sea or Gulf of Aden (the British
administration formerly controlled rats and snakes on Mait Island off Somalia). Experience from
other parts of the world, notably New Zealand, indicates that eradication campaigns on islands
can be successful but are often costly and time consuming and need to be very thorough to
succeed (VEITCH & BELL 1990; ASHMOLE et al. 1994).
The Region forms one of the major thoroughfares for international maritime traffic between
Asia-Pacific and Europe, particularly for oil, most of which is transported by sea. The Region
also has an abundance of reefs and narrow navigational channels and insufficient navigational
markers. As described in Section 5, these factors place the Region's seabirds at high risk from
potential marine pollution.
32
Figure 2. Priority sites for the conservation of nesting seabirds in the Red Sea and Gulf
of Aden (from PERSGA/GEF 2003a)
Several important measures to minimise the impact to coastal species and ecosystems from
oil spills have already been implemented, including the development of national oil spill
contingency plans by Egypt, Jordan, Saudi Arabia and Sudan, the oil spill equipment stockpile in
Djibouti and progress towards the establishment of the Marine Emergency Mutual Aid Centre
(MEMAC) in Egypt. PERSGA has also been promoting a number of measures to reduce
navigation risks and maritime pollution through Component 2 of the SAP. It is vital that further
actions are taken where necessary to ensure that all measures are fully implemented and effective
in the long term.
Principal objective(s)
To ensure that all the major breeding sites and wider habitats (including sandy and coralline
islands, islets, rocky coasts, seagrass shallows, coastal lagoons and mangroves) used by seabirds
in the Region are adequately protected and their ecological functions maintained and, where
necessary, restored.
33
Actions and priorities
i.
Review the current effectiveness of protection and management at existing MPAs
important for breeding seabirds and, where necessary, enhance these to ensure
adequate protection of seabird populations (***)
ii.
Designate and establish all IBAs important for breeding seabirds as MPAs (Annex 4)
within the context of developing integrated regional and national MPA networks (***)
iii. Ensure that Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) are mandatory for
developments such as hotels, roads, airports, ports, shrimp farms and industrial
developments, where they may impact on MPAs and IBAs, whether directly (through
land-take) or indirectly (for example, by disturbance or pollution) (***)
iv. Develop a management plan for all MPAs important for breeding seabirds, and
regional and national guidelines for assessment of MPA management effectiveness in
conserving breeding seabirds (***)
v.
Establish Site Support Groups (see below) that monitor seabird populations, habitat
condition and threats in all seabird IBAs (***)
vi. Assist in developing or improving performance of existing demonstration MPA sites,
identified in the SAP and Coral Reef RAP, using best management practice, paying
particular attention to seabird conservation measures (**)
vii. Support the regional network of MPA managers and researchers promoting regular
communication and information-sharing (**)
viii. Draft regional/national guidelines, as appropriate, for achieving sustainable sources of
funding for important seabird areas (**)
ix. Produce regional and national guidelines for treating seabird conservation issues within
EIAs (**)
x.
Support implementation of Port State Control throughout the Region (**)
xi. Contribute to the development of the Regional Navigation Risk Assessment and
Management Plan (**)
xii. Support the development and implementation of regional and sub-regional vessel
traffic systems with special emphasis on avoiding areas important to breeding seabirds.
Additionally, upgrade existing marine navigation aids, particularly in the vicinity of
sensitive areas important for nesting, feeding and roosting seabirds (**)
xiii. Develop, upgrade and implement local, national and regional pollution contingency
plans and oil spill response capacities, and ensure their adequacy for the protection of
seabirds (**)
xiv. Explore alternative sources of building materials and fuel for communities living near
mangrove areas (*)
xv. Control grazing access to mangrove areas and set aside selected mangrove areas for
complete protection (*)
xvi. Develop `no-fishing' zones and, where necessary, closed fishing seasons during
spawning periods to protect important reproductive fish stocks, in and around MPAs
and IBAs important for nesting seabirds, particularly in areas of spawning aggregations (*)
xvii. Increase the enforcement of fishery regulations to reduce and if possible eliminate
illegal trawling in shallow water areas, particularly over seagrass beds (*)
34
Implementation and comments
There is a high degree of overlap between the recommended actions listed above and those
relating to protected area and wider habitat management given in the PERSGA Regional Master
Plan for MPAs (PERSGA/GEF 2002) and the other RAPs. Full implementation of these plans
would also promote conservation of the Region's seabirds.
The establishment of Site Support Groups, as developed by BirdLife International for IBAs
in Africa, can be an efficient and practical tool for involving local communities and stakeholders
in the conservation of important sites. They may also produce effective linkages and synergies
with each other, with the local administration and with external agencies. Key activities of Site
Support Groups are:
· To raise awareness in local communities of the importance of the wise use of natural
resources and of IBAs for the conservation of biodiversity
· To monitor the status of key species and habitats in their sites and the human activities
occurring and to report illegal or destructive activities to the relevant authorities
· To start environmentally-friendly projects, clearly linked to conservation, that will help
communities generate some income (for example, eco-tourism)
· To work with environmental NGOs and government agencies to rehabilitate degraded
habitats, for example, by litter removal
· To provide a link to the local communities for negotiations and interventions at site level.
It is also important that a mechanism for assessing the effectiveness of MPA management,
giving special regard to managing breeding seabirds, be developed for the Region.
The IUCN World Commission on Protected Areas (WCPA) has established a `Management
Effectiveness Steering Committee' to develop a system for verifying or assessing management
effectiveness. This will include ongoing management of existing MPAs and the siting and design
of new MPAs. As part of their work a document entitled "Evaluating Effectiveness: A
Framework for Assessing the Management of Protected Areas" has been produced (HOCKINGS et
al. 2000). A brief list of the general principles for assessment of MPA effectiveness is given in
Appendix 8 of the RAP for Coral Reefs (PERSGA/GEF 2003b) and guidelines on developing
management plans for MPAs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden are given in the Regional Master
Plan for MPAs (PERSGA/GEF 2002). The BirdLife International Partnership has produced
`Guidelines for IBA Site Action Planning' as part of the development of the IBA programme for
Africa (BIRDLIFE INTERNATIONAL 2001).
Restoration of degraded key habitats and sites should initially focus on IBAs and on areas
required by the highest priority species. Regular clean up efforts should be made along key
stretches of coast and at key seabird breeding sites, funded by oil and tanker companies using the
Red Sea/Gulf of Suez route.
8.6 Component 4: Regulation of human exploitation
Concerns and needs
Although levels of egg collecting and chick harvesting have not been quantified, they are
believed to have a major impact on the RSGA seabird populations. Studies in other parts of the
world have shown that uncontrolled harvesting of seabird eggs can quickly lead to local
extinctions and threaten the survival of a species (BURGER & GOCHFIELD 1994). Consequently,
35
protection of nesting seabird sites from human activities needs to be increased and made
effective.
However, given the long established tradition of collecting seabird eggs (and to a lesser
extent, chicks) by the Region's artisanal fishermen, it is necessary to take broader social, cultural
and economic considerations into account when designing conservation measures. Moreover, the
SAP for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden states that, "Wherever possible, it [the Action Plan for a
key group such as seabirds] should build on traditional beliefs and conservation practices".
Successful models for the sustainable harvesting of seabird eggs that take account of the
economic and cultural importance of harvesting to local fishing communities have been
developed in other parts of the world (BLANCHARD 1994) and may be appropriate for some
species and at some sites in the Region.
Principal objective(s)
To reduce to sustainable levels the collection of seabird eggs and harvesting of chicks, while
preserving the traditional rights and cultures of key stakeholders.
