Lake Titicaca
Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
Mario Francisco Revollo*, SERECO, La Paz, Bolivia, franciscorevollo@hotmail.com
Maximo Liberman Cruz, La Paz, Bolivia
Alberto Lescano Rivero, CEDAS, Puno, Peru
* Corresponding author
1. Description
Chilahuala to Lake Poopo. Laca Jahuira River connects Lake
Poopo with Lake Salar of Coipasa.
Drought and fl oods are the natural hazards that have the
greatest environmental, social and economic impact on the
The TDPS system is located in the altiplano region. Its
Bolivian-Peruvian high plateau (altiplano) which includes the
geographical limits are well defi ned by mountain systems.
hydrological basin of Lake Titicaca, the Desaguadero River, The Andes Range divides into two main ranges near Abra de la
Lake Poopo and the Salt Lake of
Coipasa, collectively designated
by the acronym TDPS (Figure 1).
Through good management,
the system can be regulated for
the benefi t of the people who
live in the region.
1.1 Territorial
Scope
Areas covered in this report
include the hydrological
basins of Lake Titicaca, the
Desaguadero River, and Lakes
Poopo and Salar de Coipasa
(TDPS system). The TDPS
system is located in parts
of Peru, Bolivia and Chile,
spread between latitude
14°03' to 20°00' S and between
longitude 66°21' to 71°07' W.
The total area of the system is
143,900 km2 which includes the
sub-region Puno in Peru and
the cities of La Paz and Oruro
in Bolivia. Characterisitic of
the individual components of
the TDPS system are presented
in Table 1. The Desaguadero
River comprises the following
main sections: from km 0 to
km 63 are wide plains, from
the international bridge to
Nazacara; from km 63 to km
226 is a mountainous area,
from Nazacara to Chilahuala;
and from km 226 to km 398
there are fl ood plains, from
Figure 1. The Lake Titicaca/Desuguadero River/Lake Poopo/Lake Salar of Coipasa Basin.

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Raya, in southern Peru: the Occidental Range and the Oriental
and Uyuni. During the two most recent periods of glacier
or Royal Range. The two ranges delimit the western and growth and abundant precipitation, two more lakes were
eastern portions of the altiplano. The Oriental range separates
formed, Minchin and Tauca, 30,000 and 10,000 years ago.
the TDPS system from the neighboring basins of Amazonia
What is now Lake Titicaca developed at the end of the Tauca
and Pilcomayo. The northern limit is the Carabaya range, that
phase.
separates the TDPS system from the basin of the Madre de
Dios River. In the south, the lnter-Salar mountains separate the
1.3 Geomorphology
TDPS system from the basin of Lake Salar of Uyuni.
The TDPS system constitutes a unifi ed geomorphological
The altiplano comprises a series of plains, mountain areas and
system, where there are distinct plains, valleys and
a plateau called Puna. It has the characteristics of a closed
depressions, hills and plateaus of moderate slope, and
basin. The highest point is Mount Sajama, which is 6,542 m
mountains and water surfaces. One-third of the area of the
asl, and the lowest point is Lake Salar of Coipasa, 3,653 m asl.
basin is occupied by mountains. Of this area, more than half
are rounded mountains of volcanic origin. Colluvium deposits
Because of the high altitude of the plateau, the climate is which form foothills, moraine accumulations and river deposits
cold at night (8-10°C year-round average) and is moderate occupy approximately 39% of the system. Another third of the
during the daytime. Annual precipitation varies from 200 mm
area is occupied by typical geomorphological units of the
in the south to 1,400 mm in the northern part of the system,
altiplano: plains of lake bed origin, depressions, and terraces.
with the highest precipitation over Lake Titicaca. The thermal
Particularly important are the wetlands, which are depressions
regulating effect of the lake makes possible the development
where there is vegetation of great ecological importance.
of many species of plants and animals and the establishing of
indigenous communities.
The hills and plateaus are low mountain chains localized in the
interior of the TDPS, which resulted from tectonic movements
1.2
Formation of the TDPS System
and are constituted in general, by sedimentary rocks. For
practical purposes they form a single group and occupy almost
The Lake Titicaca we know now is a remnant of what was the
a fi fth of the region. Finally, it is necessary to mention the
mega-lake Mantaro, which once covered most of the area of
permanent water surfaces constituted by the lakes: Titicaca,
the altiplano at an altitude of almost 4,000 m asl. The age
Poopo, Uru Uru and other minor ones, which represent less
of this lake is not clearly established, but it is thought to than one-tenth of the region.
have originated in the Quaternary Period. Due to the intense
evaporation effects which are common in the altiplano, this
1.4 Ecosystems
lake slowly reduced in size. The remnant of the Mantaro Lake
was reactivated by the Caluyo glaciations which gave place
The regional ecosystems of the TDPS basin can be classifi ed in
to Lake Cabana to an altitude of 3,900 m asl. A consequence
three large groups: Puna, Mountain and Aquatic.
of the retreat of the glaciers was a drought which dried the
immense mass of water of the lake. The remnants of Lake
The Puna ecosystem is developed from the shore of the lakes
Cabana created lakes Ballivian and Escara. This phase reached
at an altitude of 3,800-4,000 m asl. The area is located in
its end because the rivers La Paz in the north and Pilcomayo in
the region called Puna, in which there are several ecological
the south crossed the oriental range of the Andes and captured
groups and landscapes: Humid Puna, Dry Puna, High Andean
part of the altiplano basin. This meant that the waters of Lake
Semi-Desert Puna, High Andean Desert Grassland, Halophytic
Ballivian drained toward the basins of the La Plata River and
Prairie, High Andean Woodland and Big lakes of the Puna
the Amazon River. Gradually two masses of water formed one
(micro-foliated forest) (Ribera et al. 1994).
to the north and another to the south, connected by what is
now the Desaguadero River. In a similar way, the desiccation
The Humid Puna ecosystem is defi ned by average annual rainfall
process resulted in the formation of the salt lakes of Coipasa
of 600-1,000 mm, concentrated in the months of November to
Table 1. Characteristics of the TDPS System.
Catchment Area
Lake Area
Average
Average
Average Slope
Length (km)
(km2)
(km2)
Altitude (m)
Volume (km3)
(%)
Lake Titicaca
56,270
8,400
3,810
930
Desaguadero
29,843
398
0.45
River
Lake Poopo
24,829
3,191
3,686
Laca Jahuira
130
0.2
River
Lake Salar of
32,948
2,225
3,657
Coipasa
378 Lake
Titicaca

