Tonle Sap
Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
Saburo Matsui*, University of Kyoto, Kyoto, Japan, matsui@eden.env.kyoto-u.ac.jp
Marko Keskinen, Helsinki University of Technology, Espoo, Finland
Pech Sokhem, Mekong River Commission, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Masahisa Nakamura, Shiga University, Otsu, Japan
* Corresponding author
1. Introduction
km2. The country is surrounded by the Cardeman mountain
chain--a rich biodiversity reserve--on the west, the Dangrek
Over the past decades, Cambodia has suffered from serious
mountain chain on the north, and hilly plateaus in the east,
internal problems that were the main cause for the country's
with huge fl ood plains in the central part of the country. In
poor development and its poverty. Since the beginning of the
the southwest, Cambodia has a coastline of about 450 km
1990s, however, the country has stabilized remarkably, now
in the Provinces of Koh Kong and Kampot, and the cities of
being clearly on the path of development and democratization.
Sihanoukville and Kep. Less than 10% of the country's total
Tonle Sap Lake (also known as the Great Lake or simply population lives in this region. The majority of Cambodians
Tonle Sap; see Figure 1) is situated in the central plains of
live in the area associated with the Mekong River Basin, which
the country, and has enormous signifi cance for Cambodians.
covers more than 86% of the country's territory.
Tonle Sap Lake, along with the Tonle Sap River, forms a unique
hydrological system, as well as an enormously diverse aquatic
The Mekong River is a transboundary river fl owing through
ecosystem. The lake also is an invaluable natural resource that
six countries, with a total annual runoff of 475 billion m3 and
provides sources of livelihood for the people living around a total length of over 4,800 km, making it the 12th longest river
it. Further, Tonle Sap Lake acts as an extremely important
fi sh breeding ground and fl ood mediator for the Mekong
River. Thus, the importance of the lake reaches far beyond
Cambodia.
2. Background
2.1 Geography
Cambodia is situated in Southeast Asia (southwestern part of
the Indo-Chinese peninsula). It covers an area of about 181,035
Figure 1. The Tonle Sap and Mekong River Basins.

---

in the world. As it fl ows through Cambodia, the Mekong River
unique and rich ecosystem. The Tonle Sap ecosystem is one of
grows wider, being deep enough for sea-going vessels of up
the most productive inland waters, and one of the most fi sh-
to 100 tons. After passing the last rapids at the northern part
abundant lakes in the world where fl ooded forests and shrubs
of Cambodia, the Mekong River traverses a series of levees,
offer shelter and breeding grounds for fi sh and other aquatic
emptying into an extended fl oodplain. Tonle Sap Lake is an
animals. The total fi sh catch from the lake is about 230,000
integral part of the Mekong River system, with some regarding
tons/year, almost half of Cambodia's total fi sh production.
it as the beating heart of the whole hydrological system The lake supports one of the richest stocks of water birds in
because of its annual fl uctuations. In short, the Mekong Asia, including many endangered species. It is also home to
River system dominates the hydrology, cultural life and the
a variety of mammals, reptiles and insects. Flora in the area
livelihood of the people in this region.
includes almost 200 different aquatic plants, as well as a
range of other plants (Tonle Sap Biosphere Reserve 2002).
After fl owing down to Phnom Penh, the capital of Cambodia,
Migration of different fi sh species between Tonle Sap Lake and
the Mekong River is joined by the 120-km long Tonle Sap River,
the Mekong River is extensive and diverse. During the water
linking Tonle Sap Lake to the Mekong River. Shortly after infl ow from approximately June to September, there is mostly a
that, the Mekong divides into the main Mekong River and the
passive migration of eggs, fry and fi sh to Tonle Sap Lake and its
smaller Bassac River, which fl ow through the Mekong Delta of
fl oodplains. Later, fi sh follow the receding fl oodwaters back to
Vietnam to the South China Sea. The Mekong River is so strong
the lake and fi nally back to the Mekong River (Keskinen 2003).
that when it meets the Tonle Sap River near Phnom Penh, it
creates a hydrologic wonder of the world. During the fl ood
Among others, the lake provides the following benefi ts and
season (June to October), when the water level in the Mekong
values:
River is highest, it forces the Tonle Sap River to fl ow backwards
into Tonle Sap Lake.
·
Flow regulation. The lake and river of Tonle Sap act
as natural fl ood regulators for southern Cambodia
2.2
Tonle Sap Lake and Floodplain
(including its capital city of Phnom Penh) and the
Vietnam Mekong Delta by decreasing the fl ood peak.
Tonle Sap Lake, the largest freshwater body in Southeast Asia,
From mid-May to early-October, the fl ow of the Mekong
and the heart of the Mekong River system, covers an area
River system becomes so great that the Mekong Delta
of 250,000-300,000 ha (2,500-3,000 km2) in the dry season
cannot support the volume. At that point, the water of
and 1,000,000-1,600,000 ha (10,000-16,000 km2) in the wet
the Mekong River reverses its fl ow, fl owing up the Tonle
season. It extends over 300 km from northwest Cambodia to
Sap River to fi ll Tonle Sap Lake and its surrounding fl ood
the Mekong River at Phnom Penh. At the peak of the fl ood
plain. In addition, the delayed release of monsoon-
season, the lake is four to six times larger in area than during
related fl oodwater from the lake to the Mekong River
the dry season, and deepens from a depth of a meter or
(approximately 76.5 billion m3 between October and
less to ten meters or more. Due to its unique hydrology and
April) provides water for irrigation and controls seawater
enormous aquatic productivity, its signifi cance extends to the
intrusion in the Mekong Delta (thereby supplementing
entire Mekong Basin, particularly the Lower Mekong Basin.
about 16% of the lower Mekong River fl ow).
Only about 25-30% of Tonle Sap Lake's waters originate from
the Tonle Sap drainage basin, which covers an area of almost
·
Flora. The fl ooded forest is central to the overall ecology
70,000 km2. The majority (i.e., around 70%) of the lake's
of the Tonle Sap lake and river system and its biological
waters actually originate from the Mekong River, making the
productivity.
river extremely important to the lake.
·
Fish. The hydrologic cycles infl uence fi sh eco-dynamics.
As previously noted, the water fl ow from the Mekong River
The Mekong River brings organic matter and fi sh into
to Tonle Sap Lake occurs during the fl ood season (between
the lake. The lake system, together with its surrounding
June and October), when the rising water level of the Mekong
seasonal fl ood forests, is a highly biodiverse habitat,
River forces the Tonle Sap River to fl ow backwards into Tonle
containing a large number of fi sh species. The economic
Sap Lake. The incoming water causes intensive fl ooding that
signifi cance of fi sh resources provided by the lake is
extends the lake over vast fl oodplains, consisting mainly of
enormous, representing 60% of Cambodia's total inland
forests, shrubs and rice fi eld. As a result, the size of Tonle Sap
fi sheries (average of 41,740 tons/year). Furthermore,
Lake varies from approximately 160 km long and 35 km wide
fi sh migration from Tonle Sap Lake to the Mekong River
during the dry season, to 250 km long and almost 100 km wide
represents a crucial re-stocking source for the river as
during the peak of the fl ood season. Similarly, the lake's water
far north as the Yunnan Province of China.
depth varies from a mere one meter to 9-10 meters during the
peak of the fl ood season (Keskinen 2003).
·
Other fauna. The lake and its fl ood plain provide a
refuge for a wide variety of birds. A number of breeding
The periodic fl ooding that carries sediment-rich water from
colonies of large water birds, including endangered
the Mekong River to the lake, combined with the area's high
birds, also are found here.
biodiversity, are the main reasons for the development of this
408 Tonle
Sap