Actions and priorities
i. Establish the feasibility of introducing sustainable harvesting of seabird eggs for
common and non-declining species (*)
ii. If appropriate, according to the results of Action (i), develop guidelines for sustainable
harvesting in consultation with key stakeholders and introduce a pilot scheme at a
suitable site in collaboration with local fishing communities and other stakeholders (*)
Implementation and comments
The development and execution of a sustainable model for seabird egg collection in the
Region would require more extensive seabird population assessment and monitoring than
currently takes place. It would also require an improved understanding of the population biology
and ecology of the target species.
Radical new initiatives and solutions to the current poor enforcement at seabird nesting sites
may be needed and could include the hiring and training of former `poachers' as law
enforcement officers.
The success of the actions recommended above would be enhanced by a public awareness
and rural development programme to improve local food supply and diet, reducing the need for
seabird eggs as a supplementary food.
8.7 Component 5: Research and monitoring
Concerns and needs
Effective seabird conservation needs accurate information on the status, distribution and
biology of each species gathered at regular intervals, in order to develop species protection
measures for ICZM plans, MPAs and other planning exercises, and for assessment of the
effectiveness of conservation management itself. Seabirds are important bio-indicators of the
health of the marine environment, as they are predators at the top of the food chain. Sampling of
eggs, feathers or tissues can allow monitoring of the levels of organochlorines, heavy metals and
pollutants in the marine environment. Seabird monitoring could include examination of the
36
levels of oil and plastic pollution at nest sites and give an indication of general environmental
pollution. In addition, monitoring seabird populations, diets and breeding success can indicate
the state and health of the fisheries in the Region.
Currently there is insufficient accurate data available on the seabirds of the RSGA and much
of the information that does exist was collected outside of the breeding season or more than 10
years ago (PERSGA/GEF 2003a).
Most countries in the Region have yet to initiate seabird research. There are no systematic
seabird monitoring projects and very few species-specific studies in the Region. There are major
differences in logistic capacities between nations in relation to levels of finance, human capacity
and expertise, equipment, and so on. This has meant that some parts of the Region have been
reasonably well surveyed for breeding seabirds, for example, Egypt and Saudi Arabia, while
others, notably Somalia and Sudan, have not.
Effective lobbying for conservation at government and inter-governmental levels benefits
from the capacity to make realistic comparisons of the various financial costs and benefits that
are attached to different courses of action. Analyses of the various economic values of seabirds,
such as ecotourism, and costs of conservation, such as establishing protected areas, have yet to
be properly attempted in the Region but are badly needed, especially since most governments
rely on economic valuations in prioritising development options.
Since seabirds are not viewed as a priority by institutions in the Region, funding for seabird
surveys generally comes from international and regional organisations. No effort has been made
to attract financial sponsorship from wealthy organisations, such as oil companies. At present
PERSGA is carrying out baseline habitat assessment studies in the Region, but further funding is
needed to establish long-term research, monitoring and conservation activities.
Information on the extent and intensity of commercial trawling, illegal fishing, involvement
of foreign vessels, and artisanal fishing in the RSGA is poor and the effect of fishing on the
Region's seabirds is not well understood.
Principal objective(s)
To identify the status, distribution and ecological requirements of the Region's seabirds, to
quantify threats to these and to establish national and regional monitoring schemes in relation to
set habitat and species population targets.
Actions and priorities
i.
Initiate research into the key aspects of seabird biology and ecology of the high-priority
and poorly-known species (including Jouanin's Petrel, Persian Shearwater, Socotra
Cormorant and White-eyed Gull) concentrating on areas of highest importance for
management and conservation (***)
ii.
Define habitat condition, species population, breeding success and survival rate targets
for each seabird species (***)
iii. Conduct additional surveys in the Region to ensure that all key nesting, feeding and
roosting sites for seabirds are identified, concentrating on those species, countries and
areas where data are particularly lacking (**)
37
iv. Develop a regional system of monitoring environmental threats to seabirds, which
should include routine sampling of toxin levels in eggs, discarded feathers and dead
birds (**)
v.
Establish a regionally coordinated, comprehensive, long-term monitoring programme
at key seabird sites in the Region (IBAs) and establish national and regional reporting
guidelines, to assess attainment of conservation targets and to identify sites where
threats to seabirds are operating (**)
vi. Assess the status, distribution and condition of the major coastal habitats in the Red
Sea and Gulf of Aden at both national and regional levels and identify degraded areas
of former importance for the highest priority seabirds, that may be potentially restored.
Assess the feasibility and costs of doing so (**)
vii. Determine and monitor the extent, intensity and impact of egg and chick collecting by
fishermen and military personnel throughout the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden (**)
viii. Undertake research into, followed by development of, methods to reduce and ideally
eliminate mammalian predators from islands with significant breeding seabird
colonies, targeted at mongoose, dogs, feral cats and rats (**)
ix. Investigate the impact of fisheries practices (introduction of new technology, fisheries
conservation methods, use of nets and lines) on seabird populations in the Region (*)
x.
Investigate the feasibility of Indian House Crow control methods in the countries and
areas where this species is established and determine the likelihood of success of
intensive trapping on islands with breeding seabirds where the species occurs (*)
Implementation and comments
Consistent application of standard methods will provide scientifically robust information on
seabird status for local and national management agencies and will facilitate regional and global
comparisons.
Standardised methods should be made as simple and inexpensive as practicable, to be equally
applicable in all nations and tailored to the conditions of the Region. PERSGA has already
developed Standardised Survey Methods for the census of breeding seabirds (see Section 3.1),
which could form the basis for monitoring programme methods.
It is important that the results of research, surveys and monitoring of seabirds are made
readily available to key decision-makers and to the general public.
In the longer term, a region-wide, seabird ringing programme should also be established,
although it is recognised that this will require extensive training programmes, since there is a
shortage of qualified bird ringers in member countries.
Oil, tourism and fisheries industry bodies should be approached to establish a fund for
seabird monitoring and research in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden.
A regional survey of shrimp and cuttlefish stocks and research into the impacts of trawl
fishing on the environment are currently underway.
38
8.8 Component 6: Strengthening legislation
Concerns and needs
Although most of the PERSGA countries have national legislation protecting the marine
environment and many are signatories to international conventions concerning the conservation
of seabirds, the legislation is not adequately regulated or effectively enforced. This is probably
because seabirds are not viewed as a priority for management (PERSGA/GEF 2003a).
Principal objective(s)
To increase the legal protection afforded to seabirds, their breeding sites and their wider
habitats in the RSGA Region.
Actions and priorities
i. Where identified as a requirement by PERSGA (see below), further develop policy and
legislation frameworks to ensure effective protection of MPAs against damaging
activities (***)
ii. Encourage all countries in the Region to join the CBD, CMS and other relevant global
and regional biodiversity conservation and marine pollution conventions (**)
iii. Where required, further develop relevant national legislation defining safe shipping
routes and passages, and if necessary, require compulsory pilotage of vessels carrying
high risk cargo through critical seabird areas (**)
iv. Examine the feasibility of establishing `Particularly Sensitive Sea Areas' around the key
seabird nesting sites considered to be most at risk from ship groundings and oil spills,
with the assistance of the International Maritime Organization (**)
v. Ensure ratification of relevant marine pollution conventions, such as the Basel
Convention and MARPOL, by all of the Region's nations, including Eritrea (**)
vi. Review and update the conservation status of the Region's seabirds in each country's
Red List/Red Data Book (**)
vii. Incorporate international `best use' guidelines on environmental management, public
participation in EIAs, conservation management, monitoring and research into national
policy and legislation (**)
viii. Strengthen national and local legislation and enforcement relating to pollution from
terrestrial sources (*)
ix. Introduce a ban, where appropriate, on the introduction or keeping of pets on offshore
islands in the Red Sea, particularly through the military and lighthouse operating
authorities (*)
Implementation and comments
PERSGA have appointed a team to review environmental legislation in each country and to
provide a national report for each member state summarising its responsibilities under, and
implementation of, international environmental agreements. This will be used to identify
requirements for further legislation to address gaps in implementation of international
agreements. The actions listed above should therefore focus on addressing such gaps.
