NATIONAL REPORT
ON
Integrating
The Management of Watersheds and Coastal Areas
in
Trinidad and Tobago
Prepared
by
The Water Resources Agency
for
The Ministry of the Environment
Eric Williams Financial Complex
Independence Square, Port of Spain
March 2001
WRA/MIN. Env: Integrating the Management of Watersheds and Coastal Areas in Trinidad and Tobago
i
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The Republic of Trinidad and Tobago is an archipelagic state located at the
southern end of the Caribbean island chain. The islands have a tropical wet
climate of the monsoonal type. Rainfall that averages 2,200 millimetres, is
seasonal with a wet season from June to November and a dry season from
December to May. Temperatures range from 25 to 27 °C, humidity ranges
between 50 to 100% and wind speed averages between 20 and 28 km/hr.
Trinidad's landscape is characterised by steep mountains, undulating hills and
plains. Tobago's landscape is however, characterised by a highland area,
which runs through the island and a small coastal plain. The islands are
endowed with extremely varied coastlines, a fair share of wetlands and richly
diverse flora and fauna.
The population is estimated at 1.25 million with an annual growth rate of 1.2
percent. Trinidad's population is concentrated in urban areas along the west
coastal areas and at the foothills of its northerly located mountain range. On
the other hand, Tobago's population is concentrated in the southwest part of
the island. Relative to the rest of the Caribbean islands the country is highly
industrialised with a petroleum based economy and a small but rapidly
growing tourism industry concentrated mainly in Tobago.
The Water Resources Agency has a rain gauge network of one hundred and ten
(110) recording and non-recording rainfall gauges and a network of twenty-
eight (28) streamflow stations, for the monitoring of the hydrological regime.
These stations are well distributed over both islands but major deficiencies
exist in relation to their upkeep and the quality of information provided. The
groundwater network in the twin island state boasts of one hundred and sixty-
eight (168) production wells and one hundred and ten (110) observation wells.
The Agency has recently completed the installation of a telemetry network
consisting of eighty-one (81) sensors with the objective of providing automatic
recording and transmission of hydrological and hydro-meteorological data
from the river basin to the central office. Much still needs to be done by way
of the quality control process before the telemetry system can have the desired
impact on data provision and management nationally.
Current water demand in Trinidad and Tobago amounts to 317 MCM/year
while the water supply figure amounts to 273 MCM/year, representing a 44
MCM/year deficit. Investments over the last five (5) years to address the past
and existing deficits amount to $US 431 million, including the imminent
installation of a desalination plant at Point Lisas and the application of new
technologies for locating and abstracting deep groundwater in bedrock
aquifers. Ironically, investments in water resources management initiatives
have been limited to just under $US 5.5 million over a corresponding period.
WRA/MIN. Env: Integrating the Management of Watersheds and Coastal Areas in Trinidad and Tobago
ii
Much research and investigations are ongoing in the areas of Climate Change
and Sea-Level rise. Trinidad and Tobago is a signatory to the Framework
Convention on Climate Change (FCCC) which is directed towards achieving
drastic reductions in the emissions of CO2 and other greenhouse gases.
Flooding is the natural hazard of major concern to the population by virtue of
its frequency of occurrence and the extent of damages resulting. This
phenomenon is normally linked to poor watershed management practices and
the unsavoury disposal habits of the population, particularly in urban areas.
Pollution is a problem that is on the rise throughout the country. The main
water pollutants are urban, domestic and industrial waste, solid and toxic
agricultural products and waste, sediments, petrochemicals and oil spills form
the oil and energy industries, waste from fishing vessels, ships, tourist
facilities and yachts. The pollutants affect both inland freshwater and coastal
water resources, including the beaches and shores. The most serious threats to
groundwater come from nitrate and bacterial contamination arising from agro-
chemical use and sewage effluents from pit latrine soakaways and septic tanks.
Another serious concern is saltwater intrusion as a result of overabstraction in
coastal aquifers.
There is no fully organised institutionalised public awareness and stakeholder
participation programme in place for watershed/water resources and coastal
zone management in Trinidad and Tobago. The key agencies have been
involved in various initiatives targeting their spheres of interest. Such
initiatives have generally not been sustained and have usually failed to
recognise the integrated nature of the watershed and coastal zone sectors,
essential for their success into the medium and long terms. There is no firm
plan to enhance public awareness about watershed/water resource and coastal
zone management and to involve community stakeholder participation. This
reflects the fragmented institutional framework and approach which currently
exist in relation to the sector where efforts are uncoordinated and are unrelated
to each other.
Other key institutional issues include the need for closing the severe existing
skills gap in several key competencies relating to watershed/water resources
and coastal zone management through the provision of relevant training locally
and abroad. The introduction of appropriate policies, legislation and master
plans to govern and direct the respective sectors are seen as critical.
Assistance with the provision of up-to-date equipment to facilitate the
operations of the various agencies in the areas of watershed/water resources
and coastal zone management is another area which needs to be addressed.
Like other countries, economic growth and development coupled with growth
of the human population is resulting in environmental degradation of
watersheds, water resources and coastal areas. For Trinidad and Tobago, a
twin island state, the coastal habitats and ecosystems assume significant
WRA/MIN. Env: Integrating the Management of Watersheds and Coastal Areas in Trinidad and Tobago
iii
importance. The coastal areas support a variety of life systems and valuable
natural assets and within them are located key industries and economic
activities. Similar to the watersheds, these areas are subjected to threats
arising from a variety of land based activities. The country experiences much
of the full range of environmental problems, from widespread pollution of its
waterways and coastal areas, chemical spills, illegal dumping, deforestation,
excessive soil erosion, fisheries and wildlife depletion. These problems are
attributed to poor land use practices and an inadequate legal and institutional
framework for watershed/water resources and coastal zone management. The
watersheds and coastal areas are also under threat from natural disasters
(tropical storms, earthquakes, floods and droughts) as well as climate change
and sea level rise.
The issues articulated above, present major challenges to the sustainability of a
quality environment in the watersheds and coastal areas of Trinidad and
Tobago. A national management framework must therefore be formulated to
deal with the pressures of increasing growth (in population, urban
development and industrial activity), and the accompanying pressures on the
environment. Such a framework must undoubtedly recognise the direct
impacts, which emanates from their supporting systems (upstream watersheds
and the marine environment). It must also explicitly recognise the trade-offs
between development and environmental sustainability. To establish this
framework the following group of actions is recommended:
1. Implementation of the concept of integrated resource management to attain
sustainable development of the nation's watersheds and coastal areas.
2. Establishment of an effective financially autonomous institutional
framework that facilitates proper water resources, watershed and coastal
zone management.
3. Protection of the environmental quality and ecosystems of watersheds and
coastal areas
4. Development of capacity and tools within a suitable institution to support
the decision making process.
WRA/MIN. Env: Integrating the Management of Watersheds and Coastal Areas in Trinidad and Tobago
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Water Resources Agency of the Water and Sewerage Authority and the
Ministry of the Environment would like to thank Dr. Constantin Stere for his
contribution on Coastal Zone Management and Integrating Watersheds and
Coastal Areas and Ms. Judith Gobin for her contribution on marine and
terrestrial ecosystems.
Study support, guidance and technical contributions were also provided by the
following staff of the Water Resources Agency:
Dr. U. Maharaj
Dr. S. Fletcher
Mr. K. Meade
Mr. W. Clement
Credit must also be given to Judy Francis, Randolph Sankar, Nerisha
Bachu, Sharon Archie, Giselle Rogers and Lynette De Coteau (typist) for
their various contributions in the preparation of this report.
WRA/MIN. Env: Integrating the Management of Watersheds and Coastal Areas in Trinidad and Tobago
v
FOREWORD
It is recognized that Small Island Developing States (SIDS) of the Caribbean
are very vulnerable to natural and anthropogenic interventions and climate
change variability. The resource limitations of SIDS make the sustainable
management of these resources extremely important. In the Caribbean,
freshwater supplies are frequently limited while coastal waters support living
resources that are also limited. The increasing demands placed on these
resources are likely to cause increasing conflicts over allocation and use in the
foreseeable future. There is a definite need for the integration of freshwater
and coastal water management to sustain and protect both freshwater supplies
and coastal and marine aquatic resources.
Trinidad and Tobago, the most southerly of the Caribbean chain of islands is
located just off the South American main land. The island comprises one of
the most diverse and productive ecosystems in the Caribbean with its tropical
forests, fertile flood plains, swamps and abundant streams. The richness of its
natural environment, unique blend of the world's major cultures, thriving
industrial base and expanding population combine to present major challenges
to the sustainability of a quality environment. Due to the country's limited
land space, increasing levels of development have and continue to alter the
environmental integrity of the coastal areas. These negative impacts are the
results of poor land use practices in the coastal zones, and in their adjoining
watersheds, as well as activities in the marine environment.
In recognizing that the environmental health of the coastal areas depend on
activities which occur both in the coastal zones and watersheds, a regional
workshop was held at the Crowne Plaza Hotel, Kingston, Jamaica from March
30 to March 31, 2000. This workshop served as the first initiative for a major
project entitled "Integrating Management of Watersheds and Coastal
Areas for Small Island States in the Caribbean". The project is being
funded by the World Bank's Global Environment Facility (GEF) and
implemented under the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) and the
United Nations Development Program (UNDP). The Caribbean
Environmental Health Institute (CEHI) has been designated the executing
agency.
The overall objective of the proposed project is to assist participating countries
in improving their watershed and coastal zone management practices in
support of sustainable development. Key issues identified for attention
include Freshwater and Coastal Area Resource Assessments, Freshwater and
Coastal Habitats and Ecosystems, Water Availability, Supply and Demand,
Land Use Practices and Impacts, Groundwater, Freshwater and Coastal water
Interactions, Public Participation/Public Awareness and Education, Data and
Information Systems, Management and Research, Policy, Financial, Legal and
Institutional Frameworks, Tourism and Health, Land-Based Pollution, Climate
WRA/MIN. Env: Integrating the Management of Watersheds and Coastal Areas in Trinidad and Tobago
vi
Change and Natural Disasters, Transboundary Conflicts, Living and Non-
living Marine Resource Exploitation, Integrating Watershed and Coastal Area
Management and National and Regional Action Programs.
The project will eventually inform the development of a full-scale project for
thirteen (13) countries in the Caribbean, including Trinidad and Tobago. This
is to be preceded by the development of a Regional Project Brief for
endorsement by the GEF, with a target of March 2001. Activities toward this
end include: Preparation of National Reports and the Regional Synthesis of
Common Issues and Actions. Participating countries are now in the phase of
the development of the National Report, an activity which is scheduled for
completion by end January 2001.
Specific potential benefits of the overall project for participating countries
include strengthening the institutional capacity for freshwater and coastal zone
resource management, providing assistance to countries in understanding the
linkages between problems in the freshwater and marine environments and
assisting countries in integrating the management of watersheds and coastal
areas.
This report represents the deliverable under the project component entailing
the preparation of National Reports and is specific to Trinidad and Tobago.
The report provides an overview of the management of Trinidad and Tobago's
water resources /watershed management and coastal zone management
systems and proposes an Action Plan for Integrating the Management of
Watersheds and Coastal Areas.
Dr. Steve Fletcher and Mr. Keith Meade of the Water Resources Agency
(WRA) together with Dr. Constantin Stere, invited lecturer in Coastal Zone
Management in the Department of Civil Engineering, UWI, St. Augustine,
worked on the compilation and review of this Draft Report. Dr. Utam Maharaj
and Mr. Kerry Mulchansingh of the WRA carried out the final review of the
document.
WRA/MIN. Env: Integrating the Management of Watersheds and Coastal Areas in Trinidad and Tobago
vii
LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 1.1 : Hydrometric areas of Trinidad and Tobago
7
Table 2.1 : Water Demand for the Period 1997 to 2025
16
Table 2.2 : Components of The Public Water supply System in Trinidad
19
Table 2.3 : Components of The Public Water supply System in Tobago
19
Table 2.4 : Water tariffs for Trinidad and Tobago
20
Table 2.5 : Trinidad Surface Water and Groundwater Availability /Demand
21
Table 2.6 : Tobago Surface Water and Groundwater Availability/Demand
21
Table 2.7 : Trinidad and Tobago Landuse 1972
25
Table 2.8 : Average per river of the Mean 1995 Concentrations for WASA
Sampling Locations
37
Table 2.9 : Waste Load Produced/Discharged for Trinidad and Tobago
41
Table 2.10: Allocation of Water Resources Management Functions in Trinidad
And Tobago
55
Table 2.11: Legislation/Treaties Governing Water Resources Management in
Trinidad and Tobago
56
Table 2.12: Skills Gap Analysis For Watershed/Water Resources and
Coastal Zone Management
65
Table 5.1 : National Action Plan Matrix
103
WRA/MIN. Env: Integrating the Management of Watersheds and Coastal Areas in Trinidad and Tobago
viii
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Figure 1.1 : Catchment Areas in Trinidad and Tobago
8
Figure 2.1a: Consuming Year 2000 Demand
18
Figure 2.1b: Water Balance for Trinidad and Tobago
18
Figure 2.2 : Groundwater vis-a-vis Surface Water
22
Figure 2.3 : Contribution of Individual Pollutant Loads and
Their Pollutant Sources
36
Figure 2.4 : Summary of Significant Sources of Solid Waste
41
LIST OF MAPS
Page
1. Topographical Map of Trinidad
2
2. Topographical Map of Tobago
3
3. Map of Trinidad Showing Wetlands
69
4. Map of Tobago Showing Wetlands and Reefs
70
LIST OF GRAPHS
Page
Graph 1.1a: 10-Year Average Monthly Precipitation
North Trinidad
4
Graph 1.1b: 10-Year Average Monthly Precipitation
South Trinidad
5
Graph 1.1c: 10-Year Average Monthly Precipitation
For Tobago
5
WRA/MIN. Env: Integrating the Management of Watersheds and Coastal Areas in Trinidad and Tobago
ix
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
i
Acknowledgements
iv
Foreword
v
1.0
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
1
1.1
General Characteristics of the Islands
1
1.2
Administrative Boundaries
7
1.3
Hydrology
8
1.4 Water Resource Threats
11
1.5 Coastal Zone Management
13
2.0
CURRENT WATERSHED/WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT ISSUES
2.1
Freshwater Habitats and Ecosystems
14
2.2
Supply and Demand
16
2.3
Ground Water vis-ą-vis Surface Water
21
2.4
Land Use
24
2.5
Climate Change and Natural Disaster
27
2.6
Transboundary Threats
35
2.7
Pollution
35
2.8
Tourism
42
2.9
Health
43
2.10
Data, Information Management and Research
45
2.11
Stakeholder Participation/Awareness and Education
49
2.12
Institutional Framework
51
3.0
CURRENT COASTAL AREA MANAGEMENT ISSUES
3.1
Coastal Habitats and Ecosystems
67
3.2
Living and Non-Living Marine Resource Exploitation
72
3.3
Climate Change and Natural Disasters
73
3.4
Transboundary Threats
76
3.5
Land-Based Pollution
78
3.6
Tourism
80
3.7
Health
82
3.8
Data, Information Management and Research
83
3.9
Stakeholder Participation/Awareness and Education
88
3.10
Institutional Frameworks
89
WRA/MIN. Env: Integrating the Management of Watersheds and Coastal Areas in Trinidad and Tobago
x
4.0 INTEGRATING WATERSHED AND COASTAL AREA MANAGEMENT
92
5.0 NATIONAL ACTION PROGRAMME TO IMPROVE INTEGRATED
MANAGEMENT OF WATERSHEDS AND COASTAL ZONES
97
6.0 RECOMMENDED INPUTS AND REGIONAL ACTION PROGRAMME
106
BIBLIOGRAPHY
107
APPENDIX 1.0: MAP SHOWING TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO
112
ECONOMIC BOUNDARY
WRA/MIN. Env: Integrating the Management of Watersheds and Coastal Areas in Trinidad and Tobago
1
1.0
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
1.1
General characteristics of the islands
Location
The Republic of Trinidad and Tobago is a twin island nation located at the south-
eastern end of the Caribbean archipelago lying roughly between 10 degrees
North and 11.5 degrees North latitude and between 60 degrees West and 62
degrees West longitude. It comprises a total land area of 5,126 km2, with
Trinidad having an area of 4,826 km2 and Tobago (the smaller), an area of 300
km2. In addition to the main islands, Trinidad and Tobago's Exclusive Economic
Zone is estimated to be 104,000 nautical km2.
Trinidad is the most southerly of the Caribbean Islands, bounded on the north by
the Caribbean Sea; on the west by the Gulf of Paria; on the east by the Atlantic
Ocean and on the south by the Columbus Channel. Tobago lies approximately
32 km north-east of Trinidad, and is separated from Trinidad by a channel, the
Tobago Sound which is nearly 12 km in width.
Physiography
Trinidad features three (3) mountain ranges, the main one in the north extending
the east-west boundaries (maximum height of 900 m), the smallest one in the
central (maximum height of 300 m) and the other in the southern part of the
island characterized by low hills. Undulating land, plains and swamps separate
the ranges. The ranges decrease in altitude from north to south. These features
allow for the division of the island into five (5) physiographic regions, namely,
the Northern Range, the Northern Basin, the Central Range, the Southern Basin
and the Southern Range.
The dominant relief feature of Tobago is a metamorphic and volcanic mountain,
the Main Ridge, which runs for about two-thirds of the length of the island in a
south-west to north-east direction. Running parallel to the coastline, it attains a
maximum elevation of 550 metres above mean sea level. This ridge slopes off
steeply to the north-east and more gently to the south-west. The south-western
end of the island is occupied by a flat coral limestone platform that extends
seaward to form the off-shore coral reefs.
WRA/MIN. Env: Integrating the Management of Watersheds and Coastal Areas in Trinidad and Tobago
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3
WRA/MIN. Env: Integrating the Management of Watersheds and Coastal Areas in Trinidad and Tobago
4
Climate
The islands experience a climate that is tropical, warm and humid with two (2)
major seasons. From January to May is the dry season with the wet season in
June to December. A short dry spell of two (2) to three (3) weeks called the
"Petit Careme" occurs in the middle of September or October.
The prevailing winds are the North-East Trades which bring the heaviest rains to
the highland areas of north-east Trinidad and in Tobago which lies along a south-
west to north-east axis, there is no clear cut distribution between the windward
and leeward districts.
The average annual rainfall of Trinidad is 2,000 mm. The evapotranspiration
rate is very high accounting for up to 60 % of the total rainfall received in some
areas. In Tobago the average rainfall ranges from 3,800 mm in the Main Ridge
to less than 1,250 mm in the south-western lowlands. The average annual
minimum temperature varies between 22 and 25oC at night and the maximum
between 29 and 31oC during the day.
The following graphs show the ten (10) year average precipitation for the north
(graph 1.1a) and south (graph 1.1b) of Trinidad and of Tobago (graph 1.1c).
Graph 1:1a
North Trinidad Sam ple Set at Piarco 10-Year Average
M onthly Precipitation (1989-1998)
400
300
200
Rainfall mm 100
0
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Month
WRA/MIN. Env: Integrating the Management of Watersheds and Coastal Areas in Trinidad and Tobago
5
Graph 1:1b
South Trinidad Sam ple Set at Penal 10-year Average
M onthly Precipitation (1989-1998)
400
300
200
Rainfall mm 100
0
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Month
Graph 1:1c
Tobago Sample Set at Hillsborough 10-Year Average Monthly
Precipitation (1988-1997)
400
300
200
Rainfall mm 100
0
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Month
Socio-Economics
A recent survey estimates the population of Trinidad and Tobago at 1,249,738
with 50.4% and 49.6% representing the male and female proportions
respectively. On the island of Tobago the resident population accounts for only
4% of the total population. With a growth rate of 1.2%, the population is
expected to grow to 1.78 million by the year 2025. This represents an annual
increase of 15,500 persons to the population. However, this growth is not
expected to stabilize within the next 30 years. The two (2) main ethnic groups
comprise persons of African and East Indian descent with each group accounting
WRA/MIN. Env: Integrating the Management of Watersheds and Coastal Areas in Trinidad and Tobago
6
for approximately 40% of the total population whilst others of mixed origin
comprise the remaining 20% of the population. Trinidad's population is
concentrated in urban areas in the north-west and in the city of San Fernando and
the boroughs of Arima and Chaguanas. Scarborough, the capital of Tobago, is
the island's major population centre.
The main water related socio-economic activities in Trinidad and Tobago are
industry, agriculture, recreation and tourism. Key industrial areas include Point
Lisas in west-central Trinidad and Point Fortin and La Brea in the south-west,
where the energy and energy based industries are concentrated. Facilities
relating to the petroleum industry are located in the southern areas of the country
and offshore. Greater emphasis is placed on the tourism industry in the island of
Tobago than in Trinidad, but a steady growth is being experienced on both
islands. This is clearly evident by the rise in both islands of the eco-tourism
industry.
Land-Use Trends
Recent land use trends in Trinidad and Tobago have been dominated by a steady
growth in urbanization and housing development, uncontrolled settlements,
agricultural activities, such as slash and burn, water harvesting and deforestation.
This is particularly valid for the southern foothills of the Northern Range in
Trinidad, where it is evident that considerable expansion of urban areas is taking
place at the expense of forests and agricultural lands.
In Tobago, at least 15 % of the topsoil has been lost through inappropriate land
use. Its topography is characterized by a high percentage of steep slopes with
soils that are highly prone to erosion. The problem of soil erosion is manifested
mainly in the south of the island as the northern areas which receive the most
rainfall are still under original forest or permanent tree crops. The island of
Trinidad is characterized by a high percentage of both flat or gently sloping land
and steep land. Along the foothills of the Northern Range, particularly in the
west, considerable gully and sheet erosion has taken place in areas where
intensive cultivation is carried out. Significant erosion has also taken place
within areas of the Central and Southern Ranges where the original forest cover
has been removed.
A major feature of the landscape along the western portion of the Northern
Range is the vast number of squatting settlements, the siting of which have
resulted in loss of forest on the steep hills. Generally, the watersheds in this
region are subject to rapid growth in housing developments, quarrying and
agricultural activities.
A sizeable sector of the economy depends on income generated by the
agricultural and quarrying sectors at the levels of both private individuals and the
state. However, the practices generally adopted in these activities have resulted
WRA/MIN. Env: Integrating the Management of Watersheds and Coastal Areas in Trinidad and Tobago
7
in the wide scale degradation of many watersheds within Trinidad and Tobago.
The general consensus is that the hydrological response of rivers to rainfall has
changed over the years due to such degradation. Peak flows are thought to have
increased whilst baseflows seem to be lower than previously computed, leading
to the assumption that total water availability has decreased. Higher sediment
yields leading to an increase in the cost of drinking water production and more
regular maintenance of water treatment plants, together with increased
incidences of flooding in areas along the east-west corridor and in the Caroni
Basin, the country's major river basin, are other associated negative impacts.
Road improvement programmes have slowed the urbanization trend of the
greater Port-of-Spain area, encouraged industrial, commercial and residential
development and created opportunities for the accelerated development of urban
centres. As one moves from rural Toco in the east to Chaguaramas on the north-
west peninsula, the changes in the physical, social and economic infrastructure
are easily discerned as being more developed, complex and extensive.
1.2
Administrative Boundaries
For the purpose of managing the national water resource, the country has been
divided into four (4) Water Resource Management Units (WRMUs), each
comprising a group of Hydrometric Regions.
Each hydrometric area is centred on a major hydrologic unit, which usually
groups a number of these hydrologic basins for administrative purposes. The
hydrologic boundaries of the basins and hydrometric areas correspond to surface
water divides. For ease of reference, these areas have been numbered 1 to 9 for
Trinidad and 11 to 15 for Tobago (Table 1.1). The islands have also been
subdivided into catchment areas (Figure 1.1) fifty-five (55) in Trinidad and
fifteen (15) in Tobago.
Table 1.1 Hydrometric areas of Trinidad and Tobago
Hydrometric Areas in Trinidad
Hydrometric Areas in Tobago:
1. North Coast
11. North Coast
2. North Oropouche
12. East Coast
3. Nariva
13. Windward
4. Ortoire
14. Courland
5. Southern Range
15. Lowlands
6. Cedros Peninsula
7. South Oropouche
8. Central West Coast
9. Caroni
10. Unassigned
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8
1.3
Hydrology
Hydrometric Network
Stream gauging of surface water sources commenced in 1968 with the
measurement of flow at ten (10) stations. Over the years, additional gauging
stations were established so that today a network of twenty-eight (28) gauges is
in existence.
Three (3) types of streamflow recorders are in use by the Water Resources
Agency. These are the float-operated Leopold and Stevens A-35 continuous
strip chart recorders; Leopold Stevens A-35 recorder with a Manometer Servo
which uses pressure sensing to record the water level in the rivers and a float
operated vertical drum type Fuess recorder.
Figure 1.1 Catchment Areas in Trinidad and Tobago
WRA/MIN. Env: Integrating the Management of Watersheds and Coastal Areas in Trinidad and Tobago
9
There is an elaborate rain gauge network of non-recording and recording gauges
throughout the island of Trinidad. The Water Resources Agency has a rain
gauge network of one hundred and ten (110) recording and non-recording rainfall
gauges. These rainfall stations are well distributed over the island with the
highest density in the Caroni Basin and the southern slopes of the Northern
Range. In its drive to update the rainfall network, forty-nine (49) recording rain
gauges, (Lambrecht Recorders) have been installed, particularly in remote areas
and in areas not previously gauged. These automatic recording gauges are
associated with the stream gauges in forming the complete surface water
monitoring network.
The collection of data to facilitate flood plain mapping commenced in 1981,
using crest gauges distributed over seventeen (17) areas. Flood peaks above
measured flows are estimated using channel slope and Manning's equation.
The groundwater network in the twin island state boasts of one hundred and
sixty-eight (168) production wells and one hundred and ten (110) observation
wells, distributed in the well fields from Chaguaramas in the north-west to Point
Fortin and Guayaguayare in the south-west and south-east of Trinidad. The
production well network accounts for approximately 31% of the potable water
distributed by the Water and Sewerage Authority (WASA).
