The Regional Organization for the
Conservation of the Environment of the Red
Sea and Gulf of Aden






The Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Regional
Network of Marine Protected Areas

Regional Master Plan





















PERSGA Technical Report Series No. 1

PERSGA Jeddah 2002


PERSGA - `The Regional Organization for the Conservation of the Environment of the
Red Sea and Gulf of Aden' is an intergovernmental organisation dedicated to the
conservation of the coastal and marine environments in the region.
The Regional Convention for the Conservation of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Environment
(Jeddah Convention) 1982, provides the legal foundation for PERSGA. The Secretariat of the
Organization was formally established in Jeddah following the Cairo Declaration of September
1995. The PERSGA member states are Djibouti, Egypt, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Sudan,
and Yemen.
PERSGA, P.O. Box 53662, Jeddah 21583, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
Tel.: +966-2-657-3224. Fax: +966-2-652-1901. Email: persga@persga.org
This document has been prepared by Dr. William Gladstone (Centre for Sustainable Use of Coasts
and Catchments, University of Newcastle, Australia) under contract to, and with the cooperation of
PERSGA.
The work was carried out under the Marine Protected Areas Component of the Strategic Action
Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, a GEF funded project executed by PERSGA and
implemented by the United Nations Development Programme, the United Nations Environment
Programme and the World Bank.



The comments expressed in this document represent the opinion of the author(s) acting in their own capacities and do not
necessarily represent the views of PERSGA or the agencies that assisted with funding the preparation of the report. Any
outlines or descriptions presented do not imply the expression of any opinion, on the part of PERSGA or any funding agency,
concerning the legal boundaries of any state, territory, city limit, frontier or boundary.
© 2002 PERSGA, P.O. Box 53662, Jeddah 21583, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part and in any form for educational or non-profit purposes without the
permission of the copyright holders provided that acknowledgement of the source is given. PERSGA would appreciate
receiving a copy of any publication that uses this material as a source.
This publication may not be copied, or distributed electronically, for resale or other commercial purposes without prior
permission, in writing, from PERSGA.
Photographs by Dr. F. Krupp, Mr. J. Kuchinke, Dr. N. Pilcher and Mr. M. Younis
Cover photograph: The coastline at Hadibo, Socotra, Yemen

This publication may be cited as:
PERSGA/GEF. 2002. The Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Regional Network of Marine Protected Areas. Regional Master Plan.
PERSGA Technical Series No.1. PERSGA, Jeddah.


TABLE OF CONTENTS

Executive Summary................................................................................................................................ 1
Résumé analytique.................................................................................................................................. 3
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 5
Background ............................................................................................................................................. 7
Physical Environment .......................................................................................................................................... 7
Key Habitats....................................................................................................................................................... 10
The Role of Marine Protected Areas in Sustainable Resource Use and Biodiversity Conservation .................. 16
International Context.......................................................................................................................................... 16
Regional Networks of Marine Protected Areas.................................................................................................. 17
The Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Regional Network of Marine Protected Areas ................................................. 20
Purpose of the Regional Master Plan ................................................................................................................. 22
Development of the Regional Master Plan......................................................................................................... 24
The Principles Underlying Management of Marine Protected Areas in the Regional Network......................... 24
Regional Master Plan ........................................................................................................................... 27
Objectives of the Regional Network of Marine Protected Areas ....................................................................... 28
Goals, Strategies and Policies of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Regional Network of MPAs.......................... 28
Guidelines for Developing Master Plans and Management Plans for MPAs in the Red Sea and
Gulf of Aden Regional Network .......................................................................................................... 35
The Planning Team ............................................................................................................................................ 35
The Planning Process ......................................................................................................................................... 36
Research and Monitoring ................................................................................................................................... 44
Public Awareness ............................................................................................................................................... 48
Stakeholder Consultation and Participation ....................................................................................................... 50
Sustainable Financing ........................................................................................................................................ 53
Capacity Building............................................................................................................................................... 53
Training Needs in the Regional Network........................................................................................................... 54
Personnel and Organizational Structure ............................................................................................................. 54
Strengthening the MPA Network........................................................................................................ 57
National Legal and Institutional Frameworks and Development of a Regional MPA Protocol......................... 57
Coordination....................................................................................................................................................... 58
Information Exchange ........................................................................................................................................ 59
Capacity Building and Institutional Strengthening ............................................................................................ 60
Wider Linkages .................................................................................................................................................. 60
An Expanded Network ....................................................................................................................................... 60
References.............................................................................................................................................. 63
Internet Resources................................................................................................................................ 68
Appendices ............................................................................................................................................ 69
APPENDIX 1: Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Representative Network of Marine Protected Areas....................... 70
APPENDIX 2: National Legal and Institutional Frameworks for Marine Protected Areas in the Red Sea and
Gulf of Aden ...................................................................................................................................................... 73
APPENDIX 3: Contents of Site-Specific Master Plans and Management Plans ............................................... 74
APPENDIX 4: Guidelines for the Identification and Selection of Additional MPAs in the Red Sea and Gulf of
Aden ................................................................................................................................................................... 77



Abbreviations
GEF
Global Environment Facility (a partnership of the United Nations Development
Programme, United Nations Environment Programme, World Bank)
IUCN
World Conservation Union
MPA
Marine Protected Area
MPA/WG
Marine Protected Areas Working Group
PERSGA
Regional Organization for the Conservation of the Environment of the Red Sea
and Gulf of Aden
SAP
Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
UNDP
United Nations Development Programme
UNEP
United Nations Environment Programme
UNESCO
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
WRI
World Resources Institute



Executive Summary
Executive Summary

The Red Sea and Gulf of Aden are
This Regional Master Plan is a regionally
known throughout the world for their
agreed framework for the planning and
outstandingly beautiful marine and coastal
management of each of the MPAs in the
environments, the diversity of species,
Regional Network that will facilitate the
including many endemics, and their value for
achievement of regional objectives for
human development. The local resources
sustainable resource usage, conservation of
have been used in a sustainable manner by
biodiversity and for economic development.
the inhabitants of the region for thousands of
The Objectives, Goals, General Policies and
years. However, more recently the pressure
Strategies presented here are regionally
on these environments and resources has
applicable and will facilitate regional
substantially increased, with the development
consistency in the management of MPAs in
in several countries of petroleum-based
the Network. Within each of the MPAs in the
economies that require sea transport for
Regional Network a regionally standardised,
petroleum exports, the expansion of
site-specific Master Plan will be developed,
international dive tourism and general
which will serve as the long-term policy
population growth in the coastal zone.
document for that MPA. This site-specific
Master Plan will guide the development of a
Marine protected areas (MPAs) have
site-specific Management Plan for each
been established in many parts of the Red
MPA. This Regional Master Plan will also
Sea and Gulf of Aden as tools to provide for
serve as a framework for the planning and
sustainable resource use, economic
management of other MPAs in each country
development and conservation. Of particular
that are not part of the Regional Network and
importance is the need to conserve areas that
where national planning and management
represent the range of the region's unique
have not yet commenced.
habitats and biodiversity and to support
national development. This has been initiated
The development of a Regional Master
through the integration of 12 MPAs from
Plan for MPAs in the Red Sea and Gulf of
throughout the region into a Regional
Aden is consistent with the objectives of the
Network of MPAs for the Red Sea and Gulf
Convention on Biological Diversity (1992)
of Aden. These 12 MPAs are: Iles des Sept
and also parallels developments in a number
Frères and Ras Siyan (Djibouti); Ras
of other regional sea areas (e.g. the
Mohammed National Park; Giftun Islands
Caribbean and Mediterranean) where similar
and Straits of Gubal (Egypt); Aqaba coral
regional networks of MPAs have been
reefs (Jordan); Straits of Tiran; Wajh Bank,
established.
Sharm Habban and Sharm Munaybirah;
Farasan Islands (Saudi Arabia); Aibat and
The objectives of the Regional Master
Saad ad-Din Islands, Saba Wanak (Somalia);
Plan are:
Sanganeb Marine National Park; Mukkawar
Island and Dungonab Bay (Sudan); Socotra
· to develop regional capacity in all aspects
Islands; Belhaf and Bir Ali area (Yemen).
of MPA planning and management
1
Regional Network of Marine Protected Areas - Master Plan
· to provide for the sustainable use of
the international donor community. This
living marine resources
Regional Master Plan outlines the
·
strengthening required in national legal and
to support local and national economic
institutional mechanisms, as well as the need
and social development
for a regional protocol on MPAs to guide the
· to involve local communities and
development of national MPA legislation
stakeholders as partners in MPA
where it is lacking. The establishment of a
management
Regional Activity Centre for MPAs will
· to conserve representative and prime
allow for the effective coordination of the
examples of the biodiversity of the Red
Regional Network. Additional mechanisms
Sea and Gulf of Aden
are described for coordination among the
MPAs in the Network, information exchange,
· to conduct research and monitoring
capacity building, institutional strengthening
programmes for the benefit of MPA
and the establishment of linkages with other
management
regional networks.
· to enhance public awareness of the
marine resources and biodiversity of the
It is envisaged that the development of a
Red Sea and Gulf of Aden and the
strong Regional Network of MPAs, and
principles of sustainable use
growth of national capacity in the planning
and management of MPAs, will foster the
· to protect the unique cultural heritage of
establishment of other MPAs in each country
the marine and coastal environments of
of the region. To further support this process,
the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
this Regional Master Plan includes guidelines
· to implement a regional legal framework
for the identification and selection of other
for protected areas and biodiversity.
MPAs.
This Regional Master Plan includes
guidelines based on currently accepted best
practice in the planning and management of
MPAs that have been adapted to suit the
specific situations found in the Red Sea and
Gulf of Aden. These guidelines include:
· the planning process
· the development of zoning plans
· research and monitoring
· public awareness
· stakeholder consultation and participation
· sustainable financing
· capacity building
· personnel requirements.
There are significant differences between
the countries surrounding the Red Sea and
Gulf of Aden in their level of technical and
scientific capacity for planning and managing
MPAs. This is due in part to differences in
economic development and assistance from
2
Executive Summary
Résumé analytique


La mer Rouge et le golfe d'Aden sont
de Sanganeb; île de Mukkawar et baie de
renommés dans le monde entier pour
Dungonab (Soudan); îles Socotra; région de
l'extraordinaire beauté de leurs Belhaf et Bir Ali (Yémen).
environnements marin et côtier, pour la
diversité des espèces qui s'y trouvent,
Le présent Plan directeur régional est un
nombre d'elles endémiques, et pour leur
cadre convenu de planification et de gestion
valeur pour le développement humain. Les
de chacune des AMP du Réseau, qui
ressources locales ont été utilisées de
facilitera la réalisation des objectifs
manière durable par les habitants de la région
régionaux concernant l'utilisation durable
pendant des millénaires. Toutefois, ces
des ressources, la conservation de la
environnements et ces ressources ont été
biodiversité et le développement
soumis récemment à des pressions
économique. Les objectifs, buts, politiques et
considérablement accrues, du fait du
stratégies générales présentés ici s'appliquent
développement dans plusieurs pays d'une
à la région et vont promouvoir une gestion
économie basée sur les hydrocarbures,
cohérente des AMP du Réseau. Dans
exportés par voie maritime, de l'expansion
chacune d'elles, il sera élaboré un Plan
du tourisme international de plongée sous-
directeur standardisé spécifique au site qui
marine et de la croissance démographique
fera fonction de document de politique à long
générale sur le littoral.
terme et qui guidera la formulation d'un Plan
de gestion spécifique au site. Le Plan
Des aires marines protégées (AMP) ont
directeur régional constituera également dans
été établies en de nombreux pays de la région
chaque pays un cadre de planification et de
en tant qu'instruments visant à assurer
gestion d'autres AMP n'appartenant pas au
l'utilisation durable des ressources; le
Réseau régional et où la planification et la
développement économique et la
gestion nationales n'ont pas encore
conservation de la biodiversité. Il est d'une
commencé.
importance toute particulière de protéger les
aires qui contiennent les habitats et les
L'élaboration d'un Plan directeur
composantes uniques de la biodiversité
régional pour les AMP de la mer Rouge et du
régionale et d'appuyer le développement
golfe d'Aden est conforme aux objectifs de
national. Il a donc été créé à cette fin un
la Convention sur la diversité biologique
Réseau régional d'AMP pour la mer Rouge et
(1992) et s'inscrit en parallèle aux mesures
le golfe d'Aden réunissant les 12 APM
prises dans d'autres mers régionales (telles
suivantes : îles des Sept Frères et Ras Siyan
que la mer des Caraïbes et la Méditerranée)
(Djibouti); Parc national de Ras Mohammed;
où des réseaux régionaux d'AMP analogues a
îles Giftun et détroit de Gubal (Égypte);
celui de la Mer Rouge ont été mis en place.
récifs coralliens d'Aqaba (Jordanie); détroit
de Tiran; banc de Wajh, Sharm Habban et
Sharm Munaybirah; îles Farasan (Arabie
saoudite); îles d'Aïbat et de Saad ad-Din, et
Saba Wanak (Somalie); Parc national marin
3
Regional Network of Marine Protected Areas - Master Plan
Les objectifs du Plan directeur
· La sensibilisation du public
régional sont :
· La consultation et la participation des
· De renforcer les capacités régionales dans
parties prenantes
tous les domaines de la planification et de
· Le financement durable
la gestion des AMP,
· D'assurer l'utilisation durable des
· Le renforcement de capacités
ressources biologiques marines,
· Les besoins en personnel.
· D'appuyer le développement économique
et social au niveau local et national,
Il existe entre les divers pays de la mer
· D'associer les communautés et les parties
Rouge et du golfe d'Aden des différences
prenantes locales à la gestion des AMP
significatives de niveau de capacités
en tant que partenaires,
techniques et scientifiques en matière de
planification et de gestion des AMP,
· De conserver des exemples représentatifs
différences qui proviennent en partie de leur
et illustratifs de la biodiversité de la mer
stade de développement économique et de
Rouge et du golfe d'Aden,
l'assistance qu'ils reçoivent des donateurs
· De mener des programmes de recherche
internationaux. Le Plan directeur régional
et de suivi au bénéfice de la gestion des
signale les exigences du renforcement des
AMP,
mécanismes juridiques et institutionnels
nationaux ainsi que la nécessité d'un
· De sensibiliser le public à l'importance
protocole régional sur les AMP qui guidera
des ressources marines et de la
l'élaboration de dispositions législatives
biodiversité de la mer Rouge et du golfe
nationales régissant les AMP dans les pays
d'Aden et aux principes de leur
qui ne possèdent pas actuellement de telles
utilisation durable,
dispositions. Un Centre régional d'activités
· De protéger le patrimoine culturel unique
pour les AMP, à établir, assurera une
des milieux marins et côtiers de la mer
coordination efficace du Réseau régional. Il
Rouge et du golfe d'Aden,
est également prévu de mettre en place entre
les AMP du Réseau d'autres mécanismes de
· De mettre en place un cadre juridique
coordination, d'échange d'information, de
régional applicable aux aires protégées et
renforcement des capacités et de
à la biodiversité.
renforcement institutionnel et de nouer des
relations avec les autres réseaux régionaux.
Le présent Plan directeur régional
comprend des lignes directrices fondées sur
Il est escompté que l'instauration d'un
les meilleures pratiques actuelles en matière
solide Réseau régional d' AMP et
de planification et de gestion des AMP qui
l'accroissement des capacités nationales en
ont été adaptées pour tenir compte de la
matière de planification et de gestion des
spécificité des réalités de la région de la mer
AMP favoriseront l'établissement d'autres
Rouge et du golfe d'Aden. Ces lignes
AMP dans chacun des pays de la région. En
directrices concernent notamment :
conséquence, de manière à appuyer ce
· Le processus de planification
processus, le Plan directeur régional
comporte également des lignes directrices
· L'élaboration de plans de zonage
pour l'identification et la sélection d'autres
AMP.
· La recherche et le suivi
4
Introduction
Introduction

The Red Sea and Gulf of Aden are
· the extensive stands of mangroves and
globally renowned for their unique and
populations of dugong and turtle in the
beautiful marine and coastal environments,
southern Red Sea
the diversity of species inhabiting them, the
value of these resources for human
· the unique biodiversity of the Socotra
development and as part of the cultural
Archipelago
heritage of the region. The coastal and
· the extensive stocks of commercial fishes
marine environments, and the animals and
in the Gulf of Aden.
plants within them, have been used by the
inhabitants of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
in a sustainable manner for thousands of
There are gaps in our knowledge of many
years. In more recent years the use of these
parts of the region, especially the coastal
environments and resources has substantially
areas of the Gulf of Aden in both Yemen and
increased, with the development in several
Somalia, the reefs of the southern Red Sea
countries of petroleum-based economies that
and the Socotra Archipelago. Scientific
require sea transport for petroleum exports,
surveys and research in recent years,
the growth of international dive tourism in
especially in the latter areas, have provided
the region and general population growth in
more extensive and detailed information on
the coastal zone. Despite the enormous
the impressive conservation significance of
economic development that has occurred in
the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden.
some of the countries of the region in recent
decades, many coastal communities continue
In some parts of the region, the rapidly
to rely for their livelihood on the small-scale
growing population and rate of development
use of marine resources, especially fisheries.
threaten the sustainability of current patterns
of resource use. Issues of particular concern
Running parallel to the economic and
include oil pollution from shipping; over-
social development that has occurred in the
fishing; habitat destruction associated with
region, there has been a growing awareness
coastal developments; tourism (PERSGA,
of the regional and international significance
1998a; Gladstone et al., 1999; Wilkinson,
of its environmental value, in particular:
2000). Marine protected areas (MPAs) have
been established in many parts of the Red
Sea and Gulf of Aden as tools to manage
· the diversity of coral reef habitats in the
these activities, to provide for sustainability
central Red Sea of Saudi Arabia and
and economic development and for
Sudan
conservation. Of particular importance is the
· the distinct zoogeography and abundance
need to conserve areas that represent the full
of endemics within the Red Sea and Gulf
range of unique habitats and biodiversity and
of Aden
also to support national development. This
will be achieved through the integration of 12
· the unique coral reefs around the Sinai
MPAs into the Regional Network of MPAs
·
for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden (Appendix
the atoll-like formation of Sanganeb Atoll
1). The current status of these MPAs varies
in Sudan
from those that have been established for
many years with legal standing and well-
defined management plans, to those that have
5
Regional Network of Marine Protected Areas - Master Plan
been proposed but not officially declared by
specific goals, policies and strategies for
their national government. This Master Plan
implementation. Important tools for planning
is the long-term policy document that
and managing each MPA in the Regional
provides the framework for planning and
Network are the site specific Master Plan and
managing the Regional Network in a
Management Plan. Guidelines for preparing
consistent manner. It is also intended for
these documents have been developed from
similar purposes in other MPAs in the region,
internationally accepted procedures (e.g.
as well as for the identification and selection
Kelleher and Kenchington, 1992; Kelleher,
of additional sites for protection.
1999) to suit the context and accepted
practices of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden.
A synthesis is provided of current
The MPAs in the Regional Network vary in
information on the physical and biological
their current legal and management status.
environments of the Red Sea and Gulf of
There is also a range of technical capabilities
Aden, their conservation significance, the
among staff and in scientific and socio-
socio-economic context, current human uses
economic knowledge about the MPAs in the
and impacts. The Master Plan aims to
Network. Suitable mechanisms to strengthen
achieve a number of objectives and the
the Network are included in this Master Plan.
means for achieving these are detailed in


