Lake Sevan
Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
Araik Babayan, Land Use Planning Institute, Yerevan, Armenia
Susanna Hakobyan, Institute of Hydroecology and Ichthyology of the National Academy of Sciences, Yerevan, Armenia
Karen Jenderedjian*, Ministry of Nature Protection, Yerevan, Armenia, jender@arminco.com
Siranush Muradyan, Ministry of Nature Protection, Yerevan, Armenia
Mikhail Voskanov, Ministry of Nature Protection, Yerevan, Armenia
* Corresponding author
1.
Description of Lake Sevan
infl uenced an array of hydrological and ecological conditions at
the lakeshore and in the lake. The most important of these are:
Lake Sevan (Figure 1) is situated in the northern part of the draining of the wetlands, worsening of the water quality,
the Armenian Volcanic Highland, in Gegharkhounik Marz changed species succession, and biodiversity loss. Lake Sevan
(province), 60 km to the north from the capital of Armenia,
is the most important source of fresh water and freshwater fi sh
Yerevan (Figure 2). Lake Sevan is the greatest lake of the in the Transcaucasus Region. The importance of Lake Sevan
Caucasus Region and one of the greatest freshwater high-
in the economy of Armenia can scarcely be exaggerated: it
mountain lakes of Eurasia. The basin of Lake Sevan makes up
is the main source of irrigation water and provides low cost
one sixth of the total territory of Armenia. A peculiarity of Lake
electricity, fi sh, recreation, and tourism.
Sevan includes that the small ratio between the catchment and
surface area of the lake is only 3:1, compared to other major
Lake Sevan and the wetlands of the basin are signifi cant
lakes (10:1 on average).
breeding, resting, foraging and wintering area for migratory
waterfowl. The boundary of the Lake Sevan Ramsar site
Lake Sevan has a unique combination of great size, includes the watershed (catchment) around the external
high mountain location, and comparatively "soft water" protective zone of Sevan National Park, identifi ed in Figure 3.
(mineralization = 700 mg/L).
All other neighboring great
lakes--the Caspian Sea
(Azerbaijan, Islamic Rep. of
Iran, Kazakhstan, Russian
Federation, Turkmenistan),
Lake Van (Turkey), and Lake
Orumiyeh (Islamic Rep. of
Iran)-- are saline. Among high
mountain lakes, Lake Titicaca
(in the Andes; Bolivia and Peru)
is far ahead by size (8,300 km2),
high altitude (3,812 m) and
water quality.
The lake is the greatest inland
water body of Transcaucasus
Region and one of the greatest
freshwater high mountain lakes
of Eurasia. Before the increased
artifi cial outfl ow which began in
1933 during the Soviet period,
the surface of Lake Sevan was
at an altitude of 1916.20 m asl
with a surface area of 1,416
km2 and volume of 58.5 km3.
The water-level decreases, from
this artifi cial outfl ow process,
Figure 1. The Lake Sevan Basin.
It is diffi cult to overestimate the role of
Lake Sevan and its basin for Armenia. The
main economic activities in the basin are
N
agriculture and fi sheries. Approximately
20% of the livestock in the country is raised
in the basin. About 90% of fi sh catch and
80% of crayfi sh catch of Armenia is from
Lake Sevan. As a result of economic crisis
following the collapse of the Soviet Union,
industrial production has practically ceased.
Development of intensive agriculture and
industry, service facilities for tourism and
recreation are desirable development goals;
however, they need to ensure that ecological
damage is minimal.
2.
The Lake Sevan Environment
2.1
Physical Environment
2.1.1 Climate
The high-mountain location of the Lake
0
50 km
Sevan basin infl uences the climate, which is
cooler than other areas in Armenia. On the
shore of the lake, mean temperature ranges
Figure 2. Physical Map of Armenia (Source: Environmental Research and
from minus 6°C in January to 16°C in July, with
Management Center, American University of Armenia).
average annual temperature of 5°C. There
N
0
10 km
Figure 3. Map of Sevan National Park (Source: Environmental Research and Management Center, American University of Armenia).
348
Lake Sevan
are about 240 days with mean daily temperature over zero.
of Major Sevan is about one million years. The age of Minor
The growing season is about 190 days. The annual number
Sevan is not more than 100,000 years. The bedrock is formed
of sunny hours varies from 2,600 to 2,800, depending on from tufa, clinker, porphyrite and limestone.
location. Direct solar radiation is 48 x 106 Joules/m2/yr; total
solar radiation is 65 x 106 Joules/m2/yr. Annual precipitation
The Sevana, Vardenis and Geghama Mountain ridges, with
ranges from 340 to 720 mm, of which 17% of falls in the winter,
elevations of up to 3,598 m, surround Lake Sevan from the
37% in the spring, 26% in the summer and 20% in the autumn.
northeast, south and southwest respectively. On the northern
The weather is usually windy, with an average wind speed part, the watershed is 2-3 km from the lake and the slopes are
of more than 4 m/s, stronger during the winter (6 m/s) and
steep. On the other parts, the boundary of the watershed is 30-
weaker in spring and autumn (3 m/s).
40 km away and the slopes are gentler. The Geghama ridges,
on the southwestern edge of the basin, have numerous signs
2.1.2 Hydrology
of volcanic activity.
Twenty-eight rivers and streams fl ow into Lake Sevan, and
the River Hrazdan fl ows out of the lake. The outfl ow of water
The soil of Sevan ridges is brown carbonate with 30-50%
from the lake has been artifi cially regulated since 1933 for
stoniness. The natural soil of the remainder of the basin is
hydropower and irrigation. The hydrological balances for the
chernozem (black soil) with pH 5.8-6.2. On the southwestern
different periods of water management strategy are given in
shore of Minor Sevan, stony deposits predominate, on the
the Table 1; the long-term water level changes are shown in
western and southern shore of Major Sevan stoniness is 10-
Figure 4.
30%, and less than 10% in other parts of the basin.
2.1.3 Geology, Geomorphology and Soils
2.2 Biological
Resources
The site is young on a geological scale. Morphologically, Lake
Sevan consists of the deeper Minor Sevan and comparatively
The Lake Sevan basin is located at the junctions of
shallow Major Sevan (see Figure 3 for bathymetry). The age
Transcaucasus and Middle East Regions and has elements of
Table 1. Lake Sevan Water Balance in Different Periods (million m3/yr).
Components of balance
1927-1933
1949-1962
1970-1979
1984-1990
1992-1997
1998-2003
Surface infl ow
811
669
774
990
1,144
986
Precipitation
509
475
479
486
466
498
Underground infl ow
31
48
56
81
65
76
Summary income
1,351
1,192
1,309
1,557
1,675
1,560
Surface outfl ow
42
1,383
430
329
831
167
Evaporation
1,136
1,041
1,039
1,102
1,081
1,262
Underground outfl ow
84
26
9
9
15
20
Summary expenditure
1,262
2,450
1,478
1,440
1,927
1,431
Discrepancy
+89
-1,258
-169
+117
-252
+129
1920
1915
asl)
(
m 1910
L
evel 1905
Water 1900
18951920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
Year
Figure 4. Water Level Changes in Lake Sevan from 1927-1998.
Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
349
different natural zones: semi-arid steppe, alpine meadows, are in decline. Of them, the famous endemic ishkhan (Salmo
and broad-leaved forests. A unique feature of the Lake Sevan
ischchan) ("Prince" in Armenian) is now at the edge of
basin is the relatively high rate of endemism of fl ora and extinction. Table 2 shows the changes in fi sh catches over
fauna. The biological diversity of plants is extremely high: time.
approximately 1,600 species of vascular plants have been
registered in the basin. Of these 48 species are in the Red
There are also four species of amphibians, none of them
Data Book of Armenia and six species are endemic. Vertebrate
considered to be endangered. Amphibians are abundant
fauna consists of 276 species; of them, 48 species are in the
everywhere that there are small ponds, pools and puddles.