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March. This rainfall is distributed in a topographical pattern that
species do not form a continuous stratum of vegetation, but
is more or less uniform between altitudes of 3,000 and 4,200
they appear like stains of dispersed cushions in the plain.
m asl. The vegetation is characterized by the presence of hard
gramineous disposed in clusters (Stipa ichu, Festuca spp.) and
High Andean Woodland is characteristically bounded by
low resinous bushes as well as several species of Baccharis.
Sajama National Park, where the micro-foliated open trees that
The mountain ranges are characterized by the presence of low
reach the highest elevations in the world are located, with the
bushes as the khoa (Satureja boliviana), Calceolaria parvifolia,
presence of the keñua (Polylepis tarapacana), accompanied by
Mutisia orbignyana, several species of Senecio, Adesmia
tholas (Baccharis incarum and Parastrephia lepidophylla), as
mirafl orensis, and Tetraglochin cristatum. The llamas (Lama
well as gramineous as the Festuca and Calamagrostis genus.
lama) stands out among the fauna, Felis jacobite, small lizards
Among the important wild fauna, the presence of the vicuña
(Liolaemus multiformis), snakes (Tachimenes peruvianus)
(Vicugna vicugna) and the suri (Pteronegmia pennata) are
and among the birds (Geositta punensis, G. cunicularia,
highlighted.
Muscisaxicola rufi vertex,
Chloeophaga melanoptera,
Phalcobaenus megalopterus).
Wetlands correspond to herbaceous formations that are
present as a tapestry of some centimeters high, dominated
The Dry Puna ecosystem belongs to the southern part of by species of the genus Oxicloe and Distichia and other
the Humid Puna in the central highland, from Sica Sica and
grasses (CD-BOLIVIA 1997). These are ecosystems that
Patacamaya toward the south, adjacent to the Desaguadero
are associated with bodies of water (rivers, streams and
River and Poopo Lake, to the vicinity of Quillacas in Oruro,
springs) of the whole High Plateau. They are very important
is characterized by progressive conditions of aridity toward
as water reservoirs, especially in areas like the High Plateau
the south. The annual line of 300 mm precipitation marks the
where the hydrological defi cit conditions are one of the main
south limit of this unit.
environmental restrictions. These areas are valuable because
they are considered intensive shepherding zones for camelids
Mountain ranges and volcanic material plateaus are (llamas and alpacas).
physiographically highlighted with saline and sandy blooming.
The mountainous area from the inter-mountain ranges The main aquatic ecosystems are the rivers and lakes of the
is uneven by the presence of a series of temporary and TDPS. Among the lakes the most important are: Titicaca,
permanent water courses. At the base of the mountain range
Poopo, Uru Uru, Coipasa Marsh and the lagoons of Soledad
a great piedmont deposit of wide surface has been formed
and Arapa. Among the largest rivers are Ramis, Ilave, Coata,
where agricultural activities are developed.
Huancane, Suches, Tihuanacu and Keka in the Titicaca basin,
and Desaguadero, Mauri, Marques, Irpi Irpi, Umala, Ketho,
Temperature has an average yearly range of 8-11°C. The Challa Jahuira, Lauca, and Laca Jahuira in the non-Titicaca part
pluvial rainfall in the region diminishes toward the south, with
of the TDPS basin.
registrations that go from 400 mm to 300 mm at the southern
limit.
The aquatic vegetation present on the banks of Lake Titicaca
is a marshy vegetation characterized by the presence of the
Vegetation is characterized by the presence of shrub totora (Schoenoplectus californicus ssp. and Juncus arcticus
formations (Tholares) of very resinous micro-foliated leaves.
ssp.), Elodea potamogeton and Myriophyllum quitensis. In
Species of Baccharis incarum are pointed out, as well as the deepest parts, there are several species of Chara and
Baccharis boliviensis, Parastrehia lepidophylla and Fabiana
Potamogeton.
densa. In some cases, these shrub formations reach up to
a height of 2.5 m. On some less cold microclimate hillsides,
In Lake Poopo, salinity conditions are high. Its shallow average
some cactus of the Oreocereus genus or cushion type such as
depth of 2.5 m means that species that cover 70% of the
the Lobivia sp. prosper.
area. Chara popoensis, Potamogetum strictus, Myriophyllum
elatinoides and Schoenoplectus californicus spp. are
Typical animals are the quirquincho (Chaetophractus nationi),
common.
mice (Auliscomys bolivienis, Ctenomys opimus) and birds such
as the suri (Pterocnemia pennata) and Buteo pocilochroos,
The fauna in both lakes is characterized by the presence of
Geositta punensis and Muscisaxicola juninensis.
ducks (Anas puna), A. fl avirostris, A. georgica, Rollandia
micropterum, Plegadis ridgwayi, chocas (Fulica gigantea,
Halophytic prairie is not a zonal unit but is represented in
Fulica americana) and fl amingos (Phoenicoparrus sp.).
several regions of the Dry Puna and Humid Puna. It is found
adjacent to the Desaguadero River with scarce slope, composed
1.5
Human History and Culture
by quaternary silts of saline soils. The vegetation is adapted to
high concentrations of salts. Examples are the cauchi (Suaeda
The History of the TDPS region can be divided in three epochs:
fruticosa var crassifolia), Hymenoxys, Salicornia pulvinata,
Before the Spanish, Colonial and Republican.
Distichlis humilis, Anthobrryum triandrum, Parastrephia
lucida, Triglochin maritima and Muhlenbergia fastigiata. These

