Lake Biwa
Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
Tatuo Kira, Retired, Lake Biwa Research Institute, Otsu, Japan
Shinji Ide*, University of Shiga Prefecture, Hikone, Japan, ide@ses.usp.ac.jp
Fumio Fukada, Retired, Shiga Prefectural Government, Otsu, Japan
Masahisa Nakamura, Shiga University, Otsu, Japan
* Corresponding author
1. Introduction
The history of the lake's management is also one of confl icts
over water utilization and fl ood control between Shiga
This brief outlines the major management issues for Lake Biwa,
Prefecture and the central government or the downstream
the largest freshwater lake in Japan. The lake and its watershed
mega-cities, including Kyoto, Osaka and Kobe. The Lake Biwa
communities have enjoyed a common history for thousands of
Comprehensive Development Project (LBCDP), the largest
years, fostering a unique lake
culture in the surrounding
area. The birth of the lake can
be traced back to some four
million years ago. As one of
few ancient lakes in the world,
it embraces a rich ecosystem,
with fi fty-seven endemic
species being recorded. At
the same time, it is a principal
water resource in Japan,
supplying drinking water for 14
million people in its watershed
and downstream areas.
Additionally, its catchment
area is highly industrialized
and urbanized, being inhabited
by approximately 1.3 million
people, with the population
still increasing at one of the
highest growth rates in Japan.
The lake also attracts people
with its scenic beauty; every
year some 30 million tourists
visit the lake.
A key characteristic of the lake
in terms of lake management
is the fact that its watershed
coincides almost perfectly
with the boundaries of Shiga
Prefecture. Thus, the history of
the lake's management is one of
environmental administration
by the prefectural government,
which has taken an integrated
and holistic approach
toward the management and
conservation of Lake Biwa.
Figure 1. Lake Biwa and Yodo River Basin.

---

water resources development project in Japan, was launched
to become the Yodo River, which fl ows into Osaka Bay and
to resolve the confl icts, as well as serve as a tool for local
eventually to the Pacifi c Ocean.
economic and water resources development. The framework
of the LBCDP made it possible to utilize the large quantity of
The annual precipitation and average temperature in the
funds from the central and downstream local governments,
catchment area are about 1,700 mm and 14°C, respectively.
which are needed to implement not only water resources Because it never freezes, the lake is classifi ed as a semi-
development but also conservation works for the lake and tropical lake. Thermocline formation is observed from May to
its watershed. With LBCDP, deterioration of Lake Biwa water
November in the North Basin, but not in the South Basin. Lake
quality has been prevented to some degree. However, as Biwa is a typical monomictic lake.
discussed further below, a negative legacy from the project
came into prominence during this same period, even though it
The lake was formed about four million years ago, therefore
was neglected at that time.
being one of the oldest lakes in the world geologically. It was
originally located some distance south and moved gradually
Nevertheless, the environmental administration, particularly
to its present place about 430,000 years ago. The long history
of the water environment of Shiga Prefecture, for which the
of isolation from the other regional water bodies is suggested
conservation of Lake Biwa is a top-priority, has always led,
by the lake's biota, which is fairly rich for an island lake. More
rather than followed, the relevant activities of the central than 1,000 animal and plant species, including 57 endemic
government. Further, the environmental consciousness of species, have been recorded in the lake. Among the endemic
the citizens of Shiga Prefecture for the lake gave birth to the
species, 12 are fi shes and 38 are benthos including many