Red Data Book of Armenia with three endemic for the region.
Fauna of aquatic invertebrates include 150 species of different
There are 18 species of reptiles, two of which are in the Red
systematic groups.
Data Book of Armenia. The herpetofauna is more abundant
on the northeastern shore of the lake and only grass snakes
2.2.1 Flora
(Natrix natrix and N. tesselata) are common everywhere.
The fl ora of the basin is typical to the highlands of the
Transcaucasus Region which has a great diversity of plants.
Two-hundred ten species of birds (36 are in the Red Data
Along the shoreline of the lake is situated the greatest Book of Armenia, one is endemic, and 83 are included in
artifi cial woodland of the country which gives a number the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian
of interesting examples of natural and human affected Migratory Waterbirds of the Convention on the Conservation
ecological successions. Aquatic associations (plankton, of Migratory Species of Wild Animals). The artifi cial water-level
benthos, ichthyofauna) are qualitatively poor with only a few
decrease infl uenced the numbers of breeding waterfowl. From
dominant species, which has simplifi ed studies on ecological
approximately 60 breeders formerly, only about 25 species
relationships (food web, etc.).
are registered as breeding during recent years. The Eurasian
coot (Fulica atra), mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) and endemic
About 1,600 species of vascular plants (50% of Armenia's fl ora)
Armenian gull (Larus armenicus) are abundant at present.
have been registered in the lake basin. Of them, 48 species
Numbers of individuals during the year are estimated to be
are in the Red Data Book of Armenia. Six species are endemic:
6,000 Eurasian coot, 5,000 mallard and 16,000 Armenian gull.
Acantholimon gabrieljanae, Alyssum hajastanum, Astragalus
shushaensis, Isotis arnoldiana, Isotis sevangensis, and Ribes
The lake is an important stop for migratory birds, especially in
achurjani.
October-December, before the lake becomes covered with ice.
Such rare birds as great egret (Casmerodius albus), glossy ibis
The dominant vegetation communities of the Sevan basin (Plegadis falcinellus), mute swan (Cygnus olor), whooper swan
are mountain steppe, sub-alpine and alpine vegetation with
(C. cygnus), demoiselle crane (Grus vigro) are documented
different species of Astragalus and Acantholimon. The most
here regularly during the migrations. Lake Sevan is important
characteristic arboreal plants of Sevana Mountains are junipers
both as a resting and a wintering site for migratory waterfowl.
(Juniperus policarpos, J. oblonga). There are remains of natural
Half a century ago, the area was known as the greatest inland
oak forests in the central part of the Sevana Mountains. In the
breeding area for waterfowl between the Black and the Caspian
Vardenis and Geghama Mountains, sweetbrier (Rosa canina)
Seas. Because of the water-level decrease and draining of
and other species Rosa sp. are common everywhere.
most of wetlands, Lake Sevan's role as breeding area is now
much reduced.
After the water level decreased, the dried areas of the former
lake bottom have been forested by alien species of plants.
There are 36 species of mammals, eight of which are in the Red
Artifi cial forests composed of pine (Pinus caucasica), poplar
Data Book of Armenia. The most typical mammals are European
(Populus canadensis, Populus simoni), acacia (Caragana
hare (Lepus europaenus), red fox (Vulpes vulpes), wolf (Canis
brevespina, Caragana trutex), and willow (Salix viminalis).
lupus), weasel (Mates foina) and most of the rodents.
In some area the sallow thorn (Hippopae ramnoides) forms
almost impassable bush.
Investigations on invertebrates have so far included only
aquatic fauna: 14 plankton and 136 benthic species of different
On Lake Sevan, emergent vegetation exists only in limited systematic groups. Plankton and benthos associations showed
calm areas. Pondweeds (Potamogeton spp.) are abundant to
a close dependence on the trophic status of the lake.
depths of 2-5 m. Stonewort (Chara spp.) thickets cover the
littoral zone to depths of 4-8 m. There is luxuriant development
Since the 1990s, an export-oriented commercial fi shery
of aquatic vegetation in shallow coves, bogs and ponds.
(including the European Union) has developed with
the recently-acclimatized long-hand crayfi sh (Astacus
2.2.2 Fauna
leptodactylus) abroad.
In the Lake Sevan basin there are six species of fi shes (two in
the Red Data Book of Armenia, two endemic). All native fi sh
species, ishkhan (Salmo ischchan), Sevan barbel (Barbus
goktschaikus), Sevan koghak (Varicorhinus capoeta sevangi)
350 Lake
Sevan
3.
The Human Dimension
3.1 Socio-economic
Values
The fi rst settlements in the Lake Sevan basin date back 7,000
Lake Sevan and its basin provide both inanimate and animate
years. In the past, the area was used for fi shing and grazing.
products, both dead and living, such as peat, plants and animal
Although several permanent settlements occurred here from
products. These products include sand, water, peat, fuelwood,
the 7th century, most of the modern population came here
hay, herbs and potherbs, mushrooms, berries, crops, fi sh,
only 150 years ago, mainly from Persia (Islamic Rep. of Iran)
game birds, cattle, opportunities for recreation, tourism, bird
and Turkey. Historical, architectural and archaeological relics
watching, education, research and aesthetic appreciation. All
located in the Lake Sevan basin include: an early Christian
of these products have direct use values because they have
shrine and funerary steles of 9-15th century in Noradus; market price.
churches and a monastery of the 9th century on Sevan Island
(now a peninsula); the ruins of a citadel dating to the 6th
As of 1 January 2002, the Lake Sevan water volume was
century B.C.; and cliff drawings of hunting scenes from the
estimated as 32,921 km3. This water is quite suitable for cattle
early Stone Age.
watering and irrigation, and with minor purifi cation, it is also
suitable for drinking. Lake Sevan is the main source of water
Lake Sevan has always been a popular place for holidaymakers.
for thermoelectric power generation, manufacturing, and other
Beautiful landscapes, cool water, fresh air and close proximity
industrial uses.
to the capital of Yerevan attracts tens of thousands of people
every weekend during hot summer days. Archaeological, A number of mineral springs are situated in the Lake Sevan
historical and architectural relics from the early Stone Age basin, of which those of greatest commercial importance are
until the late Middle Ages located near the lake are of great
at Sevan and Lichk. Mineral waters are of great importance for
importance for all Armenians, both those living in the country
the economy of the country and make up a signifi cant portion
and abroad. A theological seminary of the Armenian Apostolic
of exports. The largest sand and gravel deposits of aquatic
Church was recently established on the Sevan Peninsula.
origin are situated mainly on the eastern shore of Lake Sevan.
Table 2. Recorded Fish Catches in Lake Sevan (in metric tons).
Years
Ishkhan
White fi sh
Koghak
Sevan barbel
Crucian carp
Total
1926-1930
5,113
25
3,109
62
0
8,310
1931-1935
5,740
14
3,438
147
0
9,339
1936-1940
5,779
22
5,262
180
0
11,243
1941-1945
3,459
18
5,349
89
0
8,915
1946-1950
3,050
94
5,361
86
0
8,591
1951-1955
4,018
419
5,583
204
0
10,225
1956-1960
3,000
1,128
5,096
179
0
9,403
1961-1965
2,636
2,550
4,333
67
0
9,585
1966-1970
1,758
5,414
2,712
50
0
9,935
1971-1975
734
7,615
1,547
20
0
9,915
1976-1980
100
9,640
2,763
0
0
12,503
1981
8
11,341
2,668
0
0
14,017
1982
10
9,963
2,714
0
0
12,687
1983
8
10,345
2,678
0
0
13,029
1984
0
16,069
2,096
0
0
18,186
1985
0
13,879
2,565
0
4
16,448
1986
0
14,034
2,447
0
14
16,495
1987
0
16,271
2,399
0
87
18,756
1988
0
17,640
1,592
0
27
19,260
1989
0
18,955
1,911
0
225
21,091
1990
0
19,839
1,104
0
516
21,458
1991
0
17,980
663
0
682
19,325
1992-2003
?