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
379

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1.5.1 Before the Spanish
landlords. This system of large haciendas remained until the
The evolution of the pre-Hispanic cultures in the area can application of the laws of agrarian reform of 1953 in Bolivia and
be divided in fi ve periods: Archaic, Formative, Classic, 1969 in Peru.
Postclassical and Inca.
These centuries of history have developed hostility and
The Archaic period, from 8000-2000 BC, provides the fi rst
distrust in the indigenous population of the TDPS. Open market
evidence of human occupation of the territory, from small policies have reduced the prices of agricultural products. Also,
groups of hunters and nomads who initiated the progressive
the efforts of recent governments to provide infrastructure
occupation of the region. These groups are identifi ed through
and services for the benefi t of the cities have depressed the
stone instruments which were utilized in various chores, as
situation in rural areas even more. Nevertheless, there exists a
well as remains of paintings found in the walls of the caves.
great desire for a better living among the people of these areas
which, if properly directed, could produce good results in the
The Formative period, from 1200 BC-133 AD, was initiated with
future.
the appearance of the fi rst sedentary communities, among
them Tiahunacu I and II, Qaluyo and Chiripa, which were As a result of improved communications infrastructure, from
dedicated to agriculture, and to a lesser degree, the rising of
the point of view of ethnic characterization, the TDPS region is
native animals.
divided into three large areas: a Quechua zone in the north, an
Aymara zone in the center, and a Quechua zone in the south.
The Classic period, from 133-1200 AD, is divided in three There also exists a population of Uro distributed near Lake
cultural horizons: Tiahuanacu III (133-375 AD), Tiahunacu IV
Titicaca in the Puno area of Peru, and at the Desaguadero River
(375-715 AD) and Tiahunacu V or Expansive (715-1200 AD). In
and Poopo Lake in Bolivia. In general, the population of the
this period intensive agriculture and irrigation of the parcels
altiplano is indigenous. The mixed and occidental population
were developed. Commerce was intensifi ed, the society was
is found in the cities and large towns.
stratifi ed and the state was organized. Artisan and pottery
works were developed and constructed with mud bricks and
1.6 Socio-economic
Aspects
great temples and military fortifi cations were constructed at
the city of Tiahuanacu.
1.6.1 Distribution and Urbanization of the TDPS
Population
The Postclassic or Post-Tiwanacu period, from 1200-1300 AD,
From data of the last census, the total population of the TDPS
corresponds to the period of local states, represented by the
is 2,781,862 inhabitants, of whom 1,636,174 live in urban
Colla and Aymara civilizations, which extended all the way to
centers and 1,151,494 in rural areas. Of the total, 1,079,849
Cusco in Peru and Chuquisaca in Bolivia. The most important
persons live in the Peru and 1,158,937 in Bolivia.
Aymara communities in the altiplano were the Pacajes along
the Desaguadero River and the Charkas of Oruro.
The principal urban centers in the Peruvian sector are Puno
(96,827 inhabitants) and Juliaca (172,576); in the Bolivian
The Inca period, from 1430­1532 AD, was dedicated to sector are El Alto (506,792 inhabitants) and Oruro (183,422).
conquering the adjacent civilizations such as the Aymara. The percentage of population in rural areas in the total TDPS
The Incas expanded their dominion in the 15th century to has been decreasing. In the Peruvian sector, it has decreased
Chuquisaca and Tarija, now Bolivian states. Later on, Huayna
from 68.2% in 1981 to 60.8% in 1993. In the Bolivian sector,
Kapac conquered the Cochabamba valley in Bolivia. The Incas
the rural population of the TDPS represents 42.7% of the total,
exploited the mineral wealth of the region, took advantage of
while in 1976 it was 52.4% in the state of La Paz and 48.9% in
the established raising farms of llamas and alpacas and other
Oruro.
resources of the area.
With the exception of the city of El Alto, Bolivia, the rate of
1.5.2 Colonial
Period
population growth is less than the national average. In the
The situation changed with the arrival of the Spanish in 1532.
sub-region of Puno, Peru, the rate for 1981-93 was 1.6%
The land was divided in encomiendas and repartimientos compared to a nationwide average of 2.1%. The same trend
(where the second is part of the fi rst). Precious metals were
occurred in La Paz and Oruro in Bolivia, where rates for the
exploited as a priority with heavy use of manpower. The period 1976-92 were 1.66% and 0.58% respectively compared
Spanish introduced sheep and cattle, using the llamas as pack
to 2.03% for the country as a whole. Growth rates in rural areas
animals to transport minerals to the ports in the Pacifi c Ocean.
are even lower: 0.7% on the Peruvian side, and 0.53% in La Paz
A political administrative organization around urban centers
and 1.6% in Oruro. On the Peruvian side, the rural population
was imposed.
remained stationary in the 1980s, while in the Bolivian sector
the population diminished and is declining due to migration.
1.5.3 Republican
Period,
1821-Present
Migration is mainly responsible for the urban population
With the liberation of the territories from the Spanish rule,
growth. In general, there is a tendency for people to move to
incremental expropriation of the indigenous communities' land
the cities and towns.
resulted in the formation of large properties owned by new
380 Lake
Titicaca