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·
Cultural heritage. Tonle Sap Lake and the associated important steps toward improving the unjust and corrupt
cultural heritage of Angkor complex contribute fi sheries management system (Keskinen 2003).
enormously to Cambodia's national identity.
People living farther away from the lake rely heavily on rice
·
Tourism. As an additional factor, the potential for tourism
cultivation for their economic livelihood. However, the lake
in the region is high, with the Angkor temple complex at
and its fl oods are still signifi cant, especially for cultivating
Siem Reap alone attracting some 20,000-30,000 visitors
both fl oating and recession rice. Although the main source of
each year. The fi gure is reported to have tripled between
economic livelihood is rather homogeneous in the rural area,
1993 and 2000.
individual families are dependent on a great variety of different
and seasonally varying occupations. In urban areas around the
2.3
Population and Socio-economic Issues
lake (essentially the six provincial capitals), the dependence
on natural resources is much lower, and the occupational
The main sources of economic livelihoods in the Tonle Sap
structure totally different from the rural areas. The main source
area are fi shing and cultivation of wet-season rice. Overall,
of economic livelihoods for the former is more varied, while
the majority of the people around the lake (area between involvement in secondary occupations is signifi cantly less than
National Roads 5 and 6 which roughly follow the fl oodplain
in the rural areas. In the future, improved infrastructure--most
area depicted in Figure 1) are heavily dependent on the notably improved road networks--will have signifi cant effects
exploitation of common property resources for their economic
on both rural and urban areas, since the access to the markets
livelihood. In addition, people living in the areas closest to
will also be easier for the more remote rural areas (Keskinen
the lake are often in a worse situation than the ones living in
2003).
higher areas. Most of the former live in fl oating villages, with
very few livelihood options other than fi shing and fi sh-related
The extensive poverty, and a signifi cant dependence on
activities. Although the lake is rich in aquatic resources, natural resources, is particularly alarming in this region,
unjust fi sheries management, through private fi shing lots, has
since the products from most of the natural resources in the
resulted in a situation whereby the enormous resources of the
area are clearly in decline. The main reason for this decline is
lake mainly benefi t those with the possibility for large-scale
over-exploitation. The decrease in natural resources, and the
fi shing, while the small-scale fi shermen living next to the lake
rapid population increase, has already resulted in a decreased
are left with remarkably fewer resources. During the past few
level of economic livelihoods throughout the Tonle Sap Area
years, however, the Cambodian Government has taken some
(Keskinen 2003). A statistical overview of the socioeconomic
conditions in the country is provided in Table 1.
Table 1. Socioeconomic Indicators for Cambodia.
Indicator
Data
Year
Source
Population
10.144 million (Population growth rate: 2.4%/year)
1998
b)
Race
Khmer 90%, Vietnamese 5%, Chinese 1%, Others 4%
1997
d)
Religion
Hinayana Buddhism 95%, Others 5%
1997
d)
Literacy rate
City: Male 88.2% Female 70.8%, Average 79.1%
1998
a)
Village: Male 77.6% Female 54.3%, Average 64.9%
Average: Male 79.5% Female 57.0%, Average 67.3%
City population growth rate
15.7%
1998
a)
Average life expectancy
Male 50.3 years, Female 58.6 years, Average 54 years
1997
b)
Infant mortality
147 persons/1,000 (under 5 years)
1997
b)
GNP
$3 billion ($280/person)
1998
c)
GDP
$3.1 billion ($288/person)
1998
c)
GDP percentage
Agriculture 51%, Industry 15% (manufacturing industry 6%),
1997
b)
Service 34%
Industry
Rice cleaning, Fisheries, Wood, Woodwork, Rubber, Cement, Jewelry
1997
d)
Natural resources
Wood, Jewelry, Iron ore, Manganese, Phosphoric acid, Hydropower
1997
d)
Water distribution coverage
City 60.3%, Village 23.7%, Average 29.0%
1998
a)
Sewage service coverage
City 49.0%, Village 8.6%, Average 14.5%
1998
a)
Human Development Index
0.514 (Rank 137 in the world)
1997
e)
(HDI)
Source:
Adapted from Japan International Cooperation Agency, 2000 with a) Country Profi le on Environment Cambodia, 1999, Altaf Ali; b)
World Development Indicators, 1999, World Bank; c) World Development Report, 1999, World Bank; d) World Fact Book, 1999, CIA; e)
Human Development Report, 1999, UNDP.

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
409

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3. Biophysical
Environment
forests are a source of fi rewood, construction material,
and many non-timber forest products (e.g., honey, rattan,
3.1
General Environmental Conditions
snakeskin, meat). Up to 97% of Cambodian households use
fuel wood and charcoal as their main energy source, with the
The Tonle Sap River connects Tonle Sap Lake and its vast effectively open-access fl ooded forests serving as a cheap
peripheral wetlands to the mainstream Mekong River. As the
source. Some efforts have been made by the government,
main Mekong fl ood level rises each year during the southwest
however, to provide alternative energy sources. Because of
monsoon in June or July, the water fl ow direction of the Tonle
the composition and structure of the fl ooded forests, their
Sap River reverses, creating an exceptional water regime, timber is not of signifi cant commercial value. The dry season
including huge changes in the lake's water level and volume
encroachment and land clearance of fl ooded forests are also
between seasons. The total area covered by water can be seriously affecting the integrity of the watershed forestland.
more than 1.6 million hectares at the peak of the fl ood season
each year. About 1.2 million Cambodians in approximately 160
3.2