39
8.9 Component 7: Institutional capacity building and training
Concerns and needs
Most nations in the Region have recently started to activate marine environmental protection
as an economic security measure. However, responsibility for the marine environment is usually
shared between different departments, which often creates a conflict of interests.
Most of the work carried out on seabirds in the Region (largely research) has been
undertaken by international bodies or researchers. Non-governmental groups (NGOs) have not
played a major role in seabird conservation and they need to be encouraged to participate.
There are a limited number of conservation experts in the Region and many of these are
expatriates. The shortfall of qualified, experienced people is particularly acute at the senior
management level. There is a clear need to increase manpower and strengthen skills to improve
assessment, planning and management of coastal and marine environments.
Principal objective(s)
To increase the capacity of national organisations, both governmental and non-governmental,
to protect breeding seabirds by the enforcement of legislation, monitoring work and research.
Actions and priorities
i. Develop capacities for day-to-day management, monitoring, surveillance and
enforcement at MPAs, through training courses (***)
ii. Develop coordinated national inter-departmental policy and responses to seabird and
marine conservation issues (**)
iii. Build national capacities for seabird population monitoring, research and management, in
collaboration with international and national NGOs, universities and other research
organisations, through training, exchange visits and other model projects (**)
iv. Encourage closer coordination among existing seabird projects and programmes in the
Region to share experiences, methodology and manpower (**)
v. Assist in building national capacities for surveillance and enforcement of shipping
regulations, ensuring legislation has appropriate punitive clauses for legislative breaches
affecting seabirds and particularly nesting sites (**)
Implementation and comments
Significant strengthening of existing institutional arrangements is required for successful
implementation of the priority actions identified in this RAP. Given the trans-boundary character
of many environmental threats, co-operation and coordination among the various sectors will
need to be substantially strengthened at both the regional and national levels.
Consideration should be given to establishing a `pool' of regional specialists who could be
sourced to undertake work in the different PERSGA countries. The `twinning' of MPAs and
IBAs in countries with fewer resources, such as Somalia, with wealthier ones, such as Saudi
Arabia should also be considered.
Where possible, training courses should be designed and operated by groups within the
Region with assistance from international experts if required. Training courses should include
seabird sanctuary management, surveying and monitoring, ranger enforcement duties, and
conflict resolution.
40
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46
ANNEXES
Annex 1. Number of breeding pairs of true seabirds recorded in different PERSGA countries
where known (from PERSGA/GEF 2003a)
Key: B = Recorded breeding; NB = Non-breeding; V = Occasional visitor; B? = Possible breeding,
confirmation required
Species
Estimated number of breeding pairs in different PERSGA countries
Saudi
Djibouti
Egypt
Jordan
Somalia Sudan Yemen
Arabia
Jouanin's Petrel Bulweria
- - - V
B? -
50+
fallax
Persian Shearwater
- - - V V -
10,000
Puffinus persicus
Red-billed Tropicbird
3-7
10
-
11-100
B
B?
520-700
Phaethon aethereus indicus
Brown Booby Sula
100-150 85 NB 2,000 B
B 13,230
leucogaster plotus
Masked Booby Sula
- - - V
100-240
-
800-1,150
dactylatra melanops
Socotra Cormorant
Phalacrocorax
- - - V V - B
nigrogularis
Sooty Gull Larus
1,000-
B 100+ NB
50-100 B 2,525+
hemprichii
1,500
White-eyed Gull Larus
1,200-
600-700 2,500 NB >1,500
300-1,000 3,900+
leucophthalmus
2,200
Caspian Tern Sterna caspia
- 250-350 NB 100-200 NB
-
B
Swift Tern Sterna bergii
500-600 B NB 2,000 <1,000 B
B
velox
Lesser Crested Tern Sterna
1,000
2,000-
3,000-
1,500+ NB
B
5,000
bengalensis
(1985)
4,000
5,000
White-cheeked Tern Sterna
60-80 2,500+ NB 7,500
B
B 8,910+
repressa
Sooty Tern Sterna fuscata
- - - V B? - V
Bridled Tern Sterna
530 1,200+ NB 60,000
100,000+
8,000 70,230
anaethetus
Little Tern Sterna albifrons
- B? V NB - - NB
albifrons
Saunder's Little Tern
- B NB B B B? B
Sterna saundersi
Brown Noddy Anous
10,000-
5-10 - - 7,500
B 3,940
stolidus
20,000
Note: There are no documented records of breeding seabirds in Jordan, although it should be noted that survey
information on the coast is old. Furthermore, there are some unconfirmed reports of breeding White-eyed Gull
and Caspian Tern.
47
48
Annex 2. Feeding and nesting habits of the 17 true seabirds that nest in the RSGA Region
Species
Main food items
Feeding habits
Feeding habitat
Nest site
Nesting habitat
Jouanin's Petrel
Poorly known, but probably
Flies close to waves, takes food
Open sea, where it remains for
Nests in small holes and
Sea cliffs but may nest inland in
Bulweria fallax
mainly plankton such as fish
from surface of sea
most of year; feeding areas
crevices; nests colonially
Socotra Island Group (nesting
eggs, ctenophores and
poorly known.
habits poorly known)
polychaete worms
Persian Shearwater
Fish, cephalopods, crustaceans
Pattering, surface-seizing and
Open sea; gathers at upwelling
Burrows and crevices; colonial
Cliffs and slopes of oceanic
Puffinus persicus
diving up to 20 seconds at a
off south-west Arabian Sea.
nester
islands and coral atolls
time
Red-billed Tropicbird
Chiefly fish and squid
Plunge dives vertically into
Shallow waters, open sea
Rocky crevices, inaccessible to
Uninhabited smaller islands,
Phaethon aethereus indicus
water where it remains for only
predators; gregarious when
high cliffs
few seconds
nesting
Brown Booby
Mostly fish, squid and shrimp
Usually plunge dives obliquely
Marine, sometimes pelagic but
Colonial nester
Rocky cliffs, slopes and flat
Sula leucogaster plotu
into water from low height
mostly coastal waters
ground, even sandy ground
shaded by vegetation
Masked Booby
Fish, especially flying fish and
Deep plunge diving sometimes
Marine and pelagic, seldom
Colonial nester, forming mixed
Nests on rocky offshore islands
Sula dactylatra
cephalopods
from great height
near land outside breeding
colonies with Brown Booby
near cliff edges, on vegetated
season
flat ground or slopes, among
boulders, on sand; breeds in
more difficult upland sites on
islands
Socotra Cormorant
Mostly fish
Surface dives in pursuit of prey
Maritime and coastal water,
Among rocks; colonial nester
Jumbled rocky coral areas on
Phalacrocorax nigrogularis
but also plunge dives from
frequently areas with cool
islands, open sandy islands; in
height
upwelling of water during July-
Socotra it breeds in rocky islets
August monsoon
Sooty Gull
Omnivorous, including fish,
Scavenges at rubbish tips,
Very commonly near man, for
Lined scrape or depression on
Coasts and inshore islands at or
Larus hemprichii
offal, predation on other seabird
harbours, commonly follows
example, coastal areas near
ground on coral or sand under
near sea-level
eggs and chicks
fishing boats or waits in harbour ports and towns, also along
bush, mangrove, etc.; solitary or
for offal; food piracy; picks
tideline and among mudflats
colonial nester, usually among
small items from surface of
other species colonies, such as
water and plunge dives for
White-eyed Gull, terns and
small fish
boobies
White-eyed Gull
Largely fish, crustaceans,
Usually at sea, but will
Coastal areas and islands
Narrow lined scrape on ground
Inshore islands and islets, on
Larus leucophthalmus
molluscs, annelids and offal
scavenge in harbours and
in open near shore; nests in
bare rocky surfaces, or sandy
domestic refuse; less associated
loose colonies
flats or exposed hard-pan
with ports, fishermen and
shipping than Sooty Gull
Caspian Tern
Mainly fish, some invertebrates
Plunge dives, usually
Coastal, lagoons, estuaries and
Unlined shallow depression;
Open ground, on sand, gravel,
Sterna caspia
submerges completely
lakes
generally breeds colonially,
stony beaches, or flat rocks,
with solitary pairs often nesting
usually on islands but also on
with other colonial seabirds
lagoons and estuaries
Species
Main food items
Feeding habits
Feeding habitat
Nest site
Nesting habitat
Swift Tern
Mainly fish
Plunge dives or takes food from
Coastal and marine, including
Unlined shallow scrape on bare
Sandy or rocky islands
Sterna bergii velox
surface
lagoons and estuaries
ground or among scattered
bushes; nests individually or in
small colonies
Lesser Crested Tern
Mainly fish, but also
Plunge dives or takes food from
Lagoons, shallow and deep
Shallow scrape on ground.