The national Water Resources Agency (presently incorporated within WASA),
has recently completed the installation of a telemetry network with the objective
of providing automatic recording and transmission of hydrological and hydro-
meteorological data from the river basin to the central office. The computer
hardware and software associated with the telemetry system are being utilized to
convert the hard data (on rainfall, evaporation, river flows, groundwater levels)
into digital data and to analyze and process them into useful reports for
monitoring, planning, assessing and operating a variety of water resources
systems.
The telemetry network comprises data collection stations as follows:
· 32 Rainfall
· 26 Stream water level and quality
· 01 Combination Rainfall and Stream water level
· 04 Reservoir water level and quality
· 09 Groundwater level and quality
· 09 Hydrometeorological (including Evaporation) stations
The overall system comprises remote terminal units, repeaters and base station.
WRA/MIN. Env: Integrating the Management of Watersheds and Coastal Areas in Trinidad and Tobago
10
Hydrologic Processes
Rainfall is largely influenced by the prevailing moisture laden North-East Trade
Winds and topography of the island, so that rainfall decreases from the windward
to the leeward coasts and increases with elevation.
As the islands experience two major climatic seasons, separate maps for dry
season, wet season and annual isohyets are produced. Maps of isolines of runoff
are produced from available streamflow records. It is necessary, however, to
verify the estimate of runoff in basins with insufficient coverage by spot gauging
or by the installation of additional flow gauging stations.
Hydrogeology
Geologically, Trinidad forms the eastern extension of the South American
mainland of Venezuela. Sedimentary and metamorphic rocks occupy 99% of the
land area with the fresh water occurring in these sedimentary rocks. In Trinidad,
exploitable fresh water occurs in aquifers, which are of three (3) main types:
· Alluvial and piedmont gravel fans
· Sheet or blanket Sands
· Multiple Sands
The geology of Tobago is very different from that of Trinidad, as the island is
composed largely of metamorphic and igneous rocks. Abstraction of fresh water
occurs from the clastic sedimentary deposits in the southwestern part of the
island where there is an especially high demand for potable water. Wells drilled
into the limestone platform have encountered brackish water and are at present
being used for observation purposes. Other areas with fresh water bearing
potential are known to exist in the larger river alluvial to the north and central
parts of the island. New technology targeting the bedrock underlying the
traditional aquifers, has been employed in the drive to develop the ground water
potential of Tobago. Investigations have been carried out with the aid of
technology used to discover water in arid regions. This technology involves the
use of a GIS database and the determination of bedrock fractures and faults
through high-resolution satellite imagery. This process involves the
identification of conduits for flow into and out of the bedrock aquifers. A
significant level of success has been encountered with this initiative and the
approach is now being extended to the island of Trinidad.
Total Safe Yield for groundwater production in Trinidad is estimated at
approximately 477 ML/D. This value indicates that it is possible to abstract
more groundwater than is being done at present. Additional groundwater
WRA/MIN. Env: Integrating the Management of Watersheds and Coastal Areas in Trinidad and Tobago
11
production can likely be obtained from minor aquifers, such as at Cano Ventura
in the north- west and Guaico Sands in the north-east of Trinidad.
1.4
Water Resource Threats
The increasing pressure on the water resources of Trinidad and Tobago due to
population and socio-economic activities is resulting in increasing rates of
pollution which, if no measures are taken, will threaten the availability of the
resource.
In order to improve and maintain the water quality in Trinidad and Tobago it is
necessary to:
· define the water use function for each water body
· understand the causes of pollution
· obtain detailed information on the waste loads of the different sectors
· establish minimum quality standards
· institute water quality management programme.
Risks to the quality of the water resources, both surface water and ground water
are presented from all sectors of the society. Large amounts of untreated or
inadequately treated domestic waste, in particular sewage, enter the surface
water sources. It is estimated that 60 % of households are at present connected
to the sewerage system, and that the sewage from only 70 % of those connected
is treated. Other risks such as over abstraction may induce salt-water
contamination of coastal aquifers and deplete in-stream flows, which may
adversely impact on the ecosystem.
The potential agricultural and industrial threats lie in the non-point or diffuse
sources from pesticides and agro-chemicals, and from oil production, refining
and toxic chemicals, inclusive of heavy metals. The disposal of solid waste in
landfill sites is also a threat.
Groundwater
The natural groundwater quality in Trinidad generally falls within the limits set
for potable water by the World Health Organization (WHO). In many instances
the sources only require treatment by disinfecting before being put into the
distribution system. However, on a local scale, there are threats by point source
pollution. Most aquifers are very vulnerable, in the absence of thick overlying
clay layers, to the infiltration of contaminants. Controlled dumping and the
monitoring of wastewater discharges on a regular basis are measures that can be
used to avoid such contamination.
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Generally, the groundwater quality issues in Trinidad are related to:
· Concentrations of iron above the desirable limit of 0.3 mg/l. In the Central
Sands and the Southern Sands aquifers, the source of iron is attributed to the
iron deposits found in the clay beds.
· Hardness of water: in the aquifers, hardness range from soft to very hard,
with hard waters sometimes occurring in the northern gravel aquifers where
groundwater may come into contact with limestone lenses.
· Chloride content of the water: some coastal aquifers are closely monitored in
a continued effort to prevent seawater intrusion.
Potential pollution to aquifers may result due to the presence of:
· hazardous waste dumps
· underground fuel storage tanks
· untreated sewage
· industrial activities
· pit latrines and septic tanks
Surface
water
The quality of the surface water resources is in many places deteriorating, as
evident by high levels of the biological oxygen demand (BOD) and bacterial
content, turbidity and the presence of chemical pollutants in the rivers. The main
threats are uncontrolled point waste discharges, in particular from industries and
domestic sources, as well as, the high level of erosion in the upper catchment of
the watercourses. Pollution of surface waters not only affect the production of
potable water but also the ability of the rivers to provide productive habitats for
terrestrial and aquatic species is also endangered.
In-stream problems resulting from pollution are generally manifested during the
periods of low flows in the water systems when the dilution capacity is much too
low to prevent violation of water quality standards.
The only major surface water source studied in great detail is the Caroni River
Basin upstream of the water treatment plant. However, the following findings
from this basin are generally applicable to the rest of Trinidad:
· all rivers and streams flowing through urban areas are heavily polluted
· most industries outside sewered areas discharge untreated waste directly into
rivers or the marine environment
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· untreated sewage is a major contributor of organic pollution causing low
dissolved oxygen levels and high bacteria counts in rivers.
The major pollution sources are identified as:
· industrial effluent
· urban run-off
· municipal wastes
· agricultural run-off
Based on the origin of the pollution problems, surface water quality management
programmes should target:
· changes in physical characteristics
· faecal contamination
· organic matter
· river eutrophication
· trace elements
· nitrate pollution
· organic micro-pollutants
· sound and regulated land use planning
1.5
Coastal Zone Management
There are several issues requiring a concerted Coastal Zone Management thrust
in the islands of Trinidad and Tobago. These include environmental problems
such as coastal eutrophication due to inappropriate sewerage treatment,
contamination arising from agricultural pollutants, reduction in base flows of
rivers, inappropriate coastal developments, sand-mining along beaches, heavy
contamination from industries and sea vessels, over-fishing, degradation of
coastal zone and marine species, including mangrove systems and coral reefs.
Many of the problems being experienced are land-based in origin. Focus must
be given to strengthening the planning and management capabilities of relevant
institutions to ensure the sustainability of our marine and coastal resources and to
integrating the management of watersheds and coastal zones.
The local Institute of Marine Affairs (IMA) is a research/technical services state-
owned organisation that has done substantial work in coastal zone issues and
management. While this information is available, it is not readily accessible to
the public due to their confidentiality agreements. The Drainage Division of the
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Ministry of Infrastructure is responsible for the provision of protective
engineering works along the coastlines of Trinidad and Tobago and has
undertaken numerous studies in this regard.
2.0
CURRENT WATERSHED/WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT
ISSUES
2.1
Freshwater Habitats and Ecosystems
The islands of Trinidad and Tobago have been mapped under Hydrometric areas
which are major hydrologic units, within which a number of
watersheds/subwatersheds have been placed. While there is no "Protective Area
System" per se, there are instruments for protection of some of these watershed
areas. The "Forest and Nature Reserve" areas especially in the North Coast of
Trinidad, allows protection of the upper reaches of some of the watershed areas,
by virtue of their locations. In Tobago, the Hillsborough Main Ridge is one of
the oldest protected areas (established since 1734) in the Western Hemisphere.
The National Parks Project has proposed several areas in Trinidad and Tobago to
fall under such a "protected area system"
The largest watersheds contain the major river systems (and fresh water
ecosystems), which in Trinidad are the Caroni, North Oropouche, Navet and
Ortoire, South Oropouche rivers and their associated wetland/swamp areas. The
Caroni River is one of the main contributors to the potable water supply of
Trinidad, draining an area of 1000 km2 (approximately 1/5 of the total area of
Trinidad). In Tobago, major systems are the Richmond, Goldsborough and
Hillsborough rivers. The country's rivers directly support life ( phytoplankton,
fish, crabs, crayfish, teta, pui-pui) and other useful plants (used in local craft
industry) which rural peoples depend on for local consumption and/or export
trade.
These rivers are also popular tourism and recreational sites, especially Caroni
and Nariva which support abundant avifauna, especially waterfowl (anhingas,
cormorants, herons, gulls and egrets) and other wild life. These systems provide
water for game animals (eg. lappe, deer, wildhog, tatoo and agouti) and non-
game animals (howler monkeys, porcupines, anteaters, tayra (highwoods dog),
ocelot, manicou and squirrels), small rodents, bats and insects such as
damselflies and dragon flies. There is also large-scale agriculture on the alluvial
flood plains of Caroni and Nariva.
The major threats to the management of watersheds and freshwater ecosystems
in Trinidad and Tobago include the threat of groundwater and river degradation:
· from industrial, agricultural and domestic pollution
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15
· from soil erosion, deforestation, habitation on steep slopes, annual bush and
forest fires, indiscriminate and unplanned construction - this can reduce the
free flow of fresh water resulting in changes in composition of fresh water
plants, sedges and invertebrate composition
· from flooding, poor drainage and maintenance, pressures (and associated
problems) of urbanisation
· from over abstraction from surface and groundwater sources
Further degradation of the watershed areas can result from
· pressure on land for housing and poor land practices
· reduced crop and land productivity,
· poor system of logging
In Tobago, some additional priority problems in watershed areas include - proximity
to Scarborough and pressure on land for residences and buildings, improved
vehicular access to forest and watershed areas and illegal sand mining.
Some relevant general recommendations towards management of watersheds (and by
extension freshwater ecosystems) are presented here:
· enforce pollution laws, abstraction limits and land use regulations
· make appropriate changes in techniques used in site preparation and built
development
· ensure changes in fire climax vegetation on hillsides
· improve systems of collection of solid waste
· improve road construction techniques
· address reversal of deforestation by expanding quality and coverage of forest
· establish a system of community participation
· help solve and provide lasting solutions to degradation to water quality and
the environment
· implement public education targeting the general population and specific
groups at the community level
· identify data needs and establish systematic collection programs
· regularise land tenancy arrangements in watersheds
· identify a system of community led eco-tourism projects to improve
forest/hillside management
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· additionally, in Tobago, there is need for enforcing of restriction on mining
of water courses
2.2
Supply and Demand
Water Demand
The demand for water on the islands is classified as either consuming or non-
consuming water. The former category includes domestic water, major
industrial, minor industrial, irrigated agriculture and unaccounted-for-water.
Computations and projections of the consuming demands and the year 2000
demand assessment are shown in Figure 2.1
Table 2.1 Consuming Water Demand (MCM/Year) for the Period 1997 to 2025
Demand Category Year
1997 2000 2005 2015 2025
Domestic
118
120
142
171
203
Industrial, Major
36
51
66
92
112
Industrial, Minor
9
9
11
13
15
Irrigated Agriculture*
10
10
10
10
10
Unaccounted-for-Water
124
124
128
118
141
TOTAL
297
314
357
404
481
* Estimates here are anticipated to increase dramatically if irrigated agriculture increases.
The water demand for domestic customers were computed using a population
growth rate of 1.2% per annum beginning with a base population of 1.3 million
in 1995 and a per capita consumption of 2,000 litres/day. Industrial demands
outside of Point Lisas were projected to grow at an average rate of 1.7% per
annum in line with the population growth rate, while the Point Lisas demand was
projected from actual development plans for the area. Estimates for
unaccounted-for-water was 43% for 1995, declining to 30% in the year 2025.
Irrigated agricultural demand calculations have been based upon the irrigated
area (present base of 3,040 hectares), the unit demand for each crop and the
irrigation efficiency. Based upon current trends it was recognised that due to
competing economic development of other business sectors, that this sector will
most likely not expand significantly. However, the Ministry of Agriculture has
indicated that there is a substantial amount of irrigable lands, which if developed
will require substantial increases in the demand for irrigation water. This
scenario has not been considered in the demand projections because of its
unlikely occurrence in the near future. Notwithstanding, there are a number of
initiatives that may be pursued in the future once irrigation water can be made
available.
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The main non-consuming demand in the country is related to the minimum flows
required to maintain healthy ecosystems in rivers and swamps. Although there is
an absence of sound scientific information to determine these minimum flows on
a basin-by-basin basis, these have been set at a minimum of 20% of the natural
river flow.
While there is no formal water policy, the general practice of allocating water
among competing uses are in order of priority:- domestic, industrial, agriculture
and ecological. Notwithstanding, there are many cases where the order of
priority changes within selected basins. In addition, the growing awareness of
environmental concerns has often set upper limits to total abstractions of the
competing uses.
For the year 1997, Trinidad's estimated water availability per annum from
surface, ground and reservoir sources was 3,691 MCM, surpassing the total
annual demand of 1,044 MCM for both consuming and non-consuming
demands. The dry season (January to May) availability was 573 MCM and
combined demand was 224 MCM. The projections for the year 2,025 showed
water availability to be 3,701 MCM and a total demand of 1,651 MCM. The dry
season availability estimates for the same period are 583 MCM and 328 MCM
for the water demand.
For the island of Tobago the 1997 water availability and demand were 141 and
37 MCM, while dry season figures were 29 and 9 MCM respectively. The 2,025
projections indicate the same total availability of 141 MCM with a slight
increase in demand to 41 MCM and similarly dry season figures of 29 MCM
water available to 10 MCM water demand. Therefore, the Per Capita Availability
of 0.003 MCM/ year indicates according to the World Bank Standards (0.001
MCM/year), that Trinidad and Tobago is not a water scarce country.
The overall water balances as shown in Figure 2.1b for each island indicate that
there is sufficient water available even during dry periods to satisfy the demands
of the twin island state. However, due to the spatial and temporal availability of
the water, localised imbalances occur, resulting in water shortages being
experienced by the population. The ability to supply all the competing demands
for water is further affected by bottlenecks in the water supply infrastructure.
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Figure 2.1a: Consuming Year 2000 Demand
MCM/Year
Domestic
Industrial, Major
124
120
Industrial, Minor
51
Irrigated Agriculture
10 9
Figure 2.1b: Water Balance for Trinidad and for Tobago
Unaccounted- for-water
Figure 2.1b:
Trinidad Total Demand Versus Availability
Tobago Total Demand versus
(1997) MCM/year
Availability (1997) MCM/Year
4,000
200
Dem and
Demand
M CM /Y ear
MCM/Year
3,691
2,000
100
A vai
l
abi
l
i
ty
141
1,044
Availability
0
M CM /Y ear
37
0
MCM/Year
Water Supply
The public water supply system (PWS) owned and operated by the Government
is managed by the Water and Sewerage Authority (WASA). Water infrastructure
is installed throughout both islands to satisfy the potable and industrial water
demands of the large majority of the population. The various components of the
public water supply system for both islands are presented in Tables 2.2 and 2.3
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Table 2.2 Components of The Public Water Supply System in Trinidad
System
Components
Northern Systems
Hollis Reservoir and other smaller intakes serves Arima and
surroundings
North Oropouche
River intake to serve Sangre Grande, Arima and Westwards.
Caroni Dam and WTP
A major reservoir in the North Central to serve the North and South
of the island in an approximately 50:50 ratio.
Northwest System
Water from Caroni North is supplemented by seven(7) wellfields and
river intakes to feed the capital city, Port-of-Spain and suburbs
Southern System
Water from Caroni South for areas in Central,including Point Lisas
and for South.
Navet Scheme
The second largest reservoir in the Central area serving the city of
San Fernando and surroundings.
Isolated South Plants
Small intakes and wellfields within the South one-third of the island
to supply localised demands.
Table 2.3 Components of The Public Water supply System in Tobago
System
Components
South West System
Comprising of the Hillsborough impounding reservoir,
two (2) intakes and four (4) wells to supply Scarborough
and the West of the island.
Isolated Plants
Small intakes and three(3) wells supply the rest of the
island on a localised basis.
The 1997 water demand for customers served by the Public Water Supply
System in Trinidad was computed to be 279 MCM, while an estimated 217
MCM was supplied by the system resulting in a deficit of 62 MCM. Due to a
number of initiatives, several water source development projects were
implemented to improve WASA's supply throughout the island. In Trinidad,
this included the upgrade of the Caroni Water Treatment Plant to produce an
additional 25 MCM/year, rehabilitation of many small plants and the redrilling/
rehabilitation of several wells to produce an additional capacity of 11
MCM/year. The situation in Trinidad in year 2000 still recognises a deficit
between water supply and demand of 44 MCM/year. Two major projects are
being implemented to offset this increasing deficit for the immediate to medium
term (5 years). A desalination plant to produce up to 40 MCM/year industrial
quality water for the major industrial estate at Point Lisas, and exploration of
groundwater sources targeting 25 MCM/year.
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On the island of Tobago an additional 4 MCM/year was obtained from new
groundwater sources, via the Tobago Groundwater Assessment and Well
Development Programme which was completed in year 2000. Water in excess
of the estimated deficit of 3 MCM/year projected for year 2005 has been realised
for this island. Notwithstanding, extreme events and bottlenecks in the
distribution network will impact on the water supply situation but to a much
lesser extent than prior years.
Tariffs
The Water and Sewerage Authority as the main provider of water and sewerage
services has tariffs sets for both services. The tariffs for water supply services
recognises different rates for domestic and non-domestic customers and for those
who are metered and unmetered (Table 2.4).
Table 2.4 Water Tariffs for Trinidad and Tobago
Consumer Category
Water Rate
Domestic
Metered: US$0.28 per m3/quarter for the first 150 m3, then at a
rate of US$0.56 per m3/quarter.
Unmetered: Based upon a proportion of the Annual Taxable
Value of property within a range of US$17 /quarter to US$48
/quarter
Non-Domestic
Metered: US$0.56 per m3/quarter for industrial and US$0.36
per m3/quarter for agriculture.
Unmetered: US$75 /month for commercial.
Tariffs for sewerage services are computed on the basis of the water supply rates.
Sewerage rates are calculated as 50% of the water rates for all classes of
customers.
In general, tariffs have been set below the marginal cost of the services,
especially for sewerage services. Customer classes are defined in terms of
activity rather than water consumption. Customers in the lower unmetered rates
are subsidised by WASA. Most of WASA's domestic customers (99%) and
about one third of the industrial customers are unmetered. This discourages
water conservation and denies customers the opportunity to manage their water
bills.
In 1998, a special water improvement rate was introduced for the Point Lisas
Industrial Estate, the main industrial area on the island of Trinidad. The rate for
industrial customers moved from US $0.56 per m3 to US $1.19 per m3. The
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21
introduction of this new rate has had a positive impact on the operating profit of
WASA.
Abstraction charges for private abstractors (i.e other than WASA) are subject to
a royalty payment of US $0.00 per m3 for domestic use, US $0.02 per m3 for
registered agricultural customers and US $0.06 per m3 for industrial/commercial
customers. The rate for agricultural customers was reduced from US $0.06 per
m3 to encourage the development of the agricultural sector. WASA at present
does not pay water abstraction charges.
2.3
Groundwater vis-ą-vis Surface Water
The demand for domestic, commercial, industrial and agricultural water has
increased dramatically over the last few years. Exploitation of the resource is
however constrained by its proximity to the demand centres. Ground and surface
water availability and actual abstraction for the year 2000 are summarised in
Tables 2.5 and 2.6. The abstractions of surface and groundwater for Trinidad and
Tobago are 278 and 81.1 MCM/year respectively.
Table 2.5 Trinidad Surface Water and Groundwater Availability/Abstraction
Available water
Actual Abstraction
Surface Water
3600 MCM/year
270 MCM/year
513 MCM/dry season
(8% of availability)
3087 MCM/wet season
62 MCM/driest month (April)
Groundwater
120 MCM/year (from conventional aquifers)
77 MCM/year
Table 2.6 Tobago Surface Water and Groundwater Availability/Abstraction
Available water
Actual Abstraction
Surface Water
140 MCM/year
8 MCM/year
28 MCM/dry season
(6% of availability)
112 MCM/wet season
3 MCM/driest month (May)
Groundwater
0.66 MCM/year (from conventional aquifers)
65.3 MCM/year (from newly exploited bed rock)
4.1 MCM/year
Figure 2.2 : Groundwater vis a vis Surface Water
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Surface Water
Surface Water
Trinidad MCM/Year
Tobago MCM/Year
150
4000
140
3000
3600
Abstraction
Abstraction
100
2000
1000
50
Availability
270
Availability
0
8
0
Groundwater Trinidad
Groundwater Tobago
MCM/Year
MCM/Year
80
150
Abstraction
60
Abstraction
100
120
65.3
77
40
50
Availability
20
Availability
4.1
0
0
Relative Abstractions MCM/Year
Ground
Water
23%
Surface Water
Surface
Water
Groundwater
77%
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Trinidad and Tobago utilised 7.5 % of its total surface water for the public water
supply system. The figures for the individual islands are 7.4 % for Trinidad and
5.7% for Tobago.
Groundwater exploitation in the country is 43.6 % of the available amount, with
Trinidad's exploitation level being 64.1% and that of Tobago being 6.2%. It
must be noted that in the year 2000, a new hydrogeological assessment of
Tobago revised its available groundwater levels from 0.69 MCM/year to 66
MCM/year. The study identified new sources of water located in crystalline
bedrock aquifers, which are recharged from megwatersheds. A similar study,
which has been initiated for Trinidad in the year 2001, is also expected to show
significant increases in the available groundwater.
Mitigation of Groundwater Contamination
The groundwater systems of Trinidad and Tobago are subject to a variety of
potential risks which include leaching from hazardous waste dumps, pit latrines,
septic tanks and underground fuel storage tanks, and discharges from industry,
agriculture and inefficient sewerage treatment plants.
Salt-water intrusion is also a major cause for concern. The El Socorro wells
experienced sea water intrusion during and before 1970, due to high abstraction
rates (approximately 30,000 m3/day). The water level fell to below sea level. A
cut back in production allowed the water level to recover during 1979-1983.
Chloride concentration was higher than 600 mg/l on average in 1980. After the
cutback the average concentration has been decreasing since 1985 and is now
about 400 mg/l. The original level at the beginning of the operations in 1959
was about 40 mg/l. A similar situation was observed for the Valsayn aquifer.
The pumping of aquifers within their safe yield values, drilling wells further
inland from the coast line and the frequent monitoring of coastal observation
wells for water level fluctuations and quality (chlorides) are the measures in
place to prevent salt-water intrusion. For the coastal aquifers between
Chaguaramas and El Socorro in the North, the abstraction rates must not be
higher than balanced yields, to keep a hydrodynamic balance and prevent sea
intrusion. Groundwater quality is most certainly threatened by salt-water
intrusion. A number of aquifers are opened ended to the sea. The Cocorite
wellfield and Upper El Socorro Gravels in the North West of the island are
examples where salt-water intrusion resulted in the abandonment of several good
producing wells.
There are other types of contamination treats that were identified through
specific studies. These can be described as follows:
· Nitrate levels in groundwater.
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· Coliform in El Socorro wells.
· Methyl Tertiary-Butyl Ether possibly due to leaking gasoline underground
storage tanks at service stations.
· Extensive oil well drilling throughout the Southern Basin may have resulted
in shallow groundwater contamination. Isolated examples have been found in
water wells in the Guayaguayare area.
The measures taken to mitigate groundwater contamination of the nation's water
sources are as follows:
· Groundwater abstraction is controlled by safe yield determination, that are
reviewed annually to prevent salt water intrusion.
· Sewer installations are required to be sited away from aquifer recharge areas.
· The coordination of several agencies when siting waste dumps, gas stations
and industries.
· The use of pesticides and herbicides are being controlled through public
education and import control measures.
· The introduction of new early warning design underground storage facilities
for petroleum fuel installations.
· All oil and gas wells drilled require strict isolation of the shallow water
bearing sands prior to drilling to greater depths.
2.4
Land Use
Before its occupation by European settlers, various types of natural forest species
covered Trinidad and Tobago. Approximately one hundred (100) years ago the
British Colonial Administration introduced the first systematic landuse, primarily
for the conservation of forest, the production of timber, and cash crops consisting
of cocoa, coffee, sugar cane, bananas, coconuts and tonka bean. Although forest
cover still dominates the landscape of both islands, growths in population and
economic activity have resulted in large scale degradation of watersheds
throughout the country especially in the mountain ranges of Trinidad and the
southern portion of Tobago.
In 1972, approximately 75% of the total land area of the country was covered by
some form of permanent vegetative cover (Table 2.7). This included some
58.3% under forest cover and 16.8% under tree cover. Although there has been
no recent comprehensive reassessment of the landuse in the country, a number of
individual catchment studies have provided significant insight into the changes
in landuse over the past thirty-eight (38) years. Recent estimates by the Forestry
Division estimated the 1990 forest cover to have declined to 49.9% of the total
land area. A study of the Santa Cruz catchment showed that between 1969 and
1992 forest cover decreased by 7.5%, while housing development increased by
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20%. Other catchment studies while not giving quantitative data, have also
shown significant increases in the percentage of built up areas in a number of
catchments in the country.