Siltation, Eutrophication and Other Water Quality
communes live in the area of maximum fl ooding around the
Issues
lake. About three-quarters live around the high water level of
the lake, with one-quarter living in some 170 fl oating villages
One of the concerns regarding the condition of Tonle Sap Lake
on the lake, or on the fl oodplain in stilt-supported houses.
is the vast quantity of silt carried into it through the Tonle Sap
River during times of fl ooding. According to a recent study
The lake's water balance has been estimated by the on water quality and hydrological modeling (WUP-FIN 2003),
Infrastructure Development Institute of Japan (2002, p.70). much of the incoming sediment is deposited in the fl oodplains
Water infl ow (expressed in 109 m3/year) to the lake comes from
(i.e., fl ooded forests and rice fi elds), not in the lake itself.
precipitation (14), reverse fl ow from the Tonle Sap River (45)
While changes in siltation rates have occurred, their impacts
and fl ow from other rivers in the sub-basin (24). Water outfl ow
on fi shery and biodiversity are not as clear, compared to over-
is by evaporation (10) and fl ow through the Tonle Sap River
exploitation of the native fl ora and fauna, over-exploitation of
(73). Figure 2 shows how the water level and discharge volume
fi sh resources, and introduction of exotic species. According
of the Tonle Sap River vary greatly over the course of a year.
to some of the externally-funded water quality monitoring
programs (e.g., funded by FINNIDA), the general level of
Approximately 23% of the fl oodplain, extending over lake pollution is fairly low at present, although some local
approximately 350,000 ha, is cultivated. Much of the cultivated
problems exist in and around the fl oating villages mainly due
crop is rice (450,000 tons of rice per year, equivalent to 12%
to untreated domestic wastewater containing pathogens.
of Cambodia's total production), along with mungbeans,
melons and a variety of other vegetables. They are planted
The key to the success of a large-scale, multi-disciplinary
as the fl oodwaters recede, with shifting cultivation being a
program for lake water quality, biodiversity conservation and
very minor component, covering less than 300 ha. The fl ooded
natural resource management will depend heavily on the levels
30
10
Discharge
20
Water Level
8
)
W
3
10
ater L
6
e
v
0
el (m)
ge (billion m
4
-10
Dischar
2
-20
0
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Month
Figure 2. Water Level Changes in Tonle Sap River (Source: Toward a Comprehensive Scientifi c Study of Tonle Sap Lake (Field Survey
Report) March 2002, Infrastructure Development Institute--Japan, p. 70).
410 Tonle
Sap

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of inter-agency cooperation and technical capacity within World Heritage sites in October 1992. The Royal Decree
Cambodian implementing agencies. Sustainable use and on multi-purpose protected areas (including the Tonle
management of "shared" natural resources within the Tonle
Sap fl oodplain) was promulgated in November 1993. The
Sap area requires coordinated, multi-sectoral approaches.
Technical Coordination Unit (TCU), within the Ministry of the
Environment, was established in November 1995 and the fi rst
3.3

The Tonle Sap Biodiversity and Biosphere
inter-ministerial forum on the preservation of Tonle Sap was
Reserve
held in March 1996.
The Tonle Sap Biosphere Reserve (TSBR), which covers the lake
A major step toward establishment of environmental
plus a signifi cant part of the fl oodplain, was established by
governance structure in the Tonle Sap region took place when
Royal Decree in 2001. It is divided into three zones, including
the region was designated as a UNESCO "Man and Biosphere"
core zones, buffer zones and transition zones. In the transition
site in 1997. Tonle Sap Lake was found particularly suitable to
zone, sustainable natural resource management practices the Biosphere Reserve concept, in which human and cultural
are to be established, while the buffer zone is an area where
dimensions are particularly important. To be designated as a
activities are to be compatible with conservation, in order to
Biosphere Reserve, the site must combine: (a) conservation
protect the core zones. The three core zones are Prek Toal for
of the landscapes and species of the area; (b) development
bird colonies (21,342 ha), Boeng Chhmar as bird feeding areas
activities which respect the local culture; and (c) environment
(14,560 ha) and Stung Sen as unique gallery forests (6,355 ha).
and society, research, educational and information exchange
Boeng Chhmar also has been designated as a Ramsar site. At
related to issues of conservation and sustainable development.
present, only Prek Toal is protected to some degree, although
These three functions are made possible through appropriate
even here poaching remains a signifi cant problem.
zoning. To that end, the Reserve is actually sub-divided into a
core area, a buffer zone and a transitional area. The harmonious
There are eight fi sh sanctuaries, seven located inside the relationship between humans and the environment, for
permanent lake and one near the mouth of the Tonle Sap example, means recognition, as well as promotion, of the
River, which are established and managed by Department economic values of the lake, celebration of the reversal of river
of Fisheries under the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and fl ow direction in several festivals, pursuit of the traditional
Fisheries (MAFF). They were set aside to protect fi sh stocks,
knowledge and use of resources, ecological and cultural links
improve fi sh recruitment, and provide dry season refuge areas
with Angkor, among others.
for mainly non-migratory fi sh. All fi shing activities, including
small-scale fi shing, are prohibited in the sanctuaries year-
To echo such United Nations initiatives, the Cambodian
round, although illegal fi shing is reportedly rampant.
Government developed a key policy document illustrating
support for the project goals. The National Environmental
3.4
Protected Areas within the Tonle Sap Floodplain
Action Plan (NEAP), adopted in 1997, seeks to integrate
environmental concerns into economic activity, and ensure
While it is reported that most of the protected area zoning
the future maintenance of the absorptive and regenerative
based on environmental law roughly matches the most capacities of Cambodia's ecosystems. Among the priority areas
important areas for biodiversity conservation, the zoning of intervention are fi sheries and fl oodplain agriculture at Tonle
is purely administrative, and does not imply that good Sap Lake, biodiversity and protected areas, and environmental
management systems or regulation are in place. In general,
education. NEAP was followed by the adoption of the Strategy
the enforcement is poor. Furthermore, the current zoning and Action Plan for the Protection of Tonle Sap (SAPPTS)
can be regarded as focusing on commercial exploitation in February 1998, and by the issuance of the Royal Decree
and sustainable management of the fi sh resources. Most of
offi cially making Tonle Sap Lake a Biosphere Reserve in 2000.
the biodiversity hotspots are located within the fi shing lots
because they are better reserved, less accessible to people
More recently, the Governance Action Plan (GAP) was adopted
and include the most productive fi shing grounds. The strictly
by the Council of Ministers (CoM) in March 2001. GAP is a plan
protected fi sheries domain area was classifi ed as Multiple Use
to promote actions for enhancing governance by sequencing
Management Area by the Royal Decree on the Creation and
and benchmarking the expected results and potential risks
Designation of Protected Areas (1993).
of the initiatives in the areas of Land Management, Forestry
Management and Fisheries, so that the Royal Government
4. Management
Environment
of Cambodia (RGC) may pursue its governance objectives
with greater explicitness, and in a more systematic manner.
4.1
Lake Management Programs and Processes
The GAP covers the four cross-cutting areas of judicial and
legal reform, public fi nance, civil service reform and anti-
4.1.1 Chronology of the Evolving Governance System
corruption, and stipulates the "specifi c issue" of natural
The environmental governance in Cambodia has evolved resource management, encompassing the issue of access of
through a series of administrative initiatives from the early
the poor to natural resources. The draft Second Socioeconomic
1990s. His majesty, King Norodom Sihanouk, for example, Development Plan, 2001-2005 (SEDP-2) provides a general
requested the inclusion of Tonle Sap Lake on the list of framework for socio-economic development in Cambodia. One

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
411

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of its primary objectives is the sustainable management and
The ADB fi nances and administers Components 1 and 2, while
use of natural resources and the environment, and includes
the GEF fi nances and UNDP administers Component 3 (under
natural resource management in the areas of land, forestry
the title Tonle Sap Conservation Project).
and fi sheries, together with sectoral policies and actions,
community-based forestry and agro-forestry, land tenure and
4.2