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1.6.2 Living Conditions and Poverty
This situation was somewhat improved in recent years. Sewage
The TDPS zone has the poorest people in both Bolivia and
service in Puno reached 55.6% of the urban area and 31.1% in
Peru. In the Peruvian sector, 39.8% of the population lives in
the rural sector, for an average of 41% in the sub-region.
poverty and 33.7% lives in extreme poverty, totalling 73.5% of
the population who have not met their basic necessities. This
1.6.4 Health and Morbidity
situation is even worse for the rural population, where 41.1%
The principal health characteristics in the TDPS zone are
lives in poverty conditions and 42.4% in extreme poverty, elevated morbidity and mortality in infants and mothers. Child
making a total of 83.5%. In Bolivia from statistics of 1976,
mortality is 89.9 per thousand in the Puno subregion, 95 per
69.8% of the people in the rural areas are below the poverty
thousand in La Paz and 183 per thousand in Oruro. These
line and 28.7% fall below the line of extreme poverty. In 1988
values place the region among the highest infant mortality
the statistics indicated that the population below the poverty
in Latin America, compared for example with values such
line were 67.4% with 31.8% in extreme poverty, indicating no
as 94 in Haiti, 61 in Ecuador and 59 in Nicaragua. There is a
improvement from what was shown in 1976-1988. On the other
high incidence of infectious respiratory and gastrointestinal
side, a study made by the Bolivian Ministry of Rural Affairs
disease.
(MACA) and the JUNAC, following what was done by CEPAL in
Mexico, found that in Oruro 64% of the population live under
1.6.5 Education
the subsistence line, 14% in conditions of subsistence, 12% in
The levels of education in the TDPS are remarkably low,
stationary conditions and only 10% over this line.
especially in the rural zones. For example global analphabetic
knowledge in the subregion of Puno is 22.2% whereas in the
1.6.3 Employment, Revenues and Housing
rural Peruvian sector it is 29% and 26.1% in the Bolivian sector.
In recent years, the TDPS has recorded a growth of the These numbers are elevated in comparison with the national
economically active population. In 1990, the growth was 39.2%
average in Peru of 11.1%. Nevertheless it should be recognized
in the Peruvian sector. It is estimated that the economically
that the analphabetic knowledge declined from 50% and 40%
active population in the sub-region of Puno grew 83% between
in the past decades to the present levels.
1972 and 1990. In Bolivia this increment was 40% between
1976 and 1988 in the state of La Paz.
1.6.6 Productive
Activities
The primary sector continues to be the principal sector of
The economically active population is largely concentrated the economy in the two countries. In Bolivia this sector
in agricultural activities. It is estimated that in 1989 in the
represented 24.7% of the population, while in Peru the primary
sub-region of Puno, 59.8% of the population were dedicated
sector is less important, with 10.9% of the population.
to agriculture and cattle raising, followed by participation in
the services fi eld (14.5%), commerce (10.6%), industry (7.8%),
High levels of contracted debt and services have reduced
mining (2.47%) and construction (2.42%). In the same way in
saving levels and created social inversion. The most deprived
Bolivia in the states of La Paz and Oruro in 1988, 72.8% of the
areas in the two countries are the ones in the TDPS region,
economically active population was dedicated to agricultural
where there are fewer options to receive credit. These
activities, followed by 7.09% in commerce, 4.3% in mining priorities are preventing the solution of the chronic problems
and 3.4% in the industry. But due to the poverty situation, the
of the under-developed regions and increasing the poverty and
economically active population has been diminishing, and in
deterioration of the environment.
its place commerce and services have grown. The principal
sources of employment are the small family economic units
In agriculture, animal raising and fi shing sectors are very
which absorb laborers and members of the families involved as
important in the economy of the region. In the Peruvian sector
part of the business.
of the TDPS, animal raising is predominant, while in the Bolivian
sector, agriculture predominates. It is estimated that the area
In part of the TDPS, the standard of living is one of the lowest
dedicated to agriculture in the Peruvian sector was 242,000
in the two countries, with prevalent malnutrition among ha, of which in the last 12 years crops were harvested from
children. Income in rural zones is low. For example, the medium
117,000 ha (107,000 ha without irrigation and 10,000 ha with
monthly income in Puno was US$57 in 1987, which is 30% of
irrigation). In the Bolivian sector, the extension is estimated as
the income in urban areas and 40% of the national average
385,000 ha of which in the last 12 years crops were harvested
income. Between 1975 and 1990, due to infl ation, the minimum
on an average of 165,000 ha (150,000 ha without irrigation and
income lost 42% of its buying capacity in Puno.
15,000 ha with irrigation).
Housing is a good indicator of the standard of living. In the
The principal product in the TDPS is potatoes, which account
rural sectors of the two countries, most of the housing is rustic,
for 58% of gross income. Potatoes are followed by barley,
made with adobe, mud or stone walls, with straw or corrugated
oats and alfalfa, which represent altogether 22.1% of the
iron roofs and dirt fl oors. There are no services such as sewers,
production. Other products of some importance are quinua
lights and garbage disposal. The situation is a little better in
(5.9%), barley in grain (5.7%) and a tubercle named oca
the small towns, but not by much. Services are concentrated in
(3.4%).
the cities and large towns, where coverage ranges up to 60%.

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
381

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The technological levels of production are low, characterized
In the Bolivian sector of the TDPS, mining has signifi cant
by a heavy use of the land, especially in the area around the
importance in the national production, but there has been a
lake; scarce utilization of machinery, fertilizers, pesticides and
decline in its contribution to the gross domestic product (GDP).
improved seeds; and defi cient administration. This situation
The principal mineral products are zinc, lead, tin, silver and
is related to the low educational level, the lack of services
gold. Mining is principally dedicated to the exploitation of rich
and technical assistance, and inadequate production and poly-metallic beds of the region, specially gold and tin. In the
commercialization. Consequently, there are low crop yields area there is also exploitation of non-metallic products such as
and low production for the farmers.
phosphates, salt and construction gypsum.
Animal raising, rather than agriculture, is better developed in
1.8.2 Industry
the Peruvian sector. The principal exploited species are cattle,
Industrial activity, particularly agro-industry, is very small in
sheep, alpaca, llama, pork and chickens. In addition, there
the TDPS. In the Peruvian sector, manufacturing contributes
are exploited cuyes (native rabbits), rabbits, and other minor
8.7% of the sub-regional GDP and occupied 7.8% of the
species. From existing investigations, the average rural family
economically active population. The majority of the industrial
in the Bolivian sector possesses 2 cows, 24 sheep, a burro, 23
factories are in Juliaca, the city at the center of industrial
pigs, 3-4 chickens, 6-8 cuyes, and a total of about ten alpacas
activity in the sub-region. The most important activity is textile
and/or llamas.
manufacturing. Other industries of importance are refreshment
beverages and nonmetallic industries, which together absorb
Fishing is important in lakes Titicaca and Poopo. In Lake Titicaca,
90% of the labor force. In addition, there are a number of small
fi shing is practiced in the coastal area. There are around 5,400
establishments of artesian production which occupy more
fi shermen in the Peruvian sector and approximately 5,300 than 30,000 persons dedicated to the textile process of the
fi shermen in the Bolivian sector of the lake basin. The principal
alpaca fi ber, which is an important product of nontraditional
species for fi shing are: karachi and ispi among the native exportation. In Bolivia, it is noteworthy that the major part of
species and pejerrey among the introduced species. Trout was
industrial production is done out of the territory of the TDPS.
very important in the past but now it accounts for only 0.1%
of the total extraction. It is exploited more in fl oating cages
1.9 Tourism
and fi sh farms. The more commercial species is pejerrey. The
annual production is variable; from some statistics in Peru, it is
For tourism and recreation, the region has an attractive socio-
6,290 metric tons and in Bolivia about 200 metric tons.
cultural and folkloric appeal. Nevertheless, tourism is poorly
developed. In the Peruvian sector, important centers are
1.7
Forest Production and Floral Resources
located in the cities of Puno and Juliaca, which have better
hotel infrastructure. These cities are the base for the tourist
The actual forest production is of very low economic visits to other centers such as July, Lampa, Huancane and
importance although there is future potential in trees and Azangaro.
bushes. Nevertheless, there is intensive use of bushes for the
production of fuel wood for domestic use.
The city of Puno constitutes the major center of regional
attraction, second after Cusco in Peru. In the Bolivian sector,
Of the aquatic fl oral resources, there are two species of the important center is La Paz, a city that has a large and varied
economic value: llachu with 3 varieties, Elodea potamogetum
hotel infrastructure. From there, visitors go to other minor
(yana or chancco llachu), Myriophyllum elatinoides (hinojo or
centers like Copacabana, Tiahuanacu and Oruro.
waca llachu) and Patamogetum strictu (huichi huichi or chilca
llachu) and the totora reeds Schoenoplectus tatora (green
Altogether, the Titicaca region forms part of a tourism circuit
totora). These species are the base of the animal feeding and
which takes in the southeastern part of Peru (Cusco-Puno)
are in low demand for human food and construction material.
and the west-central part of Bolivia. Consequently, tourism
development must be considered on a bi-national scale.
1.8
Mining and Industry
Ecotourism is potentially important, but it will be necessary
beforehand to defi ne and implement a system of protected
1.8.1 Mining
areas that are well planned with minimum facilities for national
Mining activity in the Peruvian sector is done at a moderate
and international visitors.
technical and equipment level, with relatively important
production volumes. There are a number of important micro-
Eco-ethno tourism should ensure the maintenance of cultural
enterprises or individuals who employ rustic technology. The
authenticity and biological diversity. The participation of local
principal mining products are tin, silver, copper, lead, zinc and
population will allow the ethnic cultural re-appraisal, as well as
gold. Besides metallic mining exploitation, there is mining of
the strengthening of the identity of the people (Vargas 2002).
non-metallic materials such as carbon, salt and construction
gypsum done for the cement industry,
382 Lake
Titicaca