Table 2.7 Trinidad and Tobago Landuse 1972
Land Use Category
Area (hectares)
Percentage
Natural Vegetation and Forest
298,955
58.30
Tree crops
86,171
16.80
Sugar cane
48,038
9.47
Developed and Industrial Areas
40,108
7.82
Pasture and Other Crops
20,064
3.91
Pulses and grains
7,006
1.47
Oil Field Areas
3,711
0.72
Vegetables and Fruits
3,109
0.61
Plaintains and Bananas
2,503
0.51
Root Crops
2,227
0.43
Airport and Experimental Strations
517
0.10
Tobacco
420
0.18
Totals
512,829
100.00
Source: Chalmers 1992
Coupled with the increase in watershed degradation, is an alarming increase in
erosion rates. One particular study on the slopes of the Northern Range
demonstrated that erosion rates under natural forest are less than 0.5 ton/ha/yr,
that grasslands erode at a rate of 5-10 ton/ha/yr, that cultivated lands may erode
at a rate of 1-100 ton/ha/yr depending on the crop type, soil and slope and that
bare soils have high erosion rates, usually in the order of 50 ton/ha/year.
The effects of soil erosion and watershed degradation have not been fully
assessed. However, the impacts on the water resource include increased
sediment yields in rivers and canals, and changes in the distribution of the total
basin runoff over peak flows and baseflows. Sedimentation decreases the
discharge capacity of rivers and canals, consequently resulting in increased flood
risk. These increases in watershed degradation have been attributed to:
· Indiscriminate clearing and degradation of forests for housing and urban
development, shifting cultivation and squatting
· Loss of forest and protective vegetative cover by forest and bush fires
· Quarrying operations and road construction on steep slopes; and
· Cultivation on steep slopes, without the application of appropriate soil and
water conservation measures.
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26
Land-Use Policy
There is no clearly articulated land-use policy for Trinidad and Tobago that is
presented in a single document, instead various legislation exist which relate to
land and water issues. The responsibility for administering these legislation is
dispersed among several governmental entities such as the Town and Country
Planning Division, the Water and Sewerage Authority, Lands and Survey
Division and the Forestry Division. The following Acts relate to land-use and
water resources:-
Town and Country Planning Act (1969): This is the principal legal instrument
for regulating land-use in the country. It provides for the orderly and progressive
development of land and gives power of control over land-use and its
acquisition. Policy instruments are also available for restricting development
below the one hundred metre (100 m) contour level, preserving trees and
correcting injuries to any garden, vacant site or other open land.
Environmental Management Act No. 34 (1995): This Act is the legislative
framework for comprehensive control and protection of the country's natural
resources. It has a very important role in regulating land-use and land
development, and the prevention and control of water pollution. The Act
provides for the requesting of a Certificate of Environmental Clearance by
developers before proceeding with certain types of activities. It also provides for
the designation of environmentally sensitive areas in order to protect and/or
conserve the nation's natural resources.
Water and Sewerage Authority Act (1965): This Act is intended, inter alia, to
ensure the development and control of the water supply as well as to promote the
conservation and proper use of water resources. It also provides for the making
of bye laws to prevent the pollution of surface and underground water.
Waterworks and Water Conservation Act ( Revised 1980): This Act provides
for matters relating to the control and use of water in the country. It also
provides for the making of regulations for the control of the supply and use of
water in "Water Improvement Areas" and the prevention of waste or misuse of
water in those areas.
State Lands Act (180): Provision is made for the management of all state lands:
the prevention of squatting and encroachment, the prevention of injury to forests,
and the settlement and allotment of State lands.
Forest Act (Revised 1980): Provides for the preservation of trees.
Agricultural Fires Act (Revised 1980): Provides for the prevention and control
of agricultural fires.
WRA/MIN. Env: Integrating the Management of Watersheds and Coastal Areas in Trinidad and Tobago
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2.5
Climate Change and Natural Disasters
Climate Change
Islands in tropical areas, such as the Caribbean, are highly vulnerable to natural
disasters such as cyclones, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, tsunamis and storm
surges. They are also susceptible to floods and droughts. The potential for rising
sea levels and adverse changes to climate provides an additional threat to small
low lying islands and the low-lying coastal areas of larger islands.
Present climate variability, particularly associated with the periodic El Nińo/La
Nińa episodes, has a large impact on water resources of islands. The impacts of
present climate variability on groundwater resources of small islands are
particularly noticeable. Extended droughts can lead to an increase in the salinity
of normally potable water. Depending on the island's location, significant
droughts are associated with either El Nińo or La Nińa episodes.
Ten (10) years ago, global mean sea level was predicted to rise between 0.5 and
1.5 m within the present century, as a result of global warming. A more recent
review of sea level rise indicates that sea level is expected to rise by about 0.5 m
by the year 2100, with a range of uncertainty of about 0.2-0.9 m. Rising sea
level may have major impacts on the freshwater lenses in low-lying areas and
coral reef areas of islands such as Trinidad and Tobago. Rising sea level can
lead to a reduction of island width with a consequent reduction in freshwater lens
extent and thickness. Based on observed data, current global sea level shows an
increasing trend of 18 mm/decade or 0.18 m per century. The trend varies
according to location with most tide recorders showing an increasing level while
some show a decrease.
In addition to the potential for sea level rise, other potential impacts on climate
patterns are changes to rainfall and evaporation patterns. At this stage, regional
impacts at the scale of island groups are not well described but it is likely that
rainfall will increase in some areas and decrease in others. The same is likely to
occur in relation to evaporation. Changes to these two very important elements
of the hydrological cycle will impact on the input to groundwater systems,
namely, groundwater recharge. In turn, changes to recharge will directly impact
on the sustainability of groundwater systems. If adverse impacts of decreasing
long-term rainfall and increasing long-term evaporation were both to occur in
one area then the impact on groundwater resources could be quite severe.
There is also the potential for an increase in extreme events, for example, an
increase in extreme rainfall and more extended drought periods. The predicted
impacts of global warming on these aspects, however, is not well described,
particularly in tropical regions. Possible increasing frequency of storm events
would undoubtedly have an impact on small lying islands and coastal areas of
larger areas, increasing the potential for over-topping and erosion.
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28
Small island states like ourselves are not significant contributors to the global
warming effect driving the climatic changes expected but are likely to experience
the effects of these changes more than those nations primarily responsible for the
phenomenon.
The international community has agreed to a joint and systematic approach to the
imminent danger of a climatic change. At the Summit held in Rio in June 1992,
154 countries, including Trinidad and Tobago, along with the European
Community, signed the Framework Convention on Climate Change (FCCC) in a
united effort to drastically reduce the emissions of CO2 and other greenhouse
gases. Trinidad and Tobago's Petrotrin Oil Company is actively involved in the
Caribbean Planning for Adaptation to Global Climate Change (CPACC). This
requires the Company to show an awareness of issues relating to climate change
and the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). Consequently, they are
presently in the process of establishing its own Climate Change Institute.
With this move, they hope to demonstrate a clear commitment to sustainable
development and greenhouse gas reduction and is striving to become the first
major petroleum company in the developing world to take such an initiative.
The regional belt located between the Northern Range and the Central Range of
Trinidad, often referred to as the Caroni Basin is considered most vulnerable to
the impacts of projected climate change and sea-level rise. It is the most densely
populated area of the country and also has a concentration of critical biodiversity
extending from the coastal mangrove and swamp fringes to the forested Northern
Range. Critical life sustaining facilities are located within this belt, in particular
the greatest reserves of surface and ground waters which are used for supplying
the entire island of Trinidad.
The Caroni Basin is already under threat from poor land use practices, including
the deforestation of the Northern Range, which results in perennial flooding in
the lower regions of the Basin. The fresh water resources within this region have
been deteriorating rapidly due to pollution from a multitude of small-scale
industries, particularly poultry rearing and quarrying. These are exacerbated by
the increasing use of pesticides and fertilizers in agricultural holdings. Recent
years have seen the near disappearance of the national bird, the Scarlet Ibis, from
within the Caroni Swamp, due to the destruction of this habitat as a result of
human interventions, such as illegal hunting and poaching and an increase in the
density of drainage channels and thoroughfares.
Sea-level rise along the southwest coast of Trinidad would threaten critical areas
such as the Point Lisas Industrial Estate, a major GDP provider. Seawater
encroachment in the coastal regions of south-west and east Trinidad continues to
be an engineering challenge. Such encroachment has often been accompanied by
severe denudation of the coastal areas. Limited encroachment and erosion
continues to be experienced in some coastal areas of Tobago.
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29
The impacts of climate change and sea-level rise in the island of Tobago would
have to be considered particularly in relation to the tourism industry, a critical
component of which relates to the coral-reef resources of the island. Tourism
represents a mainstay in the socio-economic development of the island.
For Trinidad and Tobago, sensitive sectors and exposure units in relation to
climate change and sea level rise have been identified as:
Water Resources Sector
1. Ground Water (Coastal Aquifers Northwest Trinidad and Southwest
Tobago)
2. Surface Water Systems (Caroni Watershed System)
3. Flood Management (Caroni Watershed System, Caparo and South
Oropuche Basins)
Forests and Biodiversity
1. Upper Watersheds ( Northern Range Forests)
2. Wetlands (Caroni Swamp, Nariva Swamp and South Oropuche Lagoon)
3. Ecospecies (Scarlet Ibis, Cocrico)
Agricultural Sector
1. Commercial Agriculture ( Sugarcane, Coconuts, Citrus)
2. Subsistence Agriculture (Short-term Crops e.g. tomatoes, lettuce,
melons)
3. Livestock (Cattle, Chickens)
Coastal Regions
1. Inundation and Flooding of Coastal Areas (Manzanilla/Mayaro)
2. Erosion (Manzanilla/Mayaro, Mosquito Creek, Los Iros)
3. Tobago Southwest Coast
Human Health
1. Insect Vector Diseases (Malaria, Dengue, Yellow Fever)
2. Respiratory Diseases (Senior Citizens and Children)
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Urban Development and Housing
1. Population and Housing Densities (East-West Corridor, San Fernando
and Arima)
2. Centralized Administrative Services (Port of Spain, San Fernando and
Arima)
3. Land use patterns (Lower to Middle elevations of Northern Range)
Marine Resources
1. Commercial Fisheries (Erin, Cedros, Mayaro, Maracas/Las Cuevas,
Carenage, Charlotteville)
2. Subsistence Fisheries (Erin, Cedros, Mayaro, Maracas/Las Cuevas,
Carenage, Charlotteville)
3. Coral Reefs (Bucco, Tobago)
Major and Minor Industries
1. Industrial Estates:- Petroleum, Petrochemicals, Iron and Steel (Point
Lisas, Point Fortin, Trincity, Arima, Beetham)
2. Tourism (Tobago, Chaguaramas)
3. Transportation Sector (Transits along Sir Solomon Hochoy Highway,
Churchill Roosevelt Highway and Eastern Main Road
In assessing the possible impacts of climate change and sea level rise on systems
within Trinidad and Tobago, the following scenarios are considered:
Climate and Sea Level Scenarios
· Temperature rise of 1.0 to 3.5 °C through to 2100
· A sea-level rise of 15 cm to 95 cm higher than 1990 figure through to
2100. A mean sea-level rise of 30cm by 2050
· Rainfall deficit of 15% by 2100
Environmental and Socio-economic Scenarios
· Population projection to 2050 of 2.1 million
· Accelerated major industrial water demand to the year 2025
· Accelerated irrigation demand to the year 2025
WRA/MIN. Env: Integrating the Management of Watersheds and Coastal Areas in Trinidad and Tobago
31
· Increase in tourism water demand
· Increase in potable water demand
· Increase in water demand from the health sector
· Economic projections uncertain in light of the future of oil
· Developing strong non-oil sector
Possible impacts of climate change and sea-level rise within Trinidad and
Tobago include:
Water Resources Sector
· Ground Water: Salt Water intrusion in Coastal Aquifers negatively impacting
on the national water supply. Reduced rainfall would produce less ground
water recharge.
· Surface Water Systems: Temperature increases evapotranspiration rate,
which together with less available precipitation will negatively impact on
storage in reservoir systems.
· Water Demand: Greater overall demand and less per capita water
availability. To meet rising water demand, over-abstraction from aquifer
systems with the accompanying risk of irreversible damage to such systems.
Human Health
· Insect Vector Diseases: Increases in temperature and humidity could lead to
population growth of species such as the Aedes aegypti mosquito which
could result in outbreaks of dengue fever and malaria.
· Respiratory Diseases: Temperature increases could stress the elderly and very
young.
Urban Development and Housing
· Population and Housing Densities: There is no data to suggest that climate
change and sea level rise would affect this exposure unit
· Centralized Administrative Services: No data available at present
· Land use patterns: Sea level change can cause a change in land use patterns.
Agricultural Sector
· Commercial Agriculture (Sugarcane, Coconuts, Citrus): A rise of 1°C in
minimum temperature leads to approximately a three (3) tonnes per acre
WRA/MIN. Env: Integrating the Management of Watersheds and Coastal Areas in Trinidad and Tobago
32
decrease in sugar production. No data is available at present on coconuts and
citrus.
· Subsistence Agriculture (Short-term Crops): Temperature rise can negatively
impact on yields of short-term crops
· Livestock (Cattle, Chickens): No data available at present
Biodiversity
· Wetlands Management: Sea level rise would impact negatively on wetlands
and ecospecies due to intrusion of saline water further inland.
· Forestry (Commercial ): No data available at present
· Coral Reef Management: Temperature increases could kill reefs
· Wildlife Management: Temperature and sea level rise would stress wildlife
Flooding
Flooding in both urban and rural areas in Trinidad and Tobago is a frequent
occurrence, leading to substantial losses of property, crop damage, health
problems and severe inconvenience of whole communities. Some of the factors
contributing to those conditions are easily identifiable and could be avoided,
particularly in the urban setting. In Trinidad, in particular, such factors include
the indiscriminate dumping of refuse and discarded material into streams and
improper or illegal land development and agricultural practices, particularly in
the upper reaches along the foothills of the Northern Range. The alleviation of
flooding in the flood plains of the larger rivers such as Caroni, Caparo, North
Oropuche and South Oropuche calls for substantial capital investments which
may not be available within the short term.
Flooding has continued perennially throughout Trinidad, particularly flash-
floodings along the east-west corridor at the foothills of the Northern Range and
in the Caparo and South Oropuche Basins, moreso in recent years. There is
generally an increasing concern about an apparent inability of the public
authorities to institute satisfactory measures of flood control based on drainage
engineering designs. Within recent years the concept of flood management has
been assuming greater significance where recognition is being given to the
integral link between the flooding problem and management of our watersheds,
particularly in the upper regions. Greater efforts are also being placed on the
integrated water resources management approach where linkages are being
sought between drainage, water supply, irrigation and other water resources sub-
systems in project implementation, as is being attempted for the ongoing World
Bank sponsored Caparo Basin Flood Mitigation and Water Resources
Management Project.
WRA/MIN. Env: Integrating the Management of Watersheds and Coastal Areas in Trinidad and Tobago
33
In a first effort at the management of flooding disasters, the National Emergency
Management Agency (NEMA) is currently leading an initiative, supported by the
Water Resources Agency (WRA), to establish a community based flood warning
system within the Caparo Basin. The effort incorporates the development of
flood plain maps and models to be used for providing warnings to the
communities within the basin based on ongoing monitoring of the hydrometric
network within the basin. The WRA will be primarily responsible for the
automatic monitoring system centred on its rainfall and streamflow telemetry
systems within the basin.
A lot needs to be done by way of Public Awareness and Public Education
programmes to sensitize the general public on their individual and collective
responsibilities in this critical area in particular and on the broader issues of
protection and conservation of our water resources. For instance, in Trinidad
and Tobago, there does not seem to exist an understanding that inappropriate
actions, such as deforestation, unplanned and improper housing development and
inappropriate agricultural practices, taken within the upper regions of our
watersheds can negatively impact on downstream areas including our coastal
zones. Problems like sedimentation of our coastal areas at the outfalls of
watercourses require expensive engineering and maintenance solutions like
dredging which can in turn have serious negative environmental impacts, as was
the case with the dredging carried out close to the Caroni River outfall in the mid
1980's. The dredged material was improperly disposed within a vast stretch of
the surrounding mangrove fringes which resulted in the death of not only the
mangrove system but also several species resident within this habitat.
In Trinidad and Tobago, flood studies seem to have been undertaken on an ad
hoc catchment by catchment basis. Generally such studies have not been placed
within an overall integrated framework. There exists a highly inadequate
database on flood occurrences and their parameters such as frequency levels and
extent of damages, financial or otherwise. Rough flood plain maps have been
developed for some regions by the WRA but these have to be completed and
extended to cover the entire country. To have some idea of the scale of the
impacts associated with flooding in Trinidad and Tobago, for the single event
flood of 1993 within the Caparo Basin, damages were estimated at US $581,000
and 9,800 persons were affected directly. Much still needs to be done by way of
quantifying such events throughout the country.
Earthquakes
Trinidad and Tobago lies within an active earthquake zone but generally in
recent years there has not been significant widespread damages arising from the
occurrence of such events, which are frequent in nature but mild in most
instances. A significant level of damages occurred in Tobago with the
earthquake event of 1996. In the instance of the physical water resource system,
slight shifts occurred in relation to the underground aquifers resulting in the
WRA/MIN. Env: Integrating the Management of Watersheds and Coastal Areas in Trinidad and Tobago
34
emergence of springs at several points and an increase in the overall natural
flows from the groundwater system. Since then, there has been a subsidence in
the flow activity, which has returned to normal levels. There have been no
reports on the impacts of earthquakes generally on coastal zones within Trinidad
and Tobago.
Oil spills
Because of its petroleum-based industry, Trinidad continues to have a higher risk
of occurrence of oil spills both inland and within its coastal and marine regions.
In fact, serious spills have continued to occur up to as recent as the year 2000.
Such spills have had short term damaging impacts on the coastlines, particularly
within the Gulf of Paria. The beaches of Vessigny, La Brea and Mayaro in the
south of Trinidad continue to be affected by the presence of petroleum based
residues emanating from the nearby oil industries and oil tankers.
Tropical Cyclones
Trinidad and Tobago is situated on the southern fringes of the Atlantic Tropical
Cyclone Tracks. As part of the North Atlantic/Caribbean region its official
hurricane season runs from June 1 to November 30. Although Trinidad is less
vulnerable than other Caribbean islands, it can be hit by tropical cyclones.
Tobago is however much more vulnerable even though it is only 35 km north
east of Trinidad.
As reported by the Meteorological Office, of the thirty-four (34) cyclones which
affected the country during the periods 1725 to 1847 and 1878 to 1993, twenty-
six (26) cyclonic disturbances affected Tobago, and thirteen (13) Trinidad. The
most significant cyclonic event in Trinidad and Tobago was Hurricane Flora in
1963. Of the 7,500 houses in the island of Tobago, 2,750 were destroyed and
3,500 damaged. There was no significant damage to the healthcare facilities.
Total damage in the two islands amounted to US $4.8 M.
The most recent cyclonic disturbances (1993-1994) were:-
· Tropical Storm Bret which occurred on August 6-7, 1993. Losses were
minimal because the storm's centre passed through the channel separating
both islands.
· Tropical Storm Debbie of 1994 which produced rainfall in the North and in
Tobago.
· Tropical Storm Pablo of 1995 which produced heavy rainfall on the East
Coast(including landslides) and East-West Corridor.
· Tropical Storm Iris of 1995 which produced rainfall on the West Coast.
· Tropical Storm Jose of 1999 which produced rainfall on the East Coast.
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35
Tornadoes
Prior to 1988 there was doubt that tornadoes could occur in Trinidad, although
there were previous report of damage done by strong whirlwinds. Over the past
six years damage due to whirlwinds was reported in the south of Trinidad. The
first recorded tornado occurred in October of 1988, in Central Trinidad causing
an estimated damage of US $95,200.00 to twenty-four (24) buildings.
The occurrence of tornadoes in the island of Trinidad is apparently very
infrequent. These tornadoes are estimated to be of an intensity of F 0.5 to F1
(expected damage, light to moderate) on the Fujita Scale. Present data on
tornadoes does not permit the estimation of any quantitative recurrence interval.
2.6
Transboundary Threats
Trinidad and Tobago is a twin island sovereign nation and by virtue of this no
Transboundary threats exist within its land areas.
2.7
Pollution
The land based water bodies in Trinidad and Tobago comprise rivers/streams,
reservoirs and aquifers. These water bodies fulfil a wide range of uses including
potable water supply, irrigation, recreation, religious rituals, waste disposal,
small-scale transportation, ecosystem support and aesthetics. This heavy
multiple use of the resource is occurring without a suitable water quality
management framework, resulting in significant negative water quality impacts.
One of the most important issues contributing to watershed depletion and water
pollution has been the lack of enforcement of environmental legislation.
Although there has been some historical background on environmental
legislation with at least one hundred and twenty-four (124) environmental law
references dating back from the 1950's and 1960's, there has been little
enforcement because of:
· Few environmental officers
· No qualitative standards i.e. the legislations are vague and difficult to
strategically enforce and
· The spread of these historical laws among forty (40) different agencies.
The factors and activities, which impact negatively on the water quality in
Trinidad and Tobago, are many and varied. These factors are usually the result of
human activity, however, natural activities such as weathering of rocks and
natural disasters (floods, storms and earthquakes) also contribute to the
deterioration in water quality. The major pollutants found in the nation's water
systems are solids (measured as total suspended solids), organics (measured as
WRA/MIN. Env: Integrating the Management of Watersheds and Coastal Areas in Trinidad and Tobago
36
biological oxygen demand), oil and grease, nitrogen and phosphorous. The
relative percents of these pollutant loads and their sources are shown in Figure
2.3
SurfaceWater Quality
WASA's Water Quality Monitoring at Intakes
The most extensive water quality monitoring in the country is conducted by
WASA through its routine samplings at all surface water intakes. The sampling
although limited in scope gives some idea of the state of the resource at critical
water supply locations. Over the years it has been shown that the surface water
bodies are affected by high levels of organic material (expressed as BOD),
pathogens (expressed as faecal coliform) and solids (expressed as turbidity).
Table 2.8 shows data from this sampling regime for the year 1995.
Figure 2.3 Contribution of Individual Pollutant Loads and Their Pollutant Sources
liv es toc k rearing,
munic ipal w as te
oil and f ats produc tion,
treatment,
petroleum ref ining,
manuf ac turing of
Biologic al
petroc hemic al
bev erages and
Ox y gen Demand
manuf ac turing and
petroc hemic als ,
Total Sus pended
munic ipal w as te
petroleum ref ining and
Solids
treatment
hos pitality
35%
Nitrogen
18%
munic ipal w as te
Phos phorous
treatment and liv es toc k
munic ipa w as te
rearings
treatment, liv es toc k
Oil & Greas e
1% municipal w aste
rearing, bev erage
treatment, liv es toc k
manuf ac turing and
rearing and
petreoleum ref ininged
manuf ac turing of
Solids
petroc hemic als
37%
9%
Source: Environmental Management Authority 1998
WRA/MIN. Env: Integrating the Management of Watersheds and Coastal Areas in Trinidad and Tobago
37
Table 2.8
Average per river of the mean 1995 concentrations for WASA sampling
locations
Substance
BOD
Ortho
Total P
DO
FC
Free N Settleable
Total
Phosphate
Matter
NFR
River
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
nr/
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
per 100 ml
North Oropouche
0.9
0.04
0.19
7.4
770
0.2
0.02
25
Caroni (main)
9.8
0.24
0.55
4.5
122 885
0.9
0.14
29
Caroni (trib.)
10.5
0.27
0.57
4.9
144 850
0.9
0.16
17
Couva
23.0
0.07
0.34
6.4
15 120
1.9
0.44
145
Guaracara
15.0
0.08
0.35
4.7
25 350
1.6
0.30
69
Cipero
342.5
0.17
0.50
3.1
171 213
1.5
0.94
66
South Oropouche
3.9
0.05
0.37
5.5
16 367
0.5
0.06
225
Average all locations 58.1
0.16
0.46
4.9
88 486
1.0
0.27
78
LEGEND: BOD- Biological Oxygen Demand
P- Phosphorous
DO- Dissolved Oxygen Concentration
FC- Faecal Coliform
NFR- Non Filterable Residue
Caroni River Basin Water Quality Studies
Most of the water quality studies in the country have been restricted to the Caroni River
Basin. The intensity of work done in the basin is attributed to its importance as the
major water-producing basin in the country. The Caroni River is one of the major rivers
in Trinidad, being almost 35 km long, from its mouth at the Gulf of Paria and having
some fourteen (14) associated tributaries. It is the main source of potable water in the
country, with the Caroni Water Treatment Plant being the largest potable water
treatment facility. There are two main industrialized areas along the Caroni River. For
most of its length, the Caroni River flows through sugar cane fields with sporadic
settlements. Two major water quality studies (1997 and 1999) were conducted in the
Caroni River Basin.
The study of 1997 was conducted on the drainage area above the Caroni Water
Treatment Plant. It showed that total solids accounted for eighty-eight percent (88 %)
percent of the total pollutant load, while organics accounted for ten percent (10 %) and
nutrients for two percent (2 %). The origins of the individual pollutants were identified
as follows:
· Nitrogen(ammonia)
Mainly from the flushing of soil constituents
· Nitrogen (nitrates)
Mainly from point source (municipal and industrial)
discharges.
Soil constituents may also be a minor source.
· Nitrogen(nitrites)
Mainly from point sources and soil constituents
Biological Oxygen Demand,
Oil and Grease
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· Total phosphorous
· Solids
Mainly from particulate matter derived from sheet
erosion, bed mobilization and the flushing of soil
constituents
Most of the rivers in the study area were found to be polluted with agricultural,
industrial and domestic wastes as wells as poor land use practices.
The study of 1999 involved a comprehensive assessment of the water quality of the
Caroni River and its tributaries. Monitoring of the Caroni River during the wet season
showed a progressive increase in pollutant levels from the upper Caroni river, mid
Caroni river to lower Caroni river. There were increases in levels of ammonia, BOD5,
chlorides, nitrites, phosphates, total and faecal coliforms. Consistently low dissolved
oxygen levels and high BOD5, total and faecal coliforms were indicative of considerable
organic pollution in the Caroni River. Elevated levels of hydrogen sulphide and the foul
smell of this gas were consistent with the anoxic condition of the Caroni River.