Flat sandy upper beaches,
Sterna bengalensis
crustaceans
surface
waters, mangroves; forages in
Breeds colonially
especially on low-lying islands,
surf but ranges well offshore
among dwarf or stunted sand
sparse vegetation, and on bare
sand-spits, flat rocks or coral
islands
White-cheeked Tern
Chiefly small fish and
Plunge dives or takes food from
Mostly coastal and inshore
Nest usually unlined, shallow
Sparsely vegetated open
Sterna repressa
invertebrates
surface
waters
scrape on flat ground; colonial
ground, such as sand dunes
nester
above high-water mark on
beaches, sandy coral islands
Sooty Tern
Small fish, crustaceans, squid
Takes food from surface,
Maritime, pelagic, avoiding
Scrape in flat bare soil, sand or
Nests on sandy, stony ground
Sterna fuscata
plunge dives occasionally
coastal areas, coming to land
short grass with little or no
and among small scrubby
only to breed
lining, usually under bush if
vegetation on oceanic, offshore
available; nest colonially but
and inshore islands
usually away from other species
Bridled Tern
Mostly small fish, planktonic
Feeds chiefly from surface,
Coastal, offshore
Shallow scrape usually unlined
Islands, also mainland in some
Sterna anaethetus fuligula
invertebrates, including
mainly by hovering and
or eggs laid on bare rock; nests
areas; nests in open, under
crustaceans and molluscs
dipping-to-surface
in small, usually loose breeding
bushes on sand and coral islets
colonies
or bare rock
Little Tern
Small fish and invertebrates
Usually plunge dives
Coastal and inland waters
Shallow scrape sometimes
Nest in open on sandy beaches,
Sterna albifrons albifrons
lined; nests in sparse colonies
sandbars and shingle beaches
Saunder's Little Tern
Mostly fish
Plunge dives or surface-dips
Shallow coastal waters,
Nests in small colonies
Nest on bare sand or shingle up
Sterna saundersi
lagoons, harbours, estuaries,
to 2 km inland
and occasionally inland
Brown Noddy
Mostly fish
Forages over water picking up
Maritime, especially outside
In holes and under rocks; nests
Nest on rocky islets and cliffs
Anous stolidus
food from surface
breeding season
colonially
Main reference sources
PORTER et al. (1996); SNOW & PERRINS, (1998); AL-SAGHIER et al. (1999); AL-SAGHIER (2002b); TALEB (2002)
49
50
Annex 3. National and international conservation status of breeding seabird species in the RSGA Region
Conservation status
CMS App.
AEWA
Species IUCN
Djibouti Egypt
Jordan
Saudi
Arabia
Somalia Sudan
Yemen
I/II
Annex II
Jouanin's Petrel
No breeding
No breeding
LR/nt
-
-
-
Uncertain Near-threatened
Bulweria fallax
confirmed
confirmed
Persian Shearwater
LR/nt
Near-threatened
-
- Near-threatened
Near-threatened ID Near-threatened
Puffinus persicus
Red-billed Tropicbird
Scarce breeder, not
Rare breeder, not
Scarce breeder,
Phaethon aethereus
-
ID -
Uncertain Uncertain
threatened
threatened
not threatened
indicus
Brown Booby
Declining,
-
Uncertain
Rare,
threatened
- Threatened
ID Threatened
Sula leucogaster plotus
threatened
Masked Booby
-
-
-
- Non-breeder Threatened
- Threatened
Sula dactylatra melanops
Socotra Cormorant
Phalacrocorax
VU II
X
-
-
- Vulnerable Vulnerable
-
Vulnerable
nigrogularis
Widespread,
Sooty Gull
Widespread, stable
Scarce, not
Widespread, not
- II
X
-
evenly distributed,
Widespread ID
Larus hemprichii
population
threatened
threatened
not threatened
White-eyed Gull
LR/nt I/II
X Near-threatened
Near-threatened - Near-threatened Threatened Near-threatened
Threatened
Larus leucophthalmus
Small breeding
Caspian Tern
population,
Sterna caspia
Stable breeding
Scarce breeder,
- II*
X
-
-
Non-breeder -
population
widespread, not
threatened
threatened
Breeder in
Swift Tern
Small breeding
Resident breeder,
- II**
X
Uncertain
- Not
threatened
small numbers,
-
Sterna bergii velox
population
uncertain status
not threatened
Small breeding
Lesser Crested Tern
Common, not
Widespread, not
- II**
X population, status
-
Uncertain Abundant
Threatened
Sterna bengalensis
threatened
threatened
uncertain
White-cheeked Tern
Uncertain, small
Breeder and
Widespread, not
Widespread, not
- II
X
-
Uncertain Abundant
Sterna repressa
numbers
migrant, common
threatened
threatened
Sooty Tern
-
-
-
-
-
Uncertain
-
-
Sterna fuscata
Bridled Tern
Uncertain, breeds
Common, not
Increasing number,
Abundant, not
-
-
Abundant
Sterna anaethetus
in one island
threatened
not threatened
threatened
Little Tern
Scarce breeder and
- II
X
-
- -
-
-
Sterna albifrons albifrons
on migration
Conservation status
CMS App.