6
Background
Background
Physical Environment
Oceanography
The Red Sea and Gulf of Aden were
range from 37 in the south to 42 in the
created as a result of deep ocean rifting,
north. A consequence of these extreme
which began about 70 million years ago, and
conditions is that some species within the
saw the separation of the Arabian plate from
Red Sea (e.g. mangroves, shallow
the African plate (Sheppard et al., 1992). The
seagrasses) probably exist at the limits of
Red Sea is approximately 2,100 km long
their physiological tolerance. Sea
from Suez to the Bab el Mandeb, with an
temperatures and salinities along the Gulf of
average width of only 280 km, an average
Aden coastline of Yemen are substantially
depth of 500 m but with maximum depths in
less than in the Red Sea. They also differ
places of more than 2,000 m. The Red Sea is
over relatively short distances as a result of
divided at its northern extremity into the
the varying influence of the summer
Gulfs of Aqaba and Suez. The Gulf of
upwellings. For example, the shallow
Aqaba, a continuation of the Red Sea rift, is
temperatures during summer are about 19-
170 km long and 14-26 km wide, with the
20 °C in the vicinity of al-Mukallah (where
shorelines dropping steeply to depths of
the summer upwelling reaches the coastline)
2,000 m. It is separated from the Red Sea by
but reach 25-27 °C at Bir Ali only about
a sill 250 m deep at the Straits of Tiran. In
100 km away. These differences appear to be
contrast, the Gulf of Suez is part of a wide
important in explaining pronounced
valley and has a wide coastal plain. The Gulf
differences in fish community composition
of Suez is 280 km long, 20-40 km wide, with
between these locations (Kemp, 2000).
an average depth of less than 30 m, and a
depth of about 100 m at its entrance to the
The Red Sea has been artificially linked
Red Sea. The Gulf of Aden was also formed
to the Mediterranean Sea by the Suez Canal.
as a result of the separation of the Arabian
In the south, the Red Sea is linked to the
plate from the African plate. It stretches for
Indian Ocean at the Bab el Mandeb, which is
800 km on the Somali coast and about
29 km wide. However, the presence of a sill
1,400 km along the Yemen coastline, and
at a depth of only 100-130 m at the Bab el
there is a maximum distance of about 350 km
Mandeb restricts the exchange of water
between the Somali and Yemeni coastlines
between the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean.
(Sheppard et al., 1992). The Gulf of Aden
The width of the continental shelf in the Red
has maximum depths of more than 3,000 m
Sea varies from only a few kilometres
(Haddad et al., 1997).
offshore in the north to about 100 km in the
southern Red Sea, leading to a progressive
The waters of the Red Sea are warm and
change in the range of marine habitats
saline. Seasonal surface water temperatures
present, from the northern to southern Red
range from 21 °C-28 °C in the north to 26
Sea.
°C-32
°C in the south (Edwards, 1987;
Gladstone, 2000). Salinities in the Red Sea
7
Regional Network of Marine Protected Areas - Master Plan
There are no permanent streams or rivers
Gulf of Aden surface water into the southern
flowing into the Red Sea. Land-based
Red Sea extends the area of high pelagic
materials and fresh water only reach the Sea
primary productivity northward into the Red
during occasional periods of heavy rain and
Sea to 19 ºN; beyond that the waters of the
flooding. Large-scale current patterns are
Red Sea and the Gulfs of Aqaba and Suez are
generated from changes in the water density
nutrient-poor (Sheppard et al., 1992). These
caused by changes in water temperature and
upwellings are the basis of the Gulf of Aden
salinity and from seasonal variations in the
and southern Red Sea fisheries. There are no
prevailing winds. Falling temperature and
known upwellings in the Red Sea due to
rising salinity (due to evaporation) in the
stratification and limited vertical mixing.
north of the Red Sea cause the water mass to
Significant primary production still occurs at
sink and return to the deeper parts of the Red
depths of 200 m in the Gulf of Aqaba due to
Sea. Winter winds from the south-east drive
the high transparency of the water.
surface water into the Red Sea from the Gulf
of Aden, below which there is a flow of
Biodiversity and Biogeography
colder and more saline water in the opposite
direction. Summer winds from the north-west
The Red Sea and Gulf of Aden are
force warmer surface waters out of the Red
renowned for their diversity of ecosystems,
Sea through the Bab el Mandeb, below which
habitats and species, the number of endemic
there is a deeper inflow of water from the
species and their biogeographic significance.
Gulf of Aden. The mean residence times for
The following synthesis of the biodiversity
water masses in the Red Sea are quite long,
and biogeography of the Red Sea and Gulf of
ranging from five years for water in the
Aden is based on Chiffings (1989); Sheppard
upper 150 m to 200 years for the entire water
and Sheppard (1991); Sheppard et al., (1992)
mass (Sheppard et al., 1992).
and Chiffings (1995).
There is a narrow tidal range in the Red
Diversity, Endemism and Important
Sea, with the greatest ranges occurring in the
Species
northern (0.6 m) and southern Red Sea
(0.9 m) (Edwards, 1987). There is very
One consequence of the diversity of
limited tidal movement in the central Red
habitats in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden is
Sea, apart from seasonal differences in sea
the great species richness of marine flora and
level caused by south-east winter winds
fauna. Much of the available information is
forcing water into the Red Sea, effectively
based on research in the Red Sea, especially
raising sea level by an average of 0.8 m in
the northern Red Sea; far less is known of the
the central Red Sea (Chiffings, 1989). Tidal
flora and fauna of the Gulf of Aden (Kemp,
range along the Gulf of Aden coastline of
2000). The richness of hermatypic corals in
Yemen is 1.5­2.0 m (Haddad et al., 1997).
the Red Sea has been estimated to be 180-
200 species (Sheppard and Sheppard, 1991;
Pelagic primary productivity varies
Sheppard et al., 1992). However, a recent
seasonally and spatially throughout the Red
extensive study of the central-northern Red
Sea and Gulf of Aden. Pelagic primary
Sea coastline of Saudi Arabia increased this
productivity (measured as total pigment
to a probable 260, based on recently
concentration) is highest along the Gulf of
described species and range extensions (De
Aden coastline of Somalia to the Socotra
Vantier et al., 2000a). About 6 % of Red Sea
Archipelago during the summer months of
coral species are believed to be endemic
May to September. This is a result of warm
(Sheppard et al., 1992). Approximately 200
surface water being blown offshore by north-
species of scleractinian corals have been
east winds during summer and its
reported from the Socotra Archipelago in the
replacement by cool, nutrient rich water from
Gulf of Aden. This is significant for the
the depths of the Gulf of Aden and Arabian
conservation value of the Socotra
Sea (Sheppard et al., 1992). Movement of
Archipelago, given the small area of coral
8
Background
communities, and the similarity in richness to
Important nesting grounds are located in the
the entire Red Sea (De Vantier et al., 2000b).
Tiran Islands, Wajh Bank and Farasan
One hundred and seventy species of
Islands (Saudi Arabia); the south Sinai of
echinoderms have been reported from the
Egypt (IECD, 1997); Dahlak Islands
Red Sea, of which just over 5
% are
(Eritrea); Ras Sharma and Dhobah (Yemen)
endemics (Sheppard et al., 1992). About 500
(Miller, 1989; PERSGA, 1998a). The Ras
species of benthic algae have been recorded
Sharma nesting site for green turtles is
from the Red Sea (Sheppard et al., 1992).
internationally significant with about 10,000
Ormond and Banaimoon (1994) report 160
females nesting there each year, making it
species of macroalgae from the Hadramaut
the second largest in the Arabian region. In
region of the Gulf of Aden coastline of
addition, the region between Jabal Aziz
Yemen. Planktonic organisms in the Red Sea
Island and Perim is the most important
include 88 species of dinoflagellates and 60
nesting ground for hawksbill turtles in the
species of calanoid copepods in the southern
Arabian region (Haddad et al., 1997).
Red Sea and 46 in the north (Sheppard et al.,
1992).
Surveys by Preen (1989) estimated that
there were 4,000 dugong (Dugong dugon)
About 1,350 species of fishes are known
within the Red Sea. They are dependent on
from the Red Sea (Goren and Dor, 1994).
healthy seagrass beds for food. Important
Distinct assemblages of fishes occur in the
areas for dugong within the Red Sea include
Gulf of Suez; the Gulf of Aqaba and the
the Tiran Islands, Wajh Bank, Farasan
central and northern Red Sea; the southern
Islands and Jizan (Saudi Arabia) (Preen,
Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden (Sheppard et
1989; Sheppard et al., 1992). A recent review
al., 1992). The level of endemism amongst
(Marsh et al., in press) confirms the presence
Red Sea fishes is about 17 %; however, as
of dugong along other parts of the Saudi
Sheppard et al. (1992) point out, this average
Arabian coast (Sharm Munaibara, Qirshan
value has a great range. For example, the
Island) and the existence of common
level of endemism amongst small benthic,
populations between Saudi Arabia and Egypt
territorial groups such as dottybacks
around Tiran Islands and in the Gulf of
(Pseudochromidae) and triple fins
Aqaba (Nabq and Abu Galum Marine Park).
(Trypterygiidae) is about 90
%, while
Dugongs are also found along the African
endemics are almost absent amongst pelagic
coast of Egypt (south of Quseir) and of
species. Of the fauna associated with deep
Eritrea (Dahlak National Park) (Marsh et al.,
sea sediments in the Red Sea (i.e. at least
in press).
2,000 m), 30 % are believed to be endemic
(Chiffings, 1995). There are very few
Thirteen species of cetacean have been
accounts of the ichthyofauna of the Gulf of
reported from the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden,
Aden. Al-Sakaff and Essen (1999) listed 195
including dolphins, toothed and baleen
species of fishes caught in commercial
whales. There have been few systematic
trawlers from the Gulf of Aden and Arabian
surveys, making the identification of
Sea coastline of Yemen. Kemp (2000)
significant sites for cetaceans difficult
surveyed the ichthyofauna of the Shabwa and
(Gladstone and Fisher, 2000).
Hadramaut provinces of the Republic of
Yemen and recorded 267 species, including
eight new records.
Important nesting and feeding grounds
for seabirds occur on the Gulf of Aden coast
of Somalia (Mait Island, Aibat, Saad ad-Din
The Red Sea and Gulf of Aden are
Island, Saba Wanak; Ali et al., 1997); the
important for a number of significant marine
Farasan Islands of Saudi Arabia (Gladstone,
species. Three species of sea turtle are known
2000) and the Aden wetlands in Yemen
to feed and nest in the region: green
(Haddad et al., 1997).
(Chelonia mydas), hawksbill (Eretmochelys
imbricata) and loggerhead (Caretta caretta).
9
Regional Network of Marine Protected Areas - Master Plan
Biogeography
Using presence data for corals throughout the
Arabian region, Sheppard and Sheppard
The biogeography of the Red Sea and
(1991) described a regional zoogeography
Gulf of Aden has been described at a range
that consisted of two broad groups: Red Sea;
of scales, using information on large-scale
and the Gulf, Gulf of Oman and Arabian Sea.
patterns in the physico-chemical properties of
Three regions were recognised within the
seawater and the relative distribution and
Red Sea: (i) northern Red Sea, Gulf of Suez
abundance of a range of species. The
and Gulf of Aqaba; (ii) central Red Sea; (iii)
available information on temperature,
southern Red Sea from Al Lith to the Bab el
salinity, surface nutrient status and primary
Mandeb. Results of a recent detailed survey
productivity suggests that the Red Sea and
of corals in the central-northern Red Sea of
Gulf of Aden can be divided into six regions,
Saudi Arabia and the Socotra Archipelago
including five within the Red Sea itself.
(De Vantier et al., 2000b) indicate that the
(Sheppard et al., 1992). The Red Sea regions
coral fauna of each area are a complex
are: northern, central, southern, Gulf of Suez
composite of species from a number of
and Gulf of Aqaba. The latter two regions are
biogeographic provinces. The coral fauna of
also well separated according to differences
the central-northern Red Sea of Saudi Arabia
in physical properties: the Gulf of Suez is
includes representatives of species with the
shallow (average depth of 50 m), is vertically
following distributions: Indo-west Pacific;
well mixed throughout the year, with well-
Pacific Ocean; Indian Ocean; western Indian
developed latitudinal gradients in salinity and
Ocean; Red Sea endemics and presently
temperature. The Gulf of Aqaba is deep
undescribed species. The coral fauna of the
(800-1,800 m), with vertical mixing that is
Socotra Archipelago includes species with
seasonal, and less well-defined salinity and
the following distributions: Indo-west
temperature gradients (Sheppard et al.,
Pacific; Indian Ocean; western Indian Ocean;
1992).
Oman­Arabian Gulf; Oman; species
previously regarded as Red Sea endemics
A range of authors has described patterns
and several presently undescribed species
in the distribution of a variety of faunal
(De Vantier et al., 2000b).
groups, mostly fishes and corals. Ormond et
al. (1984) recognised two faunal `provinces':
Key Habitats
the Gulf of Aden and the Red Sea. Based on
extensive survey work along the coastline of
Saudi Arabia and water mass similarities
Sabkha
between the western and eastern coastlines,
Ormond et al. (1984) suggested that the Red
Sabkha-based habitats exist at the highest
Sea `province' can be further sub-divided
level of the intertidal and are usually only
into four distinct `sub-provinces' or regions:
seasonally inundated. They are composed of
Gulf of Aqaba, northern Red Sea, Central
sparse halophytes embedded in a sodium
Red Sea and outer Farasan Bank in inshore
chloride and gypsum crust, below which is a
southern Red Sea. Kemp (1998) surveyed a
microbial/algal mat consisting of
number of reef-associated fish groups in the
cyanophytes, bacteria and diatoms
Socotra Archipelago. Using regional data on
(Chiffings, 1989). They are a highly
chaetodontid fishes, Kemp (1998) divided
productive habitat with nitrogen fixation
the Arabian representatives into three groups:
occurring in the microbial/algal mat. A
Red Sea and western Gulf of Aden; Socotra,
characteristic feature of sabkhas is the
Oman and the Gulf; east Africa, the
presence of pools that, because of the high
Seychelles and the Maldives. On this basis,
salinity and temperatures, contain a
the Socotra Archipelago has a regionally
specialised fauna of benthic invertebrates and
high conservation value because its fish
a complex microbial community (Sheppard
fauna appears to be distinctly different from
et al., 1992). Large areas of sabkha exist
the rest of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden.
along the Gulf of Suez (Egypt) and Saudi
Arabian coastlines. Although little is known
10
Background
of the ecology and biodiversity of sabkhas,
ghost crabs, hermit crabs and amphipods, and
they are a significant feature and in some
with large populations of gastropods
areas occupy an area greater than that of
dominating muddy shores (Sheppard et al.,
mangroves and saltmarsh combined
1992).
(Sheppard et al., 1992).
Rocky Shores
Saltmarshes
Rocky shore intertidal habitats exist on
Saltmarsh communities in the Red Sea
the undercut surfaces of raised coral reefs in
generally occur supratidally in the splash
the northern Red Sea, the Farasan Islands and
zone or in the high intertidal, and are
Dahlak Archipelago; on beach rock in the
important as localised sources of high
central and southern Red Sea; and on
primary productivity. Halophytic volcanic rock that reaches the shore in parts
communities are categorised according to
of the southern Red Sea and along the Gulf
their dominant species, height above sea
of Aden coastline of Yemen (Sheppard et al.,
level and immersion periodicity (Chiffings,
1992; Haddad et al., 1997). In some parts of
1995). The most common species belong to
the region this habitat can be extensive e.g.
the genera Phragmites, Typha, Halocnemum,
occupying 20 % of the Egyptian Red Sea
Limonium and Nitraria (Sheppard et al.,
coast (Chiffings, 1995). High mountains
1992). Significant areas of saltmarsh exist in
located near the eastern Gulf of Aden
the north-western area of the Red Sea along
coastline in Somalia produce a shoreline
the Egyptian coastline (at Ras Mohammed,
largely comprised of rocky shore and cliffs
Abu Monqar, Wadi El Gemal, Jebel Elba)
plunging directly into the sea (Ali et al.,
where it is estimated that 3 % of the Egyptian
1997). Large areas of the coastline of the
Red Sea coast is saltmarsh (Chiffings, 1995),
Socotra Archipelago are comprised of rocky
along the Sudanese coastline (Sheppard et
shores (Haddad et al., 1997). Major groups of
al., 1992) and around the Farasan Islands
invertebrates occupying this zone include
(Gladstone, 2000).
gastropod molluscs, grapsid crabs, rock
oysters, barnacles, chitons and mussels.
Sandy and Muddy Shores
Rocky shores in the central Red Sea are
dominated by barnacles during winter when
Despite the small daily tidal range of
sea levels are higher. However, these die off
much of the Red Sea, extensive intertidal
during the summer sea level fall and only
areas exist as a result of the low-lying nature
blue-green algae films remain (Sheppard et
of most of the coastline. The predominant
al., 1992).
intertidal habitats are sandy and muddy
shores, and rocky shores. Sandy shores in the
Mangroves
north-central Red Sea exist as narrow
beaches between rocky shores (of a range of
Four species of mangrove exist within the
types) and behind coral reef flats, and as
Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, with the two most
wider beaches behind lagoons in the southern
common being Avicennia marina and
Red Sea. The majority (75 %) of the southern
Rhizophora mucronata; other species known
Red Sea coastline of Yemen is soft sediment
to occur in the region are Bruguiera
(overlain in parts by sabkha and salt marsh)
gymnorhiza and Ceriops tagal (Sheppard et
(Haddad et al., 1997). The western-central
al., 1992). Mangroves occur throughout the
Gulf of Aden coastline of Somalia largely
region on the coastlines of all countries
consists of high-energy sandy beaches (Ali et
except Jordan; their occurrence in the Gulf of
al., 1997). Sandy beaches and rocky shores
Aqaba is their northernmost distribution in
are the major coastal habitats on the Socotra
the greater Indian Ocean. In most countries
Archipelago (Haddad et al., 1997). There is a
mangroves exist as distinct but isolated
vertical zonation of beach fauna, with
stands; extensive stands occur in the southern
dominant groups on sandy beaches including
Red Sea of Saudi Arabia and Yemen, where
11
Regional Network of Marine Protected Areas - Master Plan
the continental shelf is widest and there is a
grow in all parts of the region (including the
greater depositional environment allowing
Gulfs of Aqaba and Suez), their distribution
for a stable sediment layer to develop
is poorly known (Price et al., 1988). There is
(Sheppard et al., 1992; Chiffings, 1995).
a progressive increase in abundance of
Mangroves are absent from the Gulf of Aden
seagrass beds towards the southern Red Sea
coastline of Yemen, apart from a unique,
of Saudi Arabia, owing to the development
isolated population in the crater lake at Khor
of the wide, shallow continental shelf area
Shuran (Haddad et al., 1997). There are
(Price et al., 1988); for example, seagrass
extensive areas of mangrove (A. marina)
beds occur along 40 % of the Red Sea coast
around the Socotra Archipelago (Haddad et
of Yemen (Haddad et al., 1997). There are
al., 1997). Dense, healthy stands of both A.
few seagrass beds along the Gulf of Aden
marina and R. mucronata were observed
coastline of either Yemen or Somalia, or
during site visits to Saad ad-Din Island on the
around the Socotra Archipelago, owing to the
Gulf of Aden coastline of Somalia (Ali et al.,
high-energy environment in both areas (Ali
1997; M. Younis personal communication).
et al., 1997; Haddad et al., 1997).
As a result of the great range of air and water
temperatures, salinity and unreliable supplies
Seagrass beds generally occur in
of fresh water, mangroves probably exist in
protected areas in lagoons and bays
the region at the limit of their physiological
(Gladstone, 2000), where they are an
tolerance.
important habitat for juvenile fishes and
crustaceans and a source of food for priority
A diverse fauna of more than 250 species
species such as dugong and green turtles.
of marine invertebrates and vertebrates
There appear to be three major groupings of
occurs in association with mangrove systems
seagrass assemblages along the eastern Red
in the Red Sea (Sheppard et al., 1992).
Sea that are separated by latitude, which
However, this appears to be less than in
suggests three distinct biogeographic
comparable mangrove systems in the nearby
groupings (Price et al., 1988). Similarly,
Indian Ocean, presumably as a result of the
three types of seagrass assemblage have been
harsh environmental conditions (of
differentiated in the Gulf of Aqaba (Sheppard
temperature and salinity) within the Red Sea.
et al., 1992).
In addition to marine organisms, mangroves
are used as a food source by terrestrial
Seagrass beds in the Red Sea are
vertebrates (including the sand gazelle on
inhabited by a diverse fauna, which increases
Farasan Island) and as a roosting and nesting
from 49 species in the Gulf of Aqaba to 91
site by many species of birds. Apart from
species further south. The major groups
biodiversity surveys, there is limited
inhabiting seagrass beds include molluscs,
information on the ecological processes and
polychaetes, crustaceans, echinoderms and
functions occurring within the mangroves of
fishes, with perhaps close to 10 % of species
the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. Assuming
from seagrass beds being restricted to this
that these systems are functioning in a similar
habitat (Sheppard et al., 1992). The standing
way to mangroves elsewhere in the world,
crop and productivity of Red Sea seagrass
they exist as a critical habitat, stabilising
beds is comparable to that reported from
nearshore sediments, trapping nutrients,
other tropical regions (Sheppard et al., 1992).
exporting energy to nearshore subtidal
Like seagrass systems in other parts of the
habitats and functioning as a nursery habitat
world, they stabilise nearshore sediments,
for a range of fish and invertebrate species
provide a habitat for a range of commercially
(Sheppard et al., 1992).
important crustaceans and fishes during the
juvenile stages of their life history, provide
Seagrass
an important source of food for many species
and probably export nutrients and energy to
Eleven species of seagrass occur in the
adjacent subtidal systems (Sheppard et al.,
Red Sea and Gulf of Aden and, although they
1992).
12
Background
Coral Reefs and Coral Communities
Thirteen types of coral communities have
been identified for the Gulfs of Aqaba, Suez
The Red Sea is most famous for its
and the eastern Red Sea to the Yemen border,
extensive fringing coral reefs that drop
defined by the species presence and their
steeply into deep water and are swept by very
relative abundance. There is a clear north-
clear water. There are, in addition, many
south trend in the occurrence of the different
other reef types that contribute to the great
community types and it appears that latitude,
diversity of this system within the region,
bathymetry and coastal morphology are the
and hence support an enormous reef-
underlying factors responsible for this pattern
associated biota. The two terms 'coral reefs'
(Sheppard et al., 1992).
and 'coral communities' are used here to
emphasise the distinction between biogenic,
South of 20 ºN, the continental shelf
accreting reefs produced by scleractinian
widens so consequently reefs are less well
corals, and coral communities growing on
developed vertically and often occur in more
rock or soft substrates. The following
turbid water (Sheppard et al., 1992). In many
description of the coral reefs of the Red Sea
places the coastal fringing reefs disappear
and Gulf of Aden is synthesised from
and are replaced by stands of mangroves,
Sheppard and Sheppard (1991); Sheppard et
sand beaches and scattered patch reefs near
al. (1992); De Vantier et al. (2000a, b);
the coast. For example, fringing coral reefs
Kemp (1998) and Kemp and Benzoni (2000).
occur along only 25 % of the Red Sea coast
Specific country descriptions have been
of Yemen (Haddad et al., 1997). Seasonal
synthesised from the country reports
coverings of macroalgae are a feature of
prepared for the Strategic Action Programme
shallow coral reefs in the southern Red Sea
(PERSGA, 1998a).
and they often form the major cover of hard
substrates in areas too turbid for coral growth
Reef development varies from north to
(Haddad et al., 1997; Gladstone, 2000). Reef
south in the Red Sea, with well-developed,
diversity in the southern Red Sea is greatest
narrow fringing reefs north of 20 ºN with
offshore and includes platform and patch
steep slopes dropping into very deep water.
reefs, barrier reefs, coral cays and extensive
The eastern shore of the Gulf of Suez has a
fringing reefs around island systems,
limited area of reef development but
especially the Farasan and Dahlak Island
extensive small coral patch-reefs. By
group.
comparison, the western shore has a well-
developed system of fringing reefs. The Gulf
Although surveyed to a more limited
of Aqaba has narrow fringing reefs that
extent than the Red Sea, it appears that coral-
plunge vertically into deep water. An almost
based fringing reefs are less common in the
continuous band of fringing coral reefs
Gulf of Aden. Fringing coral reefs occur on
occurs on both sides of the Red Sea
only 5 % of the Gulf of Aden coastline of
southward to about 18-20 ºN. Reef types
Yemen, with extensive fringing coral reefs
diversify toward the southern limit of this
occurring only around the islands of Sikha
distribution as the width of the fringing reef
and Halaneya in the Belhaf-Bir Ali area
increases and other reef types occur offshore.
(Haddad et al., 1997). More recent studies
A longitudinal series of coral reefs exists
along the northern Gulf of Aden coastline of
within the Red Sea, effectively forming a
Yemen have revealed extensive coral
series of barrier reefs. These barrier reefs are
communities on all rocky coasts surveyed
10-40 km offshore of the Saudi Arabian
and in several areas with unconsolidated,
coastline and extend southward for 400 km.
sandy substrates. Three distinct community
Similar systems of reefs occur on the African
types were recognised that appear to be
side of the Red Sea. There are also isolated
geographically based: southern Oman, Al-
patch reefs and atoll-like structures, the most
Mukalla and Shabwa province (Kemp and
famous of which is Sanganeb Atoll in Sudan.
Benzoni, 2000). The absence of fringing
reefs along this coastline is a result of higher
13
Regional Network of Marine Protected Areas - Master Plan
wave energies, nutrient enrichment from
Subtidal Soft Bottoms
upwellings and the existence of large areas of
unstable sandy substratum. There are
Extensive areas of subtidal sand and mud
extensive areas of coral reef found along the
occur throughout the region and each has
Gulf of Aden coastline of Somalia and the
distinct assemblages of flora and fauna.
largest coral reefs in the Gulf of Aden may
Sand-based systems occur in high-energy
be around Saad ad-Din Island in the extreme
environments in shallow water close to reefs
north-west near the border with Djibouti.
or on high-energy, exposed coastlines. Mud-
Smaller areas of coral reef exist west of Xabo
based systems occur in protected, low-energy
and further east between Buruc and Bosaso.
environments, such as khors and bays.
Elsewhere along the coastline of Somalia
Within the Red Sea soft bottoms of coarse
hard subtidal substrates are extensively
sands and gravel mixed with mud are
colonised by macroalgae. The limited
inhabited by a distinct community of crabs,
presence of coral reefs along the Gulf of
bivalves and macroalgae. Gravel-shell
Aden coastline of Somalia is probably a
substrates overlaying silty mud are inhabited
result of the lack of hard substrate, extensive
by mollusc-dominated communities
areas of sandy beaches and high wave
(Sheppard et al., 1992).
energies (Ali et al., 1997). It is worth noting
that recent, more detailed surveys at a few
Socio-Economic Setting
locations in the Gulf of Aden (e.g. Kemp and
Benzoni, 2000) have revealed extensive areas
The marine and coastal environments of
of coral communities in areas previously
the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden have a long
assumed to be unsuitable for coral
history of traditional uses, for fishing, ports,
development. More systematic habitat
trading and as navigation routes (Vine, 1986;
surveys involving actual searches by divers
Gladstone, 1996). Religious pilgrimages to
throughout the Gulf of Aden may reveal that
the holy cities of Mecca and Medina have
coral communities occur more widely.
traditionally begun through Jeddah and
Yanbu and trading routes have developed
There is only minor coral reef
around these ports. This is also reflected in
development around the Socotra the presence of significant cultural heritage
Archipelago, existing mostly as small reef
sites along the coast of the Red Sea,
flats at a few locations on the northern sides
including the Islamic city of Aqaba, the old
of islands. Coral communities are generally
city of Jeddah and the port of Suakin
non-accreting, growing on rocky substratum
(PERSGA, 1998a).
or on fossil reef structures (De Vantier et al.,
2000b). The dominant biotic habitat on the
Coastal settlements have been widely
more exposed southern coasts of the
dispersed in the past and there remain large
Archipelago consists of macroalgal
stretches of coastline that are uninhabited,
communities growing on non-reef rock
apart from some artisanal fishing camps. In
(Kemp, 1998; De Vantier et al., 2000b).
recent years, conflict has restricted use of
Despite the limited extent of coral reefs and
some coastlines (e.g. Somalia) and they
coral communities in the Socotra
remain in a largely undisturbed state. In
Archipelago, the existing communities have
contrast, rapid economic development has
a high regional conservation value. Cover of
led to the great expansion of coastal urban
living stony corals approaches 100 % in
areas in Jeddah and Yanbu (Saudi Arabia),
some areas, and such high cover is rare
Hurghada and Sharm El Sheikh (Egypt) and
elsewhere in the Gulf of Aden and Arabian
Aqaba (Jordan).
Sea (De Vantier et al., 2000b).
Artisanal fishing has been socially and
economically important for centuries along
the coastlines of all countries bordering the
14
Background
Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. Low population
(ICED, 1997). There are no accurate
densities, traditional management practices
population censuses for the coastal regions,
and limited commercial demand meant that
but it is believed to be around five million
this activity was ecologically sustainable
people (ICED, 1997). Countries are
(Gladstone et al., 1999). However, a number
attempting to develop a range of
of developments threatens this sustainability:
opportunities for sustainable use of natural
the use of more modern equipment, the
resources, providing a diverse base for
availability of ice, the participation of foreign
economic growth and social development.
workers (especially in the Saudi Arabian Red
While tourism is being actively promoted in
Sea waters), Government support, the spread
some countries (e.g. Egypt), other countries
of illegal fishing (especially for shark fins),
with similar opportunities (e.g. Sudan,
aquaculture and the rise of recreational
Yemen) lack the necessary physical and
fishing. Such developments have led to the
technological infrastructure. A major
decline of traditional community-based
challenge to the region in the near future will
management practices. For example, the
be to provide this development without
practice of cooperatively rotating fishing
threatening the ecological integrity of the
activities among reefs of the Farasan Islands
natural systems upon which it depends.
(Saudi Arabia) shared by a number of
villages (as a means of preventing the over-
There is a number of current pressures on
exploitation of fish stocks on shared reefs)
the biodiversity and natural systems of the
has broken down in the face of increased
Red Sea and Gulf of Aden arising from this
fishing pressure from foreign workers, who
rapid development and new uses of the
do not understand local practices and have
marine and coastal environments (PERSGA,
different economic needs (Gladstone, 2000).
1998a; Wilkinson, 2000). These pressures
The isolation of the Socotra Archipelago
include:
from markets, seasonal weather that limits
access to many reefs and a cooperative,
traditional management system ensured that
· disturbance to coastal wetlands
catches of fish and sharks were sustainable.
· clearing and degradation of mangroves
However, increasing international demand
for shark fins and the high prices paid for
· loss of seagrass beds
dried fins have caused this fishery to become
· destruction of coral reefs
unsustainable (MacAlister Elliott and
Partners, 1996). Traditional fisheries
· unsustainable use of living marine
management practices will need to be
resources (through over-fishing,
supplemented by alternative approaches
unregulated shark fishing)
(such as marine protected areas) to support
sustainable use.
· threats to important species (such as
marine turtles, marine mammals,
seabirds)
As a result of differences in natural
resource bases, colonisation history and
· marine pollution
conflict, countries bordering the Red Sea and
· poor coastal zone planning
Gulf of Aden vary in their development
status and, consequently, their planning
· discharge of effluents
priorities (for development, health,
· dredging and filling of coastal habitats
education, etc). While some countries show
some of the lowest global per capita incomes,
· reduction of freshwater flows to the
others have exhibited significant economic
coastal zone.
development (PERSGA, 1998a). Population
growth rates of countries around the Red Sea