Continued monitoring of the Caroni River for dry season showed a similar trend to that
of the wet season. There were progressive increases downstream in BOD5, nutrients,
total and faecal coliforms with consistent lowering in dissolved oxygen. The anoxic
condition of the Caroni River, as a result of its extensive pollution, makes the water
quality extremely poor.
Data obtained from the study showed that suspended solids accounted for 74 % of the
pollutant loading of the water treatment plant. Chlorides accounted for 18 % while both
BOD5 and organic nitrogen accounted for 4 %. Nutrients and phosphates accounted for
less than 1%. BOD5 pollutant load into the Caroni Swamp accounted for 17 % as
opposed to 4 % in the water treatment plant. The higher levels of BOD5 were largely
attributable to the release of untreated effluents from distilling and brewing industries
into the rivers of the Caroni River Basin.
In general the water quality studies in the watersheds of the Caroni River basin
identified the major activities affecting the catchments as quarrying, industrial and
domestic waste discharges, and domestic dumping of solid waste. The water quality
problems were attributed to:
· Untreated effluent discharges by households and industry
· Limited waste water treatment capacity
· Low efficiency of existing waste water treatment facilities
· Lack of sewer systems and only a small fraction (40%) of households connected to
available sewers
· Surface runoff (turbidity)
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Oil Related Pollution
There have been several incidences of inland oil spills, in the southern one-third of the
island that had resulted in severe pollution of the waterways in these areas. These spills
often emerge within the coastal areas causing substantial damage to the mangrove and
beach areas. Specific areas affected on a continual basis over the years are located in the
South East and the South West of the island.
Recent efforts by the Local Ministry of Energy to limit such damage through the
enforcement of clean-up actions by the polluters have had some, however limited,
success to date.
Chronic oil pollution is not as severe a problem, however, the chronic discharge of
oilfield brines from producing wells has changed the salinity of several small waterways
and thus their natural environment. The impact of this form of pollution on coastal zones
is considered minimal.
Activities That Affect Water Quality in Trinidad and Tobago
There is no comprehensive assessment of the quality of the water resources of the
country. Instead a number of independent studies of varying levels of reliability have
been carried out. Consequently the qualitative results of these studies together with
expert opinion and the results of the Caroin River Basin water quality studies has been
synthesized in order to arrive at an overview of the quality of the surface water resources
of Trinidad and Tobago. The overview shows a dominance of relatively low water
quality in the central and western part of Trinidad, while the northeastern part of
Trinidad and the island of Tobago have relatively high water quality levels. The
activities that affect the water quality and the aquatic environment are watershed
degradation, modification of the hydrological regime, discharge of chemicals, disposal
of sewage and farm wastes, and the dumping of refuse and solid wastes.
Watershed degradation: Watershed degradation is one of the major sources of water
quality and aquatic-ecosystems impairment in the country. The WRM study has shown
that 5.8 % (282.2 sq km) of the land in Trinidad requires soil and water conservation
while 23.2 % (75.2 sq km) of the land in Tobago require soil and water conservation.
The 1960 erosion status (no update is available) shows that 15 % of the catchments in
Tobago had lost their entire topsoil and 42 % lost more than half of their topsoil, while
for Trinidad the figures were 1 % and 10 % respectively. Watershed degradation has
contributed to increased sediment yields, increased turbidity, and reduction in stream
flow capacity. The relatively large increase in watershed infiltration through squatting,
slash and burn agriculture, growth of elevated residential areas and logging has had a
dramatic impact on the erosion status in the past forty (40) years. This has been most
severe in the western areas of the Northern Range in Trinidad.
Modification of Hydrological Regime: Modifications of the hydrological regimes
through structural and engineering works have also affected the water quality. These
activities include the paving of waterways, channel realignment, diversion of
WRA/MIN. Env: Integrating the Management of Watersheds and Coastal Areas in Trinidad and Tobago
40
watercourses, location of residential (housing) settlements and over-pumping of
aquifers. The major effects are drying out of watercourses and salt water intrusion in
coastal aquifers, swamps and waterways. Also, the water wells along the East- West
Corridor in Trinidad have been most severely impacted upon.
Discharge of Chemicals: Chemical pollution of the water resources result from
agricultural, industrial and household activities. Occasional fish kills in rivers have been
attributed to the excessive use of agrochemicals. The increasing use of cleaning agents
in households is also contributing to the decline in water quality in the country.
Trinidad and Tobago is one of the most industrialised countries in the region. Its
industries range from sugar and oil refining, rum distillation, manufacturing of petro-
chemicals, paint and metal finishing, and agroprocessing. The impact of industrial
effluents on the water resources is predominant along the foothills of the Northern range
and the western coast of Trinidad. Industrial activity in Tobago is relatively small, being
concentrated in the south-west and central parts of the island. Effluents from oil and
sugar cane refining particularly affect the rivers in south Trinidad. Other areas in the
country are also affected by petroleum products, which are discharged into the water
courses from leaking tanks, washings, and improper disposal of waste oils. It is
estimated that 75% of petroleum products discharged into the environment originates
through the improper disposal of vehicle oils in open drains. The very high ratio of
vehicles per 1000 persons in Trinidad coupled with the fact that 75% of all gasoline
driven vehicles use leaded gasoline has lead to the widespread contamination of
waterways by lead pollutants.
Disposal of Sewage and Farm Wastes: A preliminary estimate has indicated that
approximately one hundred and ninety-five (195) sewage treatment plants exist in
Trinidad and Tobago, of which only twelve (12) are operated by the Water and
Sewerage Authority. Most of these treatment plants operate inefficiently, producing
effluent, which exceeds the standards for faecal coliform and biological oxygen demand.
Non-functional sewage treatment plants, livestock farms and overflowing septic tanks,
and pit latrines discharge significant quantities of organic waste into the nation's
waterways. Farm waste has been estimated to produce over fifty-five percent (55 %) of
the total waste load ( Table 2.8) above. Serious contamination of over four (4)
waterways has been attributed to primarily farm waste.
The total domestic and livestock waste for Trinidad and Tobago was estimated as 10.4
million killograms/year with 45 % being contributed from domestic sources and 55 %
from livestocks. Table 2.9 shows the annual pollutant loads for biological oxygen
demand (BOD), suspended solids, nitrogen and phosphorous. It must be noted that
Tobago accounts for four percent (4 %) of both the domestic waste and livestock waste.
WRA/MIN. Env: Integrating the Management of Watersheds and Coastal Areas in Trinidad and Tobago
41
Table 2.9 Waste Load Produced/Discharged for Trinidad and Tobago
Source
Type of Load
BOD
Suspended Solids
Nitrogen
Phosphorous
(x 1000 kg/yr)
(x 1000 kg/yr)
(x 1000 kg/yr)
(x 1000 kg/yr)
Domestic
Produced
19,371
114,073
3,300
825
Livestock
Produced
39,444
105,980
3,460
562
Domestic
Discharged
1,438
2,593
492
131
Livestock
Discharged
197
5,299
173
28
Domestic Refuse and Solid Wastes: Substantial quantities of domestic refuse and solid
wastes are disposed in the watercourses of Trinidad and Tobago. This waste comprises
animal entrails, chicken feathers, faeces, used containers and bulky household items.
Domestic refuse and solid waste not only clog the waterways and produce offensive
odours, but may also dissolve to produce chemical residues which lower water quality.
Figure 2.4 summarises the sources of solid waste in Trinidad and Tobago.
Figure 2.4 Summary of Significant Sources of Solid Waste
Agriculture and
Agro-processing
Petroleum and
4%
Petrochemicals
29%
36%
Water treatment
Hospitality and
3%
2%
26%
Health Services
Municipal Wastes
Airport and Ship
T
t
Source: Environmental Management Authority 1998
In summary the ambient water quality of Trinidad and Tobago is affected by both
land use and water use. The most significant factors that contribute to the
deterioration of the water quality are:
· The release of high loads of organic material, toxic pollutants and pathogens
from domestic and industrial sources
· Considerable loads of solids (expressed as turbidity and suspended sediments
concentrations), which are generated from indiscriminate and uncontrolled
quarrying activities, deforestation, sewage discharges and solid waste
dumping
WRA/MIN. Env: Integrating the Management of Watersheds and Coastal Areas in Trinidad and Tobago
42
· Excessive use of agrochemicals resulting in high levels of nutrient, pesticide
and heavy metals being discharged into surface water bodies
Groundwater Quality
In general, the quality of groundwater in Trinidad and Tobago is quite good.
However, each groundwater system has its own peculiar water quality problem.
Aquifers of the Northwest peninsula Gravels and Limestones usually meet WHO
standards, however well fields near limestone lenses may have hard water, with
calcium carbonate values of up to 325 mg/L.
Contamination of aquifers by salt water intrusion have been experienced in the
groundwater systems of both the Northwest Peninsula Gravels (Port of
Spain/Cocorite),the Northern Gravels (El Socorro) and in the Mayaro Sandstone
(East Coast of Trinidad). Largescale drawdown on the Northern Gravels due to
population increase along the east-west Corridor has decreased water table levels
in this area. This drawdown has been assisted by deforestation of the surrounding
watershed forests and widespread change of land-use into housing settlements.
The net effect of these activities resulting in the decrease of percolation and
ultimately aquifer replenishment rates.
High Nitrate levels were detected at various times in the Port of Spain and
Valsayn Gravels. These high levels have been attributed to leaching from nearby
cemeteries.
Although the groundwater in the Central and Southern Sands are of good quality,
high iron contents ranging from 8 to 11 mg/L have been recorded.
2.8
Tourism
Over the past years the Government of Trinidad and Tobago has started to focus
its energies on developing the tourism sector of the country. This came as a
means to diversify the country's dependency on the petroleum sector for a viable
economy. In order for the tourism industry to flourish there was need to create a
sustainable tourism sector that provided a source of economic and social
benefits. One of the first steps that the Government had to take was to identify
the natural resources that can be used to attract the tourist and then to develop
such resources in order to make them competitive on the international market.
The next step would be to create effective promotion and marketing skills in the
major consuming centers of the world.
Trinidad and Tobago comprises a large biodiversity of exotic flora and fauna
ranging from rainforest and mangrove forest to freshwater swamps and coral
reefs as well as mammals such as the endangered manatee and the red and blue
macaw. Consequently, these areas are earmarked to be protected areas or
WRA/MIN. Env: Integrating the Management of Watersheds and Coastal Areas in Trinidad and Tobago
43
national parks. However, proposals were made since the early 1980's and
nothing has been done to date. Tourists coming from the countries of Latin
America, North America and throughout the rest of the world are very interested
in these types of eco-tourism adventures. They are interested in the rainforest and
the wide variety of birds, monkeys, reptiles, snakes and other animals as well as
the flowers and different types of plant species that exist there.
As a result, the Government of Trinidad and Tobago has developed National
Parks in areas such as Clever Woods, San Fernando Hill and Vega de Oropuche
together with a nature reserve at Asa Wright and a wildfowl trust at Point at
Pierre, these are just to name a few. Hence, in these areas almost pristine
conditions were to be maintained. This could only be achieved with proper
watershed management, well maintained facilities, tree cover maintenance, the
prevention of forest fires and proper disposal of waste of any kind (not in streams
and waterways).
In creating an almost pristine natural environment for the tourist the vegetative
cover of the areas are maintained and as a result the soil is protected thereby
reducing soil erosion and flooding. The ability of the forested area to be a good
recharge area to an aquifer system is great and water resources management is
achieved. Selling the natural habitat can be beneficial to the tourist, the one who
sells the environment and the flora and fauna of the country. The tourist benefits
from the aesthetics of nature, the one who sells benefits from the economic value
of the product (he has to ensure the sustainability of the product) and the wildlife
as well as the vegetation are being saved and preserved for their inherent beauty
and value. The balance of nature is hardly touched and watershed management
is attained.
However, major developments in these areas e.g. large hotels and golf courses
for the tourist industry will have adverse effects on the management of the
watershed. Removal of a large percentage of vegetative cover will lend to
flooding, soil erosion, destruction of habitat and poor aquifer recharge.
Therefore, policies have to be developed to monitor any such activity and the
potential effects that they might have. Here proper watershed management plays
its role.
In 1997 the Government proposed policies to develop the Eco-tourism potential
in the country as well as other tourism-related projects.
2.9
Health
The health of the environment and its inhabitants depend on proper watershed
management. The major health concerns related to watershed management are
with respect to the quality of the water. Poor water quality can be directly
contaminating to humans when they consume water containing high levels of
toxic chemicals, heavy metals or bacteria and viruses from sewage.
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44
Contaminated water poses the indirect threat of harbouring many water-borne,
water-washed, water-based and water-related diseases. Some of these are
presented here:
· Water-borne diseases: They are contracted when drinking water is
contaminated with human or animal faeces. Such diseases caused are enteric
fever, diarrhoea, poliomyelitis and Ascariasis.
· Water-washed diseases: The unavailability of water causes an inability to
keep things clean and causes diseases such as Tracoma and Leishmaniasis.
· Water-based diseases: Water provides a home for host organisms in which
certain parasites spend part of their life cycle; when this host organism is
ingested by a fish or freshwater organism it can be passed up through the
food chain on to humans. Such diseases are Schistomiasis and
Dracunculiasis
· Water-related disease: Some disease-carrying insects rely on water as a
habitat. In this case disease contraction in humans occurs through indirect
contact with the same insects. They cause diseases such as African
trypanosomiasis, elephantiasis, yellow fever, dengue fever and malaria.
· Water-dispersed infections: Infectious agents which thrive in water are
inhaled into the respiratory tract of humans with minute water droplets
causing diseases such as Legionella.
In Trinidad and Tobago, there is poor disposal of waste e.g. faecal matter, toxic
chemicals, industrial waste, domestic waste, pesticides, solid waste and dead
animal waste into the environment. The situation poses serious threats to public
health and therefore warrants much concern. Sewage contaminated water
contains bacteria and viruses which transmit diseases such as cholera (e.g.
through shellfish) and typhoid fever, hepatitis A, polio and gastroenteritis.
Certain segments of the population face threats of diseases like cholera, dysentry
and gastroenteritis when they come into contact with contaminated and untreated
water. Pesticides and insecticides that are used in agricultural plots can be
washed into streams during heavy rains and either by themselves or as a result of
synergism can prove harmful to the inhabitants within the watersheds. Some fish
or other edible creatures may also bio-accumulate such chemicals and when
eaten by man can prove to be harmful or even fatal.
In the poorer areas of the country pit latrines which, if not constructed properly
will result in the seepage of faecal waste into the nearby soil and rivers or in
some cases where the water table is high result in contamination of the
groundwater systems. This could have deadly consequences as these waters may
be used for drinking, bathing, watering produce and cooking.
Proper watershed management practices need to be adopted throughout the
country. People need to be educated on the consequences of their actions and to
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45
take pride in protecting the environment. There must be control measures put in
place to stop the indiscriminate disposal of any type of waste product, be it
organic or inorganic. Solid waste disposal systems and garbage disposal systems
ought to be upgraded. Proper watershed management and waste disposal
practices will not only protect human health, but also reduce the costs of water
treatment.
In Trinidad and Tobago there is no regulatory framework that deals with the
effective disposal of hazardous waste. However, some legislation exists within
the various laws to deal with the matter. Nevertheless, serious threats to the
environment and human health still exist and a means to remedy this situation is
needed urgently.
2.10
Data, Information Management and Research
The following is an assessment of the programmes, systems, equipment and
data/information pertinent to the management of the water resources/watersheds
in Trinidad and Tobago:
Hydrometric
Network
Trinidad and Tobago is sub-divided into fourteen (14) hydrometric areas; nine
(9) in Trinidad and five (5) in Tobago. A hydrometric area comprises a number
of watersheds for the purpose of hydrometric studies with the hydrologic
boundaries corresponding to the surface water divides. Data on the climate,
groundwater and streams are collected on each watershed using manual and
automatic recording gauges.
Currently there are approximately thirty-one (31) streamflow gauges, two
hundred and twenty-two (222) recording and non-recording rainfall gauges, ten
(10) class `A' pan evaporation stations and over three hundred and fifty (350)
observation and production wells. Water levels are measured at five (5)
reservoirs; four (4) in Trinidad and one (1) in Tobago. Limited ad hoc water
quality sampling analysis is carried out at all measured streams and also at other
selected streams.
Flood Data
Fifty-nine (59) crest gauges have been installed in the flood prone areas of some
rivers. The levels have been related to mean sea level, and serve to provide
measurements of flood levels, which contribute to the preparation of flood plain
maps. Flood plain mapping commenced in 1981, and over the last twenty (20)
years this data has been collected for seventeen (17) areas. However the data for
the historic floods do not include either the flood return period or the associated
storm return period. Flood peaks above measured flows are estimated using
channel slope and Manning's equation. These flood studies have been
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46
undertaken on an ad hoc basis for a few basins, as a result a country wide map
with the extent of flood plains and depth of flooding is not available.
Drought Data
Although the collection of historical drought data is not of major emphasis, the
following related data are collected on a routine basis:- minimum daily stream
flows, average dry season, wet season and annual rainfalls.
Data Capture
Data collected on charts are digitized and the digital data analysed and stored in
flat files or entered into databases for manipulations. Other hydrological and
hydrogeological data collected are entered into databases manually or in
spreadsheets, some data are provided in digital copy. Data are also collected by
other institutions e.g. The University of the West Indies (UWI), Caroni 1975
Limited and the Meteorological Services. This data is made available to the
Water Resources Agency (WRA) on a mutual-sharing basis.
A telemetry system with state of the art remote terminal units (RTU) is presently
being installed to facilitate the transfer of data from remote stations directly to
the central office. There is a total of eighty-one (81) RTU's distributed across
the watersheds of Trinidad and Tobago comprising twenty-eight (28) recording
rain gauges, twenty (20) streamflow gauges, six (6) evaporation, one (1)
combination (rainfall and streamflow) and nine (9) groundwater in Trinidad. In
Tobago there are four (4) recording rain gauges, six (6) streamflow gauges and
three (3) evaporation remote terminal units. This would supplement the manual
gauges allowing data from the field to be transmitted directly to the office for
processing in the shortest possible time frame. Progress on the
operationalization of this system has however been slow and is yet to produce
the desired results.
Data Manipulation
Digitizing equipment and special software developed for this purpose are utilized
in converting and correcting the data captured on charts. A Geographic
Information System (GIS) is being utilized to supply a Decision Support System
providing spatial analysis of the hydrological and hydrogeological data. GIS
links spatial data with geographic information to provide the tools needed to
make both aspatial and spatial queries. Coverages of the hydrological networks
(streamflow, rainfall crest-gauges, wells), river network, hydrometric areas,
watersheds, pipeline network, hydrogeological nework coastline and soils are
available. This area has progressed slowly due to limited resources.
A database developed by the Institute of Hydrology in Wallingford, England for
storing hydrological and hydrogeological time series data "HYDATA", is
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47
utilized for processing, analysing and archiving of streamflow data. Presently,
there is no database for groundwater data. In-house spreadsheet type
applications are utilized for processing and storing of other hydrological
parameters.
Annual data reports giving summary statistical data on each catchment such as
drainage area characteristics, daily mean discharges, monthly flow summary,
instantaneous peak flows, daily and monthly rainfall, depth area curves, isohyetal
maps, groundwater levels, production data by wellfield, network maps and trend
plots are available.
Watershed Management
Watershed management is presently the responsibility of the Forestry
Department, with WRA and WASA having limited responsibility for
downstream resource management. Integrated watershed management as
initiatives proposed in the National Physical Development Plan (1989) and the
National Forest Resources Plan (1990) have had limited success and watershed
management programmes have concentrated on the western side of the Northern
Range in Trinidad, and to a limited extent in Tobago. The watershed
management activities usually involve:
· preparation of land capability maps in which slope and soil erodibility are
used to demarcate the land into areas for protection forest, production forest,
agro-forestry, agriculture with and without soil and water conservation
measures
· reafforestation of denuded sloping lands
· construction of small-scale soil and water conservation structures
The data collected include land-use from aerial photographs, soil type and
erosion status, slope, and growth rates of vegetation for reforestation.
Data Records
Of the thirty-one (31) streamflow stations, twenty-seven (27) in Trinidad and
four (4) in Tobago, streamflow data exist for only three (3) stations with over
twenty (20) years of continuous records and nine (9) other stations with between
ten (10) to twenty (20) years of continuous records.
Daily rainfall data in excess of seventy-five (75) years exist for some sites in
Trinidad with one (1) station, Botanic Gardens, having over one hundred (100)
years of data. The majority of rain gauges are situated in the Western Peninsula
and Caroni catchment. In Tobago the records indicate on average over thirty (30)
years of records.
Suspended sediment data are collected on an irregular basis at a few streamflow
sites and sediment /discharge curves are available in special reports from the
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48
WRA. However, limited information is available on sediment delivery ratios as
the frequency of sampling is on average one (1) per year.
Water quality data is available from the WRA, WASA and other organizations
such as the EMA and Institute of Marine Affairs (IMA), however, there are no
systematic waste water discharges monitoring programmes in any river basin
except in the Caroni River Basin upstream of the water treatment plant.
Soil erosion data although not collected on a continuous basis is available from
the UWI and consultants working on special projects in selected areas. A soil
map produced and printed by the Surveys Division is available giving soil
categories, slope and other related information. This map indicates that a
significant amount of erosion has taken place with 15% topsoil erosion in
Tobago and 42% lost in Trinidad. The watersheds on the south facing slopes of
the Northern Range are heavily eroded except in the Poole basin to the east.
Land use information is available from the Town and Country Planning Division
in GIS map format and paper based maps prepared from aerial photographs.
Land capability information is limited to the potential of the land/soil for
agricultural uses. In addition data is also available from the UWI, Planning
Division and the Ministry of Agriculture Land and Marine Resources.
Research Projects
The Drainage Division of the Ministry of Works and Transport has the
responsibility for flood alleviation works and river channel maintenance. A
number of programmes, studies, projects are undertaken on their behalf to
address the problems of flooding in areas such as Caroni, Cipero, Marabella,
Vistabella, North Oropuche, Guaico and Caparo. One such project "Caparo River
Basin Flood Mitigation and Water Resources Management Project" comprises a
number of research initiatives, management and operational plans and
construction activities.
Projects which incorporate research elements on other watershed management
issues such as water quality have been undertaken with funding from World
Bank e.g. "Caroni Water Quality Monitoring Project" undertaken by the Institute
of Marine Affairs to identify and qualify the conditions of the surface waters in
the basin. A number of studies have been carried out on the Caroni Basin and in
particular the Caroni river system.
A National Parks and Watershed Project on the Courland, Maraval and St. Ann's
watershed was conducted by Kairi Consultants to propose development plans for
effective management of these watersheds. Research initiatives have also been
suggested in the studies developed.
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2.11
Stakeholder Participation/Awareness and Education
Stakeholder Participation/Awareness and Education are crucial for successful
water resources and coastal zone management. This approach is becoming
increasingly important because:
· Laws and regulations work more effectively with willing compliance
· Resource allocation, protection and sustainability is becoming increasingly
more difficult
· Individual groups and communities must understand each other's interest
· Socio-economic equity in the management of the resource must be evident
· Governments are faced with more complex resource issues
· Public awareness is crucial to ensuring control of community pollution,
wastage and water quality
Nevertheless, there is no fully organised institutionalized public awareness and
stakeholder participation programme in place for watershed and water resources
management. The major players involved in watershed and water resources
management include the Environmental Management Authority (EMA) and the
Water & Sewerage Authority (WASA)/Water Resources Agency (WRA) and the
Forestry Division. Minor roles are played by the Meterological Office (MET)
and the National Emergency Management Agency (NEMA).
WASA/WRA
The Water and Sewerage Authority (WASA) has put into place a Public
Awareness Action Plan to enhance its image and improve the flow of
information to the public. WASA views the process of informing the public on
issues of water conservation as long-term and is targeting children. A video
production looking at all aspects of water management will be shown at schools,
with WASA providing background training to teachers. The campaign will run
for a five-month period with WASA hoping to achieve a 35% success rate.
WASA is also addressing the conservation issue in the context of general
household approach and its public awareness programme has a specific water
conservation component aimed at adults. WASA's main themes are directed
towards the improvement of the water supply situation through improved
awareness and conservaton.
One useful example of a stakeholder participation project in watershed
management was initiated by WASA in February of 1999. This project "The
Caroni River Basin Watershed Project" was established to determine and
WRA/MIN. Env: Integrating the Management of Watersheds and Coastal Areas in Trinidad and Tobago
50
implement effective solutions to alleviate negative environmental impacts on the
water resources. The Caroni River was chosen because it is the country's largest
single water supply, servicing 30 percent of the country's potable water needs.
Due to increasing soil erosion and watershed degradation, the major treatment
facility in the basin has been subjected to shutdowns, higher water treatment
costs and water supply disruptions from water intakes due to poor water quality.
Various independent studies in the basin have revealed that some of the
tributaries were bordering on the lowest raw water quality intended for potable
use and that if the resource is to be sustained for multiple use then measures
must be effected for its protection and conservation. WASA therefore
recognized that a process of collaboration and shared responsibility was the most
effective way to meet the management challenges. A committee comprising
governmental departments, non-governmental organizations, businesses and
community based organizations was convened and met every month to identify
the issues/concerns in each catchment and to determine the solutions and
strategies to alleviate major negative impacts. Individual organizational and
group responsibilities were identified for implementation. Follow-up of the
initiatives identified in the programme has not been monitored and in general has
not been executed. No other such programme has been pursued.
In August 2000, a regional workshop on "Stakeholder Participation and Dispute
Resolution in Integrated Water Resources Management" sponsored by the
Commonwealth Science Council (CSC) and NIHERST (of Trinidad and Tobago)
was conducted over a period of three days. This programme was coordinated by
personnel of the Water Resources Agency (WRA) of WASA. The participants
included a wide range of water resource stakeholders in Trinidad and Tobago as
well as representatives of other States in the region. The workshop sought to:
· promote ownership and responsibility for the water resource,
· provide understanding of levels and benefits of stakeholder participation,
· provide techniques for strategically planning stakeholder participation,
· provide insights and tools towards dispute resolution in water resources
management,
· introduce a computerized decision support system for stakeholder
participation and integrated water resources management,
· formulate a mechanism for stakeholder involvement in the Caribbean region
and
· initiate stakeholder participation in the formulation of a water resources
management policy and legislation for Trinidad and Tobago.