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2.
Threats to the Sustainable Use of the Lake
these wells will become operational in the future. A positive
consequence would be the lowering of the currently high water
The important problems of the TDPS system can be grouped
table, therefore decreasing evaporation. But operating deep
into four main categories: physical problems caused by wells would have to be subject to control and regulations in
extreme weather events; problems derived from the defi cient
order to guarantee that aquifers are not depleted.
regulation of water resources; environmental degradation; and
problems derived from socio-economic conditions.
The high basins of the TDPS system have numerous humid
depressions, both natural and anthropogenic, close to the
2.1 Physical
Problems
rivers and lakes; they are called bofedales. These humid areas
play an important role in the system; they maintain valuable
Climatic conditions of the altiplano region are characterized
animal and plant resources, they provide pastures for animal
by a large degree of variability and the occurrence of extreme
production, and they play an important role in the hydrological
events. Frosts are a common problem in the region: in some
balance. Uncontrolled exploitation of the groundwater can
southern areas there are more than 300 days per year with
have many negative impacts in these important humid areas.
frost (up to 313 days in Pamphuata). Freezing rain is also
common, especially in northern areas in high altitudes. 2.3 Environmental
Degradation
Quillisani, at 4,600 m asl, experienced an average of 63 days
per year with severe freezing rain during 1971-79. These severe
One of the most import problems of the altiplano region is soil
extreme events limit traditional agricultural production.
erosion. Over a forth of the total area, amounting to 38,283
km2, is highly vulnerable to erosion. There are three main
Floods are becoming increasingly signifi cant in the region. causes of erosion: water, anthropic and eolith actions.
Increased average rainfall during the period 1984-90 produced
an increase of water supplied into Lake Titicaca and caused
Current erosion levels and possible further intensifi cation of
severe fl oods affecting over 95,000 ha around the lake. In erosion problems threaten agriculture in the region. Due to
1986-87 the problem was further increased. Floods and unfavorable climatic conditions in large portions of the region,
droughts have caused serious damage to the TDPS system and
the land available for agriculture is limited to an area of about
its economy. Floods during 1985-86 caused estimated damage
1.5 million ha in the northwest altiplano, at an altitude of less
of US$125 million (US$41.2 million in the agricultural sector
than 4,000 m asl and average precipitation greater than 500
and US$83.8 million to infrastructure). Due to the increased
mm/yr. A direct consequence of erosion is the infl ow of solid
water fl ow of the Desaguadero River, major fl oods have material to rivers, altering their morphology and equilibrium.
occurred along the river, especially around lakes Uru-Uru and
In extreme cases, large quantities of solid material can alter
Poopo, affecting the city of Oruro.
the rivers or be the cause of lake formations, as happened in
lakes Uru Uru and Soledad. In other cases, solid materials can
The severe drought of 1982-83 caused damage of US$128 be the cause of lake destruction, as is currently happening at
million (US$105 million in crop production and US$23 million
Lake Poopo.
in animal production). The 1989-90 drought caused damages
mainly to crop production with estimated damages of US$88.5
Lake Titicaca and its subsidiaries have salinity levels of less
million.
than 1 g/L. The fi rst portion of the Desaguadero River, up to La
Joya, has salinity levels of 1 to 2 g/L. From La Joya, the salinity
2.2
Problems Derived from the Defi cient Regulation
level is over 2 g/L due to the infl uence of the subsidiaries.
of the Water Resources
Salinity levels are further increased along the river. The
southern parts of Lake Poopo are extremely saline with levels
Adequate regulation of water resources in the altiplano is upon to 100 g/L.
essential for both economic activities and natural resources.
The main water body is Lake Titicaca, with a surface of 8,400
Chemical, urban and industrial pollution is signifi cant in the
km2 and a volume over 930 km3. Although the size of the
TDPS system, in both the rivers and sediments. The basin
lake appears to guarantee water supply to the area, large of Lake Titicaca is relatively unpolluted by heavy metals,
problems arising from the poor regulation of its waters and
although Puno is moderately polluted.
the general TDPS system (the average water balance levels),
make it necessary to further increase the infl ow up to 14 m3/s.
The fi rst portion of the Desaguadero River, up to La Joya
The available current hydrological resources do not meet the
is moderately polluted by cadmium, arriving from the
demands in the system. Therefore it is essential to optimise
area of confl uence with the Mauri River. The portion of the
resources in order to minimize deterioration and other Desaguadero River from La Joya, and lakes Poopo and Uru-
negative impacts.
Uru are highly polluted by magnesium and heavy metals (Cd,
As, Co, Ni, Mn, Sb, Cu, Zn and Fe.). Sediments in the Coata
Currently, groundwater aquifers are not generally used. This
River and in Puno are polluted with Cu, Cd, Mg, Zn, Ni and Co.
is partly because a large portion of the deep wells are not
Sediments pollution is not thought to be a problem with other
operating due to lack of equipment and fuel. It is likely that
rivers or Lake Titicaca.