AEWA
Species IUCN
Djibouti Egypt
Jordan
Saudi
Arabia
Somalia Sudan
Yemen
I/II
Annex II
Saunder's Little Tern
No confirmed
Rare breeder,
Rare, little
Rare breeder,
VU I/II
X
-
-
ID
Sterna saundersi
breeding
threatened
known
threatened
Brown Noddy
Abundant, not
-
Uncertain
-
-
Abundant,
stable
Uncertain Not
threatened
Anous stolidus
threatened
National threat status is based on a species listing in Red List of each PERSGA country and the national seabird status reports; NA = no national assessment of threat status has been undertaken; ID = insufficient data
IUCN categories. VU = Vulnerable; LR/nt = (Lower Risk) Near-threatened; LR/lc = (Lower Risk) Less concern (BIRDLIFE INTERNATIONAL 2000). CMS App. I/II Listed on Convention on Migratory Species
Appendix I or II. * - listed for West Eurasian and African populations. ** - listed for African and South West Asian populations. AEWA Annex II Listed on Annex II of the African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbird
Agreement
51
52
Annex 4. Summary of Important Bird Areas in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden of special importance to breeding seabirds from (EVANS
1994 and FISHPOOL & EVANS 2001)
IBA
IBA number
Coords
Area (ha)
Protected status
Breeding seabird species
Reason for inclusion*
Comments
Djibouti
Isles des Sept Frères
DJ004
12°28'N
c.4,000 Unprotected
Sterna bengalensis, Sterna bergii, Sula
Sterna bengalensis, Sterna
43°23'E
(proposed)
leucogaster
bergii
Egypt
Hurghada Archipelago
EG015
27°28'N
150,000 Partially
protected
Sula leucogaster, Phaethon aethereus, Larus
Larus leucophthalmus
Largest breeding
33°49'E
(National Park)
hemprichii, Sterna caspia, Sterna bergii,
Sterna repressa
population of the
Sterna bengalensis, Sterna anaethetus,
Sterna caspia
white-eyed gull in
Sterna repressa
Sterna bengalensis
the world, with
3,000 breeding pairs
Tiran Island
EG016
27°56'N
3,100 National
Park
Larus leucophthalmus, Sterna repressa,
Larus leucophthalmus
Part of Ras
34°33'E
Sterna bengalensis and Sterna caspia
Mohammed
National Park
Wadi Gimal (Jimal) Island
EG017
24°40'N
200 National
Park
Phaethon aethereus, Larus hemprichii,
Larus leucophthalmus
35°10'E
Larus leucophthalmus and Sterna caspia
Qulân Islands
EG018
24°22'N
300 National
Park
Phaethon aethereus, Larus hemprichii,
Larus leucophthalmus
35°23'E
Larus leucophthalmus and Sterna caspia
Zabargad Island
EG019
23°37'N
450 National
Park
Sula leucogaster, Larus leucophthalmus,
Larus leucophthalmus
36°12'E
Sterna caspia, Sterna bengalensis, Sterna
anaethetus, Sterna repressa
Siyal Islands
EG020
22°47'N
200 National
Park
Larus leucophthalmus, Larus hemprichii,
Larus leucophthalmus
36°11'E
Sterna caspia, Sterna repressa
Rawabel Islands
EG021
22°25'N
<100 National
Park
Larus leucophthalmus, Larus hemprichii and
Larus leucophthalmus
36°32'E
Sterna caspia
Saudi Arabia
Al Wajh Bank
SA011
25°35'N
c.288,000 Unprotected
Larus leucophthalmus
Larus leucophthalmus
36°45'E
Larus hemprichii
Sterna repressa
Madinat Yanbu al-Sinaiyah
SA016
23°56'N
c.700 Biological
Reserve
Sterna repressa, Sterna.saundersi
Sterna repressa
38°14'E
Sterna saundersi
Qishran Bay
SA025
20°15'N
c.400,000 Unprotected
Sterna anaethetus
Not selected on
40°10'E
basis of seabird
populations
breeding at site
Umm al-Qamari
SA026
18°59'N
c.14.7 Special
Nature
Larus leucophthalmus, Larus hemprichii
Larus leucophthalmus
41°06'E
Reserve
Larus hemprichii
IBA
IBA number
Coords
Area (ha)
Protected status
Breeding seabird species
Reason for inclusion*
Comments
Farasan Islands
SA038
16°45'N
c.620,000 Special
Nature
Larus leucophthalmus, Sula leucogaster,
Larus leucophthalmus
42°00'E
Reserve, Natural
Larus hemprichii, Sterna repressa, Sterna
Sula leucogaster
Reserve, Resources
anaethetus, Sterna bergii, Sterna saundersi,
Larus hemprichii
use Reserve and
Anous stolidus
Sterna repressa
Controlled Hunting
Sterna anaethetus
Reserve
Sterna saundersi
Anous stolidus
Somalia
Jasiira Ceebaad (Aibat island)
SO001 11°28'N c.690 Unprotected
Sula leucogaster, Larus hemprichii, Larus
Larus leucophthalmus
Over 100,000
and Jasiira Sacaada Diin (Saad
43°28'E
(proposed)
leucophthalmus, Sterna repressa, Sterna
Larus leucophthalmus
breeding pairs of
a-din Island)
bergii and Sterna bengalensis, Sterna
Sterna anaethetus
Sterna anaethetus
anaethetus
recorded
Jasiira Maydh (Mait Island)
SO002 11°14'N 45 Unprotected
Phaethon aethereus,, Sula dactylatra, Sterna
Anous stolidus
20,000 breeding
47°15'E
(proposed)
fuscata, Sterna anaethetus and Anous
pairs
stolidus
Sudan
Mukawwar Island and
SD002 20°50'N c.12,000 Unprotected
Sterna bengalensis, Sterna repressa, Sterna
Larus leucophthalmus
Dungonab Bay
37°17'E
anaethetus, Larus hemprichii, Larus
Larus leucophthalmus
leucophthalmus
Sterna bengalensis
Suakin Archipelago
SD004 18°50'N 150,000 Unprotected
Sterna bergii, Sterna bengalensis, Sterna
Sterna bergii
38°00'E
repressa, Sterna anaethetus, Anous stolidus,
Sterna bengalensis
Sula leucogaster, Larus hemprichii
Yemen
Midi - Luhayyah
YE001
16o 00'N
30,000 Unprotected
Larus leucophthalmus
Larus leucophthalmus,
42o 50' E
Sterna repressa
Islands north of Al-Hudaydah
YE004 15°40'N c.5,000 Unprotected
Larus leucophthalmus, Phaethon aethereus,
Larus leucophthalmus
(Hodeidah)
42°30'E
Sula leucogaster, Sterna bengalensis, Sterna
Phaethon aethereus
repressa, Larus hemprichii
Sula leucogaster,
Sterna bengalensis
Sterna repressa
Larus hemprichii
Bahr Ibn Abbas-Ra's Isa
YE007
15°20'N
c.35,000 Unprotected
Larus leucophthalmus, Sterna repressa,
Larus leucophthalmus
Many non-breeding
42°50'E
Larus hemprichii
Sterna caspia
seabirds occur as
Sterna repressa
summer visitors
Larus hemprichii
Al-`Urj YE010
15o 05' N
1,500 Unprotected
Numenius phaeopus, Sterna saundersi
Sterna saundersi
42o 55' E
Jaza'ir Al-Zubayr
YE012
15o 00' N
c.3,300 Unprotected
Larus leucophthalmus, Phaethon aethereus,
Larus leucophthalmus
42o 04' E
Sula leucogaster, Sula dactylatra, Sterna
Puffinus persicus
bengalensis, Sterna repressa, Puffinus
Larus hemprichii
persicus, Larus hemprichii
53
54
IBA
IBA number
Coords
Area (ha)
Protected status
Breeding seabird species
Reason for inclusion*
Comments
Nukhaylah-Ghulayfiqah YE015
14o 30' N
9,000 Unprotected
Larus leucophthalmus
Sterna repressa
43o 00' E
Al-Fazzah YE016
14o 08' N
3,500 Unprotected
Larus leucophthalmus
Sterna repressa
43o 07' E
Jaza'ir al-Hanish
YE019
13o 52' N
28,000 Unprotected
Larus leucophthalmus, Larus hemprichii,
Larus leucophthalmus
42o 45' E
Sula leucogaster
Puffinus persicus
Larus hemprichii,
Sterna repressa
Qishen Beach
YE027
15o 26' N
c.100 Unprotected
Phalacrocorax nigrogularis, Larus
Phalacrocorax
51o 45' E
hemprichii
nigrogularis
Islands off Bir Ali
YE030
13o 50'N
c.300 Unprotected
Phalacrocorax nigrogularis, Larus
Phalacrocorax
48o 20' E
hemprichii
nigrogularis
Aden
YE033
12o 45' N
c.10,000 Unprotected
Larus leucophthalmus
Larus hemprichii
45o 04' E
Qalansiya Lagoon, Socotra
YE035
12o 42' N
c.100 Protected
Larus hemprichii
Larus hemprichii
53o 30' E
Sabuniya and Ka'l Fir'awn,
YE054 12o 33' N
c.10 Protected
Phalacrocorax nigrogularis, Sula
Sula dactylatra
Socotra
52o 42' E
leucogaster, Sula. dactylatra
Bulweria fallax
Al-Mukha Al-Khawkhah
YE057
13o 35' N
c.7,000 Unprotected
Larus leucophthalmus
Larus leucophthalmus
43o 17' E
Puffinus persicus
Larus hemprichii
Sterna repressa
Sterna saundersi
* Note: IBAs are identified on the basis of four strict criteria. These are that the site contains species of global conservation concern as follows: (A1) The site regularly holds significant numbers of a globally
threatened species, or other species of global conservation concern; (A2) The site is known or thought to hold a significant component of the restricted-range species whose breeding distributions define an
Endemic Bird Area (EBA) or Secondary Area (SA); (A3) The site is known or thought to hold a significant component of the group of species whose distributions are largely or wholly confined to one biome;
(A4i) The site is known or thought to hold, on a regular basis, >1% of a biogeographic population of a congregatory waterbird species; (A4ii) The site is known or thought to hold, on a regular basis >1% of the
global population of a congregatory seabird or terrestrial species; (A4iii) The site is known or thought to hold, on a regular basis, >20,000 waterbirds or >10,000 pairs of seabirds of one or more species, and
(A4iv) The site is known or thought to exceed thresholds set for migratory species at bottleneck sites. See EVANS (1994) and FISHPOOL AND EVANS (2001) for more details.