Environmental Management Authority (EMA)
The Environment Management Authority (EMA) conducted a survey in 1966 to
determine the level of understanding of environmental issues in Trinidad and
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51
Tobago. The results of the survey were used to formulate a communications
plan, which included the dissemination of information on water resources
conservation and watershed protection through the use of the public media,
newsletters, essay writing and public lectures. They have been involved in
limited public awareness of all environmental issues, including water issues
through the public media.
In 1995, the EMA established a complaints office to manage the flood of
citizens' complaints which range form air, water and noise pollution,
environmental degradation and hazardous wastes and spills.
Other Initiatives
The following are some of the other initiatives that have been pursued over the
last three (3) years :
· Participation in World Water Day Exhibition - Annually by MET, WRA and
WASA.
· Seminars to classes of high school students - On request by schools; average
of three (3) to four (4 ) per year by WRA
· Media awareness programmes to protect water supply sources Five (5) to
ten (10) per year by WASA
· EIA consultations for specific developmental projects Ten (10) to twenty
(20) per year by EMA
· American Chamber Meetings Six (6) per year by EMA and Petroleum
Sector companies
· Flood warning and weather predictions - As required by MET and NEMA
In general, efforts are uncoordinated and are unrelated to each other. In addition,
there is no firm plan to enhance public awareness about water resource
management and to involve community stakeholder participation. The
effectiveness of the limited education programme has not been measured but it is
well accepted that the level of resources invested here has not resulted in a
significant impact.
2.12
Institutional Frameworks
Water Resources Management Functions
There are specific functions, which are derived from the general concept of
integrated water resources management. These are policy and strategy
formulation, water resources assessment, water demand analysis, conservation,
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52
allocation of water, pricing of water, legislation and enforcement, demand
management, and water resources development:
1. Policy and Strategy Formulation: a policy is a course or principle of action
adopted or proposed by an organisation or individual, while strategy refers to
general methods and plans of action by which objectives might be achieved;
2. Water Resources Assessment: this refers to the continuous study of water
availability.
3. Water Demand Analysis: the activity involved in determining the
requirements of the various stakeholders in the water sector (for example,
agriculture, industry, and households);
4. Conservation: the prudent use and preservation of water resources (the
treatment/ re-use of water/ watershed management);
5. Master Planning and Allocation of Water: determination of how much water
is to be provided to each sector or stakeholder;
6. Pricing of Water: arriving at an economic valuation of water, with due
consideration to its social and ecological value;
7. Legislation and Enforcement: the process to ensure that proper regulations
are in place through a licensing and permit system and that these are
complied with regards to the abstraction of water, the prevention of water
pollution and the use of the land;
8. Demand Management: the process of controlling the quantity of water
abstracted by the various sectors and stakeholders and ensuring that this
water is used in the most efficient way possible; and
9. Water Resources Development and Distribution: this covers the gamut of
activities involved in making water available for use by its various
consumers through the process of abstraction, storage, transmission and
distribution. This would also include the proper sewerage and treatment of
used water.
10. Extreme Events Management: this includes the planning and implementation
of drought and flood control measures.
Responsible Agencies
There are a multitude of agencies and institutions involved in the water sector
and in the execution of water resources management functions. Nevertheless the
Water Resources Agency (WRA) which is part of the Water & Sewerage
Authority (WASA), has primary responsibility for water resources management.
The Water & Sewerage Authority (WASA) was established in 1965 by an Act of
Parliament, and is responsible for public water supply which receives the highest
priority in the allocation of the national water resource. In 1976 the Water
Resources Agency, which formerly functioned as a separate body within the
Ministry responsible for Planning, was transferred to the Water & Sewerage
Authority. Since then the Water Resources Agency's role has been to collect,
WRA/MIN. Env: Integrating the Management of Watersheds and Coastal Areas in Trinidad and Tobago
53
analyse, document and publish hydrological data in addition to regulating the
abstraction of surface and ground water. The dual and ambivalent role of the
Water Resources Agency embodied within the country's main and by far its
largest abstractor, negates its ability to adequately regulate, protect and manage
all of the country's water resources. The Government of Trinidad and Tobago in
recognising that this situation is undesirable has sanctioned the transfer of the
water resources management functionality to a proposed financially autonomous
body (an Authority) under the Ministry responsible for the Environment.
As mentioned above, a number of government organizations are involved in one
way or another with the management of the water sector. These include the
following key agencies:
Drainage Division, Ministry of Works and Transport, which is responsible for
the construction and maintenance of storm water and flood control structures in
the catchments of the major river basins.
Land and Water Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Land and Marine
Resources, which is responsible for irrigation and the efficient use of water on
farms.
Forestry Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Land and Marine Resources,
which is responsible for forest management, the promotion of watershed
management, and the management of wetlands.
Extension Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Land and Marine Resources,
which is responsible for public awareness and extension activities related to the
management of agricultural lands.
Town and Country Planning Division, Ministry of Housing and Settlement,
whish is responsible for land-use planning and the regulation of land
development.
Environmental Management Authority, a statutory authority reporting to the
Ministry of The Environment and is responsible for the country's general
environmental management, including water pollution control through the
issuance of effluent discharge licenses.
Food and Drugs Division, Ministry of Health, which is responsible for
monitoring and authorising the use of agrochemicals and toxic chemicals.
WRA/MIN. Env: Integrating the Management of Watersheds and Coastal Areas in Trinidad and Tobago
54
Public Utilities Commission and its successor, the Regulated Industries
Commission (RIC), which is responsible for approving water rates.
In addition there are a number of other organisations that are indirectly involved
in the water sector activities. These include the Institute of Marine affairs, the
Central Statistical Office, the University of The West Indies, the Meteorological
Services, the Tourism and Industrial Development Corporation, the Regional and
Municipal Corporations (local governments), the National Emergency
Management Agency, private abstractors and Non-Governmental Organizations.
A summary of the allocation of water resources management functions among
the various organizations is given in Table 2.10
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Table 2.10
Allocation of Water Resources Management Functions in Trinidad and Tobago
No WRM Function
WASA Approval
Appeal
MOWT
MALMR MALMR MOPD MOPD Mo
IMA Met.
Reg./Mun Private PUC/RIC
.
WRA
Drain.Div LW Div. For.Div. T&C
EMA
Health
Serv
Corp.
Sector
Plan
1
WR Policy and Strategy Development
Cabinet
2
Water Resources Assessment
Survey and monitoring
Resp
Resp.
Resp.
Coop
Research and development
Resp
Resp.
Resp. Resp.
Coop
3
Water Demand Analysis
Resp
Coop.
Coop.
Coop
Coop
4
Conservation (WR sustainability)
Treatment/re-use of (waste-)water
Resp
Resp.
Consult Consult
Resp.
Resp.
Watershed Management
Excl.Resp
Consult
5
Master Planning and Allocation
Resp.
MOPU
MOPU
Resp.
Resp.
Resp.
Resp.
Resp.
Resp.
6
Pricing of Water
Water Abstraction
Excl.Res WASA
PUC
Consult
p
Water Delivery
PUC
PUC
Excl.Re
sp
7
Legislation and Enforcement
Water Abstraction Licnsing
Excl.Res MOPU
MOPU
p
Water Pollution Permits
MOPD
MOPD
Excl.R
esp
Building/Land-use Permits
MOPD
MOPD
Excl.R
esp
8
Demand Management (efficient use)
Resp.
Resp.
Resp
Resp.
Resp.
Resp.
9
WR Development and Distribution
Domestic water
Resp.
Consult
Resp.
Industrial water
Resp.
Consult
Resp.
Agricultural water
Resp.
Resp.
Resp.
Consult
Resp.
Multi-purpose dams/reservoirs
Resp.
Consult
Drainage/flood-control
Consult
Resp.
Consult
Consult
Consult
Sewerage/conveyance
Resp.
Resp.
Consult Resp.
Consult
Resp.
Resp.
Water treatment
Resp.
Consult
Consult
Resp.
Resp.
WRA/MIN. Env: Integrating the Management of Watersheds and Coastal Areas in Trinidad and Tobago
56
Excl.Resp
Exclusive responsibility: Only one organisation is fully responsible for (part of) any WRM function
Resp.
Responsible: Different organisations may have a certain and separate responsibility for (part of) any WRM function
Co-ordinate
One organisation is charged with the co-ordination of (part of) any WRM function. This entails efforts to streamline the different responsibilities of
individual organisations
Co-operate
An organisation is expected to work with any other organisation to carry out (part of) any WRM function (Work together)
Consult
An organisation is expected to be heard and its opinion considered by the organisation who bears responsibility for (part of) any WRM function
EMA Environmental Management
For. Div Forestry Division
MALMR .. Ministry of Agriculture Land and Marine Resources
Authority
LWD .. Land and Water Division
Mo Health . Ministry of Health
IMA ..... Institute of Marine Affairs
T &C Plan ... Town and Country Planning
MOPD...... Ministry of Planning and Development
WASA ....Water and Sewerage Authority
Division
MOPU ...... Ministry of Public Utilities
WRA ....Water Resources Agency
Met. Serv. .. Meteorological Services
MOWT ... Ministry of Works and Transport
Local Gov. ...Tobago House of Assembly, Municipal and Regional Corporations
PUC/RIC ... Public Utilities Commission/Regulated Industries Commission
Table 2.11 Legislation /Treaties Governing Water Resources Management in Trinidad and Tobago
Legislation
Synopsis
Environmental Management Act (1995)
Framework legislation for environmental management: conservation, policy-making, public education,
enforcement, data collection
Water and Sewerage Act (1980 Revision)
Development and control of water supply; Promotion of conservation and Proper use of water resources;
Powers to make bye laws to prevent pollution of surface and ground water
Waterworks & Water Conservation Act (1980 Provides for the control and use of water; Powers to make regulations for the control of the supply and use of
Revision)
water in water improvement areas, and the prevention of waste or misuse of water in those areas.
Public Health Act (1950)
Require local authorities to inspect for and abate nuisances; Prevents dumping of offensive matter into streets,
public places, river, drain and watercourses: Prevents pollution of wells, tanks, ponds and water courses.
Litter Act (1980 revision) (1981, 1990, 1992 Deals with the littering of public places and premises, including water courses and drains.
WRA/MIN. Env: Integrating the Management of Watersheds and Coastal Areas in Trinidad and Tobago
57
amended)
Summary Offences Act (1980 Revision)
Deals with the pollution of rivers, streams and ponds coursing through state or private lands
Mines, Borings and Quarries Act (1980 Powers to require the taking of precautions during drilling, production, storage and pumping operations to
Revision)
prevent the pollution of watercourses, foreshore and sea by oil/fluid/substance.
Petroleum Act (1980 Revision)
Powers to control the main elements of petroleum operations including pollutionon land and sea.
State Lands Act (1980 Revision)
Management (prevention of squatting, encroachment and injury to forest, controls digging and removal of
materials) of State lands;
Forest Act (1980 Revision)
Powers to make rules for the preservation of trees; Gives permission to fell trees.
Town and Country Planning Act (1980 Grants permission for the development of land; Powers to make tree preservation orders and to secure
Revision)
replanting.
Agricultural fires Act (1980 Revision)
Provides for the prevention and control of agricultural fires
The Conservation of Wildlife Act
Establishes game sanctuaries; regulates hunting
Fisheries Act (1980 Revision)
Powers to regulate fishing, declaration of prohibited areas
Pesticides and Toxic chemicals Act 1979 (1986 Regulates the importation, storage, manufacture, sale, use and transportation of pesticides and toxic chemicals
amended)
Pesticide Regulations
Controls importation of pesticides, registration may be denied on the grounds of being hazardous to public
health and the environment
Standards Act (1980 Revision)
Provides for the establishment of standards to maintain/encourage industrial efficiency, to develop/ promote
public and industrial welfare
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58
Governing Legislation
Water resources issues are addressed either directly or incidentally in a
substantial body of national legislation, and international treaties, which the
country has adopted. These legal instruments are all summarised in Table 2.9,
while the major ones are articulated below.
WASA is currently governed by the Water and Sewerage Act of 1965 (Volume
11 of the Laws of Trinidad and Tobago Chapter 54:40). This clearly shows
that in addition to the WASA's role of delivering water and sewerage services,
the Act also allows for the Authority to license, control and collect fees for the
abstraction of water from surface and ground water sources. Another key Act
relates to Water and Waterworks Conservation, which allows for the declaration
of Water Improvement Areas. This Act governs WASA and the Drainage
Division.
The Environmental Management Authority, established under the
Environmental Management Act of 1995 assumes the responsibility for the
management of water pollution. Key aspects of their mandate include the
coordination of pollution monitoring programmes, setting of and assessing
compliance to effluent standards, issue of pollution permits, prohibition of water
pollution and protection of watersheds. This Authority relies heavily on
outsourcing of its environmental work. Funding of their programmes comes
from Government or international funding Agencies. In collaboration with the
Ministry responsible for the energy industries, some pollution monitoring work
is executed within the areas the energy companies operate.
Other institutions also involved in water resource management include the
Drainage Division, which is responsible for the construction and maintenance of
storm water and flood control structures in watersheds of major water courses.
The Ministry responsible for Food Production and Forestry maintains the
responsibility for the efficient and effective use of available irrigation water and
forest management to promote watershed management. Land use planning and
regulation rests with the Ministry responsible for Town and Country Planning.
The Public Utilities Commission or its imminent successor, the Regulated
Industries Commission, has the responsibility of setting water rates and
abstraction charges. Minor roles are played by the Ministry responsible for
Local Government involved in street cleaning and fire-fighting, the Food and
Drug Division which is responsible for monitoring agrochemical residuals and
toxic chemicals in foods and the Meteorological Office/ National Emergency
Management Agency involved in flood warning and weather predictions.
WRA/MIN. Env: Integrating the Management of Watersheds and Coastal Areas in Trinidad and Tobago
59
Water Policy
At present, there is no accepted water policy that governs the overall water and
water resources strategy at the national level. A draft version based upon the
imputed modus operandi and the directions of the currently concluded Strategy
by the Consulting Team headed by DHV Consultants BV, is being prepared for
public consultation.
Water Resource Development and Distribution Investments
Over the recent five-year period, substantial investment has been made to
improve the water supply in the country. These investments include the South
Water Project, the North Water Project, the Tobago Water Project and the Point
Lisas Desalination Project.
The South Water Project
This project which lasted for twenty-nine months was completed in June 2000 at
a total cost of US $ 102 M. The Government of Trinidad and Tobago funded the
entire project. The project involved the drilling of thirteen (13) new wells and
the refurbishment of four (4) old wells, which resulted in an increased water
production of 11 ML/D. Water Treatment Plants (WTP's) at Caroni, Navet and
six (6) rural stations as well as the San Fernando Booster also underwent
refurbishment works. The Caroni WTP was upgraded to yield a capacity of 70
ML/D and a new WTP was constructed at Penal with a capacity of 6 ML/D.
Plant and pipeline works were done in several areas of the South and 150 km of
transmission and distribution mains were laid down. This project benefited
customers who would have normally received a scheduled water supply that was
very poor (less than 48 hours per week), or no supply at all and customers who
depended on truck borne and rainfall supplies. The improvement in supply
resulted in an increase from 49% to 80% of the population which receives a
reliable water supply (more than 48 hours per week).
The North Water Project
This Government financed project is in the implementation phase, and is
projected to cost about US$ 105M. It will include pipeline replacement, booster
pump station rehabilitation, water treatment plant upgrade, replacement and
setting up of service reservoirs and tanks, bulk metering, a wells programme, a
rehabilitation programme for existing sewerage treatment plants and the design
and construction of a wastewater treatment plant in the Beetham. The benefits
of the North Water Project is projected to be significant as pipeline replacement
alone is expected to improve the level of service of the water supply to 116,320
customers. Other expected benefits are: improvements in the service pressure
and the level of service of the water supply for over 647,982 customers,
improvements in the water supply to five (5) areas (estimated to be an increase
of 70 ML/D). This project will also provide for the development of a
comprehensive management information system for data use and leakage
management. Sewerage treatment plants will be rehabilitated in eight (8)
WRA/MIN. Env: Integrating the Management of Watersheds and Coastal Areas in Trinidad and Tobago
60
districts, and so reduce the amount of domestic waste being discharged into the
environment.
The Tobago Water Project
This project which is also being financed by the Government of Trinidad and
Tobago, is scheduled to last three (3) years at an approximate cost of US$ 101
M. It is presently unfolding in several phases, the first phase being
Groundwater Exploration and Development which was completed in October
2000. This phase of the project resulted in an increase of 10 ML/D in water
production, which vastly improved the supply of public water in the island.
Three (3) water treatment plants at Courland, Richmond and at Hillsborough
were also upgraded to enable the processing of highly turbid raw water. This has
increased the reliability of the plants during the rainy season, and provided an
additional capacity of 7 ML/D. The other phases include the upgrade of the
distribution system to reduce leakage, refurbishment of a main pumping station
and its associated collection system, construction of a sewerage system for
South West Tobago, the extension of the present sewerage system and the
provision of loans to assist homeowners to connect to the present sewer system.
The impact of these works is expected to reduce health risks, to improve
efficiency of the water supply system and to reduce water pollution.
The Point Lisas Desalination Project
A desalination plant, which uses the technique of Reverse Osmosis, is due for
completion by the end of the March 2001. It will have a capacity of 100 ML/D
of desalinated water, which will be dedicated to the Point Lisas Industrial
Estate. The plant which is projected to cost US$ 123 M, has the following
advantages:The advantages of the Desalination Plant are many and can be listed
as follows:
· A small land space is required close to the demand area resulting in a shorter
time for delivery of water and at a better pressure level
· It is independent of weather patterns
· It is capable of modular expansion at short notice and the potential for
decreased cost exists due to technological advances
· Comparable water cost and increased customer satisfaction
· The supply to Point Lisas (from Caroni) will be diverted to domestic
customers, and
· It provides better quality industrial water
The plant will be owned and operated by the investor/ technology supplier who
will provide high quality water to WASA at a rate initially pegged at US $0.7
per m3 , and WASA will in turn via its distribution system, transfer the water to
the Point Lisas customers at a rate of US$ 1.2 per m3.
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61
The total investment cost of this Integrated Approach to solve the water
problems of Trinidad and Tobago is US$ 431 M. Objectives of this vast
investment are many and mainly include the production of more water,
protection for the environment, developments of new water sources, de-linking
Point Lisas from the domestic supply and most importantly to improving the
image of WASA and its financial viability.
Interim Operating Agreement
Deteriorating infrastructure, lack of water supply sources and a stagnated
organisation has led to an increasing divergence of the supply/ demand situation
with the effect of an ever-increasing deterioration of customer services with
respect to water supply, water supply reliability and water quality. Combined
with the lack of capital (and other) funding, the Government signed an
agreement with a preferred foreign operator Trinidad and Tobago Water
Services, a joint company between Severn Trent International and Wimpey
Caribbean Limited to operate WASA for a three (3) year period beginning
April, 1996. This period was referred to as an Interim Operating Agreement
(IOA) at the end of which the Government would determine the form and
strategy for the Long Term Arrangement (LTA).
The objectives of the IOA were:
· Improvement of level of water and wastewater services;
· Improvement of the quality of water and wastewater services;
· Achievement of financial viability by reduction of operating deficit; and
· Improvement of WASA's assets and infrastructure to "world class"
standards.
Under the arrangement, Government guaranteed loans of the order of TT$ 1.2
Billion to address shortfalls in working capital, fund a voluntary early separation
plan and to undertake critical projects.
Although the IOA initiatives were pursued, at the end of the three (3) year
period the substantial improvements that were anticipated were not realised.
Marginal improvements in service levels were achieved, staff moral was low,
the enhancement in staff skills was not evident and technology introduction was
stagnant. A new local management team was introduced to manage the
Authority in April 1999.
Water Resources Management Investments
The Government of Trinidad and Tobago obtained a loan from the World Bank
for a project called the "Water Sector Institutional Strengthening Project
WRA/MIN. Env: Integrating the Management of Watersheds and Coastal Areas in Trinidad and Tobago
62
(WSIS)". This project included five (5) water resources management
components.
Water Resources Management Strategy (WRMS)
The Water Resources Management Strategy (WRMS) Study commenced in
August 1997 and was completed in January 2000. The overall objective of the
WRMS, was to develop a comprehensive framework for integrating cross-
sectoral dimensions of water resources management in Trinidad and Tobago.
The study complemented reforms promoted by other World Bank supported
investments for the: (a) Privatization of the WASA, (b) Flood Control and
Drainage Program, (c) Environmental Management Agency (EMA), and (d)
National Parks and Watershed Management Project, and (e) non-World Bank
supported irrigation sector. The specific objectives of the WRMS were to:
· Propose appropriate strategies and policy measures for water resources
management
· Propose appropriate strategies for meeting future demands
· Propose an effective policy and institutional framework and adequate
supporting legislative and regulatory instruments
· Propose strategies for building-up of institutional capacity, technical systems
and provision of training
· Propose a strategy for sensitizing the public and building awareness
· Propose the development of efficient information systems
· Provide an implementation plan for selected priority areas of action.
The WRMS assessed the surface and groundwater resources to meet present and
future demand in various sectors (domestic, industrial and agricultural supply).
It also linked cross-sectoral dimensions of water management such as water
pollution, implications of poor land use, watershed management, protection of
aquifer recharge areas, flood control and drainage, and demand for
environmental uses. The WRMS represents a "Best Practice" model of
comprehensive institutional reforms for WRM supported by the Bank in the
region. It has recommended the separation of the regulatory functions (being
carried out by the WRA) from the service delivery functions of WASA; and the
establishment of an independent, financially autonomous WRM Authority for
regulating public and private utility operators and water suppliers, ensuring
sustainable water use and protection of the water environment. Further, the
strategy calls for both structural and non-structural controls for managing
watersheds and protecting inhabitants and property against flood damage, and
also provides a sound framework for environmental protection in the water
sector. The WRMS study recommendations comprise actions to be taken over
the short, medium and long term. These include:
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63
· Implementation of the concept of integrated water resources management to
attain sustainable development of the water resources of Trinidad and
Tobago
· Establishment of an effective and financially autonomous institutional
framework that facilitates efficient water resources management. The
strategy includes a draft water resources management policy, a legislative
and regulatory framework, and recommends alternative arrangements for
establishing and housing a new water resource management authority
(WRMA). The revenue base for the WRMA will comprise of: (a)
abstraction fees, (b) sale of hydrometric information, and (c) technical
support and advice for assessing and planning water resources development.
· Actions to meet the growing demand.
· The protection of environmental quality and ecological systems. The
WRMS has developed a framework for protecting degraded watershed and
important aquifer recharge areas. The water allocation priorities in the new
water resources policies and legislation will reflect the flow needs for the
Caroni, Nariva and other important wetlands.
· The development of capacity and tools within WRMA to support decision-
making. (such as proper data and information management).
Other Water Resources Management Components
The WSIS also included funds for four other WRM components to strengthen
the Water Resources Agency. These were: (a) installation of a telemetry system,
(b) implementation of a surface water quality monitoring program, (c) purchase
of computer equipment, and (d) provision of staff training. The objective of the
telemetry system was to provide automatic recording and transmission of
hydrological and hydro-meteorological data from the river basin to the central
office. The objective of the surface water quality monitoring program for the
Caroni River was to delineate the water quality condition of the Caroni River, to
identify the point and non point sources of pollution in the river and to develop
a water quality monitoring program. The computer hardware and software
equipment was intended to provide tools for strengthening data management
and analysis capabilities. Training was intended to develop and strengthen the
human resource skills at the WRA.
Telemetry Equipment: The installation of the telemetry equipment is completed,
but the system is not fully functional a few technical problems need to be
solved. Training was provided for strengthening skills in the operation and
maintenance of telemetry base stations.
Water Quality Monitoring: The surface water quality-monitoring program has
provided information for establishing an important baseline for the main river
system. It has included information on existing surface water pollution sources
WRA/MIN. Env: Integrating the Management of Watersheds and Coastal Areas in Trinidad and Tobago
64
in the Caroni River, the health implications of water pollution, results of the dry
season and wet season sampling, and recommendations for long term
monitoring.
Computer Equipment: The computer hardware and software are being utilized
to convert the hard data (on rainfall, evaporation, river flows, groundwater
levels, etc.) into digitized data and analyze and process them into useful reports
for planning, assessing and operating a variety of water resources systems.
Most of the equipment was absorbed by other Government agencies, notably the
Ministry responsible for drainage.
Training: Training was earmarked in support of all WSIS components.
Caparo Integrated Water Resources Management and Flood Mitigation Project
In recent years, there has been a marked increase in the incidence of flooding
and flood related damages within the lower Chaguanas region. This has been
due to the overflowing of the Caparo River and its tributaries, which drain the
area. To alleviate the severe hardships and inconveniences suffered by residents
and commuters, the Government of Trinidad and Tobago with assistance from
the International Bank for Reconstruction and development ("World Bank")
commissioned a study in 1998. The objectives were to facilitate the design and
implementation of flood management and flood control works, through the
entire Caparo basin. The recommendations of the study were to incorporate the
integrated water resources management concept at the river basin level,
development of detention systems at strategic points in the basin, and the
carrying out of channel realignment and upgrading works.
Human Resources in Relation to Water Resources Management
A Skills Gap Analysis (Table 2.12) between the present WRA and the future
combined WASA and WRMA requirement was done. This skills gap has
included specific skills required for Coastal Zone Management. Additional
skilled persons are needed in the positions of Compliance Lawyer (1),
Communications Specialist (1), Irrigation Engineer (1), Hydrologist (5),
Geologist (2), Land Use Planner (2), Coastal Engineer (3), Oceanographer (3),
Ecologist (3), Watershed Specialist (2), Water Resources Engineers (4),
Environmental Specialist (3), GIS Specialist (1), Geological Assistants (2),
Communications Engineer (1) and Water Economist (2).
A scholarship programme to train hydrological technicians to become
professionals will be the preferred approach to staffing in the specialist areas
identified so as not to lose the intellectual capital and local knowledge that has
already been acquired. Continuous training of professional and technical staff is
also required in other relevant specialist areas such as data analysis, modelling
and system design.