Soap Movement, the most successful citizens' movement mollusk species.
in Japan, enabling the prefectural government to enact
the Eutrophication Control Ordinance, the very fi rst act for Lake Biwa is an invaluable freshwater resource in terms of
eutrophication control in Japan.
fi shery and water supply. Its scenic beauty and recreational
amenities also attract large numbers of tourists. The national
Lessons learned from the history of lake management and park area encompassing Lake Biwa is also one of the most
pollution issues and countermeasures for Lake Biwa should be
visited recreational sites in Japan. The navigational use of the
highly informative and helpful for many lakes facing the same
lake, limited today mostly to pleasure boat tours, was quite
types of issues.
important until the 1950s, both for passenger and commercial
transportation. In addition, for the native Shiga residents,
2. Background
Lake Biwa has been the source of spiritual and even religious
inspirations. Shiga is called "Lake Country." The social and
2.1 Biophysical
Features
cultural settings of the watershed communities have naturally
been affected greatly by the history of their interaction with
Lake Biwa is the largest lake in Japan, with a surface area of
the lake, having evolved over thousands of years. Lake Biwa's
670 km2. Located in the uppermost reaches of the Yodo River
water, together with water from the Kizu and Katsura Rivers,
Basin in central Honshu Island, it occupies one sixth of the
is used for municipal, industrial and agricultural purposes in
jurisdictional area of Shiga Prefecture lying upstream of Osaka
Kyoto, Osaka and other downstream areas of the lake. The
and Kyoto Prefectures (Figure 1). The lake consists of a minor
average amounts of water used for municipal, industrial and
basin in the south (South Basin) and a major basin in the north
agricultural purposes are 6.6 million, 1.2 million, and 23.6
(North Basin), the latter being 11 times greater in surface area
million m3/day, respectively. The water for municipal use is
than the former. The South Basin has an average depth of only
distributed to 8 cities, 28 townships and 1 village in Shiga,
4 m, while the North Basin has an average depth of 43 m. The
Kyoto, Osaka and Hyogo Prefectures, with the combined
lake has a volume of 27.5 km3 and a shoreline length of 235
population served being about 14 million.
km. The water retention time is around 5.5 years, with 15 years
needed for a complete fl ushing of the lake. The watershed
The industrial water demand, which is less than 20% of
(3,848 km2), including the lake itself, is almost identical to
municipal demand, has been declining over time, due to a
the jurisdictional area of Shiga Prefecture. It covers 90% of
decrease in the number of water-intense industries in the
the prefectural land, and consist of forest-covered hills and
region, as well as to improved water-use effi ciency over the
mountains (50.6%), rice paddy fi elds and other farmlands past few decades. The agricultural water use takes place
(14.7%), urban and industrial areas (18%), and the lake itself
mostly in Shiga and Osaka Prefectures, about two thirds being
(16.7%). Over the past decades, the urban and industrial areas
in the former and one third in the latter.
have been expanding, especially in the southeastern part of
the watershed. The population in the catchment area has been
2.2
Political and Socio-economic Features on
increasing at the second highest growth rate in Japan, being
Development and Conservation
approximately 1.3 million inhabitants at the present time.
While more than 400 tributaries fl ow into the lake, only one
Shiga Prefecture, which contains 98% of the entire Lake Biwa
natural watercourse, the Seta River, fl ows out of Lake Biwa.
and its catchment area, was economically underdeveloped
The Seta River is joined by the Kizu and the Katsura Rivers
until approximately the mid-1970s. The strong desire of
60 Lake
Biwa