Figure 3. Map of Important Bird Areas given in Annex 4
55
Annex 5. Major global and regional conventions and agreements relevant to seabird
conservation in the RSGA Region
Global agreements
1. Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
The Convention on Biological Diversity, adopted in 1992, entered into force in 1993. It currently has 180
parties. The convention has three objectives:
· the conservation of biological diversity
· the sustainable use of its components
· the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the use of genetic resources.
Covering almost every aspect of conservation and sustainable use, the CBD has become an important
framework for conservation-related activities on regional and national levels.
For the conservation of biodiversity the primary approach is in situ conservation. Parties have to identify
components of biodiversity important for their conservation and sustainable use (Article 7); inter alia
ecosystems and habitats with large numbers of threatened species or required by migratory species (Annex I).
Sites supporting significant populations of breeding seabirds such as IBAs should become part of these
inventories, which should be included in National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans (NBSAPs) required
from the parties by article 6a.
Parties are requested to establish a system of protected areas or areas where special measures need to be taken
to conserve biodiversity (Article 8a). The CBD also asks for the prevention of introduction and the control and
eradication of alien species which threaten ecosystems, habitats and species (Article 8h) and urges parties to set
up an effective system of environmental impact assessment. Impact assessment more generally is called for in
Article 14.
The CBD supports the integrated approach of conservation and sustainable use and asks parties to protect and
encourage customary use of biological resources in accordance with traditional cultural practices that are
compatible with conservation requirements (Article 10c).
2. Ramsar Convention: Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl
Habitat
The Ramsar Convention is an inter-governmental treaty that provides the framework for international co-
operation for the conservation and wise use of wetlands. It was adopted in 1971 in Ramsar, Iran and entered
into force in 1975. Wetlands, as defined by the Convention, include lagoons and similar shallow water coastal
areas that may be extremely important for breeding seabirds.
The main undertakings accepted by the 122 contracting parties are to:
· designate suitable wetlands within their territory for inclusion in a List of Wetlands of International
Importance (the Ramsar List) (Article 2.1)
· formulate and implement their planning so as to promote the conservation of the wetlands included in
the list, and as far as possible, the wise use of wetlands in their territory (Article 3.1)
· promote the conservation of wetlands and waterfowl by establishing nature reserves on wetlands
whether they are included in the List or not, and provide adequately for their wardening (Article 4.1).
Each contracting party must designate at least one site for inclusion in the list at the time it joins the convention
(Article 2.4). Specific criteria have been drawn up under the convention to aid the identification of sites of
international importance.
56
Also of relevance is the Montreux Record, a register of selected wetlands on the Ramsar List where changes in
ecological character have occurred, are occurring or are likely to occur as a result of technological
developments, pollution or other human interference. This is a very important tool because it identifies specific
sites for international conservation attention.
There are as yet no designated sites important for seabirds in the RSGA Region. However, the Ramsar
Convention Secretariat recognizes that seabird colonies are under-represented in the list of Ramsar Sites and is
trying to encourage the designation of more seabird sites.
3. Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage
Convention, WHC)
The aim of the World Heritage Convention, which was adopted in 1972 and entered into force in 1975, is the
protection of natural and cultural areas of outstanding universal value. Such sites and monuments are
considered to be of such exceptional value that their protection is the concern of all mankind, and thus
international co-operation in order to contribute effectively to their protection is sought. Each site nominated by
the parties for inclusion in the World Heritage List is assessed by the World Heritage Committee, which in the
case of natural sites, is advised by experts from the World Conservation Union (IUCN). The convention
imposes a legal duty on each of the 164 parties to do its utmost to protect designated sites. Each party is
required to contribute to the World Heritage Fund that may be used to secure the protection of World Heritage
Sites.
4. Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (Bonn Convention, CMS)
The Bonn Convention, which was adopted in 1979 in Bonn, Germany and entered into force in 1983, has 74
parties. The fundamental objective of the convention is to protect migratory species (birds, mammals, fish and
invertebrates) in recognition of the fact that protection is needed throughout every part of their migratory
ranges, and that this requires international co-operation and action. If a party to the convention is a range state
of a migratory species listed in Appendix I or II, it accepts an obligation to provide strict protection for species
in Appendix I and to endeavour to conclude agreements with other range states for the conservation and
management of species in Appendix II. Appendix I species are in danger of extinction throughout all, or a
major part, of their range, and Appendix II species are those which would benefit from international co-
operation in their conservation and management.
For Appendix I species, parties that are range states, are obliged to endeavour, amongst other things, to:
conserve and, where feasible and appropriate, restore those habitats of the species, which are of importance in
removing the species from danger of extinction (Article III 4a).
Two agreements within the CMS are of relevance to breeding seabirds and seabird sites in the Red Sea and
Gulf of Aden: the African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbird Agreement and the recent Agreement on the
Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels.
i. Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA)
AEWA entered into force in 1999 and can be signed and ratified by a range state, irrespective of whether the
state has signed or ratified the Convention (for example, Sudan). AEWA aims to create the legal basis for a
concerted conservation policy among the range states of all migratory waterbird species and populations, which
migrate in the African-Eurasian flyway, irrespective of their current conservation status. The agreement, which
currently has 29 parties and is accompanied by a comprehensive action plan, provides a framework for
conservation action, monitoring, research and management of several globally important bird-migration
systems. As such, it has close links to the IBA programme and to the Ramsar Convention.
ii. Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels (ACAP)
This agreement was adopted in February 2001 and has been signed by, seven countries to date (Brazil, France,
the UK, Chile, Peru, Australia and New Zealand).