and Gulf of Aden range from 1.8 to 5.1 %
per annum, with an overall average of 3.1 %
15
Regional Network of Marine Protected Areas - Master Plan
The Role of Marine Protected
Recovery of degraded marine
Areas in Sustainable Resource Use
environments: By excluding damaging
and Biodiversity Conservation
human uses, MPAs allow degraded habitats
to recover.
MPAs can provide a range of benefits to
Provision of natural areas for education
local communities and national development
and research: By managing uses and
through the sustainable use of living marine
excluding extractive activities from particular
resources and biodiversity conservation
areas, MPAs act as valuable reference areas
(GBRMPA/World Bank/IUCN, 1995;
for long-term monitoring that aid in the
Kelleher, 1999; Roberts and Hawkins, 2000;
understanding of the impacts of human uses.
Salm et al., 2000), including:
They also provide a valuable resource for
education, tourism and the scientific study of
Sustainable use of living marine
processes operating in undisturbed natural
resources: MPAs protect areas critical for
systems.
commercially important species (e.g.
spawning grounds and nursery habitats);
Protection of cultural heritage: MPAs
provide refuges where stocks of target
protect cultural heritage by facilitating the
species can increase (after previous heavy
sustainability of traditional uses of marine
exploitation) and act as a source of larval
resources and public education and
recruits and adult emigrants to replenish
awareness of the value of these uses, and by
depleted areas outside the MPA. This can
physically conserving culturally significant
occur through a combination of protective
sites.
zoning, management for sustainable use
within MPAs and exclusion of extractive
activities from particular areas within the
Support for development goals: By
MPA.
facilitating sustainable use of resources and
by providing opportunities for recreation and
tourism in unspoilt environments, MPAs
Conservation of biodiversity: By
increase the range of opportunities for
excluding threatening processes, managing
business and employment, thereby
uses, protecting significant habitats and
supporting national and regional
allowing habitats and species to recover,
development goals.
MPAs protect endangered, vulnerable and
threatened species; protect species with
limited distribution; protect representative
International Context
and unique examples of ecosystems, habitats
or communities and maintain genetic
The systematic selection, establishment
diversity.
and management of protected areas has the
potential to contribute to the conservation of
The maintenance of ecological processes
global biodiversity. Article 8 (In-situ
essential to ecosystem function: Essential
Conservation) of the Convention on
ecological processes and ecosystem services
Biological Diversity (1992) requires
in the marine environment include primary
contracting parties, as far as possible and as
productivity, nutrient cycling, gas exchange,
appropriate, to:
the provision of food, coastal protection and
sediment capture. MPAs accomplish this by
(a) establish a system of protected areas
controlling activities that disrupt ecosystems
or areas where special measures need to be
or physically damage habitats, by protecting
taken to conserve biological diversity and
critical habitats (such as mangroves, seagrass
and coral reefs) and by allowing degraded
(b) develop, where necessary, guidelines
ecosystems to recover.
for the selection, establishment and
management of protected areas or areas
16
Background
where special measures need to be taken to
Regional Networks of Marine
conserve biological diversity (Glowka et al.,
Protected Areas
1994).
Systems, or networks of protected areas,
The first meeting of the Conference of
are established for the purposes of
the Parties to the Convention on Biological
conserving representative examples of
Diversity selected marine and coastal
biodiversity, or protecting a set of unique and
biodiversity as the first major theme to be
high profile features (McNeely and Thorsell,
addressed systematically in the Conference
1991; Lucas, 1992; Davey, 1998; Salm et al.,
of the Parties' medium term work
2000). Located and managed appropriately, a
programme. Under the Jakarta Mandate on
network of MPAs also has the potential to
Marine and Coastal Biological Diversity
benefit both migratory species that require
(adopted by the second meeting of the
scattered habitats (e.g. sea turtles, sea birds)
Conference of the Parties, COP), a number of
and transboundary or straddling stocks. In
specific action items were approved for
semi-enclosed seas shared by several
implementation that are relevant to this
countries, a coordinated approach to the
Regional Master Plan, notably:
selection and management of MPAs has the
potential to prevent the transboundary spread
Marine and Coastal Protected Areas
of pollution and development impacts.
"...conservation measures should
There are several important ecological
emphasise the protection of ecosystem
reasons for ensuring a uniform approach to,
functioning, in addition to protecting specific
and capability for, MPA management in the
stocks"
Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. The Red Sea is a
semi-enclosed regional sea having a
"Parties should encourage local
restricted exchange with the Indian Ocean
communities and resource users to participate
and Mediterranean Sea (Sheppard et al.,
in the planning, management, and
1992). Large-scale pollution events could
conservation of coastal and marine protected
potentially travel across national borders,
areas"
affecting habitats away from the source of
the pollution event. Effective MPA
management (that includes oil spill
"...enhance linkages and information
contingency plans) that limits the risk of
exchange among the sites"
these events in one country will reduce the
chances of impacts to ecosystems and
"Parties should promote the research and
resources in neighbouring countries.
monitoring of MPAs to assess their value for
the conservation and sustainable
Most marine organisms have a dispersive
management of biodiversity" (de Fontaubert
larval stage lasting for periods that vary from
et al., 1996 p. 71)
a few days to several months. During this
time larvae may cross national boundaries. A
This Regional Master Plan will facilitate
consequence of this is that unsustainable
the implementation of these actions in the
resource use has the potential to reduce
Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, by providing a
stocks in neighbouring countries because of a
framework for a representative system of
reduction in parental stocks. In addition,
MPAs and by providing mechanisms for
species important for fisheries (e.g. tuna)
networking and coordination amongst the
often travel large distances, regularly taking
MPAs.
them across national boundaries. A regional
approach to sustainable resource usage (with
MPAs as a key strategy) will facilitate
regional sharing of benefits.
17
Regional Network of Marine Protected Areas - Master Plan
The regional benefits from a network of
MEDPAN allows each manager to benefit
MPAs will only be realised if there is a
from the knowledge, failures and success of
coordination mechanism in place. There are
any activity in the region.
good reasons for establishing such a
mechanism:
The Wadden Sea: To protect the
internationally significant tidal wetlands and
· it allows for information and experiences
dependent species of the Wadden Sea, a Joint
to be shared amongst managers and their
Declaration on the Protection of the Wadden
agencies and therefore facilitates more
Sea was signed by the Netherlands, Germany
efficient management
and Denmark in 1982. The Common Wadden
Sea Secretariat was established in 1987.
· it facilitates more efficient use of limited
About two-thirds of the Wadden Sea area is
financial and human resources
legally protected in the Trilateral
· it increases the chances of a consistent
Conservation Area, which includes an almost
approach to management, with
continuous series of protected areas, national
corresponding regional benefits for
parks and wildlife reserves. Cooperative
management of resource use and
management of the Trilateral Conservation
biodiversity conservation. Standard
Area occurs via the Wadden Sea Plan (1997),
reporting procedures and monitoring
which includes common management
systems will provide for reliable
principles, common management objectives
comparisons and data evaluation on a
for human activities, common ecological
regional scale.
targets for the management of six major
habitat types and programmes of shared
research, monitoring and assessment
Regional networks of MPAs, networking
(Enemark et al., 1998).
and coordinating mechanisms, and regional
protocols, have been developed in several
regional seas and other shared water bodies
The Caribbean Sea: The Contracting
(Table 1). For example:
Parties to the Wider Caribbean Seas
programme adopted a Specially Protected
The Mediterranean Sea: As part of the
Areas and Wildlife (SPAW) protocol that
Mediterranean Action Plan a Protocol
establishes a regional network of marine
Concerning Specially Protected Areas and
protected areas to conserve and restore
Biological Diversity in the Mediterranean
regional ecosystems. Networking activities
was adopted by the Contracting Parties in
include the Wider Caribbean MPA Managers
June 1995. The Protocol calls for the
network and a supporting database, a
establishment of a list of Specially Protected
regional guide to funding protected areas in
Areas of Mediterranean Importance
the wider Caribbean, and common guidelines
(SPAMI), with the objectives of biodiversity
and criteria for protected areas (UNEP, 1996;
conservation and protection of specific
Vanzella-Khouri, 1998).
Mediterranean ecosystems. The Protocol also
calls for species conservation, regulation of
Asia Pacific Region: One of the
non-indigenous and genetically modified
Indicative Actions of the APEC (Asia Pacific
species and research relevant to the Specially
Economic Cooperation) Action Plan for
Protected Areas. MEDPAN, the Sustainability of the Marine Environment
Mediterranean Protected Areas Network, was
under the objective of Sustainable
established in 1991 to facilitate the exchange
Management of Marine Resources is to
of experience between protected area
"Establish an APEC network of marine
managers. This level of contact was missing
protected areas" (Source: Internet site for
in the initial system, the protected areas
APEC Action Plan for Sustainability of the
being represented in any meeting by the
Marine Environment).
national authority for nature conservation.
18
Background
Table 1. Regional sea areas containing representative networks of MPAs


Regional Sea
Convention
Relevant Protocol
Networking
Mechanisms
Red Sea and Gulf of Jeddah Convention
Protocol Concerning
Under development
Aden
(1982)
Biological Diversity and
Establishment of Protected
Areas (in preparation)
Wider Caribbean
Cartagena Convention
Specially Protected Areas and
Wider Caribbean MPA
(1981)
Wildlife Protocol
Managers network and a
supporting database, a
regional guide to funding
protected areas in the wider
Caribbean, and common
guidelines and criteria for
protected areas
South East Pacific
Lima Convention
Protocol for the Conservation
None
(1981)
and Management of Protected
Marine and Coastal Areas
East African Seas
Nairobi Convention
Protocol Concerning Protected None
Areas and Wild Fauna and
Flora in the Eastern African
Region
Wadden Sea
Joint Declaration on
No relevant protocol
Not Applicable
the Protection of the
Wadden Sea
Gulf Kuwait
Convention
Protocol Concerning
Not Applicable
(1978)
Biological Diversity and
Establishment of Protected
Areas (in preparation)
Mediterranean Barcelona
Convention
Protocol Concerning Specially Regional Activity Centres,
(1976)
Protected Areas and
including one on Specially
Biological Diversity in the
Protected Areas (Tunisia)
Mediterranean

19
Regional Network of Marine Protected Areas - Master Plan
The Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
communities. These are outlined for each
MPA in the representative network in
Regional Network of Marine
Appendix 1. The regional network consists of
Protected Areas
the following MPAs:
The Red Sea and Gulf of Aden region has
Djibouti (Iles des Sept Frères and Ras Siyan)
many sites of unique beauty, which support
Egypt (Ras Mohammed National Park;
populations of globally important species or
Giftun Islands and Straits of Gubal)
contain ecologically critical habitats. These
require management of human activities, to
Jordan (Aqaba coral reefs)
maintain their ecological importance and
Saudi Arabia (Sharm Habban and Sharm
their availability to be appreciated and
Munaybirah - Wajh Bank; Farasan Islands)
enjoyed by the region's inhabitants. If
protected, they can also serve as areas for
Saudi Arabia/Egypt (Straits of Tiran)
scientific research and as valuable assets for
Somalia (Aibat and Saad ad-Din Islands,
raising public awareness.
Saba Wanak)
Sudan (Sanganeb Marine National Park;
The SAP process identified 12 proposed
Mukkawar [Magarsam] Island - Dungonab
or declared MPAs that were of regional or
Bay)
global significance, for inclusion in a
regional network of MPAs (Figure 1 and
Yemen (Socotra Islands Group; Belhaf and
Appendix 1). The network includes
Bir Ali Area).
representatives of all major biogeographical
sub-units, major habitat types within each
The legal and institutional framework for
sub-unit, prime examples of all types of
MPAs in the Regional Network is outlined in
coastal and marine habitats and species
Appendix 2.
20






















































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































Background

Figure 1. Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Regional Network of Marine Protected Areas
1.
Aqaba Marine Park (Jordan);
2.
Straits of Tiran (Saudi Arabia/Egypt);
3.
Ras Mohammed National Park (Egypt);
4.
Giftun Islands and Straits of Gubal (Egypt);
5.
Wajh Bank - Sharm Habban and Sharm Munaybirah (Saudi Arabia);
6.
Mukkawar Island [Magarsam] and Dungonab Bay (Sudan);
7.
Sanganeb Marine National Park (Sudan);
8.
Farasan Islands Protected Area (Saudi Arabia);
9.
Iles des Sept Frères and Ras Siyan (Djibouti);
10. Aibat and Saad ad-Din Islands, Saba Wanak (Somalia);
11. Belhaf and Bir Ali Area (Yemen)
12. Socotra Islands Group National Protected Area (Yemen);

21
Regional Network of Marine Protected Areas - Master Plan
Purpose of the Regional Master
listed in the Master Plan. The Management
Plan is purposefully designed to be short-
Plan
term (e.g. for a period of five years) so that it
can be reviewed and updated in response to
This Regional Master Plan is a long-term
the results of monitoring of indicators of
policy document that will be used as a basis
management success, scientific research and
for the development of site-specific Master
changes in local conditions.
Plans and Management Plans in each of the
MPAs in the regional network, where these
This Regional Master Plan provides
do not already exist. The objectives, goals,
regionally standardised guidelines for the
general policies and strategies presented here
preparation of Master Plans and Management
are regionally applicable and will facilitate
Plans, which can also be used as the basis for
regional consistency in the management of
the development of both Master and
MPAs in the Regional Network (see
Management Plans for MPAs outside the
Figure 2).
Regional Network. The guidelines for
identifying and selecting MPAs provide a
Within each of the MPAs in the Regional
systematic and objective basis for the
Network a regionally standardised, site-
development of national system plans of
specific Master Plan will be developed,
MPAs in each country in the network.
which will serve as the long-term policy
document for that MPA. This site-specific
In summary, a major long-term outcome
Master Plan will guide the development of a
of the establishment and operation of the
site-specific Management Plan for each
Regional Network and the application of this
MPA. These site-specific Management Plans
Master Plan will be the development of
are short-term, practical documents that
experience that can be applied to all the
describe the specific management actions
MPAs in each country.
required to achieve the objectives and goals

22
Background






REGIONAL MASTER PLAN


Principles, objectives and goals for MPA

management in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden







MPAs in the Regional Network



MPAs not in the Regional Network








MPA Master Plan
Guidelines for the

Site-specific objectives and goals
development of Master

adapted from regional objectives and
Plans and Management

goals
Plans









Identification and selection

MPA Management Plan
of new MPAs

Site-specific management

actions




Figure 2. The relationship of this Regional Master Plan to MPAs in the Regional Network and its potential
contribution to other MPAs in the region not represented in the Regional Network
23
Regional Network of Marine Protected Areas - Master Plan
Development of the Regional
management, underlie this Regional Master
Plan. These principles have guided the
Master Plan
development of the objectives and goals.
They provide planners and managers with a

philosophical framework for the process of
This Regional Master Plan was
elaborating site-specific objectives and goals,
developed following review of the master
or for discriminating between alternatives of
and management plans of a number of
each.
established MPAs in the Regional Network,
in particular Ras Mohammed National Park
Intergenerational Equity
in Egypt (Jeudy de Grissac et al., 1998;
Future generations are entitled to inherit
Pearson and Shehata, 1998; marine resources and biodiversity in a state
TDA/EEAA/RSG, 1998) and the Farasan
that is as good as, or better than, their current
Islands Marine Protected Area in Saudi
state.
Arabia (Gladstone, 1994, 2000). The
National System Plan for Saudi Arabia
(Child and Grainger, 1990) provided
Ecological Sustainability
information on zoning systems and the basis
Ecological sustainability is the
for developing representative networks. The
foundation of both social and economic
Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea
development. Key elements of management
and Gulf of Aden (PERSGA, 1998a;
and planning for ecological sustainability
Gladstone et al., 1999) and supporting
include ecosystem-based management,
documents from that programme (Abdellatif
conservation of ecological processes,
et al., 1997; Ali et al., 1997; Haddad et al.,
protection of critical habitats, use not to
1997; ICED, 1997; PERSGA, 1998b)
exceed maximum sustainable yield or
provided background information on the
carrying capacity, conservation of
status of ecological systems. Internationally
biodiversity in general and conservation of
accepted practices and guidelines for
rare and endangered species in particular.
planning and managing MPAs (Kelleher and
Kenchington, 1992; Kelleher, 1999; Salm et
The Precautionary Principle
al., 2000) provided the framework for the
The absence of scientific certainty should
regionally adopted guidelines included here.
not be a reason for postponing management
The draft of the Regional Master Plan was
of these MPAs. If an activity is assessed as
reviewed at the PERSGA office in Jeddah
having a low risk of causing serious or
and during a regional MPA workshop at Ras
irreversible adverse impacts, or if there is
Mohammed National Park, in November
insufficient information with which to assess
2000. The workshop was attended by MPA
fully and with certainty the magnitude and
experts and representatives from all countries
nature of impacts, decision-making should
participating in the Regional Network. Their
proceed in a conservative and cautious
comments and suggestions were incorporated
manner.
in the final document.
Integrated Planning and Management
The Principles Underlying
Many of the activities that can potentially
Management of Marine Protected
threaten MPAs occur outside their borders,
including terrestrial areas, and often come
Areas in the Regional Network
under the jurisdiction of other management
agencies. Management of MPAs should

consider all potential sources of threats and
A number of principles, which have been
develop management that addresses these
adapted from principles of ecologically
threats. In order to achieve this, management
sustainable development and natural resource
of the MPA will need to be integrated with
24
Background
the management responsibilities of the
facilitates decision-making and the
relevant agencies.
evaluation of management actions. A modern
and appropriate technology base is a central
Stakeholder Consultation and Participation
component of MPA management. This
MPAs in the Regional Network are used
includes computing and communication
by a range of stakeholders, many of whom
facilities, information resources and
derive their livelihood from the MPA and
geographic information systems.
have no alternative sources of livelihood.
They are likely to be affected by
Adaptive Management
management of the MPA and have the right
Management of MPAs needs to be
to be consulted and to play an active part in
viewed as an adaptive process or experiment
the decision-making process. Many
that varies in response to changes in the
stakeholders also possess much knowledge
character and intensity of threats, increased
and experience that will assist in planning
knowledge and changes in the composition
and management.
of the local community. Adaptive
management requires the establishment of
Capacity Building and Technology Transfer
performance measures at the outset of
A key element to the successful
management. The results of systematic
implementation of MPA management is
monitoring of key indicators are evaluated
skilled and knowledgeable staff. Where skills
against the agreed performance measures,
and knowledge are limited, capacity building
and management varied (if necessary) to
of staff will form a critical element in the
ensure objectives and goals are being
long-term management of MPAs.
achieved.
Considerable technology is available that