?
?
?
?
?
Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
351
The total volume of commercial peat in the Lake Sevan Basin is
There are 92 settlements in Lake Sevan basin, fi ve of which
around 30 million m3. The main commercial excavation is near
have populations over 10,000. Villages and towns are generally
the village of Torfavan. The annual amount of extracted peat is
distributed around the former shoreline of the lake. As of 1999,
estimated at around 50,000 tons. Peat is used in agriculture
around 277,600 people inhabit the province of Gegharkounik
(50%; as fertilizer, substrate in horticulture, bedding material),
Marz.
as fuel (45%) and in therapeutic bathing (5%; mud-baths).
Agriculture and fi shing are the traditional economic activities
In the past reeds were harvested for such everyday necessities
in the Lake Sevan basin. The main crops are wheat, barley
as thatching and structural building, in combination with the
and potato; other agricultural plantings include hard and soft
clay. Present uses of reeds are crafts, bedding material (litter)
forage. Extensive cattle raising is traditional form of activity.
and fuel. Flexible willow branches are utilized for fi sh-traps and
Land not in crops is used for grazing and haying.
basket binding. Willow wood and other smaller-sized trees and
bushes are used for fuel.
Industry is less developed. The main industrial centers are
the towns of Gavar and Sevan, where cable, instrument, and
A number of plants are collected for hay, food (Butomus,
knitwork factories exist. Since the early 1990s, industry is in a
Nymphaea, Nasturtium, Rumex, Falcaria, Asparagus), medicine
continuing crisis due to the loss of markets as the result of the
(Althaea offi cinalis, Bidens tripartida, Gnaphalium uliginosum,
collapse of the Soviet Union. Most factories have closed or are
Glycyrrhiza glabra, Menyanthes trifoliate, Mentha longifolia, operating at minimal levels.
Nuphar luteum, Ononis arvensis, Polygonum hydropiper,
Plantago major, Tussilago farfara, Valeriana sp.), and Each summer, Lake Sevan attracts several hundred thousand
bouquets. Some mushrooms are used for food, for example
visitors due to its historical, archaeological and architectural
Coptinus comatus, Cortinarius sp.
monuments ranging from the Stone Age to the late Middle
Ages. The shoreline of Lake Sevan is the most popular and
Lake Sevan is especially signifi cant for its fi shery. Among fi sh
traditional place for recreation and picnics. Before the breakup
species of commercial importance are whitefi sh, ishkhan, of the Soviet Union in 1991 and the establishment of the
crucian carp and koghak. The marsh frog has increasing value
Republic of Armenia the following year, workers from all over
for export. Waterfowl is traditionally a subject of commercial
the Soviet Union came to Lake Sevan for rest and recreation,
(in the past) and sports hunting. Of game birds the most but this important industry ended abruptly, leaving behind a
important are puddle ducks (mallard and teal above all), coot
substantial number of large hotels that are now mostly empty.
and snipes. A number of mammals are also hunted for fur and
The local administration is very interested in reviving the
meat.
tourism industry.
Some benthic invertebrates, such as Oligochaeta, Amphipoda,
Several illegal activities, such as poaching and unauthorized
larvae of Chironomidae (Diptera), and to a lesser extent logging refl ect negatively on the present management of the
Ephemeroptera and Trichoptera are collected for sale as food
Lake Sevan.
for aquarium fi sh.
3.3 Public
Administration
Surrounding the lake are such types of wetlands as mires,
bogs, marshes, and fl oodplains which provide space for The administration of Gegharkounik Marz Province is
grazing.
the responsible authority for management of area. The
administration is situated in the town of Gavar. Sevan National
Lake Sevan and its basin have a number of areas of special
Park, which lies within its territory, has three types of land
beauty, including the Artanish Peninsula, Sevan Peninsula, zones: reserved, recreational and economic. Management
Gull Islets, Lake Lichk, Noradus Fishponds, and Gridzor Rocks.
duties are not yet clearly assigned between different
These are all presently or potentially valuable for development
governmental entities: ministries, central, provincial and local
of recreation, tourism, and bird watching.
administrations.
3.2 Land
Use
3.4
Environmental Legislation of Armenia
The main landscape of the Lake Sevan basin consists of The relevant legal framework of Armenia includes provisions in
mountain steppes, meadows, pastures, and crops surrounded
the Constitution of the Republic of Armenia (1995). According
by naked rocks on the heights over 3,000 m. Remnants of
to Article 8, any utilization of private property should not
natural oak and juniper forests occur in the Sevana Mountains
cause damage to the environment. According to Article 10, the
at the altitudes of 1,900-2,200 m. The landscape of Sevan state is responsible for protection of the environment and the
National Park has a comparatively monotonous character, reproduction of biological resources. A series of codes, which
consisting of the artifi cial forest belt with a mosaic of deal with particular activities, and the array of environmental
recreational buildings. A near-natural landscape remains only
laws are summarized in Appendix 1. In addition, some periodic
on the Artanish Peninsula.
decrees by the government have relevance. The remainder
352 Lake
Sevan
of this section describes the international treaties to which
·
Aarhus Convention on Access to Information, Public
Armenia is a signatory. Most of these have been signed since
Participation in Decision-making and Access to Justice
independence.
in Environmental Matters (Aarhus, 1998). Armenia is a
Contracting Party since 2000.
3.5
International Environmental Treaties Relating to
Lake Sevan
·
Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife
and Natural Habitats (Berne, 1979). Armenia is a
Armenia is party to seven international treaties that impact
Contracting Party since 2003.
Lake Sevan and is under consideration for membership for
three other treaties, as follows:
·
Convention on International Trade in Endangered
Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES, Washington,
·
Convention on Biological Diversity (UNCBD, Rio de
1973). Membership is under consideration.
Janeiro, 1992). Armenia is a Contracting Party since
1993. The Lake Sevan Basin supports 46% of fl ora and
·
Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species
fauna diversity in Armenia.
of Wild Animals (CMS, Bonn, 1980). Membership is
under consideration. Lake Sevan is the largest internal
·
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
water body between Black Sea and Caspian Sea and
Change (UNFCCC, Rio de Janeiro, 1992). Armenia is
support tens of thousands of waterfowl during seasonal
a Contracting Party since 1993. In Lake Sevan basin
migration.
is situated the largest deposit of peat in Armenia,
Torfavan.
·
UNECE Water Convention on the Protection and Use of
Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes
·
Convention concerning the Protection of the World
(Helsinki, 1992). Membership position is not considered
Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage
yet. Lake Sevan is part of Kura-Arax River basin shared
Convention, Paris, 1972). Armenia is a Contracting Party
with Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Iran and Turkey.
since 1993. Lake Sevan is the most important cultural
and natural heritages sites of Armenia although not yet
·
The Convention on Wetlands of International
designated worldwide.
Importance, especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar,
1971). Armenia is a Contracting Party since 1993.
·
United Nations Convention to Combat Desertifi cation
(UNCCD, Paris, 1994). Armenia is a Contracting Party
since 1997. Most of the territory of Lake Sevan basin is
subject to severe, strong and medium desertifi cation.