Institutional Facilitation for Biodiversity
tilting, and environmental management and conservation as
Conservation and Sustainable Natural Resource
part of governance issues and actions.
Use
4.1.2 Tonle Sap Environmental Management Project
4.2.1 Poverty Reduction Linked with Biodiversity and
(ADB, GEF, UNDP, Cambodia)
Wetland Conservation
A major new international initiative, the Tonle Sap The overall poverty reduction strategy, supported by the
Environmental Management Project (TSEMP), was launched
integration of the concept of biodiversity conservation
in 2002, with joint funding from the Asian Development and sustainable natural resource use, culminated in the
Bank ($10.9 million), the Global Environmental Facility ($3.9
development of the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action
million), the UN Development Programme ($0.623 million) and
Plan (NBSAP). The elements of NBSAP relevant to Tonle Sap
the Government of Cambodia ($3.9 million).
Lake include the protection of natural resources, freshwater
fi sheries and aquaculture, forest and wild plant resources,
As reported on the ADB project website (www.adb.org/
agriculture, tourism, environmental security, land use planning,
Projects/Tonle_Sap/overview.asp), "the objective of the Tonle
water resources, community participation, awareness,
Sap Environmental Management Project is to enhance systems
education, research, legislation and institutional structure. In
and develop the capacity for natural resource management
1999, in response to international policy commitments, the
coordination and planning, community-based natural resource
NEAP and other domestic decrees on the use and protection of
management and capacity for biodiversity conservation in the
natural resources, MOE coordinated line ministries and NGOs
Tonle Sap biosphere reserve."
to prepare the National Wetland Action Plan (NWAP). The NWAP
provides a policy framework for the conservation of wetland
To accomplish this objective, the project has three closely biodiversity throughout the country, covering institutional
interrelated components:
and policy issues, information and inventory requirements
for management, a description of the natural aspects of
Component 1 aims to strengthen natural resources wetlands in Cambodia, wetland management issues and the
management coordination and planning through:
social dimension of wetland conservation. It further states that
wetlands cover 30% of the land area of Cambodia, with Tonle
·
Establishing a coordination framework and information
Sap Lake being the country's most important wetland site
dissemination mechanisms;
(http://www.icem.com.au/bioplan/cambodia.pdf ).
·
Mapping the Tonle Sap biosphere reserve; and,
4.2.2 Institutional Complexities in Fishery and
Biodiversity Management
·
Improving regulation and management planning.
The institutional arrangement for the management of fi shery,
forestry and other related resources within the Tonle Sap
Component 2 aims to organize communities for natural region is rather complex, as illustrated in the short descriptions
resource management through:
below.
·
Formulating and implementation structure;
·
The Department of Fisheries (DoF) has jurisdiction
over fi sheries resources and their management in the
·
Empowering communities; and,
protected fi sheries domain of the Tonle Sap, as well as
de facto responsibility for forestry resources within that
·
Evaluating technical packages in support of sustainable
zone as well.
livelihoods
·
Within the Ministry of Environment, the Department of
Component 3 aims to build management capacity for
Nature Conservation and Protection (DNCP), through
biodiversity conservation through:
its Protected Areas Offi ce (PAO), is responsible for
the management of the national system of protected
·
Enhancing management capacity;
areas of which Tonle Sap Lake and its core areas are
part. In 2000, PAO was divided into two separate
·
Developing systems for monitoring and management;
offi ces: Offi ce of Natural Park & Wild-life Sanctuary and
and,
Offi ce of Multiple Land-use and Protected Landscape.
Within DNCP-MoE, there also is an Offi ce of Wetlands,
·
Promoting biodiversity conservation awareness.
Watersheds and Coastal Zone Management, Offi ce of
Community Forestry and Buffer Zones, while at the
412 Tonle
Sap

---

provincial level, there is an Offi ce of Nature Conservation
and growth among the member countries of the MRC, and
and Environmental Data Management.
promote cooperation with the donor community.
·
The Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries 4.3.2 The Tonle Sap Biodiversity Reserve (TSBR)
(MAFF) and the Ministry of Environment (MoE) are
Secretariat
the two main Government agencies responsible The TSBR Secretariat has three objectives: to serve as
for protected areas, wildlife management and an information clearinghouse open to all; to conduct a
environmental law enforcement in Cambodia. More nationwide public awareness and mobilization campaign for
specifi cally, within MAFF, the Wildlife Protection Offi ce
the protection and sustainable use of Tonle Sap Lake and
(WPO) of the Department of Forestry and Wildlife (DFW)
its watershed, including Angkor; and to develop long-term
has jurisdiction over wildlife protection and enforcement
revenue sources for conservation and research activities of the
within the core areas of the TSBR.
TSBR Secretariat, as well as for the provision of appropriate
incomes for enforcement and monitoring offi cials from the
·
Until recently, the Technical Coordinating Unit (TCU), Fisheries Department, MoE and relevant government bodies.
directly under the Minister, was the main offi ce within
The primary government agencies responsible for managing
the MoE with direct responsibility for TSBR activities.
natural resources in the TSBR are the Department of Fisheries
With the establishment of the TSBR Secretariat within
(DoF) of MAFF and MoE. They currently exercise a range of
the CNMC, the TCU will be absorbed into the technical
management responsibilities over various zones, including
units of the MoE, and the TSBR Secretariat will take on
the TSBR core areas, the buffer and transition zones, fi sh
its remit.
sanctuaries, community fi shing areas, open access areas
and fi shing lots. Many of the zones are overlapping. This
·
The international NGO, Wildlife Conservation Society is complicated by the general lack of demarcation of these
(WCS), has an active program to support the wildlife
different zones, and recent changes in management of the
conservation and protection efforts of the DFW-MAFF and
fi sheries. These changes can, and do, interfere with the MoE's
the DNCP-MoE, with a special focus on the Prek Toal core
responsibility to implement the international convention on
area and, more recently, on fl oodplains near Kompong
wetlands and biodiversity, as well as to manage the core areas
Thom. Staff from these agencies have been seconded
of the TSBR.
by WCS, and trained and supported to undertake their
work more effectively. An excellent network and a 4.3.3 The Ministry of Environment (MoE)
pool of resourceful and motivated Cambodian wildlife
The responsibilities of MOE include: developing policies
conservationists have been developed as a result of this
to ensure sustainable development; developing and
support.
implementing legal instruments and the Environmental
Impact Assessment (EIA) process; advising other sectors on all
·
There are currently no known programs for managing
aspects of natural resources and environmental management;
or controlling recognized exotic species in Tonle Sap administering the national protected areas system; preparing
Lake. An international workshop in May 2001 in Vietnam
pollutant inventories; developing inspection procedures;
on "Weed Control Techniques and Occupational Health
implementing environmental education; compiling, analyzing
and Safety Issues" focused on control of the major and managing environmental data; ensuring Cambodian
invasive weed, Mimosa pigra, in the lower Mekong compliance to international environmental conventions and
River countries. Two Cambodian delegates attended this
treaties; promoting investments in environmental protection
workshop.
and conservation; and cooperating with national and
international organizations, foreign governments and local
4.3
Institutions for Lake Basin Management
communities to ensure environmental protection.
4.3.1 Cambodian National Mekong Committee (CNMC)
4.3.4 The Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries
and Mekong River Commission (MRC)
(MAFF)
The primary government agency involved in the management
The main tasks of MAFF are to develop and implement relevant
of natural resources in the Tonle Sap drainage basin is the
sectoral policies aimed at improving the livelihoods of the
Cambodian National Mekong Committee (CNMC), with Cambodian people; to coordinate, monitor and evaluate the
membership of ten ministries and direct linkage to the regional
implementation of these policies; to monitor agriculture,
Mekong River Commission (MRC). Functioning as a national
fi sheries and forestry resources and to facilitate their
institution accountable directly to the Cambodian Government,
sustainable use; to establish regulations for management, and
it assists and advises the Government in all matters relating
to preserve and protect natural resources; to build capacity
to water policy and strategy as well as management and and human resources in various fi elds in order to take part
development of the water and related natural resources of the
in the development of the agriculture, fi sheries and forestry
Mekong River Basin in the country. CNMC's most important
sector; to provide technical support and guidance to farmers
role is to coordinate and promote sub-regional cooperation
to improve production and farming productivity in order to
ensure high yields based on sustainable practices; to improve