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65
Table 2.12: Skills Gap Analysis For Watershed/Water Resources And Coastal Zone Management
Job Title
Nos. Required
Nos. Available
Deficit
(Surplus)
Hydrologist
8
3
5
Land Use Planner
2
0
2
Water Resources Engineer
2
0
2
Coastal Zone Engineer
3
0
3
Irrigation Engineer
1
0
1
Oceanographer
3
0
3
Geologist
2
0
2
Ecologist
3
0
3
Compliance Lawyer
2
0
2
Watershed Specialist
2
0
2
Water Economist
2
0
2
Communication Engineer
1
0
1
Environmental Specialist
3
0
3
GIS Specialist
1
0
1
Geological Assistants
2
0
2
IT Specialist
2
2
0
Hydrological Technicians
30
42
(12)
3.0
CURRENT COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT ISSUES
Within the coastal zone, potential sources for fresh water supply can be usually
found, adding to the intrinsic value of such regions and requiring effective
management for their sustainability. Such sources include:
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66
· Fresh water lagoons
· Coastal creeks
· Superficial ground water strata, which emerge as springs at the coastal side
· Deep aquifers which may or may not penetrate under the shore zone - into
the sea space
Brackish water sources are also located within the coastal region and can be
used for purposes like recreation, aquaculture, coastal fishing, coastal boating
and tourism. Such sources could include:
· Estuaries
· Inlets
· Lagoons
A preliminary delineation of the coastal zone can be made on the basis of the
coastal processes affecting the coast and the coastal features influencing such
processes.
· In this context, the coastal zone is generally defined as the area that is
subject to the identified coastal processes or flooding caused by the sea, in
the absence of protection measures/works
· For Trinidad and Tobago, the seaward boundary of the coastal zone is
considered on the basis of:
1. The mean low water level (MLWL), for all coastal sites where no
navigation functionality is associated
2. The low water spring level (LLWS), for the coastal sites where
navigation is the major function (e.g. Orange Valley) or a seawall
structure provides basic defence for the backshore and other national
important activities
· The landward boundary limit is considered on the basis of:
1. The line of potential erosion, at the inland side of the erosional profile,
for the coastal sites confronted mainly with this aspect (Mayaro Beach,
Cedros)
2. The line of potential flooding of the hinterland, for the coastal sites that
are currently experiencing such events (Mosquito Creek, Manzanilla
Beach, Los Iros Bay, Icacos-Coral Point)
3. A virtual inland line, to correspond to the landward extension of the
region where losses of infrastructure have occurred directly induced by
the erosional processes (southern Manzanilla Beach, Orange Valley)
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67
The above limits have been defined on the basis of intensive reconnaissance and
systematic observations of the geomorphic and hydraulic processes, at each
coastal site and surrounding coastal stretches. This was conducted under the
purview of the Drainage Division, Ministry of Infrastructure.
3.1
Coastal Habitats and Ecosystems
In Trinidad and Tobago, the critical significance of the coastal areas is due to
their support of life systems, their economic contribution, their recreational and
aesthetic value and their value as natural assets. These are highlighted as
follows:
· the proportion of the land area of Trinidad and Tobago that is covered by
coastal areas is 0.6% and 2.57%, respectively
· a sizeable percent of the population reside in coastal areas
· some 80% of industrial activities of strategic national importance are located
within coastal areas
· some 60% of small scale economic activities significant for the support of
human lives are located within coastal areas
· some 80% of urbanised land are located within or adjacent to coastal areas
· approximately 50% of the country's national transportation arteries (coastal
roads, bridges etc), some of them providing important access to large towns
and remote communities, pass through coastal areas.
· approximately 90% of tourist facilities and hotel room budget in the country
are located within coastal areas
· coastal areas contain fisheries that produce about 90% of annual fish
production
· coastal areas contain habitats critical to the sustained production of fisheries,
maintenance of good water quality and scenic nature sites
· coastal areas contain rich bio-diversity reserves, which serve as sources of
food and livelihood for many coastal residents, including: the worldwide
famous coral reefs (Tobago), seagrass beds, mangrove fringes and forests
and coastal swamps with unique coastal based fauna (Nariva, Oropouche,
Caroni).
The coastal areas of Trinidad and Tobago support ecosystems, which are of
direct importance to the island's economic resources. The resource value of the
Buccoo Reef (an extensive coral reef) in Tobago was recognised by the
GORTT and under the Marine Areas Preservation Enhancement Act (of 1970)
was designated as the country's only protected marine area. Tobago enjoys this
tourist attraction which brings numerous visitors on a daily basis with peaks
during the holiday season (January to April and during the months of July and
August). The fauna and flora of Buccoo Reef have been well studied and found
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to support a variety of life which include algae, seagrasses, sponges, anemones,
corals, annelids, echinoderms, molluscs, crustaceans, ascidians and reef fish.
Inappropriate recreational use, through uncontrolled visitors' traffic has in the
past 30 years resulted in the severe damage to many areas within the reef.
The coastal and marine areas also play a large role in the economics of the
islands since they support coastal stocks of fish and crustaceans, which have
sustained artisanal, semi-industrial and industrial exploitation. The most
important artisanal fishery is that for carite, kingfish and sharks, with a smaller
scale fishery for marine molluscs and crustaceans. Semi-industrial multi-gear
fishery targets snappers, groupers, kingfish, dolphin fish, and sharks on the
north, south and east coasts. Industrial and semi-industrial shrimp trawlers
operate off the north, south and west coast of Trinidad and an industrial fishing
fleet (mainly foreign-owned) exploits the tuna and swordfish resources of the
east coast. A recreational fishery operates off the north and west coasts of
Trinidad which targets both pelagic species (carite, kingfish, cavalli, wahoo,
tuna, billfish) and demersal species ( snappers, groupers, sharks, salmon and
croaker). In Tobago, the main fisheries are the flying fish fishery and the fish
pot fishery (which targets mainly snappers and groupers). Invertebrates such as
pachro, queen conchs, whelks and lobsters are exploited at the artisanal level.
Marine turtles which form part of the island's resources are protected by law in
Trinidad and Tobago (1984) under the Convention on International Trade in
Endangered species (CITES) and by the SPAW Protocol (under the Cartagena
Convention). The leatherback turtle (Dermochelys coriacea) is also completely
protected in Trinidad under the Conservation of Wildlife Act (amended 1963)
and by the Protection of Turtles and Turtle eggs Regulation (1975). Much
research and conservation work towards management of this resource has been
carried out in Trinidad. In its continued efforts to protect these threatened and
endangered species, the Forest Act Chap. 66:01 declares nesting beaches such as
at Matura, Fishing Pond and Grande Rivere a "Prohibited area". Presently, Non-
governmental Organisations (NGOs) have become involved in these
conservation/management efforts eg. Nature Seekers Incorporated (NSI) at
Matura Beach, and Grande Rivere Environmental Awareness Trust. The group
also conducts and co-ordinates eco-touristic nature tours and turtle watches in
this area.
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Coastal wetlands/swamps are an integral part of the natural environment on the
islands of Trinidad and Tobago. From wetlands, a wide range of exploitable
resources is derived for example; softwood, timber, charcoal, tannins, honey,
medicinal plants and fish. Wetlands and swamps also act as nurseries providing
habitat for juveniles and maintaining biotic and nutrient linkages with coral
reefs such as; between the Bon Accord Lagoon and Buccoo Reef (Tobago).
Wetlands are also extremely important in buffering the effect of waves on the
coast. Removal of such wetland areas increases the rate of coastal erosion as
seen in the west coast of Trinidad. The three (3) major ones in Trinidad are the
Nariva swamp, Caroni swamp and South Oropouche (or Godineau swamp)
areas. They are extremely rich in biological diversity and have been very well
studied in terms of their faunal and floral compositions. The Draft National
Policy on Wetland Conservation for Trinidad and Tobago seeks to prepare
development and management plans for enhancement and preservation of
wetlands. This is in recognition that wetlands are reservoirs of tropical
biodiversity which provide a mix of scenery, interesting plant and animal life
and provides both pleasurable and intellectual stimulation to visitors. It is in
keeping with the Ramsar methodology (1997) that the Government of Trinidad
and Tobago in 1993 designated the Nariva Swamp, the largest freshwater
herbaceous swamp in the country of size 6,234 hectares, to be protected under
the Ramsar Convention.
Coastal habitats and ecosystems in Trinidad and Tobago have suffered
considerable perturbation due to coastal development, land based pollution and
development activities (construction and quarrying) and agricultural activities.
The major threats to management of the systems described above are listed here:
· Land based and maritime pollution
· Over exploitation of wetland species such as; birds, fishes and crustacea.
· Development and coastal structures-these results in changes in the coastlines
such as reclamation which lead to fragmentation of major ecosystems eg.
conversion of natural areas into agricultural and housing areas. Dredging of
harbour and waterfront development (eg at Port of Spain, Point Lisas and
Scarborough) and housing (eg. Westmoorings, Cocorite, Carenage). This
fragmentation leads to degradation.
· Degradation of the environment due to poverty and squatting- removal of
vegetation etc.
· Laying of pipelines, especially for natural gas.
A major problem with respect to the coastal and marine fishery resource is due
to the "open-access" nature of fishery, permitting anyone to fish anywhere or
anytime. This has led to conflict both internally (among fishing sectors) in
Trinidad and Tobago and externally (foreign vessels and governments). This
facility is also inconsistent with effective conservation and management of
fishery stock.
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The major threats to specific management of the wetland areas in Trinidad and
Tobago are categorised as:
· Land reclamation/conversion especially the role in flood /water retention
and ground water aquifer re-charge
· Pollution from agricultural, industrial and quarrying activities.
· Alteration to hydrology, alterations to natural drainage have resulted in
changes to the hydrological regimes of wetlands which cause increased
salinity of the water and drying out.
· Agricultural and industrial pollution have contributed to changes in species
compositions and abundance in coastal areas. Recently, at Point Lisas, there
were mangrove "die-back" which was attributed to the combined effects of
ammonia, temperature and salinity associated with industrial effluents
(SOER 1998).
· Over exploitation of species.
· Over exploitation of softwoods.
3.2
Living and Non-Living Marine Resource Exploitation
Petroleum
The most important non-living marine resource exploited in Trinidad and
Tobago is petroleum and more recently, natural gas. Crude oil production in
1995 averaged 100.674 barrels per day valued at approximately $US 590
million per year (EMA Env Rep 1996). In 1995 production of natural gas was
560 million standard cubic feet per day giving an annual value of $US 194
million (EMA 1996). Exploration activities continue to grow as investors take
advantage of incentives provided by the GORTT. Activities are mainly
concentrated on the south-east and south-west coasts but have also started on the
north coast.
Fisheries
The location of Trinidad and Tobago on the continental shelf of South America
and the associated extensive shallow seas makes it a prime location for
exploitation of fish and other invertebrates especially in areas such as the North
Coast, the Columbus Channel and the East Coast. It has been reported that fish
catches in Trinidad and Tobago were tripled between the years 1986-1995. This
may have been due to innovations (at the time) in the industry such as; the use
of multi-purpose offshore vessels which employ a variety of fishing methods
(surface long lining, fish pots and drift netting), combined with the fact that the
vessels are equipped with chilled storage. An assessment of finfish resources
(Fisheries Division, MALMR) have fish are over-exploited such as; carite,
croaker, snappers (red and vermillion) and yellow mouth grouper. Some of the
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under-exploited species include; deep water shrimp, flying fish, offshore
demersals and small pelagic fish.
Over-harvesting of oysters has led to a virtual collapse of the industry and the
mussel populations may soon also be affected similarly. This has been as a
result of wanton disregard for discrimination in "size" or "sex" of the faunal
organisms, removed by collectors.
Figures for 1996 showed the fish resource contributed 13.2% of the total
agricultural contribution of 3.46% to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP). The
importance of the fisheries sector is notable with respect to export figures in
1992 US$2.4 M with shrimp accounting for US $1 M of the total (Ministerial
Appointed Committee 1997).
Some management strategies to alleviate over-exploitation of fish stocks
include:
· Industrial type-trawlers are now mandated to use fishing nets of a specific
size in order to prevent the unlimited removal of juvenile fish.
· Attempts are being made to define the limits of foreign fishing effort.
3.3 Climate Change and Natural Disasters
Climate Change and Sea Level Rise
The coastal areas are the most vulnerable regions to projected climate change
impacts. The projected trends indicate that sea storms become more powerful,
occur more frequently, have longer durations, so that on their arrival at the
shores they will inflict greater damages. Rainfalls are more intense and of
longer durations (note catastrophic damages in northern Venezuela, December,
1999), resulting in floods in the coastal basins. Mudflows and landslides are
then triggered more frequently with dramatic consequences. Human settlements
located in the coastal river plains, transportation infrastructure along the coast,
beaches, coastal tourism facilities and coastal native values (lagoons, mangrove
forests, seagrass fields, reefs etc) are subjected to the increased risk of being
destroyed, with irreversible losses (human and material) or severe damages
necessitating high costs for restoration.
Changing global weather over the past few years has fuelled speculation that
global warming is beginning to de-stabilize the earth and its inhabitants.
Extreme weather conditions have historically affected coastal areas of Trinidad
and Tobago by causing severe erosion. This continuous loss and degradation of
coastal and marine resources has serious consequences at national level
resulting in loss of land and property eg. at Cedros, Los Iros and at Galeota and
Manzanilla and Store Bay in Tobago. Some beach levels are currently at an all
time low, as a result of storms experienced during the last five (5) years. In
some cases, extensive beach losses have left the seawalls without much of their
natural protection from exposure to wave actions. Consequently there is now
considerable danger of sea walls becoming eroded, and a risk of flooding in
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several areas which may render several major roadways impassable eg.
Manzanilla to Sangre Grande and at Mosquito Creek.
Flooding
Flooding may affect coastal and marine ecosystems by reducing the salinities in
certain coastal areas and may cause stressful conditions to faunal and floral
organisms there. Flood waters in Trinidad and Tobago also bring many
potential contaminants to the coastal areas. These include elevated bacterial (eg.
faecal coliforms) levels which pose a threat to swimmers and elevated
concentrations of toxic chemicals and/or heavy metals (industrial effluents)
which over time become concentrated in faunal tissues and may enter the food
chain. Indiscriminate clearing of land, bad construction practices and non-
maintenance of waterways, all contribute to flooding and subsequently negative
coastal impacts. These activities are directly responsible for threats to the
quality of life and to properties of the coastal inhabitants.
Natural Hazards Affecting Coastal Zones
Natural Hazards impacting on the coastal zones in the Trinidad and Tobago
environment include:
· Excessive Sea or Ocean Storms: These may range up to Hurricane Level
· Accelerated Sea Level Rise: Over the last century, an average sea level rise
of about 0.2m has been proven. In Trinidad, the sea level rise over the last
century may have resulted in an estimated coastline retreat of about two (2)
to five (5) metres. For the coming century, a further increase of some 0.6m
is expected. Local variations to these figures are expected, as coastal impacts
due to sea level rise may vary depending on specific local characteristics of
water area layouts, neighbouring rivers and boundary connections with open
sea/ocean.
· Tectonic Movements: Trinidad is situated in an active region of tectonic
activity. The area is credited with earthquake magnitude of four (4) to six (6)
on the Richter scale, and a recorded average of about eight (8) earthquakes
per year. It is possible that a certain trend in tectonic activity can result in a
gradual subsidence of certain coastal areas, in Trinidad. Such subsidence
could trigger a retreat of large coastline stretches with low-lying coastal
areas. In such areas, higher penetration of seawater into the land area and
increased flooding events can result in irreversible consequences, including
loss of life, means of production and properties.
· Excessive Rainstorms: These could generate floods of larger proportions,
accompanied by increased destruction and losses.
· Massive Landslides in Coastal Areas: These arise mainly due to the erosive
action of sea waves that hit the shore, at the toe level of higher shoreland,
and storm runoff that accumulates (due to poor drainage and impervious
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character of soil) within the higher lands/hills, forcing the slopes ultimately
into failure. Typical failure cases, which involve the movement of massive
slopes and entire hill regions (mostly located on the coast), have arisen in
Tobago and to a lesser extent in Trinidad posing serious threats to life,
property, infrastructure and normal life/business activities for coastal
communities with significant population densities.
Various anthropogenic interventions also impact with negative consequences on
the coastal environment, these include:
· Subsidence Due to Oil/gas Exploration: Trinidad's long history of oil
exploration activities which include; the impacts of drilling fluids, drill
cuttings, produced water, waste water, spent catalysts, oil sludge and oil
spills on the west coast of the island, has contributed to the levels of
petroleum hydrocarbon contamination observed there (IMA archival
information). The east coast by comparison, where there is presently much
oil and gas exploration activities, has not shown any clear indications
(except in very localised areas of the coast) of such contamination.
Petroleum hydrocarbon contamination has been described for coastal areas
of Trinidad where it affects biodiversity and the distribution of macrobenthic
(sediment dwelling) organisms (Agard, Gobin and Warwick 1993).
There is however and absence of long term water quality data such as; levels
of petroleum hydrocarbons, heavy metals and pesticides for coastal areas of
Trinidad and Tobago. The importance of such information cannot be
overemphasized if we are to attempt to assess deterioration or improvement
of the coastal environment. In this respect, adherence (by developers and
companies in industry) to the recently passed compulsory water effluent
standards (TTBS 1998) is expected improve coastal water quality.
· Sewage pollution from yachts: The number of yachts visiting Trinidad and
Tobago increased from approximately 400 to 3,500 over a ten year period.
This increase in yachts also brought with it an increase in tourism/boating
and marina type facilities in areas such as Chaguaramas, on the north
western peninsula of Trinidad. This, together with the increase in population
(and sewage generated) of the peninsula brought additional volumes to
already overloaded and non functioning sewage treatment plants in the area.
In addition, there is no legislation with respect to " yacht holding tank
requirements" for Trinidad and Tobago. Hence, the increased yachting
community combined with already faulty sewage systems has exacerbated
this problem. These issues need to be addressed immediately, in an approach
to solving this coastal pollution problem.
· Sand Mining on the Beaches and Coastal Rivers: This action is very
damaging to the coastal environment despite the fact that the sand mined
provides good quality building material for many coastal/non-coastal
residences. Sand mining in a river lowers its bottom, enlarges the mouths of
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rivers and inlets, causes bank erosion and, most important of all, reduces the
supply of sand to the coastal circuit. Thus, coastal erosions are being
triggered and sustained perenially at river mouth areas and long downdrift
stretches of the shoreline, presenting increased opportunities for coastal
breaches of sand barriers (for instance, Nariva swamp sand barrier). The
direct mining from the beach is even worse. It leads to recession of the
coast. Usually, the effects of mining combine with effects of sea level rise.
Any volume of sand extracted from coastal river beds or the coastal beaches
is lost to the entire coastal system and no natural process could ever replace
it.
· Disappearance of Mangrove Coastal Fringes and Forests: Mangroves on
the coast represent a very effective natural protection against erosion
inflicted by waves. They are also rich ecological coastal habitats and
provides a linkage ground for terrestrial, coastal and marine environments. It
has been proven through coastal experience worldwide that the
disappearance of mangrove allows for an accelerated coastal retreat. Loss of
mangrove and/or beaches resulting from the coastal developments adjacent
to the Buccoo Reef Marine Park has also been observed.
· Subsidence Due to Ground Water Over-Pumping: Coastal aquifers make up
a major proportion of ground water. Control on abstraction must consider
structural integrity of the aquifer and avoid subsidence.
· Subsidence Due to Underground Layers of Peat: Or other soft materials,
which constitute the geology of some zones of Trinidad (e.g. Mosquito
Creek area)
· Salt Water Intrusion into the Inland Territory and Ground Water Reserves:
Deepening of inlets and estuaries - man-made interventions in the rivers and
coast favour the steady penetration of wedges of sea water upstream along
riverbeds, with detrimental long-term consequences for the environment.
All the above hazards must be quantified in the process of undertaking
dedicated studies, so that the consequences can be realistically assessed and
evaluated.
3.4
Transboundary Threats
The main transboundary threat to the islands of Trinidad and Tobago is with
respect to oil pollution from ships using the marine areas around Trinidad and
Tobago. For example, each year more than one thousand (1000) large vessels
pass between Trinidad and Tobago transporting oil, gas and chemicals. With
respect to the management and protection of the seas from maritime pollution,
recent Shipping (Marine Pollution) Bill 2000 (for Trinidad and Tobago)
provides for powers and jurisdiction in relation to pollution of the seas from
ships; intervention on the high seas in cases of oil pollution, dumping of wastes
at sea, prevention of pollution from ships, and vessels navigation in the EEZ as
well as the territorial sea of the nation.
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Due to the location, marine ecosystems in Trinidad and Tobago are influenced
by discharges from the Orinoco River in South America. The ocean current
systems may bring concentrations of marine organisms and pollutants with
adverse effects.
The physical transboundary system for Trinidad is related to:
· Its location in close vicinity to a large continent, South America, with only
approximately ten (10) to fifteen (15) kilometres width of narrow straits. In
such areas, tidal currents build up higher velocities, with impacts on level of
coastal erosion, coastal stability and navigation safety. Also, differences in
water levels are registered within the Gulf of Paria in relation to the outside
ocean, with the higher levels occurring within the Gulf.
· The Gulf of Paria is a unique lake-like water body along the entire western
coast of Trinidad. It is characterised by low water circulation, shallow
depths and above average temperatures. These factors together with its
quasi-closed environment make it more vulnerable to environmental threats
from urban, agricultural and oil/gas activities. The intense industrial
activities located within the Gulf area and on Trinidad's western shores
increases the risk of environmental failure and disturbance of the natural
equilibrium, with accompanying losses.
· The currents affect the salinity of the south-west Gulf of Paria especially in
the wet season by an influx of freshwater from the Orinoco. This can have a
myriad number of impacts, most of which are naturalized within the Gulf
itself. The influx of high levels of sediment reduces the visibility of the
water and allows smothering of benthic organisms in the sediment. The
influx of material into the Gulf, however, also brings high concentrations of
nutrients for marine organisms and creates the environment for the
development of fishing grounds.
· Its close vicinity to enormous rivers which discharge large volumes of
sediments annually. A large part of the sediment volumes settling along the
coasts of Trinidad (mostly west coast) emanate from the Orinoco River,
Venezuela. Ecological impacts are experienced on the southern and northern
part of the eastern coast of Trinidad (turtle migration, deposition of large
constituent debris originating from the Amazon River, sediments)
· Its open exposure to Atlantic ocean action (east and south coasts), which
makes important stretches of the coasts the target of strong waves. In most
cases, significant erosion results resulting in losses of property including
expensive and strategic infrastructure (coastal roads, bridges, resorts),
disruptions in economic activities, loss of economic interest (tourism and
business), and losses and damges to valuable historical assets and ecological
values. This situation may well lead to an exposure to hurricane tails, which
could sweep the coastal zones and significant inland regions of central-
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southern Trinidad, and all of Tobago, during the passage of hurricanes
through their traditional Atlantic path, east of Trinidad.
3.5
Land Based Pollution
The water regimes that are relevant to coastal pollution include coastal rivers,
coastal inlets, creeks, estuaries, lagoons, ground water sources and the sea/ocean
itself. The main water pollutants are urban, domestic and industrial waste, solid
and toxic agricultural products and waste, sediments, oil spills, lubricating oil
discharge, waste from fishing vessels, ships, tourist facilities and yachts (as in
the case of the seas of Tobago's south-west coast). Pollutants could affect not
only coastal water resources but also the beaches and shores.
Groundwater is increasingly used for drinking. For the sustenance of the
availability and quality of this resource, the rate of extraction must not exceed
the aquifer's replenishment capacity. High rates of extraction, even at local
level, will cause a dramatic drop of water level, wells to run dry and allow
brackish water intrusion (e.g. El Socorro aquifers). The most serious threats to
ground water come from nitrate and bacterial contamination. While nitrate
pollution is due to the excessive use of nitrogenous agro-chemicals, sewage
effluents from pit latrine soakways and septic tanks would cause bacterial
contamination.
Land-based pollution is a major threat to coastal area management since the
coastal areas and the seas are the receiving waters (from drainage by streams,
tributaries and rivers) for it. The coastal areas are the immediate sink for these
effluents which are a combination of industrial, agricultural, municipal and
domestic liquid and solid wastes.
In Trinidad and Tobago, land-based pollution contains a variety of wastes. A
recent WASA/IMA study (1998) confirmed that many of the rivers especially
in their lower reaches were polluted from a combination of domestic, industrial
and agricultural wastes. Bacterial counts were also found to be in excess of
international guidelines for the respective water uses (e.g. swimming). Some of
the wastes for coastal areas of Trinidad are identified here:
· Industrial Wastes: These emanate from agro-processing (organic wastes),
oil refining (hydrocarbons), paint manufacturing (chemicals), the
Petrochemical industry, sediments from quarrying, rum distilling, service
stations (including leakage from underground storage tanks), sugar cane
production and refining and maintenance industries (chrome plating etc.).
· Agricultural Wastes: These may include livestock remains, waste slurry,
plants, agro-industrial effluents-pesticides and fertilisers. In Trinidad, there
is a severe problem of an excessive use of certain fertilisers and pesticides
and the release of high strength waste from intensive animal farm
operations. Animal waste and wash down from estates such as the Golden
Grove Estate in Tobago runs off into the coastal area.
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· Domestic Wastes: Composed primarily of human faeces, wash waters and a
slurry of organic particles (sewage) and solid wastes. Improper treatment of
sewage can cause contamination in the food chain through crops, and
shellfish poisoning. Discharge of sewage effluent is the most severe.
· Solid Wastes: This problem is very severe in some areas eg. at the Beetham
/Laventille swamp (north of the Caroni River) where tyres, motor vehicles,
major appliances, floating livestock, and an array of consumer disposables
such as diapers, styrofoam, plastics and cans are deposited in the swamp
area. Also, leachate problems from the landfill site at Beetham appear to be
contaminating the ground waters. Many of the disposal sites, legal and
illegal, throughout the country are closely linked with waterways and cause
significant restriction in flows as well as pollutant seepage.