25
Regional Network of Marine Protected Areas - Master Plan
26
Regional Master Plan
Regional Master Plan
This Master Plan identifies the objectives
management that currently exists in the
and goals of the Regional Network and
region. In some cases, individual countries
describes the policies and strategies to be
lack experts with the necessary knowledge,
used for achieving them. These objectives
training and skills required for MPA
and goals reflect the fact that the Regional
management. Much of the available
Network includes sites that are not only
experience currently resides within the Ras
representative of the major habitats and
Mohammed National Park (Egypt) and is
ecosystems of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden,
available for training of staff from other
but are also regionally and internationally
countries. A major objective of the Regional
unique and are therefore worthy of
Master Plan is therefore capacity building of
protection.
staff, which will occur through the
implementation of the various activities
These sites also support a diversity of
associated with the establishment of the
human uses, including artisanal and
Regional Network.
commercial fisheries, tourism, recreation and
maritime transport, which are significant for
A major regional initiative in the near
local and national economies. For example,
future will be the development of a regional
by the end of 1998 the estimated value of
legal framework for protected areas and
hotels and shops built by the private sector in
biodiversity. This is planned as a new
the Sharm El Sheikh area (part of Ras
protocol to the Jeddah Convention. The
Mohammed National Park, Egypt) was US$
Regional Network of MPAs will play a major
5 billion and the annual income associated
role in implementing the principles of this
with tourism activities for 1998 was US$6
legal framework.
billion (Jeudy de Grissac et al., 1998). The
majority of Saudi Arabia's commercial

fishing activity in the Red Sea occurs in the
southern areas in the vicinity of the Farasan
Islands Marine Protected Area (Gladstone,
2000). Fisheries, tourism and recreation
depend on healthy ecosystems and the
returns from these uses are vulnerable to the
effects of over-exploitation. A primary
objective of the Regional Master Plan is the
protection of the resources that sustain these
uses, which will in turn provide a basis for
sustainable development of these activities
and the provision of future use options that
may arise.
A potential constraint to achieving the
objectives and goals is the limited technical
capacity and experience in MPA
27
Regional Network of Marine Protected Areas - Master Plan
Objectives of the Regional
6. To conduct monitoring and research
Network of Marine Protected
programmes for the benefit of MPA
Areas
management.
7. To enhance public awareness for the
The objectives of the Red Sea and Gulf
marine resources and biodiversity of the Red
of Aden Regional Network of Marine
Sea and Gulf of Aden and the principles of
Protected Areas are:
sustainable use.
1. To develop regional capacity in all
aspects of MPA planning and management.
8. To protect the unique cultural heritage
of the marine and coastal environments of the
Red Sea and Gulf of Aden.
2. To provide for the sustainable use of
living marine resources.
Goals, Strategies and Policies of
3. To support local and national
the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
economic and social development.
Regional Network of MPAs
4. To involve local communities and
Each of the objectives of the Regional
stakeholders as partners in MPA
Network has its related goals and specific
management.
strategies and policies for achieving them.
These are outlined in Table 2 as shown
5. To conserve representative and prime
opposite.
examples of the biodiversity of the Red Sea
and Gulf of Aden.

28
29
res
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30

m
partn
s
co
4
s
econ
an
3. T
Objectives
t
a
ak
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o
T

m
T
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m
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tio
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31
of
R
bi
ex
repres
5. T
Objectives
T

A
e
odi
d Sea an
am
a
bl
d
o
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en
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con
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e
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tativ
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lf
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th
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protect critical h
p
m
b
m
tw
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m
th
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s
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e th
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r
of
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ad
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e
h
h
d by
n
rtles, sea b

in

tativ
e
n

relatin
to
th
occu
d
o
b

to
th
th
r
to
y
n
lik
i
and Policies
s
at rem
oy
sp
ccu
g
i
b
areas (i.e. in

f

g
s
o
m
d
e u
b
e Stan
e
f
e MP
on
h
h
in
een
iv
f
e
rrin
u
s
to be prov
ecif
e
t
s
e ex
ely
con
e in
rrin

e

a
n
term
s
n
n
h
clu
p
d
n
rin
g
e of
n
d
o
e
to
an
ecies
o
d
to
g
d
ertak
o
i
n
a
-
e
in
ertak
v
ed

m
am
A
g
alteratio
d
s
d
o
v
o
oth
in
r
tu
in
m
i
e
a
.
erv
in
n
e
d
th
rd
o
zo
rd
a
T
cau
p
e, u
n
u
g
d
te
e th
th
j
a
i
rtles, sea b
s an
e
r
Su
o
h
tsid
e
rich
l
t
a
th
es o
ories
r;
e co
rin
e
n
d
n
r
is
tion

s
aq
g
c
e MP
n
af
e
ha
se, d
n
e
hniq
e m
n
e
to
e
ided in
s.
rv
e th
areas
em
in
f
u
o
n
tu
d
g
n
eeds
n
g
an
v
all h
m
ter th
r
s
ey
b
e
in
m
acu
u
s
a
d
ad
to
i
a
e MP
s
a
d m
s
u
erv
g
rtles
A
Meth
t
m
a

s

e
n
a
e m
ltu
o
s
rin
an
e
n
t
to occu
im
;
lu
protectiv
e
th
a
areas
r
o
a
itu
term
areas
s
e to be con
a
a
w
g
portan
b
o
a

i
tio
,
e res
e
re f
g
u
rd
d
s
e
d th
a
tu
A
itats an
d
ps
to
s
e
tline
n
s an
n
e
ea birds
m
n
ral sh
o
i
(in
o
of
acilities) to
o
o
in
g
d
t
h
e
a
r
tically
f
e areas
of
s
h
w
u
e th
d
f
cu
m
pon
o
i
Man
n
r by
v
a
c
t
e zon
tlin
all h
d
m
t

in the
m
es n
h
b
lu
as
ith
o
d
m
h
rren
a
a
e statu
s
i
r
coordin
itats w
d

an
m
a
rin
ls w
i
g
elin
e
i
s
a
th
ed
u
ble activ
rin
im
o
h
M
n
o
s
a
i
a
erv
g
u
n
in
bitats
e v
o

e
t
d
t to
recreation
l.
activ
r
n
g
th
es, w
ces
b
Standar
e
tu
P
u
.
th
e

m
ith
d
portan
ith
a
m
e
i
reats to
a
s
b
A
m
d by
rieties o
e Stan
a
of
to be
f
f
rtles, sea b
i
rin
in
o
t
ber
e
tion
in
o
ed
a
th
allo
ith
ities in
o
m
f
th
larv
rb
e
ity
protectiv
m
b
sp
id
d Sur
m

t
th
w
of
d
m
e MP
f
h
e
a

w
a
e
d
ecies in
th
a
o
a
l u
e ex
m
ith
ls w
MP
al recru

a
com
f
m
r th
rin
a
e

dif
co
rd
e
eir
ad
s
d
n
vey M
m
.
A
e
ceas
.
s
th
Su
o
p
Resto
ag
cep
A
f
j

ith
i
rd
statu
a
es

ni
e relev
acen
e
m
iled
ls
to

ren
tu
e zon
m
rv
e to prev
t
to
in
s an
e g

tio
o
to
its
u
ey
by
rtles,
b
r

t
th
e
th
ed, u
e
b
t

n
f
s
thods
r


e
r
n
; an
d
d
w
th
ou
e
terrestrial
com
ity
Meth
o
r
atio
o
e w
e MP

a
a

i

m
ith
e
co
ps
f
n
m
n
ty
each
sea
d
nnua
d areas
g
t
local
a
M
a
n
s
n
ag
a
m
.
in
. A
in
en
rin
s
o
e
n
T
p
o
ters o
A

erv
g
anual
th
f
t an
v
a
u
e
d

en
r
b
local
cleared
e
g
n
h
s w
MP
s
l
to
e
eas

e
i
lo
l
e
ity
es
Man
y
cies
com
e
rd
d
m
MP
d
ch
p

sy
of


e
ith
A
f
b
a

im
s,
m
usi
to
stem
h
ty

areas
th
.
b
or dam
.
in
w
e
m
m
en

m
A
y
an
ng
red
i
pes
u
g
th
a
h
e MP
m
u

portan
s

.
a

n
p
t activ
h
l.
ere
d
t
m
s)
o
Natio
ls
ity
r
ock
o

a
m
u
aes


em
in
ce
in
n
th
th
t
m
n
ito
A
to

ectiv
a
e

to
t
a
s
g
clu
g
t
at
th
to
o
red

f
rin

r
o
e
ities
h
clos
is
th
n
o
etic

b
a
be
f
o
o
v

to
d
eir
are
d
b
h

e:
a
r
e
l
e
r
e
r
e
s
e
e
s







32

m
ben
prog
m
res
6
.

a
o
T
na
e
ni
earch
f
ram
o
ge
i
t
t
o
c
of
r
o
m
i
m
ng
an
nd
e
MPA
nt
e
s
d
uc

f
t
o


r t
h
e
m
T
m
in
T
in
res
T
o
o
a
dicators
o
im
o
n
prov
na

earch

ito
ge
estab
prov
s
rin
u
m
pport an

ide ref
g
e
an
ed m
an
th
nt
lish
d
a
at are u
g
d u
m
in
a
a
n
corporate th
e
i
ren
nst
a
n
o
g
d f
p
d
n
e
n
ce location
ertak
ito
m
d
e
e
istu
r
acilitate m
rin
n
f
o
t
practices
r
e
g
rb
m
reg
p
e res
ed
a
nc
b
r
y
s
e
u
o

t
l
g
u
h
a
ar ev
ram
.
lts
f
a
u
o
r
g
of
n
m
r
e
a
m
an
t
g
res
s.
alu
e
th
e
activ

s f
m
earch
is
e
a
tion
res
n
o
t
-
r k
r
ities.

s
earch
elated
an

of
e
d
y



in
R
res
local res
Prog
s
C
targ
Re
cen
Data collected du
o
Mo
ch
th
m
Mon
E
Oil sp
t
Dis
reg
Su
p
P
d
en
A
u
o
clu
e
m
oordi
f
M
s
earch
sul
an
e
a
m
e
be f
o
o
ll
u
m
ets
tralised
n
rin
rv
rm
e
c
u
llu
e
v
s n
i
d
l
ram
P
ito
g
p
itorin
r
h
l
t
ed
s
a
t
of
ris
n
du
s
A
e
r
e
ge
atio
eillan
ron
dev
itted
o
rin
.
o
ill co
a
tio

o
rg
o
in
an
earch
m
a
r
g
tu
nc
rbi
n
t ex
m
e
i
t
f
ram
es
n
t
e
n
o
rin
e
m
g
rtles
g
y
p
h
d m
s
g
r
, relatio
gul
dden
s
.
f
en
lopm
ce f

also
prog
M
n

relatin
f
r
ist, MP
u
e m

th
of
t
g
o
m
tin
r
o
tal as
b
ers
o
th
ni
a
om
m
,
u
lic aw
o

e res
be res
t
e

o
en
o
n
appl
t
i
n
itorin
.
e ev
o
o
to
s to
s
t
g
.
u
ea birds
e

r p
sh
Un
r
ns.
ram

ts
a
n
lan
i
i
n
rin
targ
l
g
s
A
c
t
u
ng t
a
to
o
ip
A
e

o
i
aren
ri
iv
e
lts
l d

h
y
s
w
d
alu
g
m
i
p
llu
p
staf
s
-
n
g
d
pon
m
a
d
of
g
prog
ers
o
a
et p
e
b
p
m
ith
i
v
res
a
b
tab
s
Ce
l
an
as
tio
n
o
en
g
in
ess p
an
th
s
tion
o
e
an
in
llu
f
an
s to
ed
n
in
to
t, in

ity
i
e
n
earch
bl
a
u
nt
in
th
c
itorin
d res
e m
se w
b
d m
each
tio
liaise w
r
an
th
e MP
ram
res
e f
an
r
o
lic aw
ap
e
b

n
cid
accordan
o
m
g
o
a
e
d
to
e w
o
m
ram
earch
earch

d rev
n
p
ith
g
p
rin
d
s
t
r produ
MP
e
e
o
itorin
i
to be added to a databas
ea-
b
r
l
e
n
A
.

e
in
aren
o
e
v
e
t
be dev
d
p
s to
a
ith
an
m
P
m
e
bas
en
ters o
i

r
e
prog
ers
ew
a
iate statistical d
A
lo
k
E
g
n
ess an
a
s to
to targ
p
e
f
an
in
ci
proces
d
RSGA
m
o
b
e
ce w
d in
e
d

n
m
d
rced
y
d
e
each
r
f
s
e
f
d
ram
g
e
d s
l
a
o
d
th
adj
e
oped t
a S
p
o
ecisio
d
ls
u
ith
o
r th
m
m
r
.
attitu
r
.
e
. Stan
ces
o
t
u
MP
s
t
et th
v
e MP
th
acen
e
e
n
e
d
t
.
e MP
s
s
at
A
d

lo
n
trate th
t
en
o

in
e relev
o
s
A
u
a
p
-
ts
s
t
d
m
t w
th
nnua
dard m
e s
to th
e
A
e
be
to be en
u
.
R
d
ak

s to
e
A
,
an
an
pport
e en
sig
t
e
atu
an
es f
a
ters
e b
m
port
l
e w
a
l
w
y
n
d
a
e
de
m
d of

a
in
o
s
d
d
n
a
e
rd
of
im
n
in
in
o
t
a
r its d
leg
an
f
n
w
n
itorin
ters
e
av
a
o
d
s m
co
h
teg
p

d terres
f
cou
n
r t
each

its arisin
c
ith
rp
w
l
su
i
ai
a
o
a
a
r
em
s
g
h
m
in
n
o
g
bitats
ated
rro
e
l
ation
ith
v
l
a
r
e
e R
a
r
tech
en
e
ag
m
bl
p

y
g
atin
u
a
each
in
lo
e
ed to
e
e
w
ted
n
n
e
ear th
r
m
e
, k
or adj
d
p
.
t
g
t
t
g
g
d
o
, i
e
n
ith
in
m
W
rial areas
i
f

on


lev
.
n
i

a
MP
qu
e
g
en
r
m
n
t
g
,
y
th
T

h
o
m
a
participate
con
al
e
a
an
es
f
h
t an
ere
w
e
e relev
acen
e
n
MPA
i
th
a
P
nst
A
ls o
d
to be u
i
a
s
g
E

s
e MP
e
u
R

an

h
leg
ters,
d
th
en
to requ
in
eries
t to th
is
rs
p
l
t
S
e
d
f
f
i
r
d
slatio
a
actm


a
N
an
GA
r
in
t
f
n
n
leg
als
i
o
e

A
o
g
t
o
d
e
r
tectab
s
s

.
in
n
t

m
o
e
ed an
p
Marin
e MP
t
i

t
w
w
MP
m

ecies
n
e
s
to
n
l
ire an
o

a

ation
ork
in
e

th
nc
an

t
.
be
i
n
t
e
h
A

b
t
le
,
e
a
s
d
A
,
e
d
e










33
Gu
th
e
m
h
u
8. T
s
pri
of
R
bi
res
f
pu
7
Objectives



nvi
e
n
u
o
e R
a
ritag
lf
rin
i
s
A
e
.
T

odi
r th
T
q
t
n
d Sea an
o
blic aw
a
o
r
u
o
ain
bl
ci
d
u
o
e
o
e
e cu
prot
v
f
d Sea an
nm
pl
en
r
e m
e
e 2 con
A
an
e
a
e
ces
o
ble u
es
rs
nha
an
d
e
d coas
f
ltu
i
ect
of
an
a
t
en
n
th
d th
y
rin
aren
nc
d Gu

t
s
ral
of

o
e
t
s

d
e
e
t
h
e
'
d
f
e
t

es

d
e

tal
lf
h

s

e

th
T
T
l
T
prog
relev
T
th
s
co
T
settin
th
T
local com
T
G
i
eir h
o
o
v
p
o
o
e p
o
protect s
protect areas
el
ecies

coordi
m
e
o
o
oals


dev
i
p
h
ram
p
con
n
prov
r
a
u
lete d
g
a
a
oods
o
n
b
.
tu

b
v
t
lic.

itats an
id
m
co
s

in
erv
ral
ide opportu
e
l
of
e f
e
n

m
op pu
of
a
each
e
u
p
m
t
i
beau
ecies
t
o
e
v

n
act
h
r th
p
w
e
ref
ity
d
th
e i
o
MP
rsity
bl
to
i
n
e
ty
an
i
th
at are cu
n
o
en
t
ren
i
f
e m
h

c
h
n
, an
o
of
n
d all s
aw
acilitate th
a
.
at h

ts o
A
ce location
ities
bi
f
each
a
f
t
a
in
d u
o
eco
aren
a
n
r th
f
t
v
ltu
ten
f
t
P
o
ak
e
s
s
MP
r th
a
of
rally
a
e t
eh
es
eir poten
sy
n
s
eir su
t
E
olders
cu
ce o
h
stem
e pu
prog
h
RSGA
s
A
e ou
w
ltu
s
e MPA
in
i
stain
g
ral
f
s, h
h
blic to appreciate
n
th
ich
an
.
ram
t
i
f
'
c
tial to edu
s
i
s
om
a
can
.
e trad

con
u
i
a
m

b
g
b
l
n
lo
es
n
e
itats
e u
i
t.
d
s
f
n

f
t
is
i
can
itio
g
of
ain
tu
o
s
-
e.
term
,
r
cate
th
rbed
ce,
n
t
an
t
a
h
h
l
e
d
e
e


con
Habitats
assessm
Social im
to
T
protected.
A
litterin
i
W
a f
c
A
o
i
T
con
dev
activ
v
th
topics
P
i
em
P
Strategies
n
b
r
o
n
n
ad
c
r
n
h
in
l
o
r
cl
h
a
n
eas
th
s
e
ud
ere MP
a
e
lu
e reaso
u
go
u
b
ploy
blic aw
cu
u
erv
en
itio
l r
c
s
e
e In
d
erv
loped
es
lic aw
ities
ve
v
g
e
s f

e
i
o
e
e
gui
of
an
related to th
n
d.
an
en
co
n
n
,
e
nt
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o
g
a
r
ees
n
f
pact as
a

tern
t
t p
u
l co
o
r p
s,
broch
e
tion
d ecolog
n
th
m
n
an
s f
aren
r
r
A
, local edu
aren
and Policies
d res
d
im
r
ag
y
e MP
t
e
w
e
s
u
et; articles in
o
f
an
o
d
o
nt
o
o
cess f
ed
n
l
are u
b
i
s
a
s
erv
f
n
lic aw
p
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Regional Network of Marine Protected Areas - Master Plan
34
Guidelines for Developing Master Plans and Management Plans
Guidelines for Developing Master Plans
and Management Plans for MPAs in the
Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Regional
Network
The purpose of this section is to provide
The Planning Team
guidelines for the planning and management
of MPAs in the Regional Network, where
such plans do not already exist. Specifically,
An important first step in planning the
this section provides guidelines for the
management of the MPA is to assemble an
planning process (including the inter-disciplinary planning team. The
establishment of a management team); the
planning team needs to be led by a project
development of zoning plans; research and
manager (who represents the agency charged
monitoring programmes; the content of
with developing the plan and implementing
master and management plans; community
the management) and include individuals
awareness; stakeholder consultation and
with both expertise in the relevant disciplines
participation; and sustainable financing.
and familiarity with the area. Members could
These guidelines have been adapted from
potentially include marine scientists,
accepted international procedures (Kelleher
ecologists and biologists, social scientists,
and Kenchington, 1992; Kenchington and
lawyers, economists and information
Ch'ng, 1994; English et al., 1997; Kay and
specialists. The terms of reference for the
Alder, 1999; Kelleher, 1999; Salm et al.,
planning team include the following:
2000) to suit the context of the Red Sea and
Gulf of Aden.
1. To assemble and synthesise all existing
information on the MPA and assess the need
for any additional information that is necessary
Effective establishment and management
for planning the management of the MPA.
of MPAs need to be based on a systematic
2. To identify the stakeholder groups within the
approach to defining management objectives
MPA and all relevant agencies that need to be
and their implementation. Planning provides
consulted during the planning process.
the foundation for decisions about how the
3. To develop a draft master plan and
resources of the organization will be
management plan for the MPA.
allocated and why. Management involves
4. To develop a community consultation
implementing those decisions (i.e. the
process for the draft master plan and
objectives of the management plan) and
management plan and incorporate the outcomes
includes all those operations that collectively
of this process.
constitute day-to-day management. The
5. To develop the master plan and management
outcome of the planning process is a site-
plan and a process for its implementation.
specific master and management plan for the
6. To review the outcomes of the monitoring
MPA.
programme and assess the need for changes to
management of the MPA.
35
Regional Network of Marine Protected Areas - Master Plan
The Planning Process
Resource Use Information
· the types of use made of the living
marine resources occurring in the area,
1. Initial Information Gathering
the locations where these uses occur and
The planning team assembles and
the intensity of use of each of these
reviews existing information on the nature,
locations
use and conditions of the area. This
· species caught by fishermen and any
information will be drawn from existing
seasonal patterns in species targeted
reports, scientific papers, previous surveys,
knowledgeable individuals, maps and GIS
· historical records of catch and effort for
databases. In addition, the planning team will
species caught
seek out stakeholders in the MPA and
· the types of fishing equipment used by
interview them to gather knowledge and keep
fishermen
them informed of proceedings. If field
surveys are required, they should occur at an
· the locations of fishing camps
early stage. The categories of information
· seasonal patterns in the use of living
necessary will depend on the size of the
marine resources
MPA and its level of usage, but will be
drawn from the following:
· areas important for recreation and
tourism and their levels of use
Bio-physical Information
· areas important for research and
· types, and extent, of ecosystems and
education
habitats occurring within the MPA,
including open water, coral reefs, other
· use of the area for navigation, shipping
subtidal habitats, beaches, rocky shores,
(including anchorages and ports), defence
sabkha, mangrove, seagrass, intertidal,
· areas with traditional and cultural
saltmarsh, wetland
significance
· the flora and fauna of each of these
habitats
Socio-Economic Information
·
· locations of towns, settlements and their
the structure and extent of coral
populations, within the MPA or adjacent
communities and other benthic
to the MPA
communities
·
· numbers of people engaged in each of the
the composition of fish assemblages
resource uses and whether they work
associated with the coral communities
seasonally or full-time in these activities
and other benthic communities
·
· the economic significance of the area for
areas that are unusually rich in
each of the uses
biodiversity within the boundaries of the
MPA, i.e. areas with a high diversity and
· the income derived by users of resources
richness in a particular, or several, groups
within the MPA
· areas used by fishes for spawning and as
· population growth rates and levels of
juvenile nursery areas
education
· the distribution of sea turtles, dugong and
· the use of customary or traditional
marine mammals and of habitats used by
management practices
these groups
· the role of local sheikhs in the local
· seabirds and the areas used by them for
community and in resource usage
feeding and nesting
· the presence of other significant