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
413

---

vocational training in relation to agriculture; to conduct 4.4
National Environmental Laws
research on fi sheries, forestry and agronomy, including the
economics of these activities and dissemination of the results;
The legal framework for conservation and management of
and to collaborate with other line ministries and cooperate
natural resources serves two purposes, including regulating
with NGOs and donors to develop agriculture, forestry and
human activities through rules and enforcement mechanisms,
fi sheries.
and providing for institutional mandates and functioning
to carry out the administration of the law. Major national
The Department of Fisheries of MAFF, central to natural environmental laws include:
resources management in the Tonle Sap basin, has included
the following elements in its Second Five-Year Fisheries Sector
·
Royal Decree on the Creation and Designation of the
Development Plan (2000-2005) and its 10-year Master Plan:
Protected Area (1993);
conservation and improvement of fi sh habitat; cooperation
with local authorities and fi shing community co-management;
·
Law on Environmental Protection and Natural Resource
revision of burden book and defi nition of gear for appropriate
Management (1996);
fi shing area; disseminate fi sheries technologies, science,
aquaculture technologies and fi sheries law; improve fi sheries
·
Sub-Decree on the Organization and Functioning of the
sector management through revision of the fi sheries law and
Ministry of the Environment (1997);
improvement of the structure of fi sheries administration;
encourage cooperation with international organizations and
·
Sub-Decrees on Water Pollution Control, Environmental
NGOs; fi shing lot reform, to release some lots for family
Impact Assessments, Solid Waste Management,
fi shing; and establishing community fi sheries in areas that
Organization, Structure and Functioning of the CNMC
have been opened.
(1999);
One important, but currently halted program (due to lack ·
Royal Decree on the Establishment and Management of
of funding) established by the MRC, and carried out by the
the Tonle Sap Biosphere Reserve (2001); and,
Department of Fishery of MAFF, is the Fish Catch Assessment
Program that produces important information about fi sh
·
Law of Protected Areas (draft).
catches in the Tonle Sap Lake and River.
4.5
Capacity Building and Stakeholder Participation
4.3.5 Sub-national Level Institutions
The Government of Cambodia's recent decentralization 4.5.1 FAO
Programs
policies (known as Seila which means "foundation stone") The fi rst phase of the FAO project, "Participatory Natural
are expected to increase local infl uence on the TSBR during
Resources Management in the Tonle Sap Region" (1995-1998)
the project period. The decentralization strategy involves the
conducted research and data collection on the fl ora and
election of hierarchical representative bodies such as Village
fauna of the fl ooded forest ecosystem, as well as the socio-
Development Committees (VDCs), Commune Development economics of fi shing and agricultural communities. Resource
Committees (CDCs), District Development Committees (DDCs)
management trials also were initiated. The second phase
and Provincial Rural Development Committees (PRDCs) in (1998-2001), "Participatory Natural Resource Management
selected provinces, four of which are riparian provinces of the
in the Tonle Sap Region", focused on the development and
TSBR (UNDP-GEF Portfolio Search Results, Tonle Sap 2000).
implementation of natural resource management by local
It is expected that efforts from those in Phnom Penh to alter
communities, with an emphasis on the Tonle Sap ecosystem
the traditional provincial authorities operating more or less
(but also in the surrounding rain-fed agriculture and
autonomously from the national authorities will naturally meet
upland areas). It is reported that by April 2001, the project
with some resistance from those who favor the status quo.
had facilitated the development of community resource
management in 33 different locations, covering over 20,000
4.3.6 Regional Level Institutions
ha and involving more than 100 villages (of which 7 locations,
The 1995 Agreement on the Cooperation for the Sustainable
covering 12,000 ha, are in fl ooded forests). The third phase,
Development of the Mekong River Basin established scheduled for completion by the end of 2003, will focus on
the Mekong River Commission (MRC), the focal regional expansion of successful previous trials, particularly to fi shing
institution. The MRC objective is to cooperate in all fi elds
villages, and trials of fi sheries resources (community fi sheries)
of sustainable development, utilization, management and will be undertaken to capitalize on recent reforms in fi sheries
conservation of the water and related resources of the Mekong
management.
River Basin, including, but not limited to, irrigation, hydro-
power, navigation, fl ood control, fi sheries, timber fl oating,
4.5.2 ADB/GEF/UNDP Project
recreation and tourism, in a manner to optimize the multiple-
As noted above, the third component of the Tonle Sap
use and mutual benefi ts of all riparian entities and to minimize
Environmental Management Project (TSEMP) builds
the harmful effects that might result from natural occurrences
management capacity for biodiversity conservation. Financed
and human activities.
by the GEF and administered by UNDP, and under the title Tonle
414 Tonle
Sap

---

Sap Conservation Project, the TSEMP as a whole makes special
through an "International Commons" where collaborative
efforts to involve women and poorer sections of communities
and facilitative management be introduced. The concepts of
(www.adb.org/Projects/Tonle_Sap/features.asp).
biodiversity conservation and sustainable natural resource
use have been integrated into the overall poverty reduction
4.5.3 NGO Initiatives
strategy through the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action
International NGOs with a focus on wildlife conservation also
Plan (NBSAP), through the ADB-initiated participatory Tonle
have undertaken considerable capacity building programs for
Sap Environmental Management Project (TSEMP), emphasizing
national staff and counterpart agency staff. In particular, the
the importance of intergovernmental cooperation to create the
WCS was able to train counterpart staff from the MAFF and
policy, management and research conditions necessary to
MoE in the techniques of biodiversity survey and assessment,
advance ecological management. This is unique in one sense,
report preparation, environmental education and awareness.
but typical of many lakes in another sense. While it appears
Other NGOs, such as WWF-Cambodia, have undertaken that Tonle Sap Lake's unique natural setting has a lot to do with
similar projects. Training needs analyses (TNAs) have been allowing this International Commons to be formed, many lakes
undertaken as part of the donor-supported natural resource
in other parts of the world also have a lot in common in the
management projects in Cambodia. They will form the basis
pursuit of sustainable management of rich, and yet vulnerable,
for developing a TNA for the GEF project (UNDP-GEF Portfolio
resource values.
Search Results, Tonle Sap 2000).
5.2

Sustainable Institutions and Institutional
5.