---

the watershed communities for economic and regional consistent legal framework for lake management may ideally
development of the lake watershed was partially fulfi lled by
become a major concern for the community. The legislative
the Kinki Region Improvement Law (KRIL) of 1963, in which
scheme devised in each phase of lake management refl ects
the lake watershed was designated as a development zone
the administrative response towards fulfi llment of such
within the framework of the national development plan for the
needs in each community. As the phase evolves, however, the
Kinki Region (the centrally located prefectures of Shiga, Kyoto,
resource management confl icts can become more severe, and
Nara, Wakayama, Osaka and Hyogo). Once designated as a
the development of legal schemes of compromise in resource
development zone, the regional authority was required to lay
use and conservation become more and more problematic.
out specifi c plans for appropriate population size, labor force
After the completion of LBCDP, for example, the pursuit of
requirements, categories of industry to be promoted, land use
an appropriate legislative framework for comprehensive
and the required infrastructure systems, and to mobilize the
conservation, or the enactment of a special Law for Lake
appropriate fi nancial resources.
Biwa Comprehensive Conservation (LBCCP), became a major
interest for Shiga Prefecture. Such a legislative framework,
The enactment of a Special Law for Lake Biwa Comprehensive
however, was not realized because, for the national and
Development (LLBCD) of 1972 was implemented within the downstream local governments, the investment requirements
framework of KRIL, within which a comprehensive set of for the conservation components (such as construction of a
projects for water resource development, fl ood control and
comprehensive sewerage system around the lake) had already
regional infrastructure development. It was called the Lake been included and implemented as part of LBCDP.
Biwa Comprehensive Development Project (LBCDP: 1972-
1997).
3. Biophysical
Environment
The type and scale of development taking place in and around
3.1
Past and Current Conditions
a lake's watershed invariably affects the quantity of water to
be withdrawn out of the lake. Water resource development
The water quality of Lake Biwa deteriorated signifi cantly during
policy, therefore, is generally closely intertwined with regional
the high economic growth era of the 1960s, due mainly to rapid
economic development policy. In the case of Lake Biwa, the
population growth, inadequate wastewater treatment, and the
demand for water in the downstream region of Lake Biwa, abuse of agro-chemicals in the catchment area. A wide variety
called the Keihanshin (Kyoto, Osaka and Kobe) area, was of countermeasures, including the strengthening of industrial
projected in the mid-1960s to dramatically increase in the effl uent standards, prohibition of the use of phosphate-
following decades.
containing synthetic detergents, and construction of sewerage
systems have been conducted since then to prevent further
However, LBCDP did not readily deliver its goals. Instead, deterioration of lake water quality. With those efforts, success
there was a major confl ict between the central government,
in avoiding its further degradation has been achieved (Figure
which wanted to implement a large-scale development project,
2); however, no indication of improved lake water quality has
and the prefectural government, which wanted to minimize
yet been noted. More details are provided in Section 3.2.
the destruction of nature by the project. After several years
of scientifi c debate and diffi cult political negotiation, Shiga
In the meantime, signifi cant changes have been induced
Prefecture was successful, to some extent, in turning back by human activities to the littoral and catchment area over
the original large-scale development plan proposed by the the past decades. There previously were 29 km2 of lagoons
central government. Shiga Prefecture, central government and
downstream governments eventually came to agreement in
10
regard to the enactment of LLBCD mentioned above to realize a
9
major national project, LBCDP.
8
7
For the Keihanshin Region, the development of water resources
from Lake Biwa constituted part of a comprehensive water
6
resource development for the whole of Yodo River, whose
5
water resource management is dictated by the River Law of
ency (m)
4
North Basin (central)
1964 (revised in 1997), and the Water Resource Development
South Basin
3
Law of 1961.
anspar
Tr
2
The development and conservation needs arising within a
1
watershed community usually evolve over time. Generally, the
0
needs often shift from those directed toward development,
1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
followed by those directed toward control of environmental
Year
degradation and, eventually, by those directed toward
conservation and restoration of natural resource values. Figure 2. Water Transparency in Lake Biwa (Source: Adapted
from Shiga Prefecture Environmental White Papers).
In the end, the pursuit of a comprehensive, coherent and