Table 3. International Reports of the Ministry of Nature Protection with Wetland Measures.
Reports to International Treaties
Measures Projected (P) and Implemented (I) in the Wetlands
First National Communications of the Republic
Recognition of the role of Lake Sevan in climate mitigation and
of Armenia under the UNFCCC (Final National
greenhouse gas effect reduction without special measures proposed
Report, 1998)
Armenia National Environmental Action Program
P. Development of integrated water resources master plan
(Main Report, 1999)
I. Undertake pilot project for restoration of Lake Gilli (successful)
Special attention is given to conservation of wetland biodiversity and
Biodiversity of Armenia (Final National Report,
wetland landscapes, in particular in Lake Sevan Basin, without special
1999)
measures particularly related to the wetlands
P. Provide technical assistance and equipment to Sevan National Park
P. Establish new protected areas
I. Conserve and rehabilitate key wetland ecosystems, including ecosystem
Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan of Armenia
of Lake Sevan (unsuccessful)
(Main Report, 1999)
P. Develop individual action plan for conservation endangered fi sh ishkhan
I. Promote sustainable fi sheries (extremely unsuccessful)
I. Wetland management training (successful)
I. Undertake pilot project for restoration of Lake Gilli (successful)
I. Rehabilitate ishkhan hatcheries (extremely unsuccessful)
Lake Sevan Action Program (Main Report, 1999)
I. Develop crayfi sh fi shery (relatively successful)
I. Collect environmental data (relatively successful)
Gegharqouniq Marz is one of two case areas of project implementation. In
Natural Resources Management and Poverty
particular, management plan for Sevan National Park should be prepared
Reduction Project (ongoing)
and implemented.
Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
353
3.6
Reports on Government Programs and Action
km3 (44%), and reduction of the surface area from 1,416 to
Plans
1,236 km2 (13%).
Reports on some programs and action plans carried out by the
The water balance disturbance to Lake Sevan happens
Ministry of Nature Protection, along with measures proposed
because of the use of water from the lake for hydropower (long
for Lake Sevan, are listed in Table 3 with a brief description
term) and irrigation (short term or seasonal). The consequence
of the status of measures projected and implemented. It is
of long-term water balance disturbance is deterioration of the
evident that the measures are inadequate to meet the current
ecological character of Lake Sevan at all levels. An example
management needs of Lake Sevan. Section 5 provides a longer
of short-term water imbalance is the River Vardenik, which
discussion of various responses.
is completely drained in drought summers because of fl ow
diversion for irrigation. The river is of vital importance for
4.
Threats to Sustainable Use of the Lake
population of the koghak fi sh (Varicorhinus capoeta sevangi).
4.1 Water
Withdrawal
4.2
Factors Affecting Sustainable Use
The so-called "Sevan Problem" arose in the 19th century. 4.2.1 Internal
Natural
Factors
Primarily, the challenge has been how to use the water The most important internal natural factors that should always
resources of the lake. Lake Sevan has been recognized as a
be considered are the physical and chemical composition
key potential water resource for Armenia. The high location
of the water, transparency, oxygen and temperature regime,
of the lake compared to the fertile, but arid Ararat Valley, and
qualitative and quantitative development of plankton and
limited energy resources in the country attracted engineers
benthos, and fi sh stocks.
to fi nd methods to explore how to use the water of the lake
intensively. Taking into account the water balance of Lake 4.2.2 Internal Human-induced Factors
Sevan, where evaporation (800 mm/yr) largely exceeds direct
It is evident the trophic status of the lake largely depends
precipitation (360 mm/yr), an Armenian engineer named on human impact on water balance and pollution. The water
Suqias Manasserian, in his book entitled "The Evaporating volume has been artifi cially reduced from 58.4 km3 in 1933 to
Billions and the Stagnation of Russian Capital" (1910), 33.0 km3 in 2002. Pollution infl icted from sewage, industry,
proposed to use water resources intensively for irrigation and
agriculture has been sharply increased since 1960s; however,
hydropower generation. By dropping the original water level
the pollution load decreased since the end of the Soviet Union
by 50 m, his plan was to reduce evaporation almost six times
due to the process of economic restructuring including a
by completely drying Major Sevan and leaving a shrunken decline in agricultural activities. Despite this, the changes of
Minor Sevan of about 240 km2 compared to 1,416 km2 for the
trophic level of the lake remain sometimes unpredictable.
original lake.
4.2.3 External Natural Factors
Manasserian's proposal became as a major Soviet project Weather events, particularly droughts, cause serious impact
under the direction of the central authorities of the Soviet especially during the breeding period of fi sh and waterfowl.
Union. Implementation started in 1933 when the bed of For example, desiccation of rivers and wetlands negatively
Hrazdan River was excavated and a tunnel was bored some
impacts the spawning and nesting conditions of fi sh and
40 m under the lake. The tunnel was inaugurated in 1949 as
waterfowl.
a major achievement of socialism, and the lake level started
to drop at a rate exceeding 1 m/yr. The water was used for
4.2.4 External Human-Induced Factors
irrigation, and a cascade of six hydropower stations began to
The ecosystem of the Lake Sevan basin is comparatively
produce electricity.
well separated from external human induced factors due
to bordering ridges, which are 1.5 km higher than the lake.
Very soon the problem of how to use water resources was
Since 1981 up to 200 million m3/yr year of water from the
reversed into how to use wisely all natural resources, and Arpa River has been diverted into Lake Sevan through a tunnel
the water in particular. By the 1950s it had become evident
constructed under the Vardenis Ridge (Figure 1). The impact of
that the ecological and economic consequences of extensive
"alien" water on Lake Sevan has had no apparent pronounced
exploitation of the water of Lake Sevan were too undesirable
effect on overall water quality in the lake.
to continue in the same way.
4.2.5 Factors Arising from Legislation and Traditions
Overall, human activities have had negative effects such Inadequacies of existing legislation in Armenia are obstacles
as water level decrease, deterioration of a water quality, to good management of the lake, and Sevan National Park in
destruction of natural habitats and loss of biodiversity. Water
particular. Many traditional activities, such as reed harvesting,
loss is the most important threat. Artifi cial increase of the edible and pharmacological plant collecting, and buffalo
outfl ow from Lake Sevan resulted in the drop of the lake level
breeding have been forgotten. The return of traditional rights
of 19.88 m (from 1916.20 to 1896.32 m asl as of 1 January 2002;
to the local inhabitants, after the 75-year-long Communist
refer to Figure 4), decrease of the volume from 58.5 to 32.9
experiment, should be carried out in combination with
354 Lake
Sevan
4.3.6 Pollution
measures to protect nature. One of the fi rst important steps
in this direction occurred in 1996, bringing into the force a
Surface water in Armenia, and especially in the Lake Sevan
licensed traditional fi shery. However, the current licensing basin, generally seems to be of remarkably high quality, as
system is far from perfect because of bureaucratic obstacles
compared to international standards. Groundwater resources
and high margins of payments for use of natural resources.
are very well protected from pollution. Spring water usually is
of good quality and can be used for drinking without further
4.3
Major Threats (Impact Assessment Analysis)
treatment. However, without proper attention the situation
could change easily.