Lessons Learned and Recommended
Constraints
Initiatives
The issue of sustainable institutions may be addressed in
The exceptional hydrology of the lake, and the resulting close
three broad issue domains with regard to lake management.
relationship and interaction between Tonle Sap Lake and the
One is participatory community actions (i.e., participatory
Mekong River, necessitates that management of the lake be
management of forestry, fi shery and other livelihood resources).
pursued in almost full consonance with management of the
Another is the government institutional linkages on lake
river basin. With the lake surface and fl oodplain extending resource development and environmental conservation, while
over an area encompassing six Cambodian provinces, the the last is international initiatives, collaborative facilitation
responsibility for lake management lies with the central and resource mobilization toward sustainable development of
government. No single lake basin management organization
the nation and the lake region. The participatory community
exists with responsibility for comprehensive management actions for resource use, conservation and management have
of the lake, thus making management and implementation wide-ranging implications, such as the location of communities
responsibilities too fragmented and uncoordinated among relative to the lake, ethnic minority roles and functions in the
several different ministries, despite attempts made by CNCM
access and management of community resource base, access
to coordinate them. A Lake Basin Management Organization,
to markets and other economic opportunities rather than just
such as the one proposed in the ADB study, may be usefully
sustaining their subsistence living. A major concern pertaining
explored in this regard.
to institutional linkages of the government system is probably
the need to adopt the evolving decentralization policies, such
Although still in a transient stage, with various external inputs
as Seila, against the seriously disintegrated hierarchical system
gradually merged with local socio-economic and environmental
of governance, from the MRC through national and provincial
concerns, the management experience for Tonle Sap Lake is
authorities, to the poorest and most isolated communities
rapidly becoming rich in its quality and quantity. They may
across the lake's watershed and fl ood plains. As for many of
be described both in terms of more generic subjects, ranging
the well-intentioned international initiatives, facilitation and
from political interest and sustainable institutions to scientifi c
resource mobilization, the direction, extent and eventual goal
research on lake management.
of the collective whole, in relation to the political and economic
realities of the nation and the regions, if not specifi cally such
5.1
Changes in Political Interest and Commitment
well-defi ned subject issue such as TSBR, has yet to emerge.
The lessons are being formed as the experience unfolds.
Tonle Sap Lake's vast water volume and its rich biodiversity
have seen the survival of Cambodia from the War of Indochina,
On the other hand, the rapidly accumulating experience in
the Khmer Rouge upsurge and the resulting devastation of the
the management of protected areas, such as TSBR, gives
nation, and the subsequent three decades of extreme violence
many practical clues on resource management of a lake that
and political volatility that deprived almost everything from
is to be sustainably managed and protected (e.g., through
the people and the communities. Having gone through this
the formation of core areas, buffer and transition zones, fi sh
nightmarish experience, the Cambodian government and sanctuaries, community fi shing areas, open access areas
the international communities, typically represented by such
and fi shing lots). The overlapping zones, complicated by a
agencies as MRC, FAO, UNDP, ADB and GEF, have reached an
general lack of zone demarcation, and the changing fi shery
implicit political consensus that the rich natural resources management practices, make national and international
and biodiversity of the lake and its surroundings be sustained
initiatives on wetland and its biodiversity management highly

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
415

---

complicated. Various ministries, as is typically the case with
that balance the peoples' development needs with the need
many developed and developing nations, the line ministries
for maintaining the long-term environmental integrity and
and agencies responsible for natural resource management
ecological balance.
within a large region endowed with vast natural resources
do not seem to be able to maintain a good track record of
Environment Programme (EP). The MRC Environment
cooperation.
Programme aims to fulfi ll the provisions in the 1995 Mekong
Agreement related to protection of the environment, and
5.3

Linkage Between the Lake Management
maintenance of the ecological balance of the basin. It also
Program and National and Regional Resources
supports the other Core Programmes, through provision
Management Efforts
of environmental data and development of tools for
environmental planning and management. Assessment and
Water Utilization Programme (WUP). The WUP was commenced
monitoring of water quality and ecosystem health form an
in early 2000, and is planned to run for 6 years. It will help
important basis for data provision. The Programme also aims
establish permanent and functional mechanisms to support
to improve environmental policy and management by providing
Mekong Basin water resources management, consistent advice to, and promoting cooperation among, environmental
with the 1995 Agreement. Its goal is to achieve "reasonable
agencies. Through compilation of existing knowledge and
and equitable" water use among member countries, while facilitation of research activities, it also promotes a better
maintaining the basin's ecological integrity, including ensuring
understanding of the environmental and ecological aspects of
the natural reverse fl ow in the wet season into Tonle Sap Lake
the lake and its basin.
in order to conserve its biological productivity and its function
as a fl oodplain. The WUP supports the Basin Development 5.4