In addition to the above, two other main concerns to coastal management are the
effects of deforestation of areas and increased sedimentation in rivers. In
Trinidad, there is much squatting on the hillsides which encourages the
indiscriminate clearing of the hillsides and the characteristic "slash and burn"
agricultural practices. This and other major deforestation activities (which
remove the protective vegetation layer) in the Northern range of Trinidad has
resulted in severe situations of "the inability of slowing the water" running off
the hills. This results in exacerbated flood situations especially in the rainy or
wet season. Of greatest concern in the past few years is the upsurge of
residential developments in watershed areas. These areas are located on private
land holdings but impact significantly in the run-off rates, sedimentation levels
of rivers and downstream flooding.
Many rivers are also affected by heavy siltation which blocks passages lower
downstream. A large quantity of silt comes from improper practices of
quarrying operations (57 registered sand and gravel quarries in the country in
1993 and other poor land use practices (eg. unplanned construction) which
cause the removal of protective vegetation and increased soil erosion. These
large amounts of sediment from wash plants enter directly into water courses.
Silt from some quarries has raised the levels of the mouth and lower reaches of
the Caroni River, affecting the hydrology of the river. High concentration rates
affect rivers such as the North Oropuche and Aripo Rivers in the North East.
The North Oropuche River deposits its sediment in areas close to the breeding
grounds of the manatee.
The increased sedimentation and silt (from inland operations) are transported to
the coastal areas via the water courses. The results are very visible in coastal
areas (especially after heavy rains) as aesthetically unappealing murky waters
and solid wastes (domestic and industrial garbage). It also brings with it all the
associated problems eg. unhygienic water conditions (presence of pathogens),
degradation of bathing beaches water quality, contamination of vegetables and
fruit (where river water is used for irrigation), contamination of ground water
and eutrophication (leading to fish kill).
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The land based pollution described above has a significant impact on "human
health" and "the quality of life" enjoyed by the citizens of Trinidad and Tobago.
Contaminants such as heavy metals and pesticides may be directly toxic or bio-
accumulate in muscle tissues of humans when contaminated seafood is
consumed. Swimming in sewage contaminated water also increases the risk of
skin infections and other water borne diseases.
3.6
Tourism
Coastal zones harbour a significant component of Trinidad and Tobago's
tourism industry. Tourism involves travelling to relatively undisturbed or
uncontaminated natural areas with the specific object of studying, admiring and
enjoying the scenery with its wild plants and animals as well as existing cultural
areas. This sector can be adversely affected by the lack of proper coastal zone
and watershed management. Tourism is an important foreign exchange earner,
particularly in Tobago, which hosts the majority of stay-over visitors to the
country. Tourism provides employment for thousands of people especially in
the island of Tobago as it is an attractive tourist destination, and the sector is
earmarked for continued growth. Tobago now has a large number of hotels,
mainly in the South-west region. The harbour at Scarborough has been
deepened and improved to accommodate cruise liners. The airport has also been
upgraded by extending the runway and constructing a new terminal. Tourist
accommodation in Trinidad and Tobago ranges from large hotels associated
with international chains to small guest houses. There are at least one hundred
and twenty three (123) hotels and guest houses scattered throughout Trinidad
and Tobago and the amount is significantly increasing in the island of Tobago.
The Tourism Master Plan for Trinidad and Tobago (TMP 1994) has as one of its
key objectives the development of a sustainable tourism industry based on
leisure, recreation and ecotourism. The document proposed a national tourism
policy which includes issues (highlighted here) pertinent to coastal area
management under the following objectives:
· "specific programmes to strengthen and/or create linkages between tourism
and entertainment and cultural industries, agricultural/fisheries suppliers,
manufacturing and services exporters and technology firms"
· " a community tourism involvement programme which helps communities
to determine their desired role in tourism and how they might achieve it"
· "a proactive development approval system that is environmentally
responsive"
· "a system of revenue generating parks"
· "links to heritage resources to provide visitors with an appreciation of the
country's history and culture and to provide heritage attractions with a
revenue source from tourism"
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The plan includes management and development in coastal areas of Trinidad
and Tobago. For Trinidad, these include proposed beach (and beach facilities)
improvement, turtle viewing reception centres, Matura turtle education centre,
Nariva manatee observation area, Manzanilla beach beautification, Waterfront
improvements (Port of Spain and San Fernando Harbours), National Parks
(Northern Range and Chaguaramas), education and tourism programmes,
visitor centres, rainforest trails , nature centres and scientific research centres.
In Tobago (which is already very tourist-oriented), there are plans to further
improve the waterfront developments at Scarborough to improve the beach and
beach facilities at Pigeon Point, development of the scenic coastal roads/drives
and the creation of a Tobago Highlands National Park.
The impacts of such tourist activities will directly result in:
· increased generation of solid wastes and sewage in areas of hotels and
housing developments, especially, as sewage treatment facilities there are
not being maintained and some are mal-functional. Consequently, these
wastes enter into the coastal area.
· disturbance to fauna and flora in their natural environment due to activities
such as reef walking by the tourist and by indiscriminate anchoring and
moorings.
· change in coastal areas due to construction of infrastructure
Unlimited indiscriminate activities have resulted in certain large patches and
areas of the reef dying off in addition to reduced numbers of reef fish observed.
Much research has been done in the Tobago coastal areas and especially on the
south west coast, including the Buccoo Reef. A Management Plan for the Reef,
was done by the Institute of Marine Affairs (IMA 1994). The Tobago House Of
Assembly (THA), in it's preservation thrust, commissioned this along with other
identified coastal area plans. Unfortunately, many of the management options of
the plans are yet to be implemented. This lack of management of the Buccoo
Reef and other coastal areas in Tobago has led to the further deterioration of the
reefs and their associated resources.
These coastal issues will have to be addressed in order to make the tourism
development activities sustainable. Carrying capacity studies in the coastal
areas will assist in this respect towards determining the feasibility of these
activities. For example, one of the major determining factors of the success of
the beach development will be in the maintenance of good water quality.
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3.7
Health
Cities, industries and boats find coastal zones convenient and economical sites
to dispose of treated and untreated sewage and wastes which is a major source
of the many types of pollutants plaguing the coastal waters. Our coastal waters
are also becoming polluted through poisonous "surface run-off" which comes
from many varied sources - industrial wastes, farms (pesticides), streets and
construction sites, with tremendous impacts on human and animal life. The
Coastal Zone is a living, dynamic complex of interacting phenomena. Tides,
wind, rainfall, temperature, currents, animals, plants and nutrients interact and
influence the physical, biological and chemical processes which occur there.
Water pollution is caused by the discharge of substances into or which
otherwise have an impact on the surface water, sea, groundwater, wetlands or
marine areas within the environment and which, based on technical, scientific or
medical evidence, is determined to cause, or likely to cause harm to human
health or the environment. Since water plays such an integral part in our daily
lives it is crucial to be aware of the different types of activities that can
contaminate it, since if human or animal contact is made it can lead to serious
illnesses and or death. In the Caribbean, declining coastal water quality, reef
degradation and beach erosion are linked in a cycle threatening public health,
shorefront properties and tourism.
The following are the major types of wastes in the local environment have
significant adverse effects on our coastal zones:
· Industrial waste includes direct untreated effluent discharge by industries,
which may contain a wide variety of organic and inorganic chemicals. This
variation depends on the type of industry and processing activity.
Agricultural waste results from the excessive application of certain
fertilisers and pesticides by our farmers and the release of highly
concentrated waste from intensive animal farm operations.
· Domestic waste is composed primarily of human excreta and washings. It
does not generally contain chemical contaminants but may carry numerous
pathogenic micro-organisms. The effects of such pollution can manifest
itself in the eutrophication of surface water leading to fish kills and to
contamination of ground water supplies.
· The abundant mineral and organic nutrients that are brought in from the sea
are mixed with run off, circulated and distributed to form the basic building
blocks for the plants and animals that abound within the coastal zone.
Coastal wetlands and shallows are critical areas since they provide nutrients
and nurseries for many important fisheries making it also economically
important. Coastal Zone plants also provide breeding, hatching, nesting and
protective areas for many forms of terrestrial and aquatic animals.
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· Hazardous waste is waste or combination of wastes, which because of its
concentration, quantity or physical, chemical or infectious distinctiveness
may inter alia-
·
Cause, or significantly contribute to any increase in serious
irreversible or incapacitating illness; or
·
Pose a substantial present or potential threat to human health, or
the environment when improperly treated, stored, transported, or
disposed of, or otherwise managed.
The major health concerns related to coastal area management are with respect
to the water quality at bathing beaches and the issues of contamination of both
marine fish and shellfish as well as that harvested from the coastal swamps and
wetlands. Poor water quality can be directly contaminating to humans by the
direct intake of the water. In Trinidad, studies have shown poor quality water
at certain beaches, especially so at the start of the rainy or wet season.
Swimming in sewage contaminated waters may cause severe diarrhoea,
gastroenteriitis and/or skin rashes. Sewage contaminated water which contains
bacteria and viruses can also transmit diseases such as cholera (eg, through
shellfish), typhoid fever , hepatitis A, and polio.
In Trinidad, the risk of consuming shellfish (oysters and mussels) because of the
micro-organisms in sewage, is well documented for certain areas of the coastal
swamps. In extreme situations, the Ministry of Agriculture has been forced to
issue "bans on harvesting shellfish in certain areas".
In Trinidad, a few studies (by the IMA and UWI) have attempted to determine
levels of contaminants (eg. heavy metals in fish tissue) in seafood, especially in
the coastal industrial estates. Such studies have not been on-going to ascertain
and quantify the risks of consuming specific species of fish or shellfish.
organisms. It is this kind of monitoring information which will be useful in
management of the coastal areas.
Presently in Trinidad and Tobago no legal or regulatory framework exists for
effectively dealing with hazardous waste. Bits and pieces of legislation exist
within the various laws, nonetheless, the void in the legislation poses a serious
threat to our environment and human health and a remedy to address this
situation is required as a matter of urgent importance.
3.8
Data, Information Management and Research
Presently, there are no fixed monitoring programmes (through any one
institution) in place, for collecting data on coastal management issues. Human
resource and funding constraints in addition to major changes in objectives for
Government institutions and/or divisions ( Forestry, Institute of Marine Affairs
(IMA), Fisheries etc.) preclude systematic scientific studies in potentially crucial
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areas. This is unfortunate since there is need for focused attention to unravel
many environmental relationships which are as yet, still unclear. For example,
monitoring of direct links between environmental issues and health effects has
not been done for specific communities in Trinidad and Tobago. Such public
health information becomes crucial when coastal management issues such as the
water quality of bathing beaches is being examined.
There is reasonable equipment in the country (at the IMA, UWI and other
institutions (including private environmental consultancy offices) for data
collection, measurement of environmental parameters and monitoring. These
include tide gauges, current meters, meters for measurement of pH, BOD, COD,
conductivity, dissolved oxygen, temperatures and other specific pollutants of
coastal and marine waters. The UWI and the IMA also utilise satellite imagery
from external sources to collect coastal and maritime information. The IMA is
by far the repository with the most original amount of information with respect
to coastal management and the status of coastal and marine resources, since
the institution had been solely actively engaged in marine and coastal scientific
research from 1976 to 1990. Since then the focus has changed to consultancies
and the pure research/ monitoring etc. has suffered tremendously. The Fisheries
Division (of the Ministry of Agriculture) has the best repository of fisheries
data and information and the Forestry Division (of the Ministry of Agriculture)
has the best repository of information on the coastal swamps and wetland areas
in Trinidad and Tobago. However, due to financial constraints the more recent
information out of these divisions have also been private consultancy contracts
and the data tends to be more project-specific and located at various agencies,
institutions and/or divisions of ministries.
Energy Companies such as BP Amoco, Trinmar, Petrotrin and Exxon have all
commissioned numerous studies on all wasteland percentages. These are
available from the Ministry of Energy.
In order to aggregate good information and data, there must be a more focused
program with respect to the collection of the various kinds of data. This must be
a co-ordinated effort to ensure the data collected is standardised and in formats
which are easily retrievable to assist in making sound coastal management
decisions in the future. For example, coastal fisheries data needs to be more
focused in terms of assessment of the status of commercial stocks, including
scientific information about the commercially important species. It is critical
that a data collection program be set up using all the institutions which are
presently involved (or are able to) in collecting routine data; notably the IMA,
WASA, UWI, Drainage Division, oil companies, Ministry of Energy and
Forestry and Fisheries Divisions of the Ministry of Agriculture. The data base
should include quality controlled data which could perhaps be maintained by a
single institution.
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Data Collection
The Institute of Marine Affairs is the main source of data on coastal areas with
tidal data and bathymetric data available from the Hydrographic Unit and from
the Admiralty Tables. Coastal erosion and coastal morphology data have been
collected and used in a number of reports and studies identifying the main areas
of susceptibility to coastal erosion both in Trinidad and Tobago.
Two (2) tidal stations located in the Gulf of Paria and at Point Fortin have long
term data while other gauges at Scarborough and Charlotteville in Tobago and
Guayaguayare in Trinidad have data of various durations. The IMA had
collected data from Chacachacare, Five Islands, Point Lisas, La Brea and Erin
on special projects. Tides in Trinidad have been classified as being semi-
diurnal, within the Gulf of Paria tidal changes range between 0.9 m. in the north
and 1.2 m. in the south.
Coastal areas have been monitored to obtain beach profiles since 1980 and on a
continuous quarterly basis since 1990 by the IMA, this frequency tends to give a
reasonable indication of beach erosion.
Rainfall data coverage of the coastal areas is generally inadequate with very few
gauges sited on the coast. On the northern and northwestern coastline there are a
few gauges with more than thirty (30) years of data, this is insufficient for any
national study.
Data on the coral reefs have been collected twice a year over the last five (5)
years at two (2) sites in the Buccoo Reef. There is available data for 1998 at one
(1) site, with a disease survey conducted on a pristine, intermediate and
impacted reef system. Seagrass beds are monitored and data collected twice a
year for the past five (5) years on the growth and five (5) times a year on the
productivity of the seagrass system in the Bon Accord Lagoon. Data on the
mangrove wetlands have been collected twice a year for the past five (5) years
on the structure and productivity in the Bon Accord Lagoon.
In addition, a project to collect data at four (4) other coral reef systems; Salybia
in Trinidad and Culloden Bay, Arnos Vale and Charlotteville in Tobago was
initiated. Sampling is to be carried out at two (2) depths, ten (10) centimetres
and three (3) metres using ten (10) metres lines/transects.
Wave data are available at the IMA, wind speed; wind direction, salinity and
temperature data are also available from the Meteorological Office and from the
IMA. Observations from data collected in 1961 indicate that average sea
surface temperatures range from 26.5 0C in the dry season to 28.0 0C in the wet
season. Salinity ranges from 15% in the wet season to 34% in the dry season.
Remote sensing data and aerial photographs are available but without any field
calibration, this data can only provide generalized qualitative information. Data
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on water and sediment quality are available from the IMA or from projects
carried out on behalf of clients by the IMA.
From monitoring programmes, hydrocarbon contamination is evident in Point
Fortin, Point-a-Pierre and Point Lisas which are considered to be hot spots.
Research on water quality and sediment quality data collected by the IMA either
for research or client projects are published and are available. Although
insufficient to inform on a national level the evidence is there to suggest high
levels of petroleum hydrocarbon contamination existing in coastal waters. Point
Lisas hydrocarbon levels are not as high as that of Point Fortin or Point a Pierre
but the heavy metals concentration may be higher. Natural oil seepages along
the Los Bajos Fault in the south west coast off Point Fortin are some of the
sources of these hydrocarbons.
Equipment
The equipment used is state of the art equipment, such as digital wave meters
and S4DW digital current meters. Global Positioning Satellite technology (GPS)
for pinpoint accuracy on the location of gauges is utilized where necessary.
Gauges used for measuring tides are chart based and have been known to
malfunction from time to time, resulting in gaps in the dataset. Rainfall data is
collected from either Cassella automatic or manual rain gauges and from
Lambrecht recording rain gauges.
Grab samplers are used to obtain sediment data with Sokkia Surveying Level
instruments for surveying shoreline change. YSI probes and sensor are used to
obtain water quality data e.g. pH, temperature, dissolved oxygen, salinity.
Research Efforts and Findings
There is a significant amount of research studies/projects carried out on coastal
areas in both Trinidad and Tobago by:
· The Institute of Marine Affairs (IMA)
· The University of The West Indies (UWI)
· The Ministry of Agriculture, Land and Marine Resources
· Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources
· Ministry of Works Drainage Division
· Consultants working for special interest groups
Some of the reports on projects/ studies are restricted with respect to
reproduction of its content by the client(s), but are available at the library of the
IMA for on the spot perusal.
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Coastal erosion data indicates the north coast beaches appear to be more stable
than the east coast beaches with erosion ranging from 1-2 metre per year in
Cocos Bay. In Trinidad, coastal erosion is more prevalent than accretion
although accretion is more dominant along the western section of the south
coast of the island. Coastal erosion is quite severe at Columbus Bay and Corral
Point on the southwestern part of the West Coast of Trinidad. Erosion is
estimated at 2.0 m per year.
In Tobago a field survey conducted by IMA revealed that the major physical
changes taking place on the shoreline relate to coastal erosion. The main cause
of erosion was identified as wave action, sand mining activities and
inappropriate coastal structures with the highest incidences occurring at Great
Courland and at Little Rockly Bays. Coastal erosion is evident at La Guira Bay,
Little Rockly Bays, Rockly Bays, Goldsborough Bay, Great Courland Bay,
Pigeon Point, and
Milford Bay. Data collected from 1980 suggests that beach sand mining is a
serious problem.
Wave data is limited and most comparisons are made from data collected by
ship observations between the period 1855-1987. IMA collects data on a
project by project basis using their two (2) wave meters. One (1) of the meters
can record both wave height and direction whilst the other can only record wave
height.
Tidal data for short periods at different locations around the islands are available
from the IMA. It is felt that this is adequate for oceanographic modeling, but
long term data is required for trend analysis of sea levels. One gauge situated at
Point Fortin has more than ten (10) years of data while the other two (2) gauges
at Port of Spain and Scarborough have less than ten (10) years data with breaks
in the records.
A comprehensive water quality and sediment quality monitoring program is
necessary to assess improvements or deterioration of the coastal environment
with particular emphasis placed on petroleum hydrocarbons, heavy metals and
pesticides. It is evident from the data collected so far that a number of hot spots
do exist. The East Coast of Trinidad while not as polluted as the West Coast has
started to show signs of petroleum hydrocarbon pollution. Recent data on the
Gulf of Paria is lacking. However, with some forty two (42) marine platforms
and more than one hundred (100) kilometres of pipelines, together with frequent
movement of oil tankers in this region, there is a basis for investigation and
assessment of any negative impacts. A field survey by the IMA has revealed
natural seepage of hydrocarbons offshore from the Pitch Lake and also in the
Soldado Fields along the Los Bajos Fault.
There is a considerable amount of research papers, studies and reports compiled
on coastal areas and in particular physical oceanography, water chemistry and
coastal dynamics. The Library of the IMA and the Library of the UWI are two
of the major repositories of information.
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Data Manipulation
Most of the data collected are stored in databases or in flat files and processed
using personal computers running specific applications for the particular
analysis. For example, wave data is analyzed using S4 Application Software
App 272 and tide data using Tide recorder software Term 26 and App 272.
Microsoft Excel spreadsheet applications are also used where applicable.
3.9
Stakeholder Participation/Awareness and Education
In terms of overall coastal area management, there have not been any organized
public awareness activities. However, the public relations activities of two (2)
main institutions have assisted tremendously in educating the public on
environmental issues which have covered the coastal areas. The EMA has been
actively involved in promoting environmental awareness via the media (articles,
anti-pollution and public health advertisements), green campaigns and in
schools (providing environmental literature, posters, lectures and green
competitions with prizes). The IMA has also been similarly promoting
protection and conservation of the seas and coastal areas by a series of video
presentations, lectures and open symposia for presentation of scientific research
results.
While there is no current data as to the effects (measures of success or failure)
of these activities, they (together with environmental groups and lobbyists) have
been partly responsible for the environmental awareness of the general
public..For most development projects in Trinidad and Tobago, the requirement
for planning approval sometimes entails an Environmental Impact Assessment
or Environmental Statement of some sort. The proposed legislation - Certificate
of Environmental Clearance - will mandate an environmental assessment or EIS
or ultimately an EIA for all developmental projects likely to have significant
environmental impacts. Part of the terms of reference of these project
documents suggests stakeholder participation/ town or village meetings. There
are presently in Trinidad and Tobago, a few environmental groups such as
(COPE), an organisation for the protection of the Environment), Fishermen and
Friends of the Sea (FFOS) and Environment Tobago which have been actively
taking part in terms of contributing ideas and suggestions towards
developmental projects. Unfortunately, with most of the projects, this meeting
takes place towards the end of the EIA, when the actual designs have already
been done. In effect, the environmental groups as well as the affected public (eg.
villagers and communities) feel that their opinions are not seriously considered
early enough in the process which they feel can help determine the best coastal
management approaches.
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With respect to the recognition of gender importance in coastal mangement,
significant strides have been made in this area at the Nariva Swamp in Trinidad.
The Gender Studies Department of the University of the West Indies, St.
Augustine has been working with the communities here towards the
empowerment of women and sustainable development of the swamp resources.
3.10
Institutional Frameworks
Trinidad and Tobago is currently in the process of modernizing it's legal and
regulatory framework in relation to environmental protection, land and natural
resources management and administration, and agricultural development.
Integrated watershed-coastal area management has already been identified as an
approach to address watershed and coastal and there are already various relevant
laws to enforce compliance to achieve it. Many of the legal and regulatory
requirements are at this stage pending approval and promulgation; these are
discussed here.
Environmental Management Act of 1995 and Supplemental Legislation
The Environmental Management Act of 1995 established an autonomous
agency called the Environmental Management Authority (EMA) under the
Ministry of Planning and Development. The act reflects the commitment of the
Government of Trinidad and Tobago towards achieving economic growth in
accordance with sound environmental practices. The objectives of the act
include: integration of environmental concerns into private and public decision
making; establishment of an integrated environment management system and
regulatory framework to protect, enhance and conserve the environment; and
development and implementation laws, policies and programs that foster
conservation and wise use of the environment. Almost all these aspects are of
direct relevance to the integration of watershed/coastal area management.
In this respect, the Environmental Code was developed by reviewing all
legislation pertinent to environmental protection, standards and practices and
sought to rationalise (and modernise) the legal and institutional framework for
environmental management. The Authority may prescribe in accordance with
section 26e the designation of a defined portion of the environment within
Trinidad and Tobago as an enironmentally sensitive area, or of any species of
living plant or animal as an environmentally sensitive species, requiring special
protection to achieve the objectives of this Act. The EMA will co-ordinate with
the relevant government agencies (unit responsible for watershed/coastal areas
management) having responsibility for planning and management in such areas
or with respect to such species.
Planning and Development of Land Bill (pending)
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The Planning and Development Bill (PADL) is intended as a comprehensive
land-use planning and development control instrument: to promote land
development in a healthy natural environment; to maintain and improve the
quality of the physical environment within which patterns of human settlement
are situated; to assist in the orderly, efficient and equitable planning, allocation
and development of resources; to ensure that the most efficient, equitable and
environmentally sustainable use is made of land in the interests of all the people
of Trinidad and Tobago. This new act will be carried out under the authority of
the Ministry of Housing and Settlement, will replace the Town and Country
Planning Act. The act will also establish the National Physical Planning
Commission as the new national planning authority which will designate
development control to local authorities. In this respect, the local authorities
(together with Drainage Division) will be empowered to execute all required
works inclusive of removing unauthorised structures. These will include
development plans, issuance of development permits and in the designation and
application of restrictions to development in environmentally sensitive areas-
including those posing human health and safety risks or in relation to priorities
of environmental health and safety protection and natural resources
conservation.
Forest Resources Bill (pending)
This Bill (which will replace the Forests Act, 1915) ensures a mandate to
conserve, manage and develop Trinidad and Tobago's natural and artificial
forest resources, under the authority of the Ministry of Agriculture Land and
Marine Resources (MALMR). The Bill establishes the authority to declare
forest reserves and conservation areas for reasons including: proper watershed
management practices, sustainable timber production, control of quarrying,
development of recreational facilities and protection of flora and fauna.
The Institute of Marine Affairs Act
The Institute of Marine Affairs Act of 1975 (amended 1990) sets a mandate for
the IMA to carry out research and monitoring in the marine environment. The
IMA also functions as a technical support organisation to the Government of
Trinidad and Tobago and plays a key role in the development of standards with
respect to the marine environment.
National Parks and Other Protected Areas Bill (pending)
This Bill intends to provide the legal basis for the preservation, protection and
management of designated national parks and other protected areas. The Bill
provides for the establishment of the National Parks and Wildlife Authority
under the general authority of the MALMR (responsible for application of the
Bill's provisions). The Authority will co-ordinate functions with the EMA.
The Environmental Management Authority (EMA) is now charged with the
responsibility of development towards safeguarding the environment of
Trinidad and Tobago. The EMA can co-ordinate the various pieces of
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legislation (which already exist) under the aegis of several government agencies.
The Government of Trinidad and Tobago already has the legal instruments (as
detailed above) to effectively control water pollution, landuse, coastal
deterioration to the extent of effectively controlling the incidence and impact of
destruction of these two (2) major areas within which the country's major
resources fall. The EMA will effectively be the Government's arm towards
implementing it.
The policies described above are quite adequate to guide the management of
watershed and coastal areas. This however only happens in a very limited sense,
in that there is much non-compliance by individuals, companies, factories.
There also continues to be lack of co-operation between the responsible sectoral
agencies, ministries, divisions and units. This unsatisfactory scenario will
continue as long as there is continued neglect of compliance with the relevant
legislation. Much environmental misuse and abuse takes place in Trinidad and
Tobago without consideration for the legislation.
The Interim National Physical Planning Commission (INPPC) of the Town and
Country Planning Division continues to exercise planning at the national level
related to coastal areas. The INPPC is expected to be succeeded by the
National Physical Planning Commission (NPPC) that is proposed by the
Development of Land Act-2000 (a Bill, now before Parliament). If the Bill is
accepted in its present form, physical planning will become the responsibility of
the NPPC at the National level and the local planning authorities at local levels.