57
This agreement, which includes an Action Plan, describes a number of conservation measures to be
implemented by signatories to the proposed Agreement, including research and monitoring, reduction of
incidental mortality in fisheries, eradication of non-native species at breeding sites, reduction of disturbance
and habitat loss, and reducing pollution. ACAP is centred on the southern oceans, where most of the
endangered species occur but it was purposefully left open to the possibility that one day it will become the tool
for the conservation of large seabirds worldwide. Consequently, it may be of relevance to the conservation of
Jouanin's Petrel (Bulweria fallax) and Persian Shearwater (Puffinus persicus) in the future.
5. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)
CITES, which was adopted in 1973 and entered into force in 1975, has 154 parties. It aims to protect threatened
species from detrimental effects of international trade. Trade in species of Annex I is banned, due to their status
as being threatened by extinction, while those of Annex II are only allowed to enter the international trade
under specific controlled circumstances. Many Middle Eastern and African species that are heavily traded,
internationally or domestically, are not included in the CITES annexes, this being particularly true for
passerines.
6. United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification in those Countries Experiencing Serious
Drought and/or Desertification, Particularly in Africa (UNCCD)
The Convention to Combat Desertification was adopted in 1994 and entered into force in 1996. It has 175
parties. Its objective is to combat desertification and mitigate the effects of drought. The convention's main
tools are regional and national action programmes. The convention pursues a bottom-up approach, which asks
for effective participation at the local, national and regional levels of non-governmental organisations and local
populations in policy planning and decision-making (Article 10).
Article 8 of the regional implementation annex for Africa demands that national action programmes include
measures to conserve natural resources by ensuring integrated and sustainable management of natural
resources, and training with regard to public awareness and environmental education campaigns.
7. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
The Climate Change Convention was adopted in 1992 and entered into force in 1994. With 182 parties, it is
one of the most widely accepted global conventions. Its ultimate objective is to stabilise greenhouse gas
concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the
climate system. Such a level should be achieved within a time frame sufficient to allow ecosystems to adapt
naturally to climate change. The Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC, adopted in 1997, but not yet in force,
contains individual emission limitations and reductions commitments for a range of developed-country parties.
Climate change is one of the most serious long-term threats to ecosystems and although hard to predict, could
affect many seabird nesting sites in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden both directly, if sea levels rise, and indirectly
through changes in ecosystem composition. Thus, any advocacy for seabird conservation in the Red Sea and
Gulf of Aden cannot afford to neglect the implementation of the UNFCCC.
8. UNESCO's Man and the Biosphere Programme
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization's (UNESCO) Programme on Man and
the Biosphere (MAB) aims to develop a basis, within the natural and social sciences, for the sustainable use and
conservation of biological diversity, and for the improvement of the relationship between people and their
environment globally.
The MAB Programme has a major physical presence globally through the World Network of Biosphere
Reserves. Biosphere Reserves are areas of terrestrial and coastal ecosystems promoting solutions to reconcile
the conservation of biodiversity with its sustainable use. They are nominated by national governments and are
internationally recognised. There are currently no Biosphere Reserves relevant to breeding seabirds in the Red
Sea and Gulf of Aden Region.
58
9. UNCLOS - The UN Convention on the Law of the Sea
UNCLOS, which entered into force in 1994, covers virtually all areas of ocean management and use and is
considered by many to be the "constitution for the oceans". More specifically member states are obliged to
preserve rare or fragile ecosystems, the habitats of threatened [fish] species and other forms of marine life and
to implement various anti-pollution measures.
10. International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973, as modified by the
Protocol of 1978 (MARPOL 73/78)
The Convention entered in force in 1983 and aims to prevent and control deliberate discharges and accidental
spills from shipping into the marine environment, including oil, noxious liquid substances in bulk, harmful
substances carried by sea in packaged forms, in freight containers, portable tanks, or by road and rail wagons,
as well as sewage and garbage. It is the principal international agreement for regulating unnecessary discharges
of oil from ships.
11. Basel Convention
The Basel Convention was originally designed to address uncontrolled movement and dumping of hazardous
wastes, including incidents of illegal dumping in developing nations by companies from developed countries.
Key objectives are to minimise the generation of hazardous wastes in terms of quantity and hazardousness,
dispose of them as close to the source of generation as possible and reduce the movement of hazardous wastes.
These objectives are addressed through a framework for controlling the international movements of hazardous
wastes, Environmentally Sound Management (ESM) and through a control system, based on prior written
notification. Each party to the Convention is required to report information on the generation and movement of
hazardous wastes.
The Secretariat, based in Geneva and administered by UNEP, assists countries (as well as interested
organisations, private companies, industry associations and other stakeholders) to manage or dispose of their
wastes in an environmentally sound way. It also co-operates with national authorities in developing national
legislation, setting up inventories of hazardous wastes, strengthening national institutions, assessing the
hazardous waste management situation, and preparing hazardous waste management plans and policy tools. In
addition, it provides legal and technical advice to countries in order to solve specific problems related to the
control and management of hazardous wastes. In the case of an emergency, such as a hazardous waste spill, the
Secretariat co-operates with parties and relevant international organisations to provide rapid assistance in the
form of expertise and equipment.
Regional Agreements
12. Regional Convention for the Conservation of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Environment (Jeddah
Convention)
The Jeddah Convention of 1982 provides an important basis for environmental co-operation in the RSGA
Region. It was the result of a Regional Intergovernmental Conference, supported by ALECSO and the United
Nations Environment Programme. The Convention seeks to ensure conservation of the environment of the Red
Sea and Gulf of Aden by the promotion, on a regional basis, of environmental protection and natural resources
management in the marine and coastal areas of the Region.
The Conference produced two additional instruments:
· Action Plan for the Conservation of the Marine Environment and Coastal Areas in the Red Sea and
Gulf of Aden
· The Protocol Concerning Regional Co-operation in Combating Pollution by Oil and Other Harmful
Substances in Cases of Emergency.
Djibouti, Egypt, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Sudan and Yemen are parties to the Jeddah Convention.
59
13. The Convention for the Protection, Management and Development of the Marine and Coastal
Environment of the Eastern African Region (Nairobi Convention)
The Nairobi Convention was adopted in 1985 and came into force in 1996. It aims to protect and manage the
marine environment and coastal areas of the Eastern African region. The contracting parties commit themselves
to take all appropriate measures to prevent, reduce and combat pollution of the Convention area, particularly
pollution from ships, dumping, land-based sources, exploration and exploitation of the sea bed, and airborne
pollution. They also agree to protect and preserve rare or fragile ecosystems as well as the habitat of depleted,
threatened or endangered species and other marine life in specially protected areas. Furthermore, parties agree
to co-operate in dealing with pollution emergencies in the Convention area. An Action Plan has been
developed.
There are also two associated protocols both adopted in 1985:
· Protocol concerning Co-operation in Combating Marine Pollution in Cases of Emergency in the
Eastern African Region
· Protocol concerning Protected Areas and Wild Fauna and Flora in the Eastern African Region.
A protocol on pollution from land-based sources is under development, as is a project in co-operation between
the Nairobi Convention, the UNEP GPA and the Global Environment Facility (GEF).
The Eastern African Regional Coordinating Unit (EAF/RCU), based in the Seychelles, coordinates the work
within the Convention. The Secretariat administers the Action Plan of the Convention, including the protocols.
14. The African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources
The African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources is the main instrument that
focuses on wildlife conservation in Africa and was adopted in 1968.
Article VII of the Convention calls upon contracting party States to formulate effective legislation on the
hunting and capture of wild animals in order to ensure that the issuance of permits is properly regulated and
emphasises the need to enact legislation that would ban unauthorised methods of hunting. It prohibits the use of
fire, vehicles and hunting at night. Article VII also prohibits the abandonment of carcasses of wild animals by
hunters.