individuals (such as chief fishermen)
36
Guidelines for Developing Master Plans and Management Plans
Adjacent Areas
2. Surveys
MPAs do not occur in isolation from the
surrounding environment. MPAs with a
In some areas the existing information
coastal component are vulnerable to impacts
might be limited or unavailable. In this
from unsustainable land-use practices (e.g.
situation it is important to identify the
soil erosion leading to sedimentation) and
information gaps and, if time and resources
nutrient pollution, and MPAs away from the
permit, arrange for surveys to obtain the
coast are also vulnerable to unsustainable
necessary information. If surveys are
exploitation of nearby reefs and pollution
required the 'Guide to Standard Survey
events. However, experience in other parts of
Methods for Key Habitats and Species' will
the world has shown that even MPAs located
be used for surveying the bio-physical
some distance from the coast are vulnerable
parameters.
to sedimentation and freshwater bleaching
following large flood events. Although
All information collected during this
located outside the management preliminary phase, and also during surveys,
responsibilities of the MPA, the managers
will be entered into a relational database and
will reduce the likelihood of these events by
GIS. Maps will be produced to display all of
coordinating their activities with the relevant
the information.
agencies. The following information will
need to be collected:
3. Preparation of a Draft Plan
· major coastal landscapes and drainage
The planning team prepares a draft
patterns
Master Plan and Management Plan based on
· the uses of these areas and an assessment
the information gathered. The required
of the state of the land
content of these Plans is outlined in
Appendix 3.
· the human uses occurring outside, but in
the vicinity of, the MPA on land and on
An important step at this stage is the
water
elaboration of the objectives, goals and
general policies and strategies for the master
In addition to those groups already
plan. These are defined by the planning team
mentioned, the planning team will identify
to reflect agency priorities, as well as
the stakeholder groups who may have an
national and regional goals for biodiversity
interest in the management of the MPA.
conservation and sustainable use of living
These other stakeholders might include:
marine resources. These goals will be based
scientists, community leaders, non-
on the same broad goals outlined in this
government environmental organisations,
Regional Master Plan.
dive clubs and local businesses. The nature
of the interest in the MPA of each of these
At this stage the planning team considers
stakeholder groups is determined, along with
the range of strategies available to it to
their contact details. Stakeholders also
manage human use in the MPA in order to
include other government agencies whose
achieve the objectives and goals for the
management responsibilities overlap with the
MPA. These options can include:
management roles of the MPA e.g. wildlife,
conservation, fisheries, water, local
development, military, ports authorities and
· zoning
municipalities.
· the use of traditional management
practices, including the involvement of
significant individuals in the society
· collaborative and community-based
management
37
Regional Network of Marine Protected Areas - Master Plan
· public education and awareness
zones. The management objectives for each
zone type need to be specified, along with the
· research and monitoring
range of uses that will be permitted and
· environmental assessment for possible
prohibited within each one. The following
commercial uses of the MPA
guidelines for the development of zoning
plans are based on general guidelines (e.g.
· surveillance and enforcement
Kelleher and Kenchington, 1992; Kelleher,
· economic instruments
1999; Salm et al., 2000) and specific case
studies from the region (Child and Grainger,
· specific regulations, that might include:
1990; Pearson and Shehata, 1998; EPC,
seasonal closures of 1999; Gladstone, 2000).
ecologically important areas
(e.g. fish spawning locations,
The following are guidelines for
or when birds and turtles are
developing zoning plans:
nesting) or for the recovery of
damaged habitats
1. The zoning plan should be clear,
controls on the use of specific
simple and understood by the range of users
types of equipment (e.g.
of the MPA. Where users have little or no
dynamite for fishing; spear
experience in interpreting maps (e.g. some
guns; limitations on net mesh;
indigenous fishermen), the boundaries of the
numbers of fish traps). In
zones should be explained during public
some cases this will simply be
meetings. To aid compliance and
an extension of existing
interpretation, the boundaries of zones should
national fisheries regulations
coincide with obvious geographic features
quotas (including fisheries
(e.g. distinct headlands, the edges of reefs).
and tourism)
development controls (e.g. the
2. The zoning plan should use a system of
establishment of a minimum
buffering to minimise sudden transitions
set back for coastal
from highly protected zones to general use
constructions).
zones. Zones providing a high degree of

protection should be adjacent to zones
After the draft management plan has
providing a moderate degree of protection.
been compiled, the planning team prepares
the necessary materials to present the draft
3. A single zone type should be used
plan to stakeholders. This will include the
around a discrete geographic entity (e.g. an
management plan document, as well as any
island or reef). However, where enforcement
maps showing the locations of proposed
is possible, split zones may be appropriate to
zones and options for management.
support fisheries-related activities.
4. Development of a Zoning Plan
4. Zoning plans should complement,
rather than duplicate, existing regulations and
A zoning plan is a common component of
management practices.
management plans for MPAs and is
appropriate for MPAs that include a range of
5. Protective zoning should be considered
human uses, conservation values and
for areas within the MPA that:
conflicts. The zoning plan is used to separate
conflicting uses within the MPA and includes
a range of zone types, each with a specific
· are of world, regional or national
management objective. Box 1 provides
significance (e.g. areas important for
examples from the region of zoning systems
significant species)
and the management objectives of different
38
Guidelines for Developing Master Plans and Management Plans
· contain critical habitat (e.g. seagrass,
8. Areas recognised and/or used for
mangroves) or significant breeding or
reasonable extractive activities and have a
nursery sites (e.g. for fish, birds, turtles)
long-term significance for the livelihood of
local inhabitants should be zoned to allow
· contain representative samples of
these activities to continue.
characteristic habitat types. Where
possible, multiple samples or large areas
of each habitat type should be protected.
9. Traditional or cultural uses of an area,
This will reduce the risks of a single
that are likely to remain sustainable, should
sample of a habitat in pristine condition
be zoned so that they can continue.
being damaged by a catastrophic event
e.g. oil spill
10. Areas used as anchorages should be
· are important for non-extractive activities
zoned to allow most of the activities
(e.g. SCUBA diving, snorkelling,
associated with anchoring to continue.
However these zones should not allow for the
recreation) and will provide a focus for
disposal of wastes or habitat damage.
public awareness activities
· have a high connectivity to other parts of
11. The zoning plan should not impede
the MPA (via larval transport) and are
shipping access to recognised navigation
therefore likely to act as important
routes or to existing or potential ports.
sources of recruits to these areas, and
thereby sustainable extractive activities
(e.g. fishing).
12. Public awareness, monitoring and
scientific research are essential activities in
MPAs. Areas of the MPA that can play an
6. National and local development needs
important role in public awareness (e.g. areas
should be provided for in the zoning plan.
of beauty or high species richness that are
General use zones should be considered for
easily accessible) should be given a form of
areas of the MPA that were modified by
protective zoning. The zoning plan should
development prior to the establishment of the
allow scientific research throughout the
MPA, or to focus development activities (that
MPA. Areas of the MPA should be zoned as
might involve habitat modification) in
reference areas (i.e. from which all use and
specific areas that will have minimal impact
visits are excluded, apart from monitoring
on the conservation values of the MPA.
and research) to gauge the effectiveness of
MPA management.
7. Zoning of reefs and waters adjacent to
existing terrestrial national parks or reserves
13. The zoning plan should provide for
should complement the management
areas to be temporarily closed to all activities
objectives of these areas.
to allow restoration.
39
Regional Network of Marine Protected Areas - Master Plan
Box 1: Zoning Systems currently in place, or recommended, for MPAs in the Red Sea and Gulf
of Aden.
Ras Mohammed National Park Sector (Egypt). Source: Pearson and Shehata (1998)
Name National
Zoning
Management Objectives
Category
Ras
National
Park
Conservation of national and internationally
Mohammed
significant coral reef ecosystems and of representative
examples of biodiversity.
Tiran-Senafir National
Park
Conservation of national and internationally
significant coral reef ecosystems and of representative
examples of biodiversity.
Sharm-el
Protected
Coastline To provide for infrastructure and economic
Sheikh
development under strict control.
Nabq Managed
Resource
Conservation of ecosystems and biodiversity, while
Protected Area
providing for sustainable use by local fishermen.
Abu Galum
Managed Resource Conservation of ecosystems and biodiversity, while
Protected Area
providing for sustainable use by local fishermen.
Taba
Coast
Protected
Coastline To provide for infrastructure and economic
development under strict control.
Taba
Natural Monument Conservation of unique natural features.


Zoning Plan for Socotra Archipelago (Yemen). Source: EPC (1999)
Name of Zone
Management Objectives
Resource Use Reserve
Long-term protection of the biodiversity of the Socotra
Archipelago, while providing for sustainable use by the local
community.
General Use Zone
To include sites where habitats have already been modified
(occurring within the
by development and/or resource exploitation and to allow for
Resource Use Reserve)
the development of essential infrastructure.
National Park
To protect the unique natural habitats and landscapes; to
support the needs of the local community, especially
subsistence users; to protect representative examples of
biodiversity.
Nature Sanctuary
To preserve rare and fragile habitats, ecosystems, species and
unique landscapes in an undisturbed state; to provide
opportunities for future generations to experience and enjoy
undisturbed areas; to maintain natural attributes of the
environment; to enable the existing local community to
maintain their lifestyle.
40
Guidelines for Developing Master Plans and Management Plans
Farasan Islands Marine Protected Area (Saudi Arabia). Source: Gladstone (2000)
Name of Zone
Management Objectives
Resource Use Hima Relatively large areas in which the emphasis is on sustainable
resource management.
Biological Hima
Small areas set aside to protect critical habitats e.g. seagrass,
mangroves, turtle nesting beaches.
Natural
Hima
Small areas of high natural excellence established for the
conservation of particular species (e.g. waterbirds) and for public
education, low impact recreation and scientific research.
Special Natural
Areas important for the conservation of biological diversity, which
Hima
contain representative examples of biodiversity; habitat required for
significant species; fish nurseries.
Recreational Hima
Areas of high scenic and amenity value managed for their
educational and recreational values.


Aqaba Marine Park (Jordan). Source: Al-Saifi (2000)
Name of Zone
Management Objectives
Strict Reserve Zone
Preservation of marine communities in their natural state;
reference areas for monitoring and scientific research.
Beach Recreation and Safe beach recreation, by excluding fishing and motorised
Swimming Zone
boat activities.
Multi Use and Boat Safe boating passages and access to the beach for boats,
Access Corridors
without endangering people using the beach.
Diving and Snorkelling Safe diving and snorkelling, for the observation and study of
Zone
marine life.
Bait Fishing Zones
Capture of bait by licensed fishermen.
Beach Zone
Management of beach activities; development control near
beaches.


41
Regional Network of Marine Protected Areas - Master Plan
5. Review of Draft Plan
7. Monitoring and Evaluation
The planning team publishes or
According to the principle of adaptive
distributes the draft plan and seeks comment
management, the management plan is not a
from stakeholders. Stakeholders are invited
fixed document, but should be viewed as an
to identify alternative solutions that are
experiment that is varied according to the
consistent with the goals and objectives for
results of the monitoring programme.
the MPA.
Evaluation of the plan is undertaken
regularly (e.g. every 5-7 years) as a result of
information from the monitoring programme
The process of the review can consist of
on impacts of activities, usage patterns and
public meetings where all stakeholders are
the effectiveness of specific management
invited to attend and at which the draft plan
activities (such as zoning, development
is presented and discussed, or meetings with
controls, public awareness programmes). It
representatives of the different stakeholder
will also be necessary as a result of improved
groups, or written submissions. Whatever
scientific understanding of the MPA and the
process is used, comments of support or
activities occurring there.
objection to specific components of the plan
are noted and summarised and referred to
when assessing the need to revise the plan. A
detailed analysis of the review is produced
within a few weeks of the completion of the
public consultation.
6. Plan Finalisation
Using the report of the public
consultations on the draft plan, the planning
team meets to discuss and evaluate possible
changes to the plan. Substantial changes to
the draft plan should be discussed with
stakeholder groups likely to be affected and
the reasons for the changes discussed at
length.
After all the necessary changes have been
made to the detail of the plan, the content of
the management plan is determined by the
planning team (see the next section) and all
the necessary information is compiled. The
precise cartography of the MPA and any
zones are completed and checked. The plan
must also be checked by the agency's legal
officer. The final management plan is
submitted to the responsible Minister or
agency official for final approval or
endorsement as required.
42
Guidelines for Developing Master Plans and Management Plans


Box 2. Case Study: Management of Traditional Fishing in Nabq Managed Resource Protected
Area, National Parks of Egypt, South Sinai, Egypt.

The management of fisheries activities in Nabq Protected Area is conducted both by National Parks of Egypt
Environmental Officers and by Bedouins associated with the Park's activities for negotiation, follow-up and daily
data collection.

Nabq Protected Area, within the Ras Mohammed National Park Sector, is one of the most important fishing areas
of the Egyptian coast of the Gulf of Aqaba due to the presence of large nursery grounds including mangroves,
seagrass beds and areas of coral reefs. Nabq also has the largest lagoon system of the Gulf of Aqaba with a width
of about 1km. The Nabq fishing village of Ghargana consists of 12 resident families with nearly 70 fishermen.

In order to conserve the marine resources and to maintain sustainable exploitation within Nabq Protected Area,
the National Parks Sector has prepared a management policy for traditional fishing in Nabq. A management plan
began in 1994 after discussion and agreement with the Bedouins who had been informed about the long-term role
of the Protected Area and the potential benefits from management for the Bedouins.

In 1995, a survey was conducted of the Bedouin experience and exploitation of the area. Following this survey,
the National Parks Sector prepared a management agreement that included regulations concerning fishing
methods, equipment, fish catch, fishing location and period of fishing. In 1996, a meeting with all the fishermen
of Nabq was held in their village to adopt a new management policy of opening and closing specific fishing
grounds. The Bedouin fishermen accepted the new policy and about 50 % of the Nabq Protected Area coast has
been closed for fishing. Studies have shown the effectiveness of this management tool for conserving both the
fish stocks and also the coral reef ecosystem.

Since 1996, National Parks Sector management has been monitoring the coral reefs and fishes of the closed and
opened areas using visual census techniques. Fishing activities and environmental data are monitored daily.
Bedouins have been trained to identify fish species, to collect data and to report on changes in the environment or
on the importance of catches. A major result of this cooperation has been a better understanding of the fishing
policy amongst the Bedouins and the Bedouins have recently proposed reductions in the catches of some species
due to a slow turnover of the stock.

The involvement of Bedouin fishermen in the management of marine resources in Nabq has allowed the National
Parks Sector to implement its fishing management policy successfully within traditional fisheries.

This case study was prepared by Ayman Mabrouk, Mohamed El Helw, Marwan Abdellatif, Selmi Soliman, Auda
Ali, Ottayeg Auda and Mohammed Soubayel of the Ras Mohammed National Park Sector.


43
Regional Network of Marine Protected Areas - Master Plan

Research and Monitoring
predict patterns of connectivity and the
likely spread of pollutants
Research
· life history and population dynamics of
exploited species and, in particular, their
Information is required to support the
use of specific habitats at different stages
ongoing management of protected areas
of their life cycle or breeding
(Rodgers, 1991; Kenchington and Ch'ng,
· life history and population dynamics of
1994; Kelleher, 1999). Although information
species that form important components
is normally collected as part of the planning
of benthic habitats, especially corals and
process, research will also continue after the
seagrasses
MPA has been established to gather
information that will assist in continued
· biodiversity inventories
management. Research needs will be
· socio-economic significance of the area
highlighted during the regular reviews of the
covered by the MPA for local inhabitants
performance of the MPA. It is important that
and for the national economy.
additional information needs are prioritised
and focused.
Monitoring
Research priorities to support ongoing
Monitoring is undertaken in MPAs for a
management should be determined by
variety of reasons:
collaboration between managers and
scientists and ought to be reviewed regularly.
· as part of the management evaluation
Research commissioned by management
process; monitoring will determine the
agencies should include specific objectives
baseline conditions at the time the MPA
and the management agency should ensure
is established so that management
that the research has a sound design with
performance can be assessed
appropriate statistical analysis of the results.
The results (in the form of a draft report)
· to understand the natural variations in the
should undergo peer review prior to final
ecosystem so that impacts from human
acceptance by the agency. A project manager
activities can be distinguished from
within the management agency is nominated
normal, background variation
to initiate, oversee and manage the research,
· to assess the impacts of particular
and is also responsible for arranging peer
activities (e.g. establishment of a tourist
review and acceptance or rejection of the
operation or port).
final report. This is best accomplished
through regular liaison between the project
manager and scientists.
Long-term monitoring is a critical part of
the assessment and review of MPA
performance, i.e. in determining whether the
The contents of the research programme
MPA is achieving its goals and objectives as
will depend on the particular MPA (its size,
specified in the management plan. It is
management objectives etc.), the information
therefore essential that the monitoring
already available and the technical expertise
programme be designed during the planning
and funding available. Information that
for the MPA and that it commence prior to,
supports management and might not be
or at the time of, establishment of the MPA
available in the early stages of the planning
and be used as a baseline study.
process includes:
· patterns of water movement within the
The monitoring programme will include
MPA, and between the MPA and
the objectives of the monitoring, a list of the
surrounding waters, which can be used to
indicators to be measured, the methods, a
44
Guidelines for Developing Master Plans and Management Plans
sampling regime (i.e. where and how often
programme. This information can be
they will be measured), who will undertake
obtained from existing studies on the limits
the monitoring, how the data will be
of acceptable change and can be modified as
assembled into a database and reporting
more information becomes available in the
procedures.
local situation.
The following points need to be
6. The design of the monitoring
considered in the design and implementation
programme needs to be statistically sound
of a long-term monitoring programme used
and include adequate replication and an
to review and assess the effectiveness of
assessment of the programme's power to
MPA management:
detect specified amounts of change in the
indicators being monitored. This may require
1. Identification of the specific objectives
a number of pilot studies to determine the
of the monitoring programme.
amount of replication needed to detect the
specified change.
2. The choice of indicators that are likely
to be responsive to changes in critical
7. Staff undertaking the surveys need to
pressures and can be easily measured (e.g.
be appropriately trained and to receive
abundance of fish species, coral cover, water
regular training updates. Where possible, it is
quality, awareness and attitudes); critical
most desirable for the same team of people to
pressures can include fishing, tourism,
undertake the monitoring from year to year.
pollution and development.
8. Monitoring needs to be conducted over
3. The design of the sampling programme
a long time period using standard techniques.
takes account of natural variations in the
indicators being measured and is capable of
9. The intensity of monitoring may vary
discriminating changes due to human activity
from detailed monitoring of small areas by
(including management) from natural
specialists, to broadscale monitoring of larger
changes.
areas by trained non-specialists (e.g.
interested dive clubs). Where non-specialists
4. The appropriate choice of sites for
are used, they should receive appropriate
monitoring. Sites should be representative of
training prior to participating and their
the habitats found in the MPA; the design
performance should be assessed regularly.
should include a range of control or pristine
sites that are similar in all ways to the
10. Results of the monitoring programme
impacted sites. Site selection can proceed
need to be entered into a relational database
following a pilot programme, in which all
at the conclusion of each survey and checked
potential sites are identified, possibly through
for the accuracy of data entry. The database
the use of aerial photos, satellite images and
needs to be designed so that information can
charts. The number of sites chosen will be a
be retrieved quickly and analysed.
compromise between the amount of
information that is required and the resources
available to undertake the monitoring.
11. Annual reports of the monitoring
programme should be prepared to summarise
the results in relation to the MPA goals and
5. The limits of acceptable change in the
objectives. These results should form part of
indicators need to be discussed and agreed
the regular review and evaluation of the
upon at the beginning of the monitoring
MPA (e.g. at intervals of 5-7 years).
45
Regional Network of Marine Protected Areas - Master Plan
Box 3: Current Monitoring and Research Programmes in MPAs in the Regional Network

Farasan Islands Marine Protected Area (Saudi Arabia)
The management plan for the Farasan Islands MPA includes a monitoring programme, with baseline information
that has been collected on a range of indicators. The monitoring programme is designed to: (1) gather baseline
information on natural variations in the abundance of a range of indicators, against which impacts caused by
human activities can be evaluated, (2) test the effectiveness of management of the MPA. The following indicators
were selected: benthic lifeform coverage, Tridacna clams, coral predators and their effects (specifically crown-of-
thorns starfish Acanthaster planci, and Drupella sp. snails), seagrass coverage and fish stocks (Gladstone, 1994).
The monitoring was repeated in 2000 and revealed declines in the coverage of live coral (possibly associated with
a wide scale bleaching event in the southern Red Sea), a decrease in the numbers of recently dead Tridacna clams
and inconsistent changes in the densities of fishes (Rouphael and Al-Yami, 2000).

Monitoring and Research by the National Parks of Egypt of Five Egyptian Offshore Islands before
Opening to Tourism and Underwater Activities
An exploratory survey of five offshore islands in the Egyptian Red Sea (Small and Big Brothers, 26º 18' N, 34º
52' E, Abu El Kizan, 24º 56' N, 35º52' E, El Zabarghad, 23º 36' N, 36º 12' E, Rocky Island, 23º 33 N, 36º 15'E)
was undertaken in December 1997 by the Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency, Nature Conservation Sector.
The objectives of the survey were to evaluate the importance of natural resources in terms of their biodiversity
values and to provide baseline data for monitoring studies, prior to the opening of these areas on 30 May 1998 to
recreational diving.