The NPPC as proposed will be a relatively independent stakeholder-commission
with the tasks of:
· Advising the Minister responsible for Physical Planning with formulating
National Physical Planning policy.
· Implementing physical planning policy that has been accepted by Parliament
at arms length from the Minister. (The Minister will not be involved with
day to day implementation and will only be able to adjust accepted policy
through gazetted policy directives).
· Stimulating the institutional development of the planning and development
control capability of local authorities.
· Overseeing the local planning authorities and ensuring coordination between
local area plans and the national physical development plan.
All coastal planning matters will be incorporated/reflected by stipulations of this
Act.
In Trinidad and Tobago, a Reclamation Committee (RC) was disbanded some
time ago and reconstituted as the West Coast Masterplan Committee. The
Chairman of the (Interim) National Physical Planning Committee (INPPC) now
chairs the new Committee. The Reclamation Committee in the past advised the
Commissioner of State Lands with respect to the granting of reclamation
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licenses. The West Coast Masterplan Committee continues to do so but is also
responsible for developing an integrated coastal development plan for the west
coast of Trinidad and for development control along all the coastal waters of
Trinidad and Tobago.
4.0
INTEGRATING WATERSHED AND COASTAL AREA
MANAGEMENT
Coastal Zone Management (CZM) is the process of preparation and
implementation of a Coastal Zone Management Plan. Its integration with the
coastal watershed management brings about a complete unified approach of the
two systems that interact, at the level of the shoreline.
Although the definition of the Plan may vary, it is usually taken to mean a non-
statutory plan, prepared for a group of interested organisations that have
management responsibilities at the coast. Government could have the leading
role in this preparation process. The integrated Watershed-CZM Plan provides a
unified framework to help resolve competing pressures on the coast and takes
cognizance of the coastal and watershed inter-dependency. It generally covers
the following main issues:
· Watershed Control
· Coastal Development
· Recreation
· Landscape
· Natural Environment
· River and Coastal Water Quality
· Navigation
· Fisheries
· Coastal Defence
· Institutional Capacity
The extents of CZM Plans vary, but normally they focus on a specific but large
area such as a watershed and its related length of coastal zone. Administrative
factors such as the marine territorial limit or a regional or development
boundary on the landward side may condition the boundaries of the integrated
watershed and coastal zone region. Alternatively, those boundaries may be
conditioned by physical boundaries such as the location of sediment build up
supplied by the river or on the origin of sediments located along the coast.
Nevertheless, the underlying implications for the CZM Plan remain the same in
that it is required to consider all the pressures (physical, social, quality, quantity)
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and issues (economic, development, protection) concerning the watershed-coast
system in an integrated way, hence the often used qualification "Integrated
Coastal Zone Management".
A CZM Plan may be prepared in order to support a development plan (e.g. local
or regional statutory plans), which has been more generally prepared with
terrestrial planning interests in mind. It could take the form of a broad strategic
framework or a detailed action plan for those charged with day-to-day
management of the watershed and the related coast. However, whichever form it
takes, it will almost certainly encompass most or all of the following
considerations:
· Watershed Control: streamflows, sediment loads, pollution and impacts on
ecology
· Development: asset identification; land use; regulations; zoning; access;
coastal structures; flood control; hazard management; land use control
(planning); agriculture management; development assets that are conditional
on proximity/access to sea
· Recreation: tourism; beach use; demand/supply; leisure navigation;
watersports; swimming (safety of); tourist industry/infrastructure; hotel and
other holiday accommodation and coastal pathways
· Landscape: visual impact; visibility; heights and appearance of defences
and influence on tourism
· Natural Environment: reefs and seagrass; other coastal habitats; marine
ecosystem; terrestrial ecosystem; swamps and nature conservation
· Water Quality: surface flow; rainfall; subsurface flow; sewage; use of
fertilizers and pesticides; hydrogeology; pollution; storm water
management; fluvial discharge and salinity
· Navigation: port planning (inc. influence on infrastructure); port and
harbours; navigation access channels; dredging and dredged channels;
navigability; shipwash and interaction with coastal defence works
· Fisheries: water quality; navigation; salinity and saline intrusion (estuaries);
landings; anchorages and fish processing
· Coastal Defence: coastal processes; wave regime; tidal regime; sediment
budget; sand spits; sediment regime; shoreline evolution; shoreline response
(to interference); coastal defence risks (flooding and erosion); assets at risk;
the need to defend (or not); benefits of defence; costs of defence and impacts
on other attributes
WRA/MIN. Env: Integrating the Management of Watersheds and Coastal Areas in Trinidad and Tobago
94
· Institutional Capacity: legislation; governmental administration; public
participation; education; statutory planning; protocol between government
departments and private sector and project funding and finance
The list given above is not exhaustive, but indicates the very broad range of
attributes that might apply in the preparation and execution of an integrated
Watershed-Coastal Zone Management Plan. The main purpose of CZM is to
manage development so as not to harm environmental resources. This is
achieved (or should be achieved) through a co-ordinated and integrated
approach to resource management that is underpinned by a strategic framework
(the CZM Plan). CZM can be undertaken through focussing on individual issues
but these issues still need to be considered at the strategic level and in the
context of other uses, activities and interests in the coastal zone.
In considering the coastal zone as one system of interacting resources, those
charged with its management should be responsible for the development/
implementation of a comprehensive protection and control oriented policy, in
order to preserve/conserve the existing values for future generations. The major
systems which interact within the coastal zone are:
· Natural systems, such as watersheds, estuaries and coastal seas
· Socio-economic systems, such as agricultural production, urban settlements
and industrial activities
· National valued systems, such as monuments, religious worship sites and
historic relics
· Real estate systems, including the economic value of terrain that could be
saved from destructive action originating from the sea.
The main issues to be considered include:
· Sectoral Planning
· Coastal Erosion Management (to include Coastline Erosion Control)
· Coastal Water Management
· Coastal Habitat Management
· Coastal Pollution Management
· Water Quality Control
· Coastal Land Management
· Protection and Maintenance of Coastal Sites of Special Significance
(archaeological, religious, historic, other moral value)
· Special Areas Management
The amazing reality is that there is no Coastal Zone Management Plan in
Trinidad and Tobago. This is in light of the fact that presently CZM Plans have
WRA/MIN. Env: Integrating the Management of Watersheds and Coastal Areas in Trinidad and Tobago
95
been elaborated by some 95% of island-nations worldwide. In some cases,
those CZM Plans have evolved into their third (3rd) to eight (8th) updates, in
island-countries like SriLanka, Cyprus and Taiwan. In the Caribbean region,
countries as Martinique, Guadeloupe, Jamaica, Barbados and others have
elaborated CZM plans since the early 1980's.
In principle, well-defined and implemented CZM plans provide a basis for long-
term savings at the national level and for all integrated activities in the coastal
zone and coastal watersheds. The correlated management of coastal
hydrological basins and coastal zones should yield positive results in relation to
a reduction of negative impacts on coastal regions.
With respect to coastal zone plans/policies in various stages of development, the
NEDECO consultants report under the on-going Coastal Protection Project in
Trinidad (Client - Drainage Division) reviews existing plans and policies that
impact on the Coastal Zone of Trinidad and Tobago. This report is the first to
address CZM issues within the country, with a formal recommendation that
Government should initiate a CZM Study and elaborate the first version of a
CZM Master Plan, as soon as possible. However, a number of concept plans
and draft local area plans relating to coastal areas have recently been formulated
under the aegis of the Ministry of Housing, Development and Planning. These
include:
· The San Fernando Local Area Plan
· The Port of Spain Waterfront Concept Plan
· The Couva Draft Local Area Plan
· The Mayaro/Guayaguayare Concept Plan
· The Point Fortin Concept Plan
· The Chaguaramas Development Plan
It is critical that further development of these plans be informed by CZM
considerations. It should be noted that in many cases, development and
investment of private entrepreneurs in coastal areas are unfortunately and
detrimentally held back by the absence of such national CZM Plans.
Inexplicably, Trinidad and Tobago is one of the few countries worldwide that
has not yet initiated such CZM studies and developed long-term Master Plans.
A number of potential issues are related to water management in the coastal
zone, namely:
· water quantity and flood control
· water quality and drinking water supply
· water use in agriculture
· fisheries and salt water intrusion
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96
· water use in transport
· water surfaces for recreational users (tourism), to include coastal sea waters
The water management should be carried out in an integrated way. That is it
should be recognized that there is only one water system, comprising as its main
components: water, the bed/bottom and the banks/shores. In the broadest sense
system interactions should be recognized at the levels of the physical, chemical
and biological.
The water management concept should incorporate everyone. It should
encourage participation of both local authorities and public users, since they are
called to be the main financial contributors to plans and projects on the basis of
the "polluter pays" principle.
To facilitate appropriate and sustainable development in the future, a long-term
approach must be adopted. Further, legislation on water quality standards,
regulation and strong means of enforcement are needed.
One of the major challenges in the management of coastal zones is to relate the
CZM Plan with the existing planning programmes. These may include the
following interests:
· Planning of coastal land use and of coastal recovered lands from the sea
through reclamation actions
· Registration of lands and regulation
· Taxation
· Provision of development and land use conditions
Land use planning and its implementation at national level is easier when the
Government owns and controls coastal land. Where it does not have such
control, it may be advisable to acquire such lands by compulsory purchases.
Other specific Government oriented measures could be implemented
meanwhile, such as restrictions on private purchase and development, zoning,
rights of access, protection of natural habitats, limits of infrastructure build-ups
and setbacks.
Land use management is characterised by relatively complex planning
procedures that seek to establish a formal plan that should be acceptable to all
relevant sectors of the community. It should also have a strong legislative base.
Land use management generally uses a range of instruments to achieve its goals.
These include zoning, a permit-based system and a regulation mechanism that
involves penalties and enforcement provisions.
Many island nations practice four types of planning that will directly influence
the shape and direction of CZM planning, namely:
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97
· National economic planning involving given goals for each sector of the
economy and calling for allocation of labour, investment capital and land
use
· Sectoral Planning
· Coast-wide or island-wide land use planning/regulation
· Planning related to special areas or regions
5.0
NATIONAL ACTION PLAN TO IMPROVE INTEGRATED
MANAGEMENT OF WATERSHEDS AND COASTAL ZONES
There are many benefits of putting into place a framework for coastal zone
management, integrated with coastal watershed management, leading ultimately
to the production and execution of an integrated Coastal Zone Management Plan
for Trinidad and Tobago. The following list is not exhaustive but serves to
indicate some of the principal advantages of national significance:
· The very process of planning and integrating the management of the coastal
zone together with coastal watersheds provides a more favourable outlook
on the future for such regions. This generates increased confidence for
commercial investments e.g. hotels for the tourism industry, both local and
foreign, and provides a well-balanced long-term policy favouring and
encouraging private investments within the coastal zone
· By making more sustainable and efficient use of the natural resources, there
will be increased opportunities to enhance the coastal environment from
many different perspectives including the conservation of ecology
· Several of these improvements will be visible and realised within time
scales such that benefits to the community can be perceived
· Such benefits are by no means superficial. On the contrary, by making
strategic use of the coastal resources, the benefits should be quantifiable in
terms of a long-term economic advantage to the nation
· As well as providing a better framework for the involvement of private
enterprise, the adoption of a plan for joint watershed and coastal
management will facilitate more efficient use of governmental and other
public sector resources, thus making for more cost effective administration
· Having a publicly available plan for development should reduce the
potential for conflict between parties with competing interests in the coastal
zone
All the factors mentioned above, if achieved through adoption of integrated
watershed-CZM, and ultimately a CZM Plan, would position Trinidad and
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98
Tobago properly in the pursuit of sustainable development and integrated
management of its coastal zones.
The strategy for CZM implementation should include sectoral and cross-sectoral
sub-strategies including:
· Pollution Control Standards for coastal waters (fresh, brackish and salt) have
to be accepted and adopted.
· Land Use Planning
· Environmental Assessment and Environmental Audits
· Conservation actions (limiting the degradation of and preserving the coastal
environment is a strategy element that is made effective by creation of
special management area status).
The following components should be put together in effecting the
implementation of a CZM Plan:
· The work plan has to be broken down in accordance with the major CZM
tasks. The agencies responsible and the schedule of tasks are key elements
to be outlined
· Requirement for the evaluation of the performance level of the CZM plan.
Normally, this would be incorporated within the accompanying legislation
· Verification procedures
· Re-evaluation procedures, to allow for re-evaluation of the CZM Plan, in
case changes occur in the national policies relating to land use planning,
physical planning, economic planning etc.
· Training, to be carried out at various levels of involvement in CZM: top
management, related agencies, policy makers, executive personnel
responsible for CZM tasks (fisheries, water quality, pollution control,
coastal processes), technical support staff, coastal professionals, marine
police, law enforcement officers, etc
· Raising the level of awareness of both the larger public and specific target
groups of users
· Contingency planning, such as for rapid response to crisis situations like oil
spills, hurricane, flood, earthquake, etc
· Monitoring procedures
· Enforcement procedures and requirements, which is a very sensitive area
since the interaction between CZM plan managers and various user groups
could shift negatively.
Sourcing external funding for a CZM Plan is a key step in its implementation.
Negotiations and arrangements are necessary even if extended possibly over
many years. The establishment of good contacts and well-oriented discussions
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99
should begin before the CZM implementation. A bridging plan should be
elaborated, in order to re-establish order of actions under scenarios with non-
financed long time lags, before funding arrangements are finalized and funds
allocated, prior to implementation of the Plan.
Any original CZM Plan should outline a strategy that is expected to be effective
within the context of a set of conditions, valid for a certain period considered
and envisaged by the Plan makers. The original CZM Plan would generally
target the mitigation of adverse impacts of development activities or the effects
of the occurrences of natural hazard events on coastal areas. However,
increased economic and social activities in the coastal zone would produce
changes of data and priorities that had been considered for an initial version of
the Plan. These would require an adaptation of the CZM Plan to cater for new
conditions.
The scope of revised CZM Plans would include not only direct control and
mitigating actions, but also educational and enforcement programmes to
effectively address problems. The CZM Plan should also incorporate a process
of Stakeholder Identification and Participation and identify Research and
Development initiatives. The initial CZM Plan should also specify the period
for periodic revision of the Plan.
Planning and preparation are required in relation to the number of natural
hazards which are expected to impact on the coastal watersheds and coastal
zones. Such preparation would relate to:
Hydrology Hazards
Main coastal hydrological basins must be assessed with respect to flood-
generated hazards, under normal and extraordinary conditions. Mapping of
flooding risk of various return periods should be produced along with their
physical extent within the watershed. Besides, such studies should identify the
risk of generating mudflows within a particular coastal watershed and evaluate
the associated potential damage. Such hazard mapping of coastal basins will be
extremely useful in planning, designing and providing risk insurance for various
assets within the basin.
Coastal Hazards
The categorization of the intensity of sea storm should be incorporated with the
framework of Coastal Hazards assessment. In accordance with coastal physical
details, particular local/regional features and geological consistency, erosion and
sea flooding hazards mapping should be developed for the entire coastline/coast
zone of Trinidad and Tobago. Such hazard mapping of coastal areas will be
extremely useful in planning, designing and providing for risk insurance of
various assets within the coastal zone, particularly along the coastline (beaches,
resorts, coastal protections, coastal structures, coastal roads, lagoons, cremation
sites, mosques, monuments etc).
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Seismic Hazards
Seismic hazards represent a real threat within the Trinidad's environment.
Normally, the existing Seismic Codes are associated with the civil building
industry and civil land-based infrastructure works. However, no design and
construction provisions exist for Trinidad and Tobago relating to the industry
and engineering practice for hydraulic works. Thus, for those structures that are
located in water (sea, artificial reservoir, lakes, lagoons, rivers, harbours) like
port wharves/piers, coastal protection structures, breakwaters, dams, submarine
pipelines or which normally function in connection with a water related body
(e.g. water tanks, water conveying systems, culverts, bridges, diversion
structures, slope protections, revetments, coastal roads) a specific code of design
and maintenance has to be established, based on existing international
experience. It is necessary that such codes be implemented at the earliest to
minimize the risks of failure of future hydraulic works when subjected to
seismic hazards.
Various planning and implementation mechanisms exist for managing coastal
and hydrological hazards. Government should recognise and allocate proper
financing for a number of hazards, which are considered critical. Hazard
management is mostly a planning process consisting of the following actions:
· preparing the nation and disaster management agencies for a hazardous
event before it occurs. A high degree of public education and involvement is
required.
· preparing for a rapid response when the event occurs. This action
particularly requires good and reliable knowledge of the extent of the event
and dependent factors. Usually, it requires suitable and specific institutional
arrangements.
· monitoring and assessing the consequences, after the event. This requires
reliable forecasting and accurate information mechanisms.
· providing feedback of results for refinement of the planning process.
Direct requirements in the process of integrating the management of watersheds
and coastal zones include:
· the extension of the coastal zone upstream along the coastal rivers or
estuaries for minimum distances of two (2) to three (3) kilometres rather
than the currently accepted coastal zone width of one hundred (100) to three
hundred (300), metres for normal shore conditons.
· river sediments volumes and quality must be continuously monitored
and controlled
· the water quality of the river should be monitored and controlled, even if the
river is not a source for drinking water or used for other purposes
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· the entire river lower stretch should be the subject of a detailed hydraulic
assessment considering various scenarios of hydrological conditions
upstream within the basin, combined with various sea conditions along the
coastal stretch which interacts with the river inlet/estuary
Monitoring
The scope of the monitoring studies will clearly depend on the findings of a
Report on the Baseline of the Existing Environment (highly recommended).
Monitoring is only useful if it is maintained over a timescale that matches (is
much greater than) the timescale of change of the phenomenon which is being
observed (eg. beach evolution would typically require ten (10) to fifteen (15)
years observation to be valuable). With this in mind, it would be prudent to
initiate monitoring programmes at the earliest opportunity.
For Trinidad and Tobago, the parameters to be observed could include: beach
levels and sediment distributions; nearshore, foreshore and terrestrial ecology;
sea level, waves and currents. In essence, monitoring is applied to those
parameters which are nature driven rather than human driven; the latter more
normally being monitored through the keeping of records of that which has been
affected by man. There will, however, be areas where new surveys of the human
environment are warranted, depending on the suitability of existing data; this
might entail, for instance, surveys of land use and fisheries.
Integrated Watershed-CZM Forums
Trinidad and Tobago, is still a long way from the introduction of CZM in the
true sense and its integration with watershed management. However, there is the
scope, and certainly a need, to establish a CZM Forum. This would consist of an
advisory panel (or CZM Unit) comprising government officers and experts
selected according to their specific expertise or through their intimate
understanding of local issues. From time to time the specialist panel would be
expanded to a wider affiliation of members, drawn together to discuss issues at
general or targeted workshops.
The role of the CZM Forum would include a number of duties:
· to provide expert advice and guidance to the existing planning authorities in
matters concerning the coastal zone. This would be an interim measure to
provide assistance whilst the formal CZM planning framework is under
preparation;
· to initiate a monitoring campaign based on the recommendations of a Report
on Baseline of the Existing Environment;
· to administer specific studies.
Specific Studies
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Specific topics will require more detailed study than that derived from the
baseline investigations. The report on the Baseline Environment will identify
the particular fields in which such studies are required. For Trinidad and
Tobago, it is anticipated that specific studies will be required in some detail in
the following areas:
· coastal watershed management issues, with view to integrate these with the
coastal zone management issues
· shoreline management (particularly erosion control and management)
· fisheries management
· hydrocarbon exploitation
· coastal navigation
· other industries affecting the coastal zone
· socio-economics including heritage interests
· tourism and recreational interests
Primarily, the studies could focus on those aspects that are mostly influenced by
human initiative and which are driven by commercial or economic interests,
representing controllable pressures at the coast. It is important, in executing
such studies, to consider future growth trends and the likely coastal pressures
arising. In some ways, this part of the development of integrated watershed-
CZM can be regarded as a "bottoms up" approach, providing the building
blocks from which an integrated plan for development in the coastal zone can be
derived.
National Action Plan
Based on the present situation with respect to the watersheds and coastal zones,
concrete issues can be identified to facilitate integrating management of
watersheds and coastal areas in Trinidad and Tobago. A matrix outlining the
broad initiatives is shown in Table 5.1
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Table 5.1:
National Action Plan Matrix
No.
Proposed Activity
Significance to National
Funding
Timeframe
External
Community
Mechanism
Expertise
1
Develop policies for
Provide basic principles and
External
Short Term
Minimum
coastal zone,
objectives to facilitate sustainable
Support
watershed and water
management and development of
Required
resources
the nations natural resources
management
2
Develop Coastal
as above
External
Medium
External
Zone Management
Support
Term
Support
Strategy and Plan
Required
Required
(including disaster
management)
3
Develop Plan for the
as above
External
Medium
External
integration of
Support
Term
Support
watersheds and
Required
Required
coastal zones
4
Establish financially
Provide framework for integrated
External
Medium to
External
autonomous Water
management, reduce financial
Support
Long Term
Support
Resources
burden on the national purse
Required
Required
Management
Authority with
Watershed and
Coastal Units
5
Draft Water
Provide the institutional and
External
Medium
External
Resources ,
regulatory framework for
Support
Term
Support
Watershed , and
integrated and sustainable
Required
Required
Coastal Zone
management of the country's
Management Acts
resources
and present for
enactment
6
Prepare Coastal Zone
Facilitate the protection of human
External
Medium
Minimum
and Watershed
life, property and ecosystems
Support
Term
Hazards/Vulnerabilit
Required
y maps for
Hydrologic, Seismic
and Chemical
Hazards
7
Establish Coastal
To assess the state of the natural
External
Short to
Minimum
Zone and Watershed
resources and provide information
Support
Medium
Monitoring and
for the planning process
Required
Term
Assessment
Programme
8
Establish Formal and
To enhance the decision making
Minimum
Minimum
informal mechanisms
process, promote collective
External
Short to
for Stakeholder
ownership of the resources and
Support
Medium
Participation
shared vision
Required
Term
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104
9
Establish Coastal
Provide framework for effective
External
Medium
Minimum
Zones , upstream
integrated management
Support
Term
and seaward
Required
extensions and
supporting
watersheds as legal
entities
10
Develop database and
Provide for efficient storage,
External
Short to
Minimum
information systems,
retrieval and presentation of data.
Support
Medium
and decision support
To also support decision making
Required
Term
systems
11
Develop and
To promote shared vision, and
External
Short Term
Minimum
implement Public
resource protection and
Support
Awareness/Education
conservation
Required
Programme
12
Establish Training
To facilitate capacity building and
External
Short to
External
and Scholarship
institutional development
Support
Long Term
Support
Programmes
Required
Required
Short Term:
Within one (1) year
Medium Term:
Within three (3) years
Long Term:
Within three (3) to five (5) years
Issue 1: The implementation of the concept of resource management to
attain sustainable development of the nation's watersheds and coastal zones.
The present approach to watershed and coastal zone management has
contributed to inefficiencies in resource utilization, degradation and destruction
of ecosystems, deterioration in water quantity and quality, conflicts in resource
allocation, and threats to the health and livelihood of significant portions of the
population. Continuation of this approach could only lead to serious negative
impacts on the country's efforts to achieve sustainable development. It is
therefore imperative that the development and management of coastal areas and
their supporting watersheds are carried out under the guidance of a
comprehensive framework. This framework must include:
· Development of Policies for water resources, watershed and coastal zone
management
· Establishment of Water Resources Management Act, Watershed
Management Act, National parks and Wildlife Act and Coastal Zone
Management Act.
· Demarcation of coastal zones and their supporting watersheds as well as
environmentally sensitive areas.
· Establishment of formal and informal mechanisms for stakeholder
participation
· Establishment of Public awareness/education programme to promote shared
vision, partnership and shared ownership of the resources.
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105
Issue 2: The need to establish an effective and financially autonomous
institutional framework that facilitates proper watershed and coastal zone
management
Effective management of watersheds, coastal zones and water resources is
hampered by the highly fragmented management system, which presently exist.
Management responsibilities are dispersed among numerous agencies whose
priorities do not necessarily include these areas of interest. In addition, existing
agencies are ill-equipped to meet the modern day challenges of integrating
management of water resources, watersheds and coastal zones. Lack of suitable
staff, inadequate financial resources, outdated and unenforceable laws and lack
of reliable data bases all contribute to poor management of these areas and their
resources. It is therefore important to establish a financially autonomous
organization such as the proposed Water Resources Management Authority with
added units for coastal zone management and watershed management (this unit
could also be placed in the Forestry Division). This Authority should have clear
responsibility for resource assessments, policy and strategy development, master
planning, resource allocation, resource exploitation licenses, and enforcement.
Issue 3: The protection of the environmental quality and ecological systems
The current state of the watersheds and coastal areas in Trinidad and Tobago,
clearly indicate an urgent need for environment conservation and protection.
The following activities are proposed for the protection of the environmental
quality of watersheds and coastal areas;
· Implementation of in-stream water requirements
· Establishment of a water quality programme to include pollution
identification, monitoring and control.
· Establishment and implementation of ecological flow requirements
· Development of watershed management plans, and the implementation of
soil and water conservation measures and reforestation activities.
Issue 4:The development of capacity and tools within a suitable institution to
support decision making
Capacity building and the acquisition of appropriate tools are vital to provide
the needed information to promote proper decision-making. The required
components are:
· Establishment of comprehensive data and information management systems
and linked decision support systems (computer models )
· Acquisition, installation and maintenance of monitoring and computational
equipment
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· Training of staff in hydrology, geology, resource modeling, hydrodynamic
modeling, resource planning and dispute resolution.
· Establish funds for training, research and development and emergency
response
· Establish mechanism for cost recovery such as user fees, exploitation fees
and penalties
6.0
RECOMMENDED INPUTS TO REGIONAL ACTION PROGRAMME
Based on a consideration of the National Action Programme presented above,
Items 6, 7 , 10 and 12 which may be more effectively executed at the regional
level are recommended for inclusion in the Regional Action Programme.
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Appendix 1.0
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Document Outline