The provisions of Article VIII generally require parties to provide special protection to species either
threatened, or likely to become threatened, with extinction and to the habitats necessary for their survival.
Article XI urges parties to reconcile the provisions of hunting laws with the customary rights of local
communities close to areas set aside for wildlife conservation and management.
15. Intergovernmental Authority on Development
The Intergovernmental Authority on Drought and Development (IGADD) was formed in 1986 with a very
narrow mandate focused on issues of drought and desertification. The IGADD was revitalised in the mid 1990s
into a fully-fledged regional, political, economic, development, trade and security entity and a new name
(IGAD) and charter were adopted in 1996. Three priority areas of co-operation were identified including food,
security and environmental protection.
The IGAD covers Djibouti, Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia, the Sudan and Uganda
60
Annex 6. Impacts of recommended actions on threats
Predicted impacts of actions over five year course of RAP if fully implemented: Blank = no expected impact. 1 = Low, i.e. may reduce impact slightly; 2 = Moderate,
i.e. likely to significantly reduce impact; 3 = High, i.e. likely to substantially alleviate threat.
Priorities are based on quartiles scores. Priority 1 actions are those with scores in the upper third quartile of combined scores (i.e. above 18), Priority 2 actions are those
with scores at or between the 1st and 3rd quartiles, and Priority 3 actions are those with scores below the 1st quartile (i.e. less than 6).
ion
n
al
n
i
t
a
t
i
on
i
o
i
o
l
i
ng
urbance
i
tat
ng*
b
i
ned
rine
lut
lut
r
e
r
i
t
y
i
st
r
edators
io
D
Explo
Hab
degradat
Ma
pol
Terrestri
pol
Fishi
P
Globa
warm
Com
sco
Pr
Weighted Threat Score / 100 (see Table 3) *Fishing is
2.36 2.12 2.31 2.83 0.59 1 2.24 0.59
ascribed a score of 1
Component 1: Integrated coastal zone management
planning for seabirds (ICZM)
Ensure that all national ICZM strategies and plans take into
1
2 2 2 1
12
2
account seabird conservation requirements
Develop regional and national guidelines for incorporating
2
2 2 2 1
12
2
seabird conservation requirements into ICZM
Ensure potential terrestrial and marine pollution sources are
3
2 6 2
adequately identified and covered in ICZM
Develop key demonstration sites using best practice ICZM at
4
2 2 1
11
2
which seabird conservation is highlighted
Component 2: Education, public awareness and
community participation
Produce, publish and disseminate general education and
1
2 2 2 1 2 1 1 21 1
awareness materials on the importance of seabirds
2
Develop special awareness campaigns aimed at target groups
3 2 1 2 2 1 3 28 1
3
Develop strong links with decision-makers
2 2 2 2 2 20 1
Develop strong links with the mass media for dissemination of
4
2 2 2 2 2 1 2 26 1
major newsworthy items
For each country, identify and develop consultative processes
5
2 2 1 2 1 2 1 22 1
with the key stake-holders
Develop a public awareness campaign on the effects of
6
2 2 7 2
pollution on the terrestrial and marine environments
Increase awareness among stakeholders of the impact of
61
7
3 7 2
introduced predators
62
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Component 3: Site and habitat protection and management
Review the current effectiveness of protection and
1
3 3 2 2 1 21 1
management at existing MPAs
Designate and establish all IBAs important for breeding
2
3 3 2 2 1 21 1
seabirds as MPAs
Ensure that Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) are
3
2 3 2 2 1 21 1
mandatory for developments
Develop a management plan for all MPAs important for
4
2 2 2 2 2 19 1
breeding seabirds
5
Establish Site Support Groups
2 2 2 1 2 19 1
Assist in developing or improving the performance of existing
6
2 1 2 1 1 14 2
demonstration MPA sites
7
Create a regional network of MPA managers and researchers
2 1 1 1 1 12 2
Draft regional and national guidelines for achieving sustainable
8
2 2 2 2 1 17 2
sources of funding for MPAs
Produce regional and national guidelines for treating seabird
9
2 2 2 2 1 18 2
conservation issues within EIAs
Support implementation of Port State Control throughout the
10
2 6 2
Region
Contribute to the development of the Regional Navigation Risk
11
2 6 2
Assessment and Management Plan
Support the development and implementation of regional and
12
2 6 2
sub-regional vessel traffic systems
Develop, upgrade and implement local, national and regional
13
2 6 2
pollution contingency plans
Explore alternative sources of building materials and fuel for
14
2 5 3
communities living near mangrove areas
Control grazing access to mangrove areas and set aside
15
2 5 3
selected mangrove areas for complete protection
Develop `no-fishing' zones and, where necessary, closed
16
2 2 3
fishing seasons
Increase the enforcement of fishery regulations to reduce and if
17
2 2 3
possible eliminate illegal trawling
Component 4: Regulation of human exploitation
Establish the feasibility of introducing sustainable harvesting
1
2 4 3
of seabird eggs
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If appropriate, develop, in consultation with key stakeholders
2
2 4 3
guidelines for sustainable harvesting
Component 5: Research and monitoring
Initiate research into key aspects of seabird biology and
1
1 1 2 1 1 2 2 1 20 1
ecology of high priority species
Define habitat condition, species population, breeding success
2
1 1 2 1 1 2 2 1 20 1
and survival rate targets
Conduct additional surveys to ensure that all key sites for
3
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 11 2
seabirds are identified
Develop a regional system of monitoring environmental threats
4
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 14 2
to seabirds
Establish a regionally coordinated comprehensive long-term
5
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 14 2
monitoring programme at key seabird sites
Assess the status, distribution and condition of the major
6
2 1 1 1 9 2
coastal habitats in the RSGA
Determine and monitor the extent, intensity and impact of egg
7
1 2 7 2
and chick collecting
Undertake research into, followed by development of, methods
8
3 7 2
to reduce the impact of mammalian predators on seabirds
Investigate the impact of fisheries practices on seabird
9
2 2 3
populations in the Region
Investigate the feasibility of Indian House Crow control
10
2 4 3
methods
Component 6: Strengthening legislation
Where necessary further develop policy and legislation to
1
3 3 2 2 1 1 1 28 1
ensure effective protection of MPAs
Encourage all countries of the Region to join the CBD, CMS
2
1 1 2 1 1 1 1 16 2
and other relevant conventions
Where required, further develop relevant national legislation
3
2 6 2
defining safe shipping routes and passages
Examine the feasibility of establishing International Maritime
4
2 6 2
Organization "areas to be avoided"
5
Ensure ratification of relevant marine pollution conventions
2 6 2
Review and update the conservation status of the Region's
6
1 1 1 7 2
seabirds in each country
63
Incorporate international `best use' guidelines on
7
1 1 1 1 1 1 11 2
environmental management
64
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Strengthen national and local legislation and enforcement
8
2 1 3
relating to pollution from terrestrial sources
Introduce a ban on the introduction and keeping of pets on
9
2 4 3
offshore islands in the Red Sea
Component 7: Institutional capacity building and training
Develop capacities for day-to-day management, monitoring,
1
2 2 2 1 1 2 20 1
surveillance and enforcement at MPAs
Develop coordinated national inter-departmental policy and
2
1 2 2 1 2 1 16 2
response to seabird and marine conservation
Build national capacities for seabird population monitoring,
3
1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 16 2
research and management
Encourage closer co-ordination among existing seabird
4
1 1 1 1 9 2
projects and programmes in the Region
Assist in building national capacities for surveillance and
5
2 6 2
enforcement of shipping regulations
Analysis
Mean
12
Max
28
1st Quartile
6
3rd Quartile
19
Document Outline