High vulnerability of mountain aquatic ecosystems creates
diffi culties for sustainable use and requires constant attention
The discharge of industrial pollutants, domestic sewerage
to complex protective measures. All major threats to Lake and agricultural run-off into the lake increases the organic
Sevan are human induced. At the heart of confl icts is the loading. Decomposition of organic matter decreases the
underestimation of economic and especially site specifi c social
oxygen concentrations of the water body. In the 1970s,
and ecological values and features. The confl icts themselves
oxygen saturation in the bottom area of the lake during the
come from diverse views on the values by various stakeholders
stratifi cation period was close to zero. The deterioration of
in the decision-making process. Numerous interviews with oxygen conditions may seriously contaminate the water,
stakeholders show that depending on position of a given endangering plants and animals.
person and his/her relation to the lake, his/her approach to
the values could differ and even contradict public opinion. This
Poorly controlled and managed disposal of soild waste is a
could be because of differences in understanding, judgments,
signifi cant environmental problem in the urban areas adjoining
preferences, priorities, precedence and positions.
Lake Sevan, especially Sevan, Gavar, and Martuni.
4.3.1 Soil
Deterioration
4.3.7 Over-exploitation
Exposure of soils to drying during the water-level drop has led
Extensive use of water resources associated with increased
to soil salinization. These lands are situated mainly along the
pollution of Lake Sevan has had an effect on the overall
southern shoreline.
ecosystem of the lake, from physical conditions to primary
production and fi sh communities. Livestock overgrazing in
4.3.2 Soil Erosion
Lake Lichk brought degradation of vegetation and serious
Soil erosion on riverbanks is a natural process which is deterioration of the waterfowl habitats. Uncontrolled fi shing in
pronounced by human activities. It occurs mainly on the Lake Sevan brought a serious decline of fi sh stocks. As a result
undercurrent of some tributaries of Lake Sevan situated on
of over-exploitation, two out of four subspecies of ishkhan
the soft sandy soils of the lake former lake bottom: River (Salmo ischchan) have become extinct.
Dzknaget, River Gavaraget, River Tsakqar, River Lichk and River
Masrik. During the last 60 years these rivers have formed 5-13
4.3.8 Habitat Disturbance
m deep U-shape valleys. Soil erosion augments signifi cantly
Access by people and cattle in the key habitat areas has
the sedimentation rate in Lake Sevan. Soil erosion is frequently
adversely impacted the waterfowl. Waterfowl are especially
aggravated by deforestation.
sensitive to disturbance during their breeding period. This is
illustrated by comparing two adjacent colonies of Armenian
4.3.3 Sedimentation
gull on the islet and on the peninsula in Lake Sevan. The fi rst
Sedimentation is another natural process which becomes one is fully isolated from the mainland while the second is
serious when intensifi ed by human activities. Especially high
easily accessible to vacationers and cattle. In 2000, 84% of
sedimentation rates occur at the mouths of the Gavaraget and
the hatches on the islet were successful, but only 8% were
Lichk rivers.
successful on the peninsula.
4.3.4 Mudfl ows
4.3.9 Deforestation
Seasonal and regular rivers and creeks of the northeastern
Deforestation is comparatively new threat that originated in
part of the Lake Sevan basin--River Pambak, River Dara, Creek
the late 1980s and early 1990s during the blockade of Armenia
Babajan, Creek Jil, Creek Gyuney, Creek Shishkaya--run the
by Turkey and Azerbaijan and the great energy crisis that the
highest degree of danger of mudfl ows. Mudfl ow occurrence on
blockade caused. Deforestation of riverbanks increased soil
these rivers is once in three years and sometimes even more
erosion processes, as is clearly evident in the River Lichk area.
often.
4.3.10 Invasive Species
4.3.5 Waterlogging
Invasive plant and animal species are well known for their
Only 100 ha are water logged in the Lake Sevan basin, but
destructive impacts. Sea-buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides)
the problem is serious because the waterlogging takes place
occupies sandy soils around Lake Sevan sometimes making
directly in the villages Lichk and Artsvaqar.
almost impassible stands. Introduction of crucian carp
(Carassius auratus) in Lake Sevan in the 1970s reduced the
number of the quantity of endemic koghak (Varicorhinus
Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
355
capoeta sevangi). The fry of crusian carp and koghak are 4.4.3 Illegal Fishing, Woodcutting and Grazing
food competitors. There is also the constant risk of new
introductions as happened recently with the muskrat in Interestingly, in Table 2 on fi sh catches, correct data are absent
Lake Arpi. Appearance of muskrat in Lake Sevan could have
for 1992-2003 due to the great discrepancy between the legal
unpredictable consequences.
and illegal fi shery. Total fi sh harvest estimates for these years
are between 50 and 300 metric tons. Poaching has affected
4.3.11 Health Problems
not only on the number but also the population structure of
Presently the epidemiological and epizootic situation the fi shes. For example, the average weight of the white fi sh
on the entire territory of Armenia is not the best due to in the spring of 1997 was 222 g while 20 years earlier the
economic factors. In this regard it is necessary to conduct average weight was 904 g. The collapse of communism and
methodologically correct, full prophylactic measures. the economic transition has brought a new kind of illegal
Biological methods of controlling the numbers of disease activity since the end of the 1980s: woodcutting for fuel, which
carriers and water purifi cation, as well as health and sanitation
together with cattle grazing and tourists promoted denudation
education, should be given priority.
of the artifi cial forest belt around the shoreline.
During contact with static and unpurifi ed water an increase
5. Responses
to
Threats
in the incidence of transmissible diseases can be expected.
This already happened in a number of settlements around the
5.1 Water
Augmentation
foul canals of degraded drainage system on River Gavaraget
downstream from the town of Gavar. Here a few events of An epoch-making project started in 1964 to divert the Arpa
cholera and dysentery were registered between 1991 and River through a 49-km long tunnel under the watershed
2000. Other wetlands seem secured against human diseases.
boundary, to Lake Sevan. Since 1981 the tunnel brings up to
200 million m3 of water per year into Lake Sevan. Another
4.4 Environmental
Threats
165 million m3 of water per year from the Vorotan River to the
Arpa River and then to Lake Sevan will be transferred through
4.4.1 Naturalness
a second 22 km long tunnel. The construction of this second
The natural development of the area is strictly dependent tunnel, the Vorotan-Arpa tunnel, was fully completed in April
on human activities, most particularly on the water balance
2004.
policy. The former lake bottom, presently exposed, can be
considered as a semi-natural system, which in the reserve In 1980 the Council of Ministers of the Armenian SSR decided
zone of Sevan National Park will become a guided natural to increase the water level of Lake Sevan by 6 m over the
system, with waterfowl habitat especially targeted for Lake
course of 25 years. The decision was based on a scientifi c
Lichk, Lake Gilly, Artanish Cove, and the Gull Islets. Terrestrial
prognosis made by the scientists of the Sevan Hydrobiological
succession processes in have not been investigated yet.
Station. According to their prognosis, a water level increase of
at least 6-8 m was needed to restore environmental conditions
4.4.2 Eutrophication
to their near-natural state. Within fi ve years it became clear
Increase of nitrogen infl ow has been the main reason for that this ambiguous goal had failed.
eutrophication of the lake and, as a consequence, increases
have been seen in primary production (Figure 5). Zooplankton
However, the World Bank-funded Lake Sevan Action Program
productivity is shown in Figure 6. Changes in zoobenthos discussed two options based on cost-benefi t analysis: a 3-
biomass and species composion are presented in Table 4.
meter water level increase over the course of 15-34 years and
a 6-meter increase over 31-85 years. It should be mentioned
35000
2500
30000
/yr)
/yr)2
3
2000
25000
20000
1500
15000
1000
10000
500
5000
Primary Productivity (kJ/m
0
Zooplankton Productivity (kJ/m
0
1930
1940
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
1930
1940
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
Year
Year
Figure 5. Primary Productivity in Lake Sevan.
Figure 6. Production of Zooplankton in Lake Sevan.