The benthic ecology of these offshore islands, which were declared protected in 1985, had not been previously
investigated. The expedition of J.Y. Cousteau in 1951-52 focused primarily on the islands' geomorphology. A
particular study on coral bioerosion and bioaccretion was made in El Zabarghad by Hassan in 1997. In the present
study, line transects were laid on the leeward SE reef side of each island at 3 m, 8 m and 15 m depth along an
80 m line. Quadrats (2 x 2 m) were placed every 10 m along the transect to describe patterns quantitatively in
coral communities and to evaluate the variability of coral cover and distribution along a depth gradient.

Results of the survey confirmed that these islands are of great interest to science and to underwater tourism and
that the leeward SE reef side of each island is more suitable for mooring. The results of the survey confirmed that
in sheltered areas coral cover exceeds 60 % and on the leeward side of Abu El Kizan Island it reached 72 %.
There was also a relatively high cover of soft coral (46 %), probably due to its topography as a massive intertidal
reef flat totally exposed to currents and swell. The fact that the leeward sides of Small Brother and El Zabarghad
Islands displayed a higher percentage cover of hard corals than the other islands was probably linked to the fact
that these sites are relatively more sheltered and on gentle slopes, thus more suitable to hard coral colonies in
shallower depths (3 and 8 m). The richness of hard coral genera was highest in Small Brother and Abu El Kizan
and was lowest in Rocky Island. Depth was not a significant parameter controlling these coral assemblages.
Cluster analysis returned 2 clusters (based on pooled data on hard and soft coral cover percentages) and was used
to describe epi-benthic assemblages at different depths for each island.

The results showed that these pristine islands are of major interest to science and to underwater tourism. The
observations confirmed the literature although several trends are particular to these specific areas. More than
depth, topography and exposure to wind, currents and swell exert strong controls on coral assemblages. These
assemblages appear fragile when impacted by natural disturbances such as crown-of-thorns starfish outbreaks as
observed on Rocky Island.

The baseline data collected at the planned mooring sites of each island allows the monitoring programme to
detect impacts from anthropogenic and natural phenomena on the reefs. The future monitoring work will include:
a more specific evaluation of the carrying capacity of the sites for visitor numbers and related infrastructure (e.g.
moorings); extending the survey to all sub-habitats of each island including windward sides; to sample at a
standard series of depths up to 40 m for both benthic and pelagic resources in order to make inter-site
comparisons; to include associated species assemblages and comprehensive fish census monitoring with selected
key families or groups used as indicators; to monitor the crown-of-thorns starfish outbreaks and bleaching events
in the area.

This case study is an extract from Tilot. et al., (in press).
46
Guidelines for Developing Master Plans and Management Plans
Case Study: Monitoring Coral Reefs and Fishes along the Egyptian Coast of the Gulf of Aqaba
by the National Parks of Egypt, South Sinai Region

Monitoring is conducted by the National Parks of Egypt Environmental Officers with the assistance of
international researchers and institutions such Suez Canal University, York, Newcastle and Essen Universities.

Previous studies have been undertaken along the coast of the Gulf of Aqaba at Eilat (Israel) by Loya in 1972, at
Aqaba (Jordan) by Mergner in 1971, Mergner and Schumacher in 1974 and Bouchon in 1980. Quantitative work
was undertaken at Sharm El Sheikh and Ras Mohammed (Egypt) by Kotb in 1991, Medio in 1997 and Riegl in
1993-1994.

A first extensive marine monitoring programme was undertaken on the Egyptian coast of the Gulf of Aqaba
during the summer of 1996 by the Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (National Parks of Egypt) and the
Tropical Marine Research Unit of the University of York. This monitoring programme was initiated in reaction to
the very rapid development of several parts of the Sinai coastline and diving tourism in the past 5-10 years. A
total of 22 stations are sampled from Taba to Ras Mohammed along the Gulf of Aqaba. Basic information on
each site was initially collected and an overall assessment undertaken. Coral assemblages were then surveyed
using a photo quadrat method laying 3 transects at the reef edge and at 8 and 15 m depths, with 12 x 1 m²
quadrats at intervals of 5 m. Separately, quadrats along the same transect were surveyed for signs of coral damage
or mortality. Counts were also made of large sea-urchin species, large molluscs and, if present, crown-of-thorns
(Acanthaster planci). The monitoring was completed by underwater visual counts of fish belonging to selected
key families or groups along 200 m length transects at depths of 3 m, 10 m and 17 m.

Results indicated that the form and extent of development of reefs varied in a relatively systematic manner from
north to south. In the northernmost Gulf of Aqaba, the reef face has a sea bed which slopes more steeply away
and develops a coral cover often higher, up to 80 %, than on the upper reef face. By contrast, in the south, the reef
form changes in that below the upper reef face there is only a fairly narrow, partly sandy, reef terrace sloping
from 10-20 m. Around Ras Mohammed the fringing reef becomes even narrower and the reef face larger. The
results show no clear-cut classification of assemblages on different transects into separate groups, although there
is a slight tendency for northern and southern sites to cluster out separately from each other. This pattern probably
reflects the fact that while there is no marked pattern of dominance by different genera or species, there is a slight
tendency for reefs to be dominated either by Porites sp. and Millepora sp. or by Acropora sp. The overall hard
coral cover varied from 11 % to 64 %, which is comparable with the range of values found by other researchers
who have used quantitative techniques in the same region. There was a typical pattern of recently dead coral, the
greatest amounts of which were due to algal turf, sediment damage, physical damage from human activities and,
to a lesser extent, Drupella and to white-band disease.

The 2001 monitoring programme along the Gulf of Aqaba will include:
*An experimental protocol surveying the former 22 stations and additional ones when necessary (such as lagoons
and wadi mouths), using different techniques including video transects, in comparison to the photo-quadrat
method along 3 transects at 1, 8 and 15 m depths and fish counts along 200 m lengths at the same depths.
*A comprehensive survey of Marsa Bareika (inside Ras Mohammed National Park) chosen as pilot site for the
use of monitoring techniques in shallow waters (using diving techniques) and deep water to 250 m (using ROV
with a camera video coupled to a sonar system).

This case study was prepared by Dr. Nasser Galal, Dr. Mohamed Salem, Essam Saadalla, Belal Saleh, Yasser
Awadalla, Ayman Mabrouk and Dr. Virginie Tilot.

47
Regional Network of Marine Protected Areas - Master Plan
Public Awareness
· develop and strengthen support for
conservation and sustainable use.
Achieving the goals and objectives of
Information Needs
management requires the support and
cooperation of a diverse range of people,
· Stakeholders will require the following
including the people whose activities are
information:
being managed and the key decision-makers
in other government agencies. A public
· a description of the MPA, its boundaries
awareness programme is an integral
and its objectives
component of the management plan. The role
of the public awareness programme is to
· the significance of the area covered by
achieve the support and cooperation of
the MPA, including any unique features
stakeholders for the goals of the MPA, by
· the ways in which they will have to
providing them with the information to:
modify their activities and behaviour to
comply with management objectives
· "support the concept of the MPA
· the benefits to stakeholders from the
· comply with MPA regulations
MPA
· understand why those regulations are
· the costs of infringement.
there in the first place" (Kenchington and
Ch'ng, 1994).
Particular groups may require more
specific information about the MPA.
Support for the establishment and
Examples of these groups, and their
management of the MPA will be most
information needs, include:
successful when trust is developed within the
community and the community understands
· the wider community: the nature of the
the reasons for management and the potential
coral reef and other tropical ecosystems,
benefits from the MPA. This will occur when
including their requirements and
the community is informed at all stages of
significance; important species; the
the process and continuously throughout the
sensitivity of these ecosystems to human
life of the MPA. In general terms,
disturbances
management will benefit if the community is
· fishermen: the boundaries of the MPA
informed about the MPA and the reasons for
and zones; the potential benefits to
its establishment, the significance of the area
fisheries; specific management provisions
covered by the MPA and the management
relating to fishing
process. Support will also develop when the
community experiences the benefits derived
· tourist operators: the long-term benefits
from the MPA, in employment, income,
to them from sustainable use of the
business opportunities and a sustainable
resource they depend on; relevant zones
resource base.
and their provisions; more specific
information on the nature of the coral reef
ecosystem that they can deliver to tourists
The goals of the public awareness
programme are to:
· high level decision makers in other
relevant government agencies and at
· provide the information required by all
different levels of government (e.g.
stakeholders
national, provincial, municipal): the
wider benefits and outcomes for the
· solve conflicts of use within the MPA
country; especially linkages between the
and in adjacent areas
conservation of resources and natural
48
Guidelines for Developing Master Plans and Management Plans
systems; the long-term provision of
5. Understand the audience. The review
economic and social benefits
of management issues and stakeholders'
·
needs for information will identify the major
other government agencies: linkages
groups involved in the MPA and their
between MPA management and other
different characteristics, e.g. education,
forms of resource and environmental
awareness and attitudes. This information
management; the roles of MPAs in
can be used to design the content of the
strategies for integrated coastal zone
programme and the most effective way to
management; the range of activities
present it.
occurring within the MPA; the values of
the MPA that are relevant to the different
6. Develop specific strategies to achieve
agencies.
the objectives of the public awareness
programme. The specific strategies can be
Guidelines for Planning a Public
built using understanding of the community
Awareness Programme
(e.g. level of education and literacy, venues
for public meetings, the role of village or
1. A public awareness expert should be
religious leaders) and the range of subject
an integral member of the planning team and
matter that might be used as vehicles for
also a staff member of the management
information.
agency. The role of the public awareness
expert will be to plan, coordinate and
7. Develop a monitoring and evaluation
implement the programme.
process. The success of the programme in
achieving the goals and objectives will be
2. Determine the community's
assessed by appropriate monitoring and
information needs and the management
evaluation. This can be achieved by surveys,
issues within the MPA. The management
questionnaires and interviews conducted
issues will be determined from information
before the programme begins and again at the
provided by the planning team and also from
conclusion. The results should be used to
workshops or meetings with rangers and
evaluate the success of the programme and as
stakeholders. A critical step is to understand
a guide to improving or changing future
the background and underlying causes of the
programmes. Monitoring should be based on
issues, so that the potential contribution of
standard methods and a statistically sound
public awareness programmes can be
sampling design.
assessed. All stakeholder groups will need
information and these information needs will
Topics for Public Awareness
differ between the various stakeholder
Programmes
groups.
· the benefits to be derived from MPAs and
3. Determine the goals of the programme,
their importance in conservation
which will reflect the goals of the MPA.
· the concept of sustainable development
· the nature of the coral reef ecosystem and
4. Develop specific objectives for the
links between the health of the
programme. These will be based on an
ecosystems and human activities
analysis of the issues and the users' needs for
information and will be a specific elaboration
· the link between long-term conservation
of the programme's goals. A specific
of coral reefs and their value in
objective might be "To have local fishermen
generating income for developers
use the MPA in accordance with the zoning
· the value of biodiversity, rare and
plan".
endangered species
· regulations relating to the MPA.
49
Regional Network of Marine Protected Areas - Master Plan
Strategies for Public Awareness
these stakeholders (e.g. through declaration
Programmes
of protective zoning) or requirements (e.g.
environmental assessment, the need for
· use religious and tribal leaders as
permits) or controls (e.g. development
spokespersons
controls). Other stakeholders in the MPA
include a range of government agencies.
· hold public meetings, field visits, school
Successful planning and management of
visits and workshops
MPAs relies on the active participation of a
· information programmes on TV, radio
range of government agencies whose
and in newspapers
responsibilities coincide with the objectives
of the MPA, including fisheries, tourism,
· provide messages on handicrafts, such as
municipalities, development authorities, ports
t-shirts and mugs, postcards, stamps,
and shipping, and the military. MPAs will
brochures
have a greater chance of success if they have
· provide signage in prominent public
the participation of all stakeholders in the
places
planning and implementation and if they are
aware of the advantages arising from the
· target NGOs and involve them in the
declaration and management of a MPA
delivery of educational material
(Davey, 1998; Kelleher, 1999).
· establish a visitor information centre
There are a number of potential
· provide free information to developers
advantages for the MPA to be gained from
and conduct education sessions for the
involving stakeholders in management
staff of local businesses and tourist
(Kelleher, 1999), including:
operations
· more effective management, resulting
· use special event days (e.g. World
from the use of local knowledge and
Environment Day, Eid festivals) as a
skills
focus for education and awareness about
the MPA
· reduced enforcement costs and a
reduction in the burden of management
· use contact with the local community
for the management agency
during surveys and research as an
opportunity to educate and increase
· more effective means of preventing the
awareness about the MPA
entry of outside groups into the MPA for
illegal exploitation
· present papers at scientific conferences
and international meetings to inform the
· development of greater trust between
wider, international community about the
managers and stakeholders and the
MPA.
prevention of disputes between
management and stakeholders
Stakeholder Consultation and
· an increased sense of stability and
Participation
confidence in the long-term future of the
MPA, which will facilitate investment
decisions
Background
· greater awareness of the MPA and
A range of individuals and stakeholder
conservation within the local community
groups within the local community is likely
to be affected by the decision to establish an
· support for the integration of
conservation issues in other planning
MPA, including local artisanal fishermen,
decisions
industrial fishing operators and tourist
operators. These effects will occur through
some form of restrictions on the activities of
50
Guidelines for Developing Master Plans and Management Plans
· the overall development of a more
knowledge about the area. Local
participatory approach to management
stakeholders should be consulted at this
and decision-making.
stage because they can be a significant
source of valuable planning information
Stakeholder involvement in MPA
e.g. fishing practices and trends in catch
planning and management needs to occur at
and effort; the range of habitat types; the
two levels: consultation and participation.
locations of areas important for fish
Stakeholders should be consulted at various
spawning, turtle and bird nesting;
stages in the planning process - during the
traditional management practices. This
initial information-gathering phase, the
information may help focus subsequent
identification of issues for management and
detailed surveys. This early consultation
for comments on drafts of the management
will also engage stakeholders at the
plan. MPA planning staff may need to be
outset of the planning process and should
trained in the techniques of stakeholder
occur through a number of meetings.
consultation, in particular in the techniques
· discussions and negotiations during the
of communication skills, running meetings,
development of zoning plans and
resolving conflicts and dealing with difficult
management strategies through
people.
consultative workshops;
· the training and recruitment of local
Opportunities for Consultation and
residents as staff for the MPA, possibly
Participation
as community rangers, for technical
assistance (e.g. during surveys and
There are many opportunities for
monitoring), or as guides and extension
involving stakeholders in the planning and
officers
management of the MPA (some examples are
provided in Box 4). These opportunities will
· support for cooperative business ventures
depend on the management objective of the
involving the local community
MPA and the level of willingness of
· involving representatives of stakeholder
stakeholders to be involved. Some potential
groups as members of committees that
opportunities include:
provide oversight and strategic advice on
the management of the MPA. These
· preliminary surveys for the accumulation
might include steering committees,
and synthesis of existing information and
scientific advisory committees and
boards of management.
51
Regional Network of Marine Protected Areas - Master Plan

Box 4: Stakeholder Consultation and Participation in MPAs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

The following examples illustrate a number of different approaches, which reflect differences in the
usual level of involvement of the community in decision-making, and the support available during the
MPA planning process.

Farasan Islands Marine Protected Area (Saudi Arabia)
As part of the development of the management plan for the Farasan Islands MPA by the National
Commission for Wildlife Conservation and Development, interviews were conducted with individual
representatives of all stakeholders (including traditional and commercial users) about their use of the
MPA and their opinions of a range of proposed management options. The most numerous users of the
MPA are artisanal fishermen and meetings were held with groups of fishermen and with the
representatives of the fishermen from each village, the so-called 'chief fishermen'. These meetings were
especially useful for gaining additional information on their knowledge of important species and
habitats and traditional management practices. The approach taken, especially with the artisanal
fishermen, reflected the importance of the chief fishermen in village fishing activities, the mistrust of
the fishermen towards government management, the primary management goal of supporting the
sustainable use of the MPA by the traditional users.

Socotra Islands Group National Protected Area (Yemen)
An integrated programme of community consultation and participation occurred during the
development of the zoning plan for the conservation and sustainable use of the natural resources of the
Socotra Archipelago. Practical steps taken to develop public understanding of the zoning process
included the employment of extension officers, village meetings, an environmental education and
awareness campaign, and regular meetings with local authorities. A preliminary draft zoning plan was
developed by the project team (from the results of extensive scientific studies throughout the
Archipelago), which was reviewed at a technical workshop in Sana'a attended by community and
government representatives, international experts and the project team. The resulting draft zoning plan
was reviewed through 12 public meetings held throughout the Archipelago and attended by about 500
local sheikhs, muqaddams and government representatives. The draft zoning plan was amended to
reflect concerns raised during the meetings and most of the changes reflected the community desire for
a more conservation-oriented approach (EPC, 1999).

Gulf of Aqaba Protectorates (Egypt)
Having established the network of MPAs along the Gulf of Aqaba coastline of Egypt, there is a need to maintain
functional partnerships with financial investors in the tourism sector (the largest stakeholder group) and the local
Bedouin communities. Parks staff maintain continuous dialogue with all stakeholders, provide services (such as
free advice on minimising the environmental impacts of developments) and allow local Bedouin communities to
participate in management. The latter has occurred through the establishment of zones closed to fishing, which
are nominated and enforced by the local Bedouin fishermen (Pearson and Shehata, 1998).