Adequacy of Capacity Building and Stakeholder
Plan of the new era that emerged out of the initial wartime
Participation
attempts, followed by one in the 1980s, both of which failed
in all practical sense. The WUP-FN, a complementary project
Capacity building initiatives in lake management typically
to the WUP, co-fi nanced by the Finnish Government, addresses
require strengthening institutions, both for promoting
the environmental and socio-economic issues in the region
participatory management of natural resources and for effective
caused by the unique nature of the lake, its fl oods and diverse
environmental education, communication and awareness
ecosystems, seasonally changing style of living among the raising on sustainable development and conservation of lake
culturally-and ethnically-diverse population around the environments. In the case of a lake such as Tonle Sap, where
lake, vaguely defi ned and ineffectual land tenure, and the the lake serves as the nation's most important economic
transient fi shing legislations undergoing major transition. The
resource base, as well as home to millions residing in the
extremely subtle, but highly complicated, social and economic
area, the initiatives have to be multi-fold. Over the long
situation, with the requirement for poverty elimination, make
term, in order for such initiatives to eventually be sustained
development and implementation of the WUP far beyond the
by the Cambodian people themselves, the prerequisite for
local capability, where focused and yet far-reaching scientifi c
such initiatives is the enhancement of basic human-resource
analyses of social and economic variables imminent. The WUP,
capacity for implementing and addressing the principles of
and its resultant water sharing arrangements, are specifi cally
sustainable resource use. It is essential, therefore, that a
designed to facilitate agreed-upon means of confl ict
range of educational opportunities be provided widely to the
prevention and resolution among member countries. The WUP
population in general and, in particular, to the prospective
covers planning, data collection, development of a decision-
leaders of the new generation.
support framework and knowledge base, establishment of a
mechanism for water use monitoring, and maintenance of river
NGO initiatives seem to have formed a successful basis for
fl ows and water quality.
various international donor-supported projects, including
those funded by GEF, and executed by the UNDP and ADB.
Basin Development Plan (BDP). Formulation of the Basin The important NGO-donor collaboration projects, including
Development Plan (BDP) commenced in October 2001, and those executed by UNDP and ADB, have taken root in regard
will run until late 2004. The output will be both a general to the fi sheries. Another NGO activity--a three-phase FAO
planning tool, and an enduring, dynamic process, for use project focusing fi rst on `dryland' communities, then on natural
by MRC's Joint Committee to help identify and prioritize resource management in community fi sheries and forestry
development programs and projects. These are to meet not
skills, and more recently on expansion of fi shing villages and
only the sustainability and equitability requirements of the fi sheries resources (community fi sheries)--seems to have
1995 Agreement, but donor and lending institution criteria for
set the foundation for sustainable fi shery management in
grant support and investment. The BDP relies substantially on
the Tonle Sap region. Numerous new `community fi sheries'
inputs from the WUP, the Environment Programme and Sector
projects have been planned and implemented, including both
Programmes, with regard to information and assessment government agencies (primarily by the DOF and provincial
tools concerning issues such as water quantity and quality,
offi ces) and NGOs, in the TSBR in response to reforms in the
and environment and socio-economic impacts. The BDP aims
fi sheries sector.
to identify transboundary economic development activities
416 Tonle
Sap

---

Because Cambodia has only recently emerged from social are the lack of resources and information as well as lack of
and political instabilities, the governmental line agencies are
comprehensive management of the lake. However, several on-
still weak in administrative capability and short on resources.
going and planned initiatives and projects aim to improve the
Thus, the role played by domestic and international NGOs in
understanding of this exceptional ecosystem. These projects
lake management has become very important. On the other
include the Tonle Sap Modeling Project (WUP-FIN) under the
hand, the diverse roles and orientations of different NGOs may
Mekong River Commission (WUP-FIN 2003), the on-going Tonle
lead to confl icting interests and approaches in the provision
Sap Sub-area Analysis Process by the Cambodian National
of services to the local population. What is urgently needed,
Mekong Committee (CNMC) and the MRC, the operation of the
therefore, is a strengthening of the institutional capability Tonle Sap Biodiversity Reserve Secretariat as well as the ADB-
of government agencies to be able to achieve long-term funded projects for the Tonle Sap that also include initiative
management objectives. In addition, enforcement capability
for the formation of basin-wide lake management organization
has to be greatly improved for laws and regulations already in
(ADB 2003).
place to be properly enforced.
The exceptional symbiosis between the Mekong River and
In general terms, because social and environmental issues are
Tonle Sap Lake also requires extremely close linkage between
closely interrelated, dealing with each in isolation will not result
the management of the river and the lake. For example, the
in the sustainable use of the lake and its watershed resources.
possible building of upstream dams can result in serious
While conceptually clear, it would be extremely challenging
reduction of the water fl ow to the river, as well as decreasing
to pursue this notion, particularly in view of the prevailing
the quantity of sediments in the lake. This would have
realities surrounding population growth, people's deep serious effects on the functioning of the lake and would likely
dependency on natural resources, the decreased availability
dramatically reduce the lake's aquatic production, since the
of natural resources, and unjust (although lately improved)
sediment concentration appears to be extremely vital for the
fi sheries management. Apparent gross inadequacies in the aquatic production of the lake (van Zalinge et al. 2003).
enforcement of environmental laws and regulations actually
stem from the fact that environmental and social development
5.6 Other
Observations
confl icts have not yet been adequately addressed.
A sustainable livelihood approach should be applied. The
5.5 Scientifi c Research on Lake Management
level of dependency of the people on the lake's water and
related resources is very high. More than a million people live
Long-term, sustained monitoring activities by resident in the immediate surroundings of Tonle Sap Lake and its fl ood
institutions in the Tonle Sap region on water quantity and plain, many with annual per capita incomes as low as US$300.
quality and other environmental parameters of the lake and
The extensive poverty and the people's signifi cant dependency
its watershed have yet to be fi rmly established. A number on the natural resources in the Tonle Sap Lake area is alarming,
of short-term natural and social science research activities,
given that the products from all natural resources are clearly
however, have been conducted, particularly by international
in decline. The decreasing natural resources, and the rapid
technical collaboration agencies and scientifi c programs, population growth, is an unsustainable combination that has
including the Tonle Sap Environmental Management Project
resulted in the decreased level of the people's livelihoods.
discussed in section 4.1.2. The information generated by these
activities would serve very useful purposes if systematically
Complex interlinkage (basin-wide). The 1995 Mekong
compiled and widely shared. Thus, a collaborative system Agreement recognizes the complex inter-linkage between the
of information generation, compilation and assessment is Mekong River, Bassac River and Tonle Sap Lake in ensuring an
urgently needed, as well as its widespread dissemination acceptable natural reverse water fl ow to Tonle Sap Lake during
through electronic media.
the wet season. The observation of the fi shery for migrating
fi sh in the Tonle Sap River, for example, shows that year-to-year
Tonle Sap Lake is confronted with a number of socio-economic,
variations in maximum Mekong River fl ood levels and related
environmental, cultural and political issues that collectively
Tonle Sap Lake fl oodplain inundation strongly affect the yield
constitute root causes of degradation of resource values of this fi shery. It is hypothesized that sediments carried by the
endowed by the great nature of the Mekong River system. Mekong River to Tonle Sap Lake bring in the essential nutrients
The collective inputs from the ongoing technical collaboration
that feed the lake's food webs. The higher the fl ood level, the
activities would serve as a basis for developing a long-term,
more sediment is brought to the lake. This leads to improved
sustainable development of the lake and its drainage basin.
survival and growth of fi sh and, therefore, improved fi sh
One of the keys to success would be application of the yields. When defi ning the conditions for acceptable reverse
precautionary principle (Principle 3 of the World Lake Vision).
water fl ows, both water quality and quantity impacts must
be taken into account. Upstream developments, such as dam
Despite the extreme importance of the lake for Cambodia and reservoirs construction/operation, may lead to signifi cant
and the region, neither the lake's exceptional hydrology nor
trapping of sediment and nutrients, thereby reducing the
the driving forces behind high aquatic production are yet fertility of the Tonle Sap system.
fully understood and analyzed. The main reasons for this