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
383

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Natural ecosystems are endangered, resulting from the of vegetation formations. In many cases, the wetlands have
increased chemical, urban and industrial pollution. Heavy dried out.
metal residues (Cd, Ni, As and Hg) are found in fi sh in Puno.
These toxic products have induced malformation in fi sh from
2.4.2 Introduction of Exotic Species into Water Bodies
Lake Poopo.
The introduction of exotic species to the basin of Lake Titicaca
such as trout (Salmo truta) during the 1940s and of the pejerrey
The main sources of pollution by urban residual waters are the
(Basilichtys bonaerensis) in 1969 to Lake Poopo has created
large cities of Puno, El Alto and Oruro, and to a lesser extent
competition with the autochthonous fi sh fauna to the point
the towns of Juliaca, Ilave, Juli, Huancane and Desaguadero,
that it has caused the extinction of Orestias cuvieri (Willwock
although the problem is present in all towns of the altiplano.
1994). According to Loubens (1989), the death toll caused
by infestations to the Orestias agassii due to the protozoan
2.4 Socio-economic
Factors
parasite Ichtyophitirius multifi liis that in 1988 affected 70%
of the annual native fi shing was related to exotic species. This
The economic recession that has affected Bolivia and Peru had direct effects on the socio-economy of the Aymara and Uru
for the last decade has consequences in growth rates that
indigenous populations that live off the fi shing.
were low and even negative in some years. This recession has
occurred with more force in the TDPS and puts heavy pressure
The ecological consequences of the introduction of exotic
on the natural resources, especially soils, animal life and fi shes in relation to birds have not been investigated yet, but it
forests. To this situation should be added the losses caused
is presumed that there are impacts from the disappearance of
to agriculture and animal raising due to severe droughts and
native fi shes that provide food for many rare species of birds.
fl oods.
2.4.3 Fragmented Agricultural Parcels
In coming years it is anticipated that the rural population In some areas of the altiplano, the excessive fragmentation
will have a tendency to remain stable in the TDPS, while the
of the land where rural families possess small and dispersed
urban population could double. In the Bolivian sector, the rural
fragmented parcels, constitutes a diffi culty for economic
population will continue the current decreasing trend and the
management. This system of property and exploitation
strong growth present in the urban population will continue
causes a great loss of effort and resources and is associated
especially due to the infl uence of the city of El Alto. In the
with high levels of poverty, constituting in a social problem.
Peruvian sector, the rural population has a tendency toward
Consequently, it is important to help the formation of larger
a slight growth, without considering the possibility that it will
productive units, through the creation of agrarian associations
also decrease as has happened in Bolivia, while the urban
or other forms of organizations.
population will continue to grow at a rapid rate.
2.4.4 Economic Capacity of the TDPS
The behavior of the rural economy, based on analysis of The region of the TDPS is rich in resources for mining activities,
land and water use and demographic evolution of the TDPS,
fi sh for fi shing and soils for agriculture. Important resources
indicates changes are likely in the area of agriculture, animal
are being commercialized in the zones of economic integration
production stabilization, organization forms, and fi shing
like MERCOSUR or the Andean Community. These resources
activities.
should be adequately and effi ciently handled with the
objective of reaching a better competitive advantage and wider
2.4.1 Stabilization of Animal Production
benefi t to the TDPS population.
The introduction of animal species, particularly sheep and
cattle, has caused damage to natural pastures. Compaction
3.
The Lake Titicaca Authority (ALT)
of soil by cattle and intensive grazing by sheep have a serious
impact on the environment. Nevertheless, there is a growing
In the joint Presidential Declaration of 1955, the presidents of
population of llamas and alpacas because of their commercial
Bolivia and Peru stated that because both countries have an
value and the growing interest of the communities in the indivisible condominium on the Lake Titicaca's waters, they
exploitation of their meat and fi ber. This interest should be
would be able to utilize them only by means of expressed
endorsed by government institutions as well as private ones.
agreement by both parties. They ordered the preparation of
a "Preliminary Study for the Use of its Waters" to a Binational
It is calculated that in some High Plateau communities, there
Commission.
are animal overloads that reach 30%. This value is in direct
relationship to the erosion of the soil (Jordan 1983). Satellite
In 1957 an agreement for such an end was signed, defi ning
images indicate that in the High Plateau region of Oruro and
such condominium as indivisible and exclusive, agreeing that
Potosí there are some 5,000 km2 of sand banks caused by
the parties must distribute the benefi ts of its use in equal
overgrazing and agricultural activities. Excessive numbers of
shares. The agreement established compensation criteria in
livestock have also resulted in problems in humid grasslands
case there are bigger benefi ts for one country compared to the
and wetlands that have caused the degradation of these types
other.
384 Lake
Titicaca