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
61

---

scattered around the lake. These lagoons provided breeding
Biwa, its high density (relative to warmer lake water) means
and spawning sites for native fi sh, and acted as buffer zones
that it fl ows to the bottom of the lake, thereby adding a large
to reduce land-based nutrient loadings to the lake. However,
volume of oxygen to the lowest water layers. Due to the lower
most were reclaimed to form new paddy fi elds before and snowmelt runoff in recent years, however, the oxygen supply
after World War II (WWII), with only 4 km2 remaining today.
associated with the snowmelt water is decreasing, resulting in
Natural lakeshore areas have been gradually disappearing the development of an anoxic (oxygen-depleted) zone in the
because of the development of the lakeshore. The area of reed
deep water layer of the North Basin in the summer. This lack of
belts also has decreased, being less than one half of the area
dissolved oxygen may exacerbate the further deterioration of
existing in the 1950s. Most of the rivers fl owing into the lake
the lake's water quality.
were straightened and concreted for fl ood control purposes.
Meanwhile, urbanization due to rapid population growth has
3.2
History of Lake Degradation
continued in the catchment area, resulting in a decrease in the
green areas.
The history of environmental issues, particularly of water
quality degradation in Lake Biwa, can be categorized into four
Through farmland improvement projects, the irrigation system
phases.
for agriculture has totally changed. Irrigation ditches were
completely separated from drainage ditches, with a vertical
The fi rst phase was characterized as fi sheries damage caused
interval being installed between the paddy fi elds and drainage
by agro-chemicals. After WW II, a large area of lagoons around
ditches to improve drain capacity. As a result, the use of water
the lake was converted to new farmlands, for the purpose of
in a cascade style, as practices in past times, can no longer be
eliminating poverty and alleviating food shortages. At the
seen, and fi sh cannot swim up to paddy fi elds for breeding.
same time, signifi cant quantities of agro-chemicals were
About 44% of the entire farmland in Shiga Prefecture is applied to increase crop yields and alleviate farm production
irrigated today with water pumped from the lake. The drainage
problems, resulting in serious soil and water pollution in Shiga
water from the farmlands fl ows through drainage ditches Prefecture. The most serious issue was the massive death of
directly into the lake.
fi sh by PCP, a commonly used herbicide at that time. The loss
of the lake fi shery in 1962 was estimated to be valued at 400
The area of forests in the catchment area has been decreasing
million yen. To cope with this issue, the prefectural government
due to rapid urbanization in Shiga Prefecture since the 1960s.
set a guideline for the use of agro-chemicals for the fi rst time
More importantly, a large area of pinewoods, which were in Japan, directing farmers to use them appropriately, and
previously used intensively as secondary forests providing particularly not to use some of them within a 6 km area around
fuel woods and green manures for people, have been gradually
the lakeshore. A few years later, the Agricultural Chemicals
shifting to deciduous forests. As a result, the forests are no
Regulation Law was revised, with the use of persistent and
longer used as much since WWII.
hazardous agro-chemicals, including PCP, BHC, and DDT, being
completely prohibited in Japan.
Fish catches in Lake Biwa have been declining dramatically,
today being almost one third of the catch in the late-1960s.
The second phase was in the era of environmental pollution in
Most of the native fi sh breed in the littoral area or lagoons
the 1970s. During the high economic growth era in the 1960s,
around the lake. Due to road construction along the lakeshore,
many pollution issues, such as Minamata disease, Itai-Itai
reclamation of lagoons, and changes in the irrigation system
disease (cadmium poisoning), Niigata Minamata disease,
for paddy fi elds in the catchment area, however, many endemic
and Yokkaichi asthma, were rapidly spreading nationwide,
cyprinid fi shes have lost their breeding and nursery sites. even as the standard of living in Japan went up dramatically.
Another hazard for the fi sh is the intentional lowering of the
Shiga Prefecture was no exception; heavy metal pollution by
lake water level in June, which coincides with their primary
antimony and fi shery pollution by PCBs occurred in 1968 and
spawning season. As a result, their eggs would dry up, even
1972, respectively. To address these problems, the prefectural
if they succeeded spawning. Furthermore, if their eggs could
government enacted the Pollution Control Ordinance in
hatch, the juvenile fi sh would be killed by invasive species
1969, laying down stricter effl uent standards for industrial
(e.g., large-mouth bass and bluegill) or by toxic herbicides or
wastewater. The national Water Pollution Control Law also
insecticides being spread on, and fl owing out of paddy fi elds in
went into effect in 1971.
the lake catchment area.
Although the environmental issues in Phase 1 and 2 were
Another major concern today is the potentially adverse effects
serious, they were nevertheless very local in impact, with the
of global warming on the lake. According to climate change
damages being confi ned mainly to the fi shery. However, the
model predictions, the quantity of snow falling in Japan is characteristics of the environmental issues changed entirely
projected to decrease signifi cantly over the coming decades.
in Phase 3, which began with the outbreak of "freshwater red
Presumably because of global warming, in fact, the quantity of
tide" in 1977. The phenomenal economic growth in Japan in the
snow accumulation has been declining in the Shiga Prefecture
1960s, which caused severe environmental stresses across the
over the past decades. The water in the snowmelt is cold and
country, also began to affect the water quality of this lake as
contains high levels of dissolved oxygen. As it enters Lake
a whole behind the scenes. As early as 1959, the outbreak of
62 Lake
Biwa