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
417

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Research and development: Make information count. Tonle
ADB. 2003. Fighting Poverty in Cambodia--The Tonle Sap
Sap Lake currently is one of the least-spoiled lakes in the Basin Strategy. Asian Development Bank (ADB): Manila.
world, qualifying it to be considered a world heritage site.
Development pressures, however, in the lake basin are Bonheur, N. 2001. Tonle Sap Ecosystem and Value.
great. The long-term sustainability of the Tonle Sap system is
Technical Coordination Unit for Tonle Sap, Ministry of
reportedly threatened by logging, over-fi shing, pollution and
Environment: Phnom Penh, Cambodia. Available online at
sedimentation. Despite growing concern over the health of this
www.mekoninfo.org.
ecosystem, there has been relatively little scientifi c research
into the nature and rates of change in the Tonle Sap Lake
Infrastructure Development Institute of Japan. 2002. Toward
drainage basin. For example, sedimentation of Tonle Sap Lake
a Comprehensive Scientifi c Study of Tonle Sap Lake (Field
recently has given cause for concern. Due to a lack of strong
Survey Report) (in Japanese).
scientifi c data and confusion over existing evidence, many
scenarios of the lake's future have been developed. The most
Japan International Cooperation Agency. 2000. Report on
pessimistic one forecasts a drying up of the lake in a ten-year
Cambodian Environment (Kokubetu kankyo joho seibi chosa:
period, while other studies estimate the lake would take 600
Hokokusho (Kanbojia koku)) (in Japanese).
years to dry up. The diverse physical, bio-geo-chemical and
socio-economic conditions in the Tonle Sap Lake area, and
Keskinen, M. 2003. Socio-economic Survey of the
its importance for the livelihoods of the local and regional Tonle Sap Lake. Water Resources Laboratory, Helsinki
population, pose extraordinary challenges for decision-making
University of Technology, Finland. Available online at http:
and lake management. These challenges can only be met //www.water.hut.fi /wr/research/glob/egloshow/eglob_
with strong political will, fi nancial sustainability, fi rst-hand
TonleSap.html
knowledge and proper decision support tools. Although
some research is being carried out in the area, the outcomes
Ministry of Planning, Cambodia. 2000. A Poverty Profi le
are rarely easily available for consultation and reference. In
of Cambodia--1999. Ministry of Planning: Phnom Penh,
addition, various Tonle Sap Lake frameworks and initiatives
Cambodia.
have been/will be carried out but stronger coordination and
information exchanges among them is required. The success
Ministry of Planning, Cambodia. 2002. Cambodia Human
and effectiveness of any project should be measured by Development Report--Societal Aspects of the HIV/AIDS
increased knowledge, formation of cooperative networks and
Epidemic in Cambodia, Progress Report 2001. Ministry of
extensive use of the results.
Planning (MoP) and UNDP: Phnom Penh, Cambodia. Available
online at http://www.un.org.kh/undp/publ/2002/nhdr3.pdf
Effective means for confl ict prevention and resolution. People
rely so heavily on Tonle Sap Lake resources that confl icts can
MRCS/WUP-FIN. 2002. Revised Data Report, Water Utilization
be severe, including the following:
Program-Modeling of the Flow Regime and Water Quality of the
Tonle Sap. Mekong River Commission/Finnish Environment
· Confl ict/competition within the fi shery sector Institute Consultancy Consortium: Phnom Penh, Cambodia.
(household vs. commercial fi shery);
National Institute of Statistics, Cambodia. 2000. Report
· Confl ict/competition between conservation and 6: Population Projections 2001­2021., General Population
development (e.g., clearance of fi sh habitat for other
Census of Cambodia 1998, Analysis of Census Results, National
development purposes);
Institute of Statistics (NIS), Ministry of Planning: Phnom Penh,
Cambodia.
· Confl ict/competition among different sectors; and,
Tonle Sap Biosphere Reserve. 2002. Tonle Sap Biosphere
· Transboundary
confl icts.
Reserve, Technical Coordination Unit for Tonle Sap, Ministry of
Environment. Available online at http://www.mekonginfo.org
6. References
UNDP. 2002a. The SEILA Commune Database CD-Rom. United
The core portion of this report depended heavily on the Nations Development Programme and SEILA Programme:
information provided in UNDP-GEF Portfolio Search Results,
Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Tonle Sap (2002). Also referred to rather extensively within
the general context of this report are Varis and Keskinen UNDP. 2002b. Partnership Concept Paper. Consultative Group
(2003) and Keskinen (2003). Data and information obtained
Report, United Nations Development Programme.
from these and other sources, however, were often referred
to in multiple places, making it diffi cult to clearly identify the
UNDP. 2002c. Human Development Report 2002. United
original source. Referencing of the sources of specifi c data and
Nations Development Programme (UNDP): New York, USA.
information, therefore, was not attempted.
Available online at http://www.undp.org/hdr2002/
418 Tonle
Sap

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UNDP. 2002d. Reform for What? Refl ections on Public
Administrative Reform. Consultative Group Report, United
Nations Development Programme (UNDP): Phnom Penh,
Cambodia. Available online at http://www.un.org.kh/undp/
publications/cg_PAR.pdf
UNDP-GEF Portfolio Search Results. 2002. Integrated Resource
Management and Development in the Tonle Sap Region,
March 2000.
UNESCO. Tonle Sap: Source of Lives, Culture, Nature and Man.
Available online at http://www.myfriend.org/krousar-thmey/
tonlesape/tl10.htm
van Zalinge, N., L. Deep, P. Ngor, S. Juha and K. Jorma. 2003.
Mekong fl ood levels and Tonle Sap fi sh catches. Contribution
to the 2nd International Symposium on the Management of
Large Rivers for Fisheries (LARS2), Phnom Penh, Cambodia.
Varis, O. and M. Keskinen. 2003. "Socioeconomic analysis of
the Tonle Sap Region, Cambodia." International Journal for
Water Resources Development. 19(2): 295-310.
WUP-FIN. 2003. Draft Final Report. Tonle Sap Modelling Project
(WUP-FIN)/Mekong River Commission Secretariat (MRCS):
Phnom Penh, Cambodia.
World Bank. 2002a. Cambodia Data Profi le. World Development
Indicators database, The World Bank Group. Available online at
http://devdata.worldbank.org/external/CPProfi le.asp?CCODE
=KHM&PTYPE=CP
World Bank. 2002b. Cambodia at a glance., World Bank Group.
Available online at http://www.worldbank.org/cgi-bin/sendoff
.cgi?page=%2Fdata%2Fcountrydata%2Faag%2Fkhm_aag.pdf
World Bank. 2002c. Tools and methods for social analysis. World
Bank Group. Available online at http://www.worldbank.org/
socialanalysis, visited 14.3.2002.
World Lake Vision Committee. 2003. World Lake Vision.
Available online at http://www.ilec.or.jp/wwf/eng
Disclaimer
The fi ndings, interpretations and conclusions expressed
in this report are the views of the authors and do not
necessarily represent the views of The World Bank and its
Board of Directors, or the countries they represent, nor do
they necessarily represent the view of the organizations,
agencies or governments to which any of the authors are
associated. Also, the colors, boundaries, denominations, and
classifi cations in this report do not imply, on the part of The
World Bank and its Board of Directors, or the countries they
represent, and the organizations, agencies or governments to
which any of the authors are associated, any judgment on the
legal or other status of any territory, or any endorsement or
acceptance of any boundary.

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