---

The Peruvian Congress ratifi ed these agreements in 1957, compliance with the Master Plan, the following actions have
while the Bolivian Congress ratifi ed them at the end of 1986.
been performed with their respective investments:
It must also be mentioned that parallel to the ratifi cation
of agreements, in a separate but coordinated way, both 3.1.1 Binational
Work
governments carried out investigations and preliminary ·
Regulation Floodgates of Lake Titicaca. Executed
studies on the hydrologic balance of the lake.
between 1998 and 2001: 100%. Total cost:
US$7,200,000.
With such intention, in 1984, the Presidents of the Peru,
Fernando Belaúnde, and of Bolivia, Hernán Siles, requested
·
Dredging of Desaguadero River in its initial section.
the United Nations to provide technical assistance to execute
Executed between 2000 and 2002: material removed
a hydro-meteorological study of the Lake Titicaca basin. This
1,500,000 m3 (40% of the project goal). Investment cost:
was to be used as a base for deciding the rational and multiple
US$4,800,000, to be executed between 2003 and 2005:
use of the waters for the benefi t of both nations.
60%. Total cost: US$6,700,000.
An agreement for studies on Lake Titicaca resources was 3.1.2 Environment
Management
implemented in 1986, when both countries fi led for European
· Environmental
zonifi cation: Agreements with OEA
Union cooperation to fi nance and execute those studies. This
and UNEP (PNUMA); Elaboration of 12 Thematic
was triggered by fl ooding that occurred in that year. This
Maps at 1:250,000 scale. Integration of maps through
cooperation was made concrete around 1991 and 1993 through
mathematical models.
the elaboration of a Binational Master Plan for the Control and
Prevention of Floods and for the Use of Resources of the TDPS
·
Lake Titicaca's Contamination Study: Agreements
Hydraulic System.
with IAEA; Agreement with the Corporación Andina
de Fomento-(CAF); Sampling cruisers for use at the
Both countries approved the Binational Master Plan in 1995.
lake; Analysis at biological, chemical and heavy metal
The plan covers issues related to the use of resources in the
laboratories.
whole TDPS basin rather than just Lake Titicaca, because the
system as a whole is narrowly cross-linked with high risk of
·
Facilities for Sewage Treatment: Sanitary sewage system
hydrologic vulnerability. The plan also considers measures for
in Desaguadero; Treatment Plants in Copacabana and
fl ood control and prevention on the area around Lake Titicaca,
Desaguadero.
for environment preservation, and for the conservation of the
system's biodiversity, and recommends the establishment of a
3.2
Binational Biodiversity Conservation Project
watershed authority which executes the Master Plan actions.
In 1994 Bolivia and Peru through their chancelleries applied
In this context, the creation and constitution of the for a joint petition to the United Nations Global Environment
Autonomous Binational Authority for the TDPS Hydraulic Fund (GEF) for the development of a Biodiversity Conservation
System was approved through an exchange of Diplomatic Project in the TDPS basin. Between 1995 and 1997, through a
Notes between 1992 and 1996, which defi ned its statutes and
consultancy contracted by the United Nations, the project's
its economic and fi nancial management regulations. This was
proposal was developed. In 1998 the agreement for the project
ratifi ed by the Congresses of both Bolivia and Peru between
was signed by the Bolivian and Peruvian governments and the
1997 and 1999.
United Nations.
Furthermore, a second phase has started in the application of
The agreement with the UNDP/GEF contains provisions for:
binational agreements through permanent consultations with
the interested communities (mostly aboriginal). This phase ·
Pilot programs in reed beds (totorales), peat bogs
considers international agreements related to the issues such
(bofedales) and thola plant habitats;
as those covered by the International Labor Organization (ILO)
·
Rearing in semi-captivity of suri, pisaca, giant frogs and
and the Biodiversity Conservation including participation of
native fi sh species;
the local indigenous communities in decision making and the
·
Promotion and training of native communities;
execution of works which are mostly intended to contribute to
· Hydro-biological
resources;
economic and social development of the Bolivian and Peruvian
·
Evaluation of the pelagic mass of the lake; and,
altiplano.
·
Repopulating of native species.
3.1
Principal Activities Executed by ALT
3.2.1 Strategy of the Project
The project had a cost-benefi t policy geared to deal with the
Since the installation of the Binational Autonomous Authority
global loss of the TDPS biodiversity. This was complementary
of the TDPS Hydraulic System (ALT) in 1996, with the economic
to baseline activities which dealt directly with biodiversity
contribution of the governments of Peru and Bolivia, in through actions to eliminate the barriers to the sustainable
use of biodiversity resources. Central actions included:

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
385

---

demonstrating sustainable techniques for the management ·
Make the studies in a joint way and develop a geographic
of habitats and endemic endangered species through pilot
information system to help defi ne the positive or
projects; increasing capacity of the stakeholders and local
negative aspects which may happen in the future.
governments; and strengthening of the management of the
protected areas. In addition, a plan for the management of
The development of mechanisms for coordination and
the biodiversity which will frame the management of protected
permanent consultation with the interested stakeholders is
areas was to be elaborated. This plan will defi ne evaluation
important. These parties should participate in the decision
policies for future investment in the region including the making and the execution of the project, especially those
Binational Master Plan of the ALT.
activities oriented to contribute to the social and economic
development of the TDPS.
3.2.2 Proposed Alternative to Continue with the Project
In a recent evaluation made by the GEF, consultants proposed
4.1
Efforts Made for the Joint Development of
an alternative to the actual actions carried by the project, which
Capacities
was approved by the project committee, to redirect the project
to the original plan. The principal program and activities which
The efforts made during the process of negotiations and studies
are part of the proposed alternative are:
between the two countries, oriented to the preservation and
sustainable use of shared water resources, have given place
·
Sustainable use of the biodiversity in the Lake Titicaca
to the joint development of capacities in many fi elds: to defi ne
basin through pilot projects including: Pilot programs
the juridical situation of the basin; to seek resources from the
and projects; and a strategy to promote alternative international cooperation; to make technical studies between
income sources;
the two countries; to establish common technical organization;
and to make works on a joint basis. These efforts served to
·
Reinforce the biodiversity conservation in the Lake develop technical and institutional capacities to different levels.
Titicaca basin including: Lake Titicaca National Reserve;
two new protected neighbor areas; recuperation and 4.2
Participation of Citizens and Stakeholders
reintroduction of key native species; and reduction
of the treat to the aquatic biodiversity by the water A series of different channels were established for the
contamination; and,
participation of citizens and stakeholders depending of their
degree of participation. In the case of citizens, in general, the
·
Reinforce the technical and administrative capacity of
goal was to inform them through different media (articles,
the government and non-government institutions to publications, conferences, studies, reports and others) with
plan, carry out and monitor the biodiversity management
the object to keep the news media permanently informed
and the conservation programs in the TDPS including:
about the negotiations, problems and situation of the project
Managing Plan for the Biodiversity; information in general. For stakeholders in the basin there are events
campaign for biodiversity; reinforcing of capacity for for agreements, socialization, and capacity building, which
the sustainable use of the biodiversity; reinforcing of
support their involvement, as well as the development of
the technical capacities of the government and NGO's
local capacities for effective involvement in the design and
toward the sustainable use of the biodiversity; and implementation of programs. These actions allow citizens
reinforcing of the technical and administrative capacity
and stakeholders to contribute to the sustainable and rational
of the ALT.
use of the basin resources, thereby contributing to the
improvement of the conditions and quality of life.
4. Lessons
Learned
4.3 Institutional
Sustainability
The lessons learned from this process of the studies and
negotiations between two countries oriented to the preservation
There are agreements between Bolivia and Peru which made
and sustainable use of a shared water resource, for the regional
have made possible for the Binational Authority to undertake
importance for two countries, were collected in different the execution of the Master Plan for Flood Prevention and
instances. Steps like the ones listed below, are an example of
Resource Management in the TDPS. The Binational Authority
the procedures, which could be followed by local organizations,
undertakes coordination at a variety of levels including with
regions and nations that share water resources:
the states within each country (Congress), the Governments
(Secretaries of State) and other government structures in the
· Defi ne the juridical situation of the basin;
region (prefectures, municipalities), and also in a special way
·
Carry out basic studies of the basin in a joint basis;
with the indigenous communities who are major stakeholders
·
Obtain international assistance, if necessary;
of the TDPS basin. In addition, the Binational Authority works
·
Elaborate a Master Plan to determine the handling of the
with other public, private and academic institutions, as well as,
water resources and its use;
the broader civil society and media.
·
Establish a technical mix of organizations (if possible)
for the handling of the Master Plan; and,
386 Lake
Titicaca