52
Guidelines for Developing Master Plans and Management Plans
Sustainable Financing
Opportunities for Sustainable Financing
This is a very new field in the Red Sea
Financing of the operations of MPAs has
and Gulf of Aden because, to date, there are
largely been the responsibility of
very few operational MPAs and costs
governments. Economic constraints, and
associated with running them have come
other development priorities, have limited the
from government operations or international
amount of funding available for
donor agencies. The use of tourism as a
establishment and management of MPAs.
source of revenue for MPA operations has
This has been a global trend in protected area
been successfully applied in Egypt in the Ras
management (Geoghegan, 1995; Davey,
Mohammed National Park. In this case the
1998; Kelleher, 1999) and limits the ability
collection of visitor entrance fees to the
of MPAs to achieve their objectives.
National Park has allowed the Gulf of Aqaba
Managed properly, MPAs have the potential
Protectorates to be financially sustainable
to provide significant economic benefits to
and not to require a subsidy from central
the local community and national
government (Pearson and Shehata, 1998).
government. A sustainable stream of income
However, elsewhere in the region there has
can potentially be generated through ventures
been minimal development of tourism and,
in tourism, fishing, biotechnology and
with limited infrastructure, it is unlikely that
aquaculture that are ecologically and socially
such an option will be transferable to other
sustainable. The ecological integrity of the
MPAs in the Regional Network in the near
MPA and the social structure of local
future.
communities should not be jeopardised by
these ventures. Stakeholders need to be
Potential opportunities for sustainable
aware of the benefits for them that arise from
financing and cost recovery include:
the management they are financing.
· Fees collected from visiting live-aboard
· In developing a sustainable financing
dive boats that stop in the MPA
mechanism, MPA planners and managers
will need to address the following:
· A licensing system for commercial
operations using the resources of the
· the anticipated costs of establishing an
MPA e.g. tourist diving and fishing
MPA and implementing the
operations
management plan
· Fines for violations and infringements of
· the amount of funding that can be
the MPA regulations
expected from government to do this
· Payment for damages caused to resources
· additional funding that might be
of the MPA that act as a source of
possible from donor agencies in the
revenue (e.g. damage to coral reefs by
establishment of the MPA
ships' grounding).
· the identification of fund-raising
opportunities associated with the MPA
Capacity Building
(e.g. tourism, fishing, biotechnology
and aquaculture)
The planning and management of MPAs
· the need to ensure that revenue
are complex tasks requiring a wide range of
collected within the MPA returns to the
skills. In addition to formal education and
relevant management agency and is
experience in planning and management,
used for visible management activities
staff require regular training updates through
seminars, workshops and short courses. For
· a study demonstrating the economic
many MPAs in the Regional Network,
benefits arising from the MPA.
training will be required at all levels i.e. from
53
Regional Network of Marine Protected Areas - Master Plan
rangers to managers. It will be the function of
Training Options
the MPA manager to identify the training
needs of the staff. Also, for many MPAs in
· Short, intensive training courses
the Regional Network it will be necessary to
conducted regionally
employ new staff such as rangers, who will
require training in their relevant duties and
· Specialist courses through international
also information about the management
training organisations
agency and its operations.
· On-the-job training by participation in
surveys and monitoring
There are presently four centres in the
· Job exchanges with other MPAs in the
region that may provide some of the training
Regional Network and internationally
needs for the Regional Training Network:
Ras Mohammed National Park (Egypt); the
· Internet-based training programmes.
National Commission for Wildlife
Conservation and Development Training
Personnel and Organizational
Centre in Riyadh (Saudi Arabia); the Train-
Sea-Coast Regional Training Centre (Port
Structure
Sudan); the Fisheries Training Centre in
Aden (Yemen).
The planning, management and day-to-
day activities carried out within the MPAs in
Training Needs in the Regional
the Regional Network will involve a great
variety of tasks, skills and experience. The
Network
personnel required to run the MPA will
assume the core responsibilities, which
· General need for skills in MPA planning,
include planning and management, public
management, monitoring and evaluation,
awareness and community participation,
with specific needs for communication,
monitoring and evaluation, and ranger duties.
negotiation, conflict resolution, project
In addition, there are the associated support
management, development of annual
activities of information technology, finance
workplans, running meetings, public
and administration.
speaking, public relations
· Ranger duties and associated field skills,
The following Organizational structure
law enforcement
reflects the key management activities
undertaken. The number of staff involved in
· Marine biology, ecology and biodiversity
each section or department will depend on
·
local circumstances.
Conservation and resource management
· Programme evaluation and monitoring
MPA Management
· Socio-economic aspects of MPA
management
· Overall management and responsibility
for the operations of the MPA
· English language
· Strategic, long-term management of the
· Technical skills including SCUBA
MPA
diving, boat handling, mapping, standard
survey and monitoring techniques,
· Coordination and direction of the
identification of species of flora and
activities of each section within the MPA
fauna within the MPA, database design
management structure
and operation, GPS and GIS.
· Liaison with the lead agency and other
relevant government agencies
54
Guidelines for Developing Master Plans and Management Plans
· Representation of the MPA on advisory
Monitoring, Research and Evaluation
councils, stakeholder groups, community
groups
· Development and implementation of the
MPA monitoring programme and the
· Financial planning for MPA operations
evaluation of its results in light of
· Initiation and coordination of
management targets
management reviews and evaluations
· Development and implementation of the
· Coordination of staff training and
research programme of the MPA
capacity building.
· Provision of technical advice to
management with regards to the
Planning and Management
biodiversity and ecosystems of the MPA
and their relationship to human uses.
· Development of the MPA master plan
and management plan and their regular
Rangers
review and evaluation
· Coordination of the MPA planning team
· Daily local enforcement of the
regulations of the MPA
· Provision of planning advice to the MPA
management team
· Day-to-day liaison with the local
community, stakeholders and traditional
· Overall responsibility for assessment of
users of the MPA
impact of activities and developments
within the MPA and provision of advice
· Provision of information about the MPA
to MPA management relating to
to the local community, stakeholders and
development approvals
users of the MPA
· Development of options for sustainable
· Participation in monitoring and surveys.
financing of the MPA.
Information Technology
Public Awareness, Consultation and
Participation
· Management of computer systems,
databases and GIS facilities that support
· Development and implementation of the
management of the MPA
public awareness programme, its regular
· Incorporation of results from monitoring
review and evaluation
into the MPA database
· Liaison with community leaders and
· Provision of computing support to staff
stakeholder representatives
· Planning and implementation of staff
· Implementation of the community
training, and training updates, in relevant
consultation phase and incorporation of
aspects of information technology.
the results
· Development of opportunities for
Personnel, Finance, Administration
continued community participation and
coordination of implementation
· Financial management of the MPA
· Provision of educational programmes and
according to the budget designed by the
materials about the MPA for local
MPA Manager
stakeholders, community leaders, school
· Purchasing and travel
teachers and interested individuals.
· Recruitment process for new staff
· Administration of the MPA office.
55
Regional Network of Marine Protected Areas - Master Plan
56
Strengthening the MPA Network
Strengthening the MPA Network
Achieving the aims of the Regional
National Legal and Institutional
Network of MPAs will be greatly facilitated
Frameworks and Development of a
by strengthening of the legal framework,
coordination of activities and networking
Regional MPA Protocol
amongst the individual MPAs. This will
ensure that regional goals are being
1. The majority of countries in the region
addressed through local management actions.
have enacted legislation relevant to
A coordination and networking mechanism
environmental management and possess the
that facilitates communication and the
necessary institutional framework for
sharing of knowledge and experiences
implementing this legislation (Appendix 2).
amongst MPAs will strengthen overall
Most countries of the region have also
regional capability in MPA management and
enacted site-specific legislation related to the
the achievement of regional goals for
establishment of specific MPAs. Only two
sustainable resource use, development and
countries (Egypt and Saudi Arabia) have
conservation. In addition, regional
enacted framework laws to support the
coordination and networking will strengthen
establishment and management of protected
the management capabilities of individual
areas throughout the country. In Egypt, Law
MPAs. A coordinated approach to the
102 Concerning Natural Protectorates (1983)
activities of the Regional Network will
includes articles that: define a protected area;
produce substantial benefits to individual
forbid certain activities within a protected
countries and the managers of the MPAs in
area; control activities in adjacent areas;
the Regional Network. This will arise as a
specify the administrative body responsible
result of the proposed training initiatives, the
for enforcement. In Saudi Arabia, Royal
opportunities that arise from networking with
Decree M/12 of 1995 enacted the Protected
experienced individuals and exposure to a
Areas Act, which sets out the requirement for
range of management approaches.
a network of protected areas to be established
and managed and sets out the range of
There are many other MPAs in the Red
activities prohibited within all protected
Sea and Gulf of Aden, in addition to those in
areas. Such framework legislation, necessary
the Regional Network. It is essential that any
for the establishment and management of
strategies developed to facilitate coordinated
MPAs in other countries, is missing.
management of MPAs in the Regional
Network include all other MPAs in the
2. As Appendix 1 shows, only the
region, given that the same agency in each
following MPAs in the Regional Network
nation is responsible for management of the
have been established with appropriate
MPA in the Regional Network and other
legislation: Ras Mohammed National Park
MPAs not in the network. To this end, the
(Egypt); Farasan Islands Protected Area
following mechanisms for strengthening,
(Saudi Arabia); Sanganeb Marine Park
coordination and networking apply to all
(Sudan); Socotra Islands Group National
MPAs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden.
Protected Area (Yemen). There is a need to
develop national legal frameworks that
provide for the establishment and
management of the remaining MPAs in the
Regional Network, and provide a general
legal basis for the establishment and
57
Regional Network of Marine Protected Areas - Master Plan
management of MPAs throughout each
Coordination
country.
The following activities should take place
3. A regional framework for cooperative
to aid coordination between the MPAs:
management of the marine and coastal
environments of the Red Sea and Gulf of
1. The establishment of a Regional
Aden came into effect in 1982, with the
Coordinating Committee. The PERSGA
signing in Jeddah of the Regional
MPA Coordinator may act as Chair of the
Convention for the Conservation of the Red
Committee, which will meet annually in one
Sea and Gulf of Aden Environment (the
of the network countries. The Committee will
"Jeddah Convention"). The Jeddah
be comprised of national MPA Focal Points;
Convention contained a number of articles
scientists with leading experience in MPAs,
relating to the need for measures to prevent
sustainable use and biodiversity; experts in
and combat oil pollution. The Action Plan for
socio-economic and public awareness aspects
the Conservation of the Marine Environment
of MPAs. The terms of reference for the
and Coastal Areas in the Red Sea and Gulf of
Committee will be:
Aden was also signed in Jeddah at the same
time. The Action Plan outlined a programme
· to assist countries in implementing the
for environmental assessment throughout the
Protocol Concerning Biological Diversity
region to gather information on the
and the Establishment of Protected Areas
distribution of habitats and important species.
The Action Plan also outlined a programme
· to review progress in establishment and
of environmental management, which
management of MPAs in the Regional
included the establishment of MPAs as tools
Network and other MPAs in each country
for the sustainable use of living marine
· to facilitate, where necessary, the
resources. Much information has been
processes occurring in each country to
collected since the signing of the Jeddah
establish and manage MPAs in the
Convention and the implementation of the
Regional Network and elsewhere by
Action Plan and many MPAs have been
providing advice and by facilitating
established as a result (as outlined earlier in
access to technical support and resources
this document).
· to foster capacity building and training
for MPA staff
4. Efforts of individual countries to
establish MPAs in the Regional Network will
· to promote government and community
be facilitated by the development of a
awareness about the value of MPAs
regional protocol that provides a legal
framework for governments to prepare
· to act as a management committee for the
legislation for the establishment and
activities of the Regional Activity Centre
management of MPAs. The proposed
for MPAs
Protocol Concerning Biological Diversity
· to oversee the establishment of linkages
and the Establishment of Protected Areas for
between the Regional Activity Centre and
the PERSGA region will provide this legal
other similar centres throughout the
framework. The protocol will oblige
world
contracting states to protect regionally
representative areas, as well as areas that are
· to initiate, monitor and review the
unique and highly sensitive. The
implementation of the other networking
implementation of the proposed protocol will
and coordinating mechanisms.
significantly strengthen national and regional
efforts to establish the Regional Network.
2. The establishment of a Regional
Activity Centre for MPAs at the PERSGA
headquarters in Jeddah. The PERSGA MPA
Coordinator may be the Coordinator of this
58
Strengthening the MPA Network
Regional Activity Centre. The functions of
1. The establishment of an Association of
the Regional Activity Centre will be:
Red Sea and Gulf of Aden MPA Managers
and Scientists, to function as an active,
· to provide assistance to countries in
professional society. The Association will
establishing and managing their Network
stage an annual conference and meeting at
MPAs and other MPAs. In particular, the
which management, monitoring and research
staff of the Regional Activity Centre will
relating to MPAs are presented and
provide advice on the identification and
discussed, and a series of proceedings
selection of MPAs, the development of
produced.
management plans, monitoring and
research programmes, and community
2. The establishment of an MPA web site
education and awareness programmes
in the Regional Activity Centre that will
· to prepare reports and technical studies
serve as a source of information for, and
on MPAs, as directed by the Regional
about, MPAs in the region. The web site will
Coordinating Committee
contain links to all the MPAs in the Regional
Network and other national MPAs, an
· to develop, coordinate and provide
electronic document database with reports
training programmes and staff exchanges;
and publications and links relevant to the
· to provide the physical location and
management of MPAs. For countries with
resources for the web page and electronic
restricted access to the Internet the Regional
databases
MPA Coordinating Committee will act as the
vehicle for securing international
· to provide a regional library of resource
development funds to assist in the
material on MPAs
establishment of these facilities.
· to carry out other functions as directed by
the Regional Coordinating Committee.
3. The establishment of a regular MPA
feature in the PERSGA newsletter
3. The establishment of MPA Focal
Al Sanbouk. This newsletter is distributed
Points in each country. The MPA Focal
throughout the region to marine scientists
Points will be appointed by the relevant
and environmental managers and is an
national authority in each country that is
important medium for regional information
responsible for MPA establishment and
exchange. This MPA feature could also
management. They will sit as members of the
contain some of the information housed on
MPA Coordinating Committee and will act
the MPA web page, thereby supporting
as the national contact person for the
MPAs in countries with limited/no access to
PERSGA MPA Coordinator. MPA Focal
the Internet.
Points will provide the PERSGA MPA
Coordinator and staff of the Regional
4. The preparation, and update as
Activity Centre with technical and
necessary, of a booklet/CD on the Regional
management information on MPAs in their
MPA Network and other MPAs in the region.
country. The Focal Points will be official
Topics to be covered will include: the
representatives of the national authority for
biodiversity of the Red Sea and Gulf of
nature conservation, senior MPA managers
Aden; the role of MPAs in sustainable
or planners.
resource use and conservation; the unique
characteristics of the MPAs in the region;
Information Exchange
current management activities within the
MPAs. Distribute the booklet/CD to all
environmental management agencies, NGOs,
The following activities will be
major stakeholder groups and donor agencies
undertaken by the Regional Activity Centre
in the region. Funding for production and
for MPAs:
59
Regional Network of Marine Protected Areas - Master Plan
distribution could come from stakeholder
2. The formal training requirements of
groups (e.g. tourism, fishing operations).
MPA planners and managers will be
identified by the Coordinating Committee.
5. The development and publication of a
Potential training priorities include the
directory of regional specialists in MPA
development of master and management
planning and management, socio-economics,
plans, processes of public consultation and
living marine resources and their
participation, sustainable financing, GIS, the
management, biodiversity, public awareness,
use of web pages as a support tool for
GIS, research and monitoring.
management and community awareness.
Potential international training initiatives that
could be investigated include IW: Learn;
6. The development of collaboration with
Train-Sea-Coast; the Strategic Initiative in
the proposed Protected Areas Learning
Coastal Area Management.
Network. This web-based resource will be a
collaboration of the World Resources
Institute (WRI), the World Conservation
3. The Regional Activity Centre should
Union (IUCN) and the United Nations
assess the infrastructure requirements of the
Education, Scientific and Cultural
relevant agencies in each country and, with
Organization (UNESCO). The aim of the
the support of the Coordinating Committee,
Learning Network is to provide current
secure international funding to provide it.
information via the Internet on management
issues in protected areas.
Wider Linkages
Capacity Building and There are a number of regional
Institutional Strengthening
networks of MPAs in other parts of the
world that have been established for some
1. Staff exchanges are an important
time and have experience in cooperative
means of training and of gaining experience
and coordinated activities. These include
in alternative approaches to MPA planning
networks in the Mediterranean, Wadden
and management. A process of exchanging
Sea and the wider Caribbean. The Regional
staff amongst MPAs in the region, and with
Activity Centre, under the guidance of the
MPAs in other regions, should be formulated
Coordinating Committee, should establish
and implemented by the Coordinating
relationships with each of these networks
Committee. As a first priority, MPA planners
and arrange for exchange visits by staff of
and managers from countries with limited
the Regional Activity Centre to investigate
experience (Djibouti, Somalia, Sudan and
the operation of these networks and their
Yemen) should undertake supervised
associated activity centres.
apprenticeships in MPAs in Egypt, Jordan or
Saudi Arabia. Subsequently, a programme of
An Expanded Network
work placements should be organized with
MPA management agencies in other
countries outside the region (e.g. with the
1. The original concept for the Regional
Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority in
Network was for a network of MPAs that
Australia) as a means of exposing staff to
were representative of major habitats and
alternative approaches to management and
bio-regions throughout the Red Sea and Gulf
technological developments. The of Aden. The Regional Network includes a
Coordinating Committee should source
single MPA from each participating country
funding for this programme from regional
in the region. In addition, there are many
and international donor agencies e.g. Islamic
other MPAs in each country that represent
Development Bank, European Union.
nationally significant examples of unique and
pristine habitats and areas important for
economic development. These additional
60
Strengthening the MPA Network
MPAs are not included in the activities of
Regional Network. With the development of
this Master Plan, although the guidelines are
experience and capabilities of staff in the
applicable to any MPA.
Regional Activity Centre, and in the MPAs
of the Regional Network, the activities of the
2. The long-term management of all
Regional Activity Centre should be expanded
MPAs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden will
to include all MPAs in the Red Sea and Gulf
be facilitated by their inclusion in the
of Aden. The timing for this should be
Regional Network. As a first step, the
determined by a review of the activities of
Regional Activity Centre should be
the Regional Activity Centre by the
established for MPAs in the representative
Coordinating Committee.
61
Regional Network of Marine Protected Areas - Master Plan
62
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65
Regional Network of Marine Protected Areas - Master Plan
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An integrated environmental assessment of
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Fully-protected Marine Reserves: A Guide.
PERSGA (Regional Organization for the
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Conservation of the Environment of the Red
ROUPHAEL, A.B. & AL-YAMI, H. 2000.
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Washington, IUCN.
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Should They Be and Why Should They Be
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SHEPPARD, C., PRICE, A. & ROBERTS, C.
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Representative System of Marine Protected
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Red Sea Coastal and Marine Protected Area
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Cairo, Tourist Development Authority.
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STAFFORD SMITH, M.G. & WRATHALL, T.J.
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National Criteria for the Identification and
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Exploratory coral reef assessment of the
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marine reserves using habitats and species
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assemblages as surrogates for biological

diversity. Ecological Applications 9: 691-
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Criteria for Protected Areas in the Wider

Caribbean Region: Identification, Selection,
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YURICK, D. 1995. Development of a Marine
VANZELLA-KHOURI, A. 1998. Coral Reef
Protected Area System Planning Regional
Conservation in the Wider Caribbean
Framework in Canada. In: Towards a Marine
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http://www.apecnetwork.org/marine_plan.html
Caribbean Seas Programme
http://www.unep.org/regseas/carib.htm
http://www.cep.unep.org
Common Guidelines and Criteria for Protected Areas in the Wider Caribbean Region:
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http://www.biodiv.org/index.html
Convention on Biological Diversity: Jakarta Mandate
http://www.biodiv.org/jm.html
Coral Health and Monitoring Program (NOAA)
http://coral.aoml.noaa.gov/index.html
Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network
http://coral.aoml.noaa.gov/gcrmn/
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http://iucn.org/
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http://www.unep.org/regseas/medu.htm
http://www.unepmap.org
Mediterranean: Regional Activity Centre for Specially Protected Areas
http://www.rac-spa.org.tn/
PERSGA: Regional Organization for the Conservation of the Environment of the Red Sea and
Gulf of Aden
http://www.unep.ch/seas/main/persga/red.htm
Reef Check
http://www.reefcheck.org/
Wadden Sea Programme
http://cwss.www.de/trilat/brochure/brochure.html
World Commission on Protected Areas
http://wcpa.iucn.org/wcpainfo/aboutwcpa.html
68
Appendices

Appendices


69


J
E
E
Dj
C
o
gyp
gyp
rdan A
o
ibouti
untry P
t
t
APPENDIX 1: Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Representative Netw
G
R
reefs
Gubal
S
I
Par
N
Moham
Ra
Frères and
I
s
l
q
t
raits of
lands and
i
a
a
es des Sept
aba
f
t
k
tional
s
s
r
u

Si
area
otected

n

y

coral
m
a
n
e
d
7
Undefined
480
Undefined
k
m
k
Si

leng
m

z
²
e

th
Declared
Proposed
1992
Sug
declared
Y
g
e
e
sted
ar

of the Gulf of Aqaba
associated fauna at the northern
w
Com
nesting
associated fauna, turtle and bird
div
coast with well-
Group of islands off
env
fish,
Coral reef, m
Aden, nesting
betw
inv
reef and rich reef-
m
and adj
Group
ith a rich and div
a
e
i
e
ng
p
rse coral reefs and rich
ronm
rtebrate fauna at the j
een
rov
lex and div

of hig
region
turtles, im
ental education
the
e
acent coastal stretch w
Maj
-
f
ring
R
o
seabirds
h
a
e
aspect, rock
a
r habi
ng
d Sea and the G
ed bay
l sign
e
rov
a
rse fring
ssociated fish
dev
t
e
if
a
portant for
, sandy
,
div
ican
t
s
e
loped
the
and
e
rse
e
ce
ing
rse
y
western

unction
islands


areas,
u
ork
reef-
reefs
reef-
coral
lf of
and
and
tip
ith
of Marine Protected Areas
pressure
dev
pressure,
recreation
R
fishing
anchor dam
pressure,
R
pressure
H
v
by
siltation caused
fishing
pressure,
R
eef fisheries,
ecreation
e
i
ecreation
Im
g
ssels
passing
e
h
con
lopm
pact
recreation

,

f
licts
s and
ent
a
g
e
,

proj
GEF-
EU proj
G
EU proj
Hig
None
E
Management/
F
ect
h, supported by
-
J
E
P
o
gyp
r
r
ects
ect
ojects
d
a

n
t
a

n
d



S
Ar
Saudi
Ar
Saudi

E
A
Saudi
o
gyp
r
m
a
a
abia/
b
b
a
i
i
lia A
a
a
t



Saba Wanak
I
Saad ad-
A
Protected
I
Far
Ba
(Waj
Munay
Shar
Habban and
Shar
Waj
Tira
S
s
s
lands,
i
r
lands
t
bat
ea
rait of
nk
a
san
)
h
m
m
h Bank
n




b
irah
D
in
&

,

300 k
ca.
3310
2840
section
park
N
Moham
Ra
Undefined
a
tional
s

m
m
k
k
m
m
²
a
m
²
²
rine
e
d
S
1996
Proposed
E
E
Proposed
u
gyp
x
g
ist for
g
e
t
sted

seabirds and probably
v
Aden,
swam
w
G
probably
L
endem
seabirds, two species
beds,
m
archipelag
T
sites, k
Rhizophora
m
associated fauna, seag
entire
m
m
Extensiv
dug
A
transition
w
I
e
s
ry
a
u
o
a
e
a
o
a
q
ith div
lands and extensiv
ter
lf
w
ng
rrestrial
ng
st extensiv
inland
aba and R
ong
im
-
p and m
of A
ly
rov
rov
i
Rhizophora
courses, larg
ing
c g
e
m

y
portant nesting

e
d
larg
a
area for dug
e
R
e
e

a
s, coral reefs,
rine m
o of coral
s (
rse reef associated fauna
e
coast and offshore islands,
en, coastal area w
z
), turtles, bird nesting
d Sea, div
shallow water area with
area betw
m
e
a
est
a
lle
and coastal reserv
e coral reef sy
e
ng
ng
d Sea,
rov
coral reef area in
rov
Avicennia
and
a
e
m
turtles
area
est salt-
e
islands w
of
m
ong
turtle
een G
e coral reefs
a
site
m
ls, nesting
s
rass
Avicennia
e
in
a
and
rse reef
ng
seag
Gulf
islands,
stem
nesting
m
u
ith 27
rov
a
beds,
lf of
rsh,
rass
for
ith
e

of
s,
e,
of
in
,
,



corals
collection of
collection,
F
increase
expected to
pressure
recreational
dev
Fi
e
turtle and bird
Collection of
from
div
used by
Part of the
i
ggs
s
shi
h
e
e
i
n
lopm
n
,
f
Eg
rs/tourists
g,
g
i
,
s
e

h
y
ent,
i
p
n
t
g
area
gg

None
Mar: low
T
None
None
e
rr: hig

h



72


Yem
Y
Sudan Muk
Sudan Sang
e
m
e
e
n Belhaf
n Socotra
B
A
Protected
N
Group
I
Ba
Dung
I
(Mag
Par
N
Marine
s
s
i
r
a
lands
land and
a
r A
ea
tional
y
k
tional

k

li A
onab
arsam
aneb
a
war
r
and
ea
)

Undefined
3625
300
12
k
k
m
k
m
²
m
²
²
Proposed
1996
Proposed
1990
lak
area, bird and turtle nesting
extensiv
aspect islands, scenic coastline,
Coastal stretch and g
biota
pristine m
endem
terrestrial plant and
I
oy
entire
schools
Coral reefs, whale
ma
associated fauna, shark
and com
Atoll-
s
land g
ster beds
e
mma
w
lik
ith m
i
sm
R
e coral reefs and rich
e
of m
l
s
p
e
; div
r
d
,
ma
lex coral reefs,
a
a
oup with
reef with hig
ng
rine env
S
ea, bird nesting
a
n
nta ray
rov
t
a
e
r
rse and
e
a
s
y
s
i
s
ronm
shark

k
r
oup of
nown in the
outstanding
div
h
s
ly
ents and
s
, m
,
e
div
,
crater
fishing
rse
larg
anim
sites,
larg
a
hig
rine
reef
e
ely
est
rse
al
h




activ
fishing
dev
T
Fi
oy
Shark
boats
from
anchor dam
pressure,
R
ourism
shi
ecreation
ster culture
e
ities
lopm
n
tourist
g
fisheries,

GEF-

ent,
a
g
e

None
biodiv
None
Low
Socot
e
rsity
r
proj
a
ect

APPENDIX 2: National Legal and Institutional Frameworks for Marine
Protected Areas in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Country
Legal Framework
Institutional Framework
Djibouti
Decree on the Protection of Sub-Marine
Ministry of Housing, Urbanism,
Fauna and Flora (1980); Framework
Environment and Land-Use Planning
Law on the Environment (2000)
Egypt
Law Concerning Natural Protectorates
Egyptian Environmental Affairs
102 (1983);
Agency;
Law Concerning Protection of
Tourism Development Authority
Environment 4 (1994)
Jordan
Aqaba Region Authority Law No. 7
Aqaba Regional Authority
(1986) and Marine Park by-law
(pending);
Aqaba Region Authority Board of
Directors Decree No. 5 (1997)
Saudi Arabia
Royal Decree M/22 establishing the
National Commission for Wildlife
National Commission for Wildlife
Conservation and Development;
Conservation and Development (1986);
Ministry of Agriculture and Water
Royal Decree M/12 Protected Areas Act
(1995); Royal Decree M/19 concerning
regulations for catching, investing and
protecting marine resources (1990)
Somalia
No relevant existing legislation. The
Ministry of Fisheries and Coastal
need for legislation relevant to MPAs
Resources;
has been highlighted in Marine and
Ministry of Marine and Coastal
Coastal Resources in Somaliland: A
Resources (proposed)
Policy White Paper (2000)
Sudan
Sudanese Fishery Ordinances and
Ministry of Environment and Physical
Regulations (1937, 1975, 1978);
Development (Higher Council for the
Environmental Health Act (1975)
Environment and Natural Resources);
Ministry of Interior (General
Administration for Wildlife
Conservation);
Ministry of Animal Wealth (Marine
Fisheries Administration);
Marine Fisheries Research Centre;
Wildlife Research Centre
Yemen
Prime Ministerial Decree No. 4 of 1996
High Committee for Development of
(establishing Socotra as a protected
Socotra;
area);
Ministry of Tourism and Environment
Fisheries Law No. 42 of 1991
(Environment Protection Agency);
Ministry of Fish Wealth;