356 Lake
Sevan
that there is no scientifi c evidence that a 3-meter water level
management of the Sevan National Park are enough only for
increase, proposed by the World Bank, would bring any salaries of the staff and to address top-priority problems.
substantial improvement of environmental conditions in Lake
Sevan.
5.3
Sevan National Park
5.2
Lake Sevan Action Program
There was no explicit management for nature conservation in
the Lake Sevan basin before 1978. Sevan National Park was
The Lake Sevan Action Program considers an implementation
established on 14 March 1978 by joint decree No. 128 of the
program of four phases, which are summarized in Table 5. Communist Party and the Council of Ministers of the Armenian
The total cost of the core program is US$30 million. It also
SSR. Sevan National Park is a state institution protecting an
estimated that more than US$15 million would be required
area of 150,100 ha, which includes both the lake itself and
for completion of construction of the Vorotan-Arpa tunnel. 24,800 ha of surrounding land. The area was designated as a
In addition, it was estimated that more than US$100 million
Ramsar site on 6 July 1993.
would be needed for a longer-term priority action including the
construction of the Eghvard Reservoir for accumulation of Lake
Lake Sevan itself is recognized as a national treasure and is
Sevan water for irrigation purposes. From this amount only
a state property. The land between the lake and surrounding
funds for Vorotan-Arpa tunnel have been secured.
circular road is under the protection of Sevan National Park.
Most of the land territory (94%) of the Sevan National Park
Government orders have been approved for breeding and is under the responsibility of the Park administration which
reproduction of the endangered endemic fi sh species ishkhan
is located in the town of Sevan. The remaining land in the
and koghak, with a total budget of US$17,000 and plans to
territory is agricultural (4%) or devoted to hotels, motels and
increase this budget to US$35,000 in 2007. State funds for
camping (2%). Until 1991, Sevan National Park was under the
Table 4. Average Annual Biomass (g/m2) of Different Systematic Groups of Zoobenthos of Lake Sevan.
a
a
e
opods
opter
Year
alv
eeches
onomidae
Whole
ligochaeta
L
Biv
chopter
obenthos
O
Gaster
Gammaridae
Tr
zo
Ephemer
Chir
1928
1.64
0.41
0.03
0.12
0.62
0.01
0.05
0.38
3.26
1938
2.05
0.51
0.12
0.31
0.56
0.01
0.03
0.46
4.05
1948
1.98
0.30
0.06
0.20
0.69
0.01
0.02
0.66
3.92
1955
4.13
0.33
0.13
0.25
0.67
0.01
0.02
1.16
6.60
1961
2.04
0.35
0.46
1.23
0.78
0.03
0.04
1.71
6.64
1966
2.63
0.50
0.45
1.09
0.60
0.06
0.03
3.10
8.46
1971
3.19
0.30
0.48
1.44
0.78
0.06
0.01
7.20
13.46
1976
7.04
0.28
0.35
0.85
0.45
0.04
0.00
21.90
30.91
1978
12.57
0.19
0.41
1.11
0.24
0.01
0.00
22.42
36.95
1979
12.05
0.21
0.36
1.11
0.19
0.01
0.00
18.80
32.73
1980
10.54
0.15
0.29
1.02
0.10
0.01
0.00
10.68
22.79
1981
9.77
0.09
0.26
0.82
0.10
0.01
0.00
6.20
17.25
1982
9.57
0.04
0.33
0.74
0.08
0.01
0.00
5.14
15.91
1983
10.53
0.03
0.31
0.72
0.04
0.00
0.00
5.50
17.13
1984
11.84
0.03
0.35
0.71
0.04
0.00
0.01
5.60
18.58
1985
10.57
0.03
0.29
0.48
0.07
0.00
0.01
7.66
19.11
1986
9.14
0.03
0.15
0.26
0.09
0.00
0.01
4.29
13.97
1987
8.38
0.02
0.08
0.18
0.04
0.00
0.00
2.53
11.23
1988
8.96
0.01
0.10
0.20
0.01
0.00
0.00
2.80
12.08
1989
7.43
0.01
0.05
0.10
0.03
0.00
0.00
2.21
9.83
1990
7.51
0.01
0.07
0.14
0.09
0.00
0.00
2.07
9.89
1991
7.54
0.01
0.08
0.13
0.06
0.00
0.00
3.03
10.85
Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
357
auspices of the Ministry of Water Economy. It is currently part
5.4
Education and Public Awareness
of the Ministry of Environmental Protection.
Protection of Lake Sevan requires the cooperation of all
Within the Sevan National Park, land use is determined by
government institutions responsible for management and
zones. The core zone of the park includes the lake, and the
exploitation of the nature resources and local communities
park also incorporates a number of smaller reserves and within Sevan National Park. Unfortunately, there is often no
reservations. There are three main zoning areas: the core agreement among the ministries or even different units of a
(reserve) zone, a recreation zone and a zone for economic single ministry on the management of Lake Sevan. Although
use. The reserve zones are Noradus (416 ha), Lichk (645 the administration of the Sevan National Park makes efforts
ha), Karchaghbyur (210 ha) and Artanish (2,243 ha). The to involve the local population actively in nature conservation,
boundaries between the recreation and economic zones have
there are still more problems than benefi ts. A permanent
not yet been established or mapped.
exhibition showing examples of the fl ora and fauna of the
basin of the lake and the history of the site is situated in the
No activities except for research are allowed in the reserved
town of Sevan. The replenishment of the exhibition and its
zone. Restricted human activities are allowed on the recreation
existence depends on the enthusiastic work of a few devoted
and economic zones, by consent of the Sevan National Park
people. A number of publications about the lake are available
administration. The Park is managed as a research center, in different languages. However, the most recent popular
which monitors the ecosystem and undertakes various scientifi c publication is a booklet on the Sevan National Park
conservation measures. Since 1996, the Park also regulates
that was issued in 1989.
the licensed commercial fi shery on Lake Sevan.
5.5
Research and Study
All of the other parts of the lake basin (339,000 ha) form an
external protective zone of the Sevan National Park. About
Research and study are the only human activities which can be
one hundred settlements with a total population of 275,000
permitted by the Sevan National Park authorities in the preserve
inhabitants are situated here. The ownership of the land zones. Lake Sevan is one of most extensively investigated large
is under the control of various are state, regional and local
lakes of the world although it is poorly known in the West due
administrations, communities, and private farmers and to the language barrier. The most important studies have been
businessmen.
carried out in the fi eld of hydrology and hydrobiology. Many
aspects of the biology have a history of long-term monitoring.
The inventory of many systematic groups of animals and plants
Table 5. Phases of the Lake Sevan Action Program.
Phase
Cost (in US$)
PHASE I: US$2,000,000
Establishment of Lake Sevan Commission
900,000
Policy Measures and Instruments and Legal Reforms
400,000
Integrated Management Policy and Planning Activities
700,000
PHASE II: 4,200,000
Environmental Awareness
500,000
Improving Water Quality
3,600,000
Biodiversity and the National Park
100,000
PHASE III: 6,800,000
Increasing Water Quantity
1,500,000
Improving Water Quality
750,000
Biodiversity and the National Park
900,000
Fisheries
1,150,000
Applied Research
2,500,000
PHASE IV: 17,000,000
Increasing Water Quantity (Vorotan, Eghvard)
(115,000,000)
Improving Water Quality
16,600,000
Biodiversity and the National Park
400,000
TOTAL (without Vorotan Tunnel and Eghvard Reservoir)
30,000,000
358 Lake
Sevan
is already completed; however, there are still many issues to
laws "about Lake Sevan" and "about Approval of Annual
be studied, particularly the restoration of waterfowl habitat
and Complex Measures on Conservation, Restoration,
and recreation management.