---

4.4 Monitoring
5.
References and Further Reading
The monitoring system has made it possible to compile and
Academia de Ciencias de Bolivia-Real Academia Belga de
elaborate data during the execution of the project and to Ciencias de Ultramar. 2001. Contribución al Conocimiento del
establish clear priorities with regard to the plan. Among the
Sistema del Lago Titicaca.
priorities for monitoring are: the environmental conditions of
the lake; activities supporting the management goals of the
BID. 1994. Progreso económico y social en América Latina.
TDPS basin; human activities; and natural events and their
effects.
BID and Ministry of Planning and Coordination. 1990. Análisis
de los estudios de los sectores productivos en la región
4.5 Indicators
fronteriza boliviano-peruana La Paz.
Indicators have a fundamental role in developing and collecting
CEPEI. 1992. El Perú, el medio ambiente y el desarrollo,
information on activities of the project and external infl uences
Eduardo Ferrero Costa: Lima.
that have resulted in transformations in the project area such
as the status of native species versus invasive species, water
GEF/UNDP/ALT. 2003. Proyecto de Biodiversidad.
pollution from urban and mining related sources. Indicators
concerning the rational use of the water resources and Intecsa-Aic-Cnr. 1993. Plan Director Global Binacional de
environmental indicators which permit knowledge of changes
protección-prevención de inundaciones y aprovechamiento de
or results in the monitored systems are also important.
los recursos del Lago Titicaca, Río Desaguadero, Lago Poopó y
Salar de Coipasa (TDPS).
4.6
Previous Studies and Information Available
Loubens, G. 1989. "Observations on the fi shes of the lake
The Binational Master Plan was based on a wide range of Titicaca Bolivian part. IV. Orestias spp., Salmo gairdneri and
studies in the area, including: geomorphology; climatologic;
management problems." Rev. Hydrobiol. Trop. 22(2): 157-177.
hydrology; hydrogeology; hydrochemistry and pollution;
fl uviomorphology; soils; soil cover and erosion; natural OEA-Ad Hoc Committee on Transition of the ALT. 1996.
resources; and topography.
Diagnostico Ambiental del Sistema TDPS Bolivia-Perú.
The analysis and evaluation of data from previous studies Ribera, M.O., M. Libermann, S. Beck and M. Moraes. 1994.
has been an important part of the work and a major source
Mapa de la vegetacion y areas protegidea de Bolivia. 1:
of information for development of the Binational Master Plan.
1,500,000. Centro de Investigaciones y Manejo de Recursos
These studies were divided into two main groups:
Naturales (CIMAR) and Universidad Autónoma Gabriel Rene
Moreno (UAGRM): La Paz, Bolivia.
·
Sector studies: climatologic, hydrology, hydro-geology,
hydraulic, socio-economic, agricultural and fi shing; and,
Tesis UMSA/Edwar Revollo. Evolución Paleo climática del Lago
Titicaca en los ultimos 25000 años.
·
Land-cover studies: cartography, topography and
thematic maps (soils, vegetation, geology, etc).
Villwock, W. 1994. "Consecuencias de la introducción de peces
exóticos sobre las especies nativas del lago Titicaca." Ecología
The selection of meteorological and hydrometric sites and the
en Bolivia 23: 49-56.
development of a database were based on previous information:
Disclaimer
·
Meteorological database (precipitation, temperature,
evaporation, wind speed, etc.); and,
The fi ndings, interpretations and conclusions expressed
in this report are the views of the authors and do not
·
Hydrometric database (river fl ow, level of Lake Titicaca,
necessarily represent the views of The World Bank and its
solid transport and water quality).
Board of Directors, or the countries they represent, nor do
they necessarily represent the view of the organizations,
An important source of information was found in the existing
agencies or governments to which any of the authors are
libraries in Lake Titicaca Special Project (PELT) Peru and PELT
associated. Also, the colors, boundaries, denominations, and
Bolivia. These libraries provided an informative database that
classifi cations in this report do not imply, on the part of The
included the existing studies in the area. Additional sources of
World Bank and its Board of Directors, or the countries they
information were the National Meteorological and Hydrological
represent, and the organizations, agencies or governments to
Offi ces of Peru and Bolivia (Servicio Nacional de Metereologia
which any of the authors are associated, any judgment on the
e Hidrologia, SENAMHII). Each Basic Study incorporated a legal or other status of any territory, or any endorsement or
critical evaluation of the specifi c data used.
acceptance of any boundary.

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
387

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