73

APPENDIX 3: Contents of Site-Specific Master Plans and Management
Plans

The Master Plan for each of the MPAs in
should be described (where relevant):
the network (where these do not exist
islands and their fringing coral reefs,
already) will have the following structure:
coral reefs. Issues observed for any of
these systems should also be described in
A. TITLE PAGE
this section
· Flora: the range of flora to be described
· the name of the area
will depend on whether the MPA
· the words Master Plan
includes a terrestrial component, but
·
(where relevant) should include
the name of the responsible agency
microalgae, macroalgae, seagrass,
· the date of Plan preparation
intertidal vegetation, terrestrial
vegetation. The issues for flora in the
B. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
MPA should also be described here
· Fauna: the range of fauna to be described
· Objectives
will depend on whether the MPA
· Goals
includes a terrestrial component, but
· Management policy
(where relevant) should include subtidal
· Policy definitions for Master Plan,
and intertidal invertebrates, terrestrial
Management Plan and the zones used in
invertebrates, fishes, amphibians and
the Plan
reptiles, birds, marine and terrestrial
mammals. This description will include
the locations of areas important for
C. DESCRIPTION OF THE AREA
particular fauna (e.g. turtle nesting
beaches, bird nesting locations), and any
·
The area of the MPA will be described
issues for fauna
under the following headings:
· Non-indigenous and genetically modified
·
Location, size, topography
species, that are within the MPA or have
·
Geology and soils (where the MPA
been introduced as part of some human
includes a terrestrial component)
activity
·
Climate: causal factors, precipitation,
· Resource uses: these will depend on the
temperature, evaporation
range of uses of the MPA and whether
·
Hydrology: salinity, water temperature,
the MPA includes a terrestrial
tidal patterns, currents
component. Uses that are most likely to
·
Habitats: where the MPA includes a
be included in this section include
terrestrial component the following
fishing, defence, recreation, shipping,
should be described (where relevant):
navigation, cultural uses and tourism.
locations of bedrock surfaces and
Other uses that might occur within the
escarpments, sand sheets and sand dunes,
MPA include seabird egg collecting,
sabkhas. The following intertidal systems
hunting, education, research, curio
should be described (where relevant):
collecting and aquarium fish collecting.
sand flats, sandy beaches, rocky shores,
saltmarshes and mangroves. The
D. GENERAL POLICIES AND
following nearshore subtidal ecological
STRATEGIES
systems should be described (where
relevant): macroalgal beds, seagrass
This section lists the general policies and
beds, fringing reefs, patch reefs. The
management strategies that apply throughout
following offshore ecological systems
the MPA for each of the topics in the
74

previous section (i.e. habitats, flora and
· Defence, strategies for liaising with
fauna, resource use). It also describes the
defence authorities and any requirements
content of the specific management strategies
for management of defence activities
to be implemented in the MPA. The
within the MPA (e.g. timing of exercises
following headings will be covered:
in relation to nesting by sensitive species)
· Oil spill contingency, the role of the
· Biodiversity, for each of the components
MPA management in the event of an oil
identified in Section C
spill
· Resource use, for each of the uses
· Sustainable financing, mechanisms for
identified in Section C
sustainable financing of the operations of
· Zonation, a description of the zones used
the MPA.
in the MPA, their management
objectives, management responsibilities
E. THE MANAGEMENT PLAN
and the activities allowed and prohibited
within each zone
The Management Plan is a specific
· Cultural heritage, the policy of the MPA
document that outlines strategies for
with regards to the protection of cultural
implementing the objectives, goals and
heritage within the MPA and the
general policies in the Master Plan. The
strategies that will be used to achieve this
Management Plan has a life of around five
· Capacity building and technology
years and is evaluated and amended,
transfer, the policy of the MPA towards
following the results of the monitoring
staff capacity building, training needs, the
programme. The Management Plan includes
role of technology in the management of
the following contents:
the MPA and strategies for incorporating
technology into management
1. Management of Natural Resources
· Community consultation and
1.1 Biodiversity, in which the specific
participation, the rationale for involving
management strategies are described for each
stakeholders, the means by which
component of biodiversity within the MPA
stakeholders will be consulted and the
stages of the planning process when this
1.2 Resource Use, in which the specific
will occur and the means by which
management strategies are described for each
stakeholders will participate in
type of resource use occurring within the
management
MPA
· Research and monitoring, the
significance of research and monitoring
2. Zonation
in management of the MPA and topics
The zones used in the MPA are specified,
for research
along with their locations (via a map) and a
· Public awareness and education, the role
table of the activities permitted and
of public awareness and education in
prohibited in each zone.
MPA management and the strategies that
will be implemented
3. Research and Monitoring
· Infrastructure, the infrastructure required
3.1 Research: the applied research
for management of the MPA and the
programme that will be undertaken in the life
locations where it will be required. The
of the management plan to provide
actual infrastructure required will depend
information that will support improved
on the requirements of the individual
decision-making.
MPA but may include visitor centres,
roads, fencing, mooring buoys,
information panels, walkways, garbage
3.2 Monitoring: the biological,
bins, toilet facilities and ranger stations.
environmental, socio-economic and resource
use monitoring that will be undertaken in the
75

MPA. The frequency of monitoring and the
H. APPENDICES
monitoring techniques should be described
and baseline information provided in an
Appendices provide detailed information
appendix. The procedure for using
required as a resource for the more general
monitoring results in the review of the
parts of the Management Plan. The following
management plan should also be described.
appendices are recommended:
4. Public Awareness
· legal description of the boundaries of the
This section describes the requirements
MPA, including all relevant latitude and
and focus for public education and awareness
longitude measurements
programmes. It should also list the
· the legislation and regulations relating to
organisations and stakeholder groups to be
the MPA
targeted for these programmes. The
objectives of education and interpretation
· lists of plant and animal species
programmes are to advise stakeholders of the
· descriptions of special features and their
benefits and management arrangements of
locations.
the MPA and to enhance their enjoyment and
understanding of the marine environment.
Maps. Maps are essential for displaying
the borders of the MPA, the locations of uses
5. Oil Spill Contingency
and locations of conflicts between uses.

Where practical, transparent overlays can be
6. Infrastructure
used to depict overlap between features (e.g.

topography and plant/animal communities)
and overlap between resources/special
F. PERSONNEL AND FINANCES
features and conflicts or issues. The
following maps are recommended:
1. Personnel: the range of personnel
required to implement the management plan
· the location of the MPA, in relation to the
and for day-to-day management activities
region, and a smaller scale map showing
within the MPA and detailed job descriptions
the actual boundaries
for each category of personnel.
· land/water tenure and jurisdiction
2. Capacity Building: the training
· topography of the nearby land (where
required for each category of personnel and a
relevant for coastal MPAs) and the
schedule of training activities.
seabed bathymetry
· geology
Finances: establishment (if relevant) and
recurrent expenditure.
· locations of major plant and animal
communities
G. IMPLEMENTATION
· locations of major uses
This section outlines the schedule for
· locations of major 'use conflicts' and
implementing the management plan through
threatened resources
a log frame analysis, including objectives,
· zoning plan.
indicators, means of verification and critical
assumptions.
76

APPENDIX 4: Guidelines for the Identification and Selection of Additional
MPAs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

The Regional Network of MPAs includes
habitats in MPAs (e.g. seagrass and
representative examples of the major
mangroves) has led to many current systems
biogeographic regions of the Red Sea and
of MPAs being biogeographically
Gulf of Aden, as well as prime examples of
unrepresentative (McNeill, 1994;
particular habitat types. Most countries of the
GBRMPA/THE WORLD BANK/IUCN,
region have also declared or nominated other
1995; Walls, 1995; Yurick, 1995).
MPAs (summarised in PERSGA, 1998a).
However, apart from Saudi Arabia
Several schemes of criteria have been
(Chiffings, 1989; Child and Grainger, 1990)
developed and employed for identifying and
and Egypt (TDA/EEAA/RSG, 1998) there
selecting MPAs, which typically include
have been no attempts to strategically
criteria relating to biodiversity, ecology,
identify national systems of MPAs. It is
social acceptability and practicality (Bakus,
likely that increasing pressures on living
1983; Kelleher and Kenchington, 1992;
marine resources and biodiversity, the need
Done, 1996; Thackway, 1996; Kelleher,
for alternative and sustainable sources of
1999; Salm et al., 2000). Unlike the
national income, and increasing information
terrestrial environment there has been limited
about the value of the nation's biodiversity
use of selection algorithms (but see Ward et
will strengthen the need for countries to
al., 1999; Gladstone, 2002) and population
identify more MPAs. The following
viability analysis has not been attempted. A
guidelines for the identification and selection
major constraint to the use of the latter
of MPAs are intended to support the
techniques will be the limited availability of
development of national system plans for
systematic inventories of either habitats or
MPAs. These guidelines are intended to be
species across a range of locations, and
used to select MPAs additional to those
technical and logistic constraints to obtaining
already chosen for the regional network of
these in the region. In some countries of the
representative MPAs.
region however, large scale, systematic
surveys have been undertaken as a first step
Background
in the identification of potential MPAs (see
Box 5).
The theory and practice of systematically
identifying and selecting protected areas in
Perhaps of greater significance in the Red
marine and coastal environments has lagged
Sea and Gulf of Aden is the identification
behind terrestrial environments. This is
and selection of MPAs as a strategy for
because there is more information and
fisheries management. This will require
understanding of the distribution and
information for a range of target species on
abundance of biodiversity in terrestrial
habitat preferences, locations of breeding and
environments, and a longer history of human
juvenile nursery grounds, and patterns of
impacts and the application of protected
larval connectivity amongst candidate
areas as a management strategy (Pressey and
locations. The majority of decision-making
McNeill, 1996). The development of
schemes referred to in the preceding
systematic and objective criteria for selection
paragraph include some form of social
of terrestrial protected areas was driven by an
component. However, there is very limited
awareness of the consequences of ad hoc,
information on the social constraints to, and
subjective and politically expedient decision-
opportunities for, the establishment and
making (Pressey, 1996). Similarly, within the
operation of MPAs in the region and the
marine environment, ad hoc decisions and a
social and economic benefits derived from
focus on the inclusion of fisheries-related
77

existing MPAs (Pearson and Shehata, 1998;
Biodiversity Value
Gladstone, 2000).
Areas that are particularly rich in species,
habitats, communities or ecosystems will
Criteria for Identification and Selection
protect a significant proportion of
of MPAs
biodiversity if they are conserved and these
areas should receive a high priority for
The following criteria provide systematic
protection. Areas that contain habitat for
guidelines for the identification of candidate
endemic, rare or endangered species will also
MPAs and their selection. The criteria have
have a high priority for protection.
been divided into those useful for identifying
a list of potential or candidate areas for MPA
Representativeness
designation (mostly employing biodiversity,
If the goal of establishing an MPA is to
ecological, fisheries-related criteria) and
support biodiversity conservation then it is
those subsequently applied to these candidate
important that representative samples of the
areas to select the MPA (primarily social,
range of habitats, communities or ecosystems
economic and management-related criteria).
are conserved. Each area is assessed
These guidelines have been adapted for the
according to the degree to which it includes a
situation of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
sample of one or more of types of habitats,
from guidelines in Kelleher and Kenchington
communities or ecosystems and the degree to
(1992); ANZECC (1999); Kelleher (1999);
which they add to the representativeness of
and Salm et al., (2000).
existing MPAs. Potential MPAs can be
assessed according to whether they include a
The information used to identify the
representative sample of either national or
candidate sites can come from a variety of
regional biodiversity. In either case,
sources, including knowledgeable experts,
assessing representativeness requires some
scientific studies and unpublished reports.
form of biogeographic classification, in
Candidate sites are ideally chosen using
which the range of habitats, communities or
detailed quantitative data on the distribution
ecosystems is identified and mapped.
of biodiversity obtained during field surveys
(Jennings et al., 1994; Edgar et al., 1997) or
Ecological Importance
from museum records (Emanuel et al., 1992);
Each area is assessed according to
however, these data may not be available and
whether it:
the resources to collect them may not be
available. Alternatives include rapid field
· contributes to the maintenance of
assessments based on standard, accepted
essential ecological processes or life-
methods (e.g. De Vantier et al., 1998) or the
support systems e.g. areas that act as
use of a physical surrogate for different
sources of larvae for downstream areas
habitat types that can either be remotely
sensed or analysed from maps and charts
· contains areas on which species or other
(Belbin, 1993), from which representative
systems are dependent e.g. breeding,
areas are selected. It is critical that the
nursery or juvenile areas; feeding,
information collected is stored in some form
breeding or resting areas for migratory
of database and able to be retrieved easily.
species
· contains one or more areas which are a
Identification of Candidate MPAs
biologically functional, self-sustaining
ecological unit e.g. an isolated reef or
Surveyed locations will be evaluated
island system that is self-replenishing.
according to the following criteria:
Such areas will be less susceptible to
external influences and easier to manage.
78

International, Regional or National
vulnerable to natural processes will have a
Importance
lower priority for designation as an MPA.
Each area is assessed according to
whether it:
Selection of MPAs
· has global, regional or national
The preceding criteria are used to
significance
compile a list of candidate MPAs. The choice
of which areas to nominate as MPAs is based
· has the potential to be declared as a
on the following socio-cultural, economic
Biosphere Reserve
and management criteria:
· is subject to an international, regional or
national conservation agreement.
Economic Value
Each candidate area is assessed according
Naturalness
to whether it makes a contribution to
Each area is assessed according to the
economic value, or has the potential to
degree to which it has been protected from,
contribute to economic value if protected.
or not been subjected to, human induced
Candidate areas that are likely to lead to
change. Degraded areas will make little
positive economic outcomes from protection
contribution (without restoration) to the
should receive a higher priority for
conservation of biodiversity or the
nomination as MPAs. The economic value of
maintenance of productivity.
an area can occur through:
· its potential or current use for
Uniqueness
ecologically sustainable recreation or
Each area is assessed according to
tourism
whether it:
· its role as a breeding ground or nursery
· contains unique species, populations,
area for commercially important species
communities or ecosystems;
· its role as a source of larvae for other
· contains unique or unusual geographic
areas of commercially important species
features.
· its potential or current use for the
exploration or extraction of resources
Productivity
Each area is assessed according to its
· its use by shipping and/or trade
biological productivity, measured in terms of
· its use by traditional users including
the abundance of primary producers, and/or
artisanal fishermen.
the abundance, growth, survivorship and
reproductive output of other trophic
components.
Social and Cultural Interests
Each candidate area is assessed according
to whether it has existing or potential value
Vulnerability
to the local, regional, national or
Each area is assessed according to its
international communities because of its
vulnerability to natural processes e.g. storms,
heritage, cultural, traditional, aesthetic,
unusual flood events from the land,
recreational or economic values. Areas
bleaching, outbreaks of crown-of-thorns
important for these values will have a higher
starfish. This information may be found in
level of public support for nomination as an
records of previous surveys or monitoring
MPA and for management activities.
programmes, scientific papers or through
interviews with the local community. Given a
choice of a number of candidate areas, those
79

Scientific and Educational Interests
greater chance of maintaining their
Each candidate area is assessed according
conservation values
to whether it:
· the urgency for its declaration as an MPA
· has existing or potential value for
· its social and political acceptability as an
research or monitoring e.g. as an
MPA and the degree of community
undisturbed area useful for understanding
support for declaration and management
natural processes
· whether it has access for recreation,
· has values for education e.g. a range of
tourism, education, research and whether
habitat types, important species.
it is safe for these activities
· the relative ease of managing the area as
Practicality/feasibility
an MPA. This will depend not only on
The decision to establish an MPA will
the level of political and community
need to consider the actual feasibility of
support, but also on the financial
doing so, and implementing management
resources and infrastructure available, the
actions. Each of the candidates for
availability of skilled personnel and their
declaration will vary in their practicality and
commitment to living in the area
feasibility, according to:
· the size of the area able to be declared as
· its degree of insulation from external
an MPA. Larger MPAs will have a
destructive influences, such as pollution
greater chance of including a range of
and coastal developments. Areas that are
biodiversity values and of buffering
further away from these influences have a
impacts from external activities.

80

Box 5. Identification and Selection of MPAs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Saudi Arabia Marine Conservation Programme
This project was undertaken with the aim of developing a network of representative MPAs for the Red
Sea coast of Saudi Arabia. Surveys were undertaken in a hierarchical manner with five increasing
levels of detail, providing more comprehensive information at each level: (1) satellite imagery and
aerial photos of the entire coastline and offshore areas were used to define major features and depth
boundaries; (2) brief inspections at more than 1200 sites to map habitats, critical habitats, turtles and
seabirds; (3) qualitative underwater observations at more than 350 sites of shore and subtidal profile,
aesthetic and recreational values, pollution impacts and estimates of the richness and abundance of fish,
corals, crown-of-thorns starfish, sea urchins, triggerfish, pufferfish; (4) rapid, quantitative surveys of
22 sites, in which abundances of fish, corals, sea urchins and other invertebrates were recorded; (5)
detailed, quantitative surveys at eight sites for fish, corals and other invertebrates using replicate
transects. The results of these surveys were significant because they identified biogeographic sub-
divisions of the Saudi Arabian coastline within which representative areas could be chosen for MPAs.
As a result, 74 candidate sites were selected as potential MPAs (Ormond et al., 1984; Price et al.,
1998). A subsequent review of these candidate sites (MEPA, 1987) recommended that sites be
combined to encompass natural ecosystem boundaries, giving a total of 46 areas as candidate MPAs.
The Draft MPA System Plan for Saudi Arabia (Chiffings, 1989) developed this approach further by
combining sites into (1) four large resource use reserves (Farasan Islands, Farasan Bank, Tiran Islands,
Al Wajh Bank) and a strict nature reserve (Ras Suwahil) that provide for sustainable resource use,
represent each of the biogeographic sub-areas and encompass ecosystem boundaries and (2) 38 smaller
reserves along the coastline.


Egyptian Red Sea Coastal and Marine Resource Management Project (GEF/World Bank)
A major objective of this project was the development of a Red Sea Coastal and Marine Protected Area (CMPA)
Strategy, including the identification and selection of sites as MPAs. As a first step in the identification of
potential MPAs based on biodiversity value, 116 sites were surveyed over 700 km of coastline from 40 km north
of Hurghada to Shalatein, between April 1996 and April 1998. For the subtidal surveys at each site a belt transect
was run from the highest water mark to 25 m depth, with the following parameters recorded: percentage cover
and number of species comprising major benthic lifeforms, percentage cover of non-living substrate and the
numbers of species of crustaceans, molluscs, echinoderms and fishes. These 116 sites were amalgamated into 33
areas based on shared geographic and ecological features. These 33 areas were subjected to a progressive
screening process using criteria of biodiversity value and the IUCN selection criteria; in the latter screening, each
area was assigned a value of 1 to 5 representing high to low value for each criterion. The outcome was that eight
candidate areas were subsequently screened for their size, representative habitats, conservation status, level of
support from partner management agencies and stakeholder concerns. Three CMPA sites were ultimately
selected: Hurghada Islands, Wadi El-Jimal Area and Hamatah Area (Source: TDA/EEAA/RSG, 1998).


81

Acknowledgements
The author is pleased to be able to acknowledge the assistance and advice provided by many
people during the preparation of the Regional Master Plan:
Mr. Mohammed Younis and Dr. Fareed Krupp generously provided overall guidance on the
project, critical input at several stages in the preparation of various drafts of the Regional Master
Plan, and hospitality in Jeddah;
Discussions with several people provided additional information, suggestions and experiences in
MPA management in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, including: Dr. Alain Jeudy de Grissac (Ras
Mohammed National Park, Gulf of Aqaba Protectorates Development Programme); Dr. Jeremy
Kemp (University of York); Mr. Ashraf Al Cibahy (Ras Mohammed National Park); Dr. Virginie
Tilot de Grissac (Ras Mohammed National Park); Dr. Nizar Tawfiq (PERSGA);
Mr. Roderick Fleming (PERSGA) provided very helpful editorial critique of the final manuscript
and made available additional documents;
The PERSGA office in Jeddah efficiently arranged travel and accommodation between Australia,
Jeddah and Egypt;
The Ras Mohammed National Park staff at Sharm El Sheikh provided the venue for the MPA
workshop, assisted with accommodation and generously gave their time and expertise during the
workshop and during several site visits;
Dr. Alain Jeudy de Grissac organized the case studies relating to the Ras Mohammed National
Park Sector and provided many helpful suggestions that improved the first draft of this Regional
Master Plan;
Jenny Davis assisted with compiling background information on marine protected area
management;
Alison O'Carroll assisted at all stages of the preparation of this Master Plan;
The participants to the MPA workshop in Ras Mohammed National Park are thanked for their
contributions to the discussions and their input into the important components of the objectives,
goals and strategies of the Regional Master Plan. These participants included: Mr. Mohammed
Younis (PERSGA/SAP, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia); Dr. Moustafa Fouda (Director of Nature
Conservation Centre, Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency, Cairo, Egypt); Brig. Omer Hassan
(Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency, Cairo, Egypt); Dr. Alain Jeudy de Grissac (Ras
Mohammed Marine National Park, South Sinai, Egypt); Mr. Omer Khushaim (MPA/WG Member,
National Commission for Wildlife Conservation and Development, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia); Mr.
Ashraf Al Cibahy (MPA/WG Member, Ras Mohammed Marine National Park, South Sinai,
Egypt); Mr. Houssein Abdillahi Rayaleh (MPA/WG Member, Djibouti); Eng. Abdullah Abu
Awali (MPA/WG Member, Aqaba Marine Park, Aqaba, Jordan); Mr. Ahmed Said Nur (MPA/WG
Member, NE Somalia); Mr. Hussein Haibe Egeh (MPA/WG Member, Fisheries & Coastal
Development, Hargeisa, NW Somalia); Mr. Mohamed Mustafa Eltayeb: (MPA/WG Member, Red
Sea University, Port Sudan, Sudan); Mr. Sadik Yahia Al Osaimi (MPA/WG Member,
Environmental Protection Agency, Sana'a, Yemen).
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