Reproduction, and Use of the Ecosystem of Lake Sevan" have
been passed by the National Assembly. Much more should
6. Lessons
Learned
be done to achieve the objectives of the Lake Sevan Action
Program and the main obstacle is the restricted access to
6.1
Environmental Legislation of Armenia
funds to undertake activities outlined in the Action Plan.
A number of issues need to be clarifi ed under existing 6.4
Citizen and Stakeholder Participation in the
legislation, particularly the rights and responsibilities of
Design and Implementation of Programs
public and private sectors, and the role and participation of
local communities and non-governmental organizations in Lake Sevan is the focus of attention of all citizens of Armenia
management of protected and other areas, and open water,
and the Armenian Diaspora. People cannot imagine Armenia
especially Lake Sevan. Plans for conservation regimes and without Lake Sevan. The following entities are acting as
opportunities for sustainable use are not defi ned clearly. The
primary stakeholders for management of the Lake Sevan:
current system of protected areas is restrictive and might Government of Armenia, local communities, administration of
benefi t from a broader range of types being recognized.
Gegharquniq Marz, Sevan National Park, NGOs, research and
educational institutions, farmers, fi shermen, and vacationers.
A range of environmental laws exists in Armenia. However,
many of these laws are not effective enough and cannot Public participation includes activities such as public
be enforced properly at present. Some of the laws are now
hearings and participation of representatives of stakeholders
outdated and need revision to be brought into line with the
with environmental impact expertise, in designing and
current socio-economic and political situation, and land implementation projects and programs, and in different
privatization in particular. Until now only a few specifi c
commissions acting for public authorities. The initiative in
regulatory acts have been adopted under these laws.
actions requiring cooperation with state authorities belongs
to state authorities themselves that are in charge of public
An issue in Armenian environmental legislation is that many
participation and who are responsible to provide all relevant
of the laws do not correspond to international standards, information. All too often this creates a situation where public
particularly, to commitments taken upon accession to the participation is considered simply as a formal obligation rather
Ramsar Convention and the Biodiversity Convention. In than as a process that adds value.
particular, the Law on Especially Protected Natural Areas does
not correspond to the IUCN categories for protected areas 6.5
Sustainability of the Lake Management
(2000).
Institutions
6.2
Approach to Investments
Many institutions are engaged in different aspects of Lake
Sevan's management: elected and appointed administrative
The application of economic instruments for investments in
authorities, scientifi c-research institutes, conservancy
environmental issues has been through the legal reforms organizations, consumers, etc. Among them, Sevan National
actively developed since independence. However, it is obvious
Park, under the Government of the Republic of Armenia and
that there is no possibility for substantial investments in Lake
direct governance of the Ministry of Nature Protection, should
Sevan from internal sources, whether state or private, in take a leading role and overall responsibility for coordination
the foreseeable future. The main efforts should be directed
of Lake Sevan management. Regrettably, this is far from the
on international funding organizations and the Armenian present reality for the following reasons: absence of legal
Diaspora. In parallel the Government should serve as the grounds; weak human resources; weak material resources;
guarantor of investments.
poor scientifi c and technical equipment; lack of support of
local inhabitants; and lack of self-dependence in operative
6.3
Capacity Building Efforts
decision-making.
Management duties are not yet clearly assigned between 6.6
Linkage of the Lake Management Program to the
different governmental entities: ministries, central, provincial
Broader National and Regional Water Resources
and local administrations, and Sevan National Park. In practice
Management Reforms
this means parallelism and even duplication of responsibilities,
unreasonable bureaucratic obstacles and, as a result, gaps in
Lake Sevan's management program is closely linked with
daily management issues with far-reaching implications.
ongoing the Natural Resources Management and Poverty
Reduction Project, where Gegharqouniq Marz is one of two
One positive accomplishment is that the objectives of Phase
case areas of project implementation. The management plan
I of Lake Sevan Action Program are partly achieved: the for Sevan National Park should be prepared and implemented
Commission on Lake Sevan has been established; and the within the framework of the project.
Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
359
In the Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan of Armenia, are the Institute of Geology, Institute of Botany, Institute
Lake Sevan is mentioned in Strategic Component A: In Situ
of Zoology, and Yerevan State University. Valuable data on
Conservation, it is recommended to provide technical assistance
quantitative and qualitative changes of a large number of
and equipment for Sevan National Park that would (a) provide
environmental indices of Lake Sevan have been accumulated
resource material for library at the Sevan National Park; (b)
and analyzed. In particular, the long-term correlation between
conserve and rehabilitate key wetland ecosystems including
primary production (phytoplankton and macrophytes),
Lake Sevan; and (c) develop and implement individual action
secondary production (zooplankton and zoobenthos) and
plans for conservation of key endangered species including
fi sheries has been found.
ishkhan. In Strategic Component C: Sustainable Use, it is
recommended to (a) review and revise, if necessary, existing
Regrettably, most studies were suspended in 1992 because
regulations regarding commercial fi sheries in Lake Sevan; (b)
of lack of funds. For the 2004 Government budget, US$7,000
assess impacts of recreational activities in the Lake Sevan was provided for the estimation of commercial fi sh stocks
basin on biodiversity; and (c) develop criteria and regulations
and fi shery limits in Lake Sevan. Modern scientifi c research
for recreational use in the Lake Sevan watershed. In Strategic
towards environmental issues requires a comprehensive
Component G: Research, it is recommended to (a) record and
approach, advanced methods and technical supplies, scientifi c
monitor changes in biodiversity in Lake Sevan and (b) record
prediction of renewable biological resources and possible
and monitor changes in biodiversity in Lake Gilli.
negative phenomena, and of course, signifi cant capital
investment. At this stage the major problems in Lake Sevan's
The following activities outlined above are being implemented:
management are left to chance or the complete absence of
(a) provide technical assistance and equipment for Sevan scientifi cally established data.
National Park, (b) develop and implement individual action
plans for conservation of key endangered species including
7.
References and Further Reading
ishkhan and (c) review and revise, if necessary, existing
regulations regarding commercial fi sheries in Lake Sevan.
Adamian, M.S. and D. Klem. 1999. Handbook of the birds of
Armenia. American University of Armenia: Yerevan. 649 pp.
6.7
Indicators and Monitoring and Evaluation
Mechanisms of Environmental Quality and
Agricultural Map of Armenian SSR. 1984. Main department of
Economic Status
geodesy and cartography of the Council of Ministers of the
USSR: Moscow-Yerevan. 189 pp. (In Russian).
A number of indicators might be suggested, against which
improvements or deterioration of environmental quality Armenia--Country Study on Climate Change. First National
and economic status can be assessed: water quality; water
Communication of the Republic of Armenia under the United
quantity; levels of pollution, including phosphate and nitrate;
Nations Framework on Climate Change. 1999. Ministry of
primary production rate (phytoplankton and macrophytes); Nature Protection: Yerevan. 66 pp.
secondary production rate (zooplankton and benthos);
commercial fi sh stocks; condition of habitats, and wetland in
Armenia--National Environmental Action Program. 1999.
particular; number of threatened species; number of endemic
Ministry of Nature Protection: Yerevan. 70 pp.
ishkhan; and socio-economic factors.
Barseghyan. 1990. Wetland vegetation of Armenian SSR.
Monitoring and evaluation mechanisms should consider Academy of Sciences of Armenia: Yerevan. 353 pp. (In
a standard framework for assessment and feedback that Russian).
includes: extent that planned activities achieved their goals;
extent that overall objectives been achieved through these Biodiversity of Armenia: First National Report. 1999. Ministry
activities; initial information available; other information of Nature Protection: Yerevan. 126 pp.
that has become available; lessons that have been learned;
existing gaps; and correlation of initially planned activities.
Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan of Armenia. 1999.
Ministry of Nature Protection: Yerevan. 114 pp.
6.8
The Relevance and Quality of Scientifi c Research
Being Undertaken
Climatic Map of Armenian SSR. 1975. Academy of Sciences of
Armenia: Yerevan. 88 pp. (In Russian).
Scientifi c research on environmental conditions of Lake Sevan
and its catchment is a critical prerequisite for decision-makers
Gabrielyan, H. (ed.). 1984. Erosive and mudfl ow phenomena
for actions to prevent and/or mitigate negative factors. Lake
in Lake Sevan basin. Issues of Geography. Issues 1-2. Yerevan
Sevan has been the focus of continual scientifi c observations
State University: Yerevan. 248 pp. (In Russian).
since the establishment of Sevan Hydrobiological Station
in 1923. Since then, the staff of this institution were always
Jenderedjian, K.. 1997. Draft Management Plan for Lake Sevan.
among the most advanced investigators of internal waters in
RIZA. 26 pp.
the Soviet Union. Other institutions that have been involved
360 Lake
Sevan
Jenderedjian, K. et al. 1999. Inventory of Armenian Ramsar
sites: in search of ways for restoration of the lost and
rehabilitation of degraded wetlands, especially as a waterfowl
habitat. Final Report. Department of Especially Protected
Natural Areas: Yerevan-Sevan-Arpi. 142 pp.
Jenderedjian, K. et al. 2001. Implementation of the Ramsar
Strategic Plan in Management of Wetlands in Sevan National
Park. Final Report. Professional and Entrepreneurial
Orientation Union: Yerevan-Sevan. core 125 pp., addendum
72 pp.
Lake Sevan Action Program. Main Report. 1999. Ministry
of Nature Protection and The World Bank: Yerevan and
Washington, DC. 47 pp.
Manaserian, S. 1910. The Evaporating Billions and the
Stagnation of Russian Capital. In Kavkazski Vestnik. (In
Russian).
Mkrtchyan, S., L. Vardanyanc, A. Gabrielyan, I. Maghaqyan and
K. Paffengolc (eds.). 1969. The Geology of Armenian SSR. V. IX.
Mineral waters. Yerevan. 523 pp.
Pipoyan, S. and E. Tigranyan. 1998. "List of fi shes from the
Armenian waterbodies." Biological Journal of Armenia 4(51):
258-265. (In Russian).
Takhtajyan, A. 1954. "Map of Flora districts of Armenian SSR."
In Red Data Book of Armenia: Plants. Academy of Sciences of
Armenia: Yerevan. 30 pp. (In Russian).
Zakharyan. 1960. "Peat excavations of Armenian SSR." In
Collection of scientifi c works of Armenian Agricultural Institute,
I. Yerevan. pp. 249-251. (In Russian).
Disclaimer
The fi ndings, interpretations and conclusions expressed
in this report are the views of the authors and do not
necessarily represent the views of The World Bank and its
Board of Directors, or the countries they represent, nor do
they necessarily represent the view of the organizations,
agencies or governments to which any of the authors are
associated. Also, the colors, boundaries, denominations, and
classifi cations in this report do not imply, on the part of The
World Bank and its Board of Directors, or the countries they
represent, and the organizations, agencies or governments to
which any of the authors are associated, any judgment on the
legal or other status of any territory, or any endorsement or
acceptance of any boundary.
Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
361
Appendix. Environmental Legislation of Armenia.
Codes
The Criminal Code (1961) regulates criminal liabilities for tort, particularly violations of utilization of natural resources and
protection of environment.
The Tort Code (1985) regulates administrative responsibilities for crime, particularly crime concerned with natural resources and
environment.
The Forest Code (1994) regulates public relations in the fi elds of forest management, reproduction, protection and utilization.
The Land Code (1991/2001) regulates public relations in the fi elds of land management, fertility, increase of effi ciency of land use,
and different aspects of environment protection.
The Civil Code (1998) particularly regulates public and legal aspects of the use of natural resources and environmental protection.
The Ore Code (2002) defi nes ore as part of the earth's crust under the soil layer and in the absence of soil layer on surface,
below the bottom of the stagnant and fl owing water bodies. Treasures of the soil include underground fresh and mineral water,
sediments of the stagnant and fl owing water bodies.
The Water Code (2002/1992) aims at protection of national water resources, satisfaction of public needs in water supply
through effective management of exploitable water and protection of natural water bodies. The Code defi nes the principles of
management, use and protection of water resources and aquatic systems, and regulates issuing of permits for utilization of
water resources. According to the Code, water resources are surface and underground water, including brooks, rivers, springs,
wetlands, lakes, ponds and fi shponds, glaciers, water-bearing layer, other water bodies, and short-term water resources. All
water resources in Armenia are state property. The new Water Code aims to take into account the socio-economic and political
changes of the last decade, particularly with regard to land privatization and the establishment of private sector.
Laws
The Law on Principles of Environmental Protection (1991) regulates the principles of national environmental policy and aims to
protect the environment. It regulates the use of natural resources: ore, water, air, fl ora, and fauna.
The Law on Especially Protected Natural Areas (1991) regulates formation, organization, conservation and utilization of
especially protected natural areas. According to this law the following types of especially protected natural areas in Armenia are
state (strict) reserves, national parks, state (game) reserves, natural monuments.
The Law on Protection the Atmosphere and Air Quality (1994). The subject of the law is maintenance of atmosphere and air
quality, reduction and prevention of chemical, physical, biological and other negative infl uence.
The Law on Environmental Impact Expertise (1995) regulates expertise of impact of proposed actions or proposed projects,
general layouts or comprehensive schemes on the environment.
The Law on Payments for Nature Protection and Use of Natural Resources (1998) defi nes the concept of payments for nature
protection and use of natural resources, circle of payers, types of payments; and regulates procedure of payments and stock-
taking, and amenability for breaking of this Law.
The Law on Flora (1999) determines scientifi cally grounded protection, conservation, utilization and regeneration of plant
resources. The Law aims to regulate public relations in the sphere of conservation and use of plant resources.
The Law on Fauna (2000) determines scientifi cally grounded protection, conservation, utilization and regeneration of animal
resources. The Law aims to regulate public relations in the sphere of conservation and use of animal resources.
The Law about Lake Sevan (2001) regulates public relations in conservation, restoration, reproduction, natural development and
utilization of ecosystems of Lake Sevan, as well as its catchment and economic zone.
The Law about Approval of Annual and Complex Measures on Conservation, Restoration, Reproduction, and Use of the
Ecosystem of Lake Sevan (2001) approves annual and complex measures on conservation, restoration, reproduction, and use of
water, plant and animal resources of Lake Sevan and its basin, including quotas.
The Law on Examination of the Ore for the Purposes of Excavation of Minerals (2002) regulates the policy of granting
concessions in the fi eld exploitation of minerals.
The Law about Local Government (2002) determines responsibilities of institutions of local governing, particularly responsibilities
for management of territories of communal ownership.
Related Selected Government Decrees
Government Decree No. 125 of 14 March 1978 on establishment of Sevan National Park.
Government Decree No. 23 of 26 January 1996 on approval of the "Regulations of commercial fi shery in Lake Sevan Park".
Government Decree No. 864 of 30 November 1998 on margins of payments for use of natural resources.
Government Decree No. 927-N of 30 May 2002 on reorganization of Sevan National Park into a "state non-commercial
organization" and approving the "Regulations of Sevan National Park".
Government Decree No. 1380-N of 22 August 2002 on approval of the "Regulations of issuing licenses and signing treaties on use
of animal resources for agricultural and industrial purposes".
362 Lake
Sevan