---

Closterium aciculare caused clogging of sand fi lters in a water
Environmental issues involving Lake Biwa are now in Phase 4,
purifi cation plant in Kyoto for the fi rst time. Eutrophication
which focuses on the degradation of the lake and the lakeshore
became more severe, with the trophic state of the North Basin
ecosystems. Environmental policy in Japan has traditionally
changing from oligotrophic to mesotrophic and the South focused on the achievement and compliance of environmental
Basin from mesotrophic to eutrophic. The lake's biota began to
standards for water quality, thereby not typically considering
exhibit correspondingly drastic negative changes. The blooms
ecosystems and landscapes, for which no standards have yet
of the bluegreen alga Oscillatoria resulted in taste and odor
been set. Consequently degradation in the lake and its littoral
problems in drinking water for the fi rst time in 1969. There
ecosystems, including disappearance of natural lakeshore,
also have been frequent occurrences of "freshwater red tide"
has become a serious issue for Lake Biwa today. Recognizing
from the bloom of the fl agellate alga, Uroglena Americana, the
this defi ciency, in 2000 the prefectural government developed
fi rst outbreak of which took place at the west side of the North
the Lake Biwa Comprehensive Conservation Plan, called
Basin in 27 May 1977 (Figure 3).
"Mother Lake 21 Plan," literally directed to the comprehensive
conservation of the lake and its watershed. The plan sets up
The population in Shiga Prefecture was shocked by this three major goals for 2050: the water quality to be restored
incident, which made people realize that eutrophication of to the level of the late 1950s; the basin inhabitants to live
the lake was escalating. From then on, the environmental together in harmony with the forests and make full use of the
awareness of the Shiga Prefecture population rose natural water cycle; and a variety of unique creatures living in
considerably. For example, the Soap Movement (See more a rich natural ecosystem. Within the framework of this plan,
details in Section 4.4), which was initiated by women's the establishment of citizens' watershed organization in each
consumer groups in the 1970s, was backed by strong public
major river fl owing into the lake also has been promoted for
support that eventually spread out throughout the prefecture.
these years.
This citizens' movement pressured the prefectural government
to enact the Eutrophication Control Ordinance in 1979. This
Meanwhile, the disturbance of the lake ecosystem, as
ordinance set stricter effl uent standards on phosphorus and,
exemplifi ed by a decrease in native and endemic fi sh because
for the fi rst time in Japan, prohibited the use of phosphate-
of invasive fi sh species, is becoming more apparent. In addition,
containing synthetic detergents.
with improved accessibility to the lakeshore, more tourists
visit and make use of the shoreline for recreational purposes.
This ordinance helped improve the quality of the lake water in
As a result, littering with garbage, fi sh lines, and lures has
the early-1980s. Nevertheless, the rate of improvement faded
become a serious issue. Other environmentally-related issues
quickly in the latter part of the 1980s, and the lake water has
are noise pollution from personal watercraft, water pollution
exhibited signs of water quality deterioration ever since. Today
by gas emissions from pleasure boats, and beach impacts of
much focus is placed on how to control non-point sources of
recreational vehicles. To protect the living environment along
nutrients in the catchment area. The outbreak of bluegreen
the lakeshore, and the ecosystems in the lake and its littoral
algae Anabaena and Microcystis occurred for the fi rst time area, the prefectural government enacted the Ordinance for
in the South Basin in 1994, the most severe drought year Appropriate Leisure Use of Lake Biwa in 2002. The ordinance
on record. All these phenomena have recurred almost every
designates regulatory zonings for pleasure boats, prohibits the
summer since their initial appearances.
use of personal watercraft with 2-cycle engines, and forbids
the release of invasive fi sh once they are caught.
South Basin
3.3
Lake and Drainage Basin Resource Confl icts
14
North Basin
As implied in Section 2.2, the history of Lake Biwa and Yodo
12
River water management was one of a confl ict of interests and
10
their resolution, in terms of fl ood control and water utilization

between the Keihanshin Area downstream, particularly the
8
Greater Osaka Region, and Shiga Prefecture upstream. Early
in the history of Lake Biwa management, the communities in
6
ophyll a (g/L)
the immediate surroundings of Lake Biwa experienced severe
4
fl ooding of their agricultural fi elds. The practical solution
Chlor
at that time was to increase the discharge capacity of the
2
outfl owing Seta River by dredging, which might, however,
0
also increase the risk of fl ooding in the downstream Osaka
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
area. The national government fi nally agreed, after the severe
fl ooding of 1896 (in which the water level rose 3.76 m, keeping
Year
some of the watershed communities in water for up to 220
Figure 3. Chlorophyll-a Concentration in Lake Biwa (Source:
days), to a major dredging of the Seta River at the outlet of
Adapted from Shiga Prefecture Environmental
the lake, in combination with the construction of Seta Weir, the
White Papers).
only artifi cial water-fl ow control facility of the lake outfl ow. The

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
63

---

weir, constructed in 1905 and renovated in 1961, controls the
by installation of fl ow control gates along the Lake Biwa
lake level and water discharge rate to Yodo River.
coastline, as well as along the Yodo River itself; and (3) to
improve the water irrigation pipelines and sewerage systems
In regard to water resources development, the fi rst signifi cant
around the lake. The fi nancial support for these massive
human intervention took the form of the construction of development projects came from the national government, the
a canal linking the lake with Kyoto City, initiated in 1874 downstream prefectural and municipal governments, as well
and completed in 1885. The city, whose development had as Shiga Prefecture. The LBCDP cost 1.9 trillion yen, becoming
been hampered by a lack of water at that time, was able to
the largest project ever implemented for water resources
regain its economic strength. Nearly a century later, another
development in Japan. The project laid sound foundations for
major human intervention for water resources development
fl ood control and water utilization, and industrial and urban
was introduced in the form of the previously-noted LBCDP, infrastructures, boosting the economy of Shiga. As a result,
when the phenomenal economic growth in Japan after WWII
the average income of the Shiga Prefecture population is
prompted a sharp increase in water demands in the late the third highest in Japan, behind only the Tokyo and Aichi
1960s in the downstream Yodo River and Osaka Bay area. The
Prefectures. There are many factories associated with high-
industrial use of groundwater in the region also was becoming
tech industries around the lake, in which, for example, 60% of
severely constrained due to competition between industrial
the desalinization membrane in the world are produced.
establishments, as well as land subsidence caused by the
overuse of the water. Domestic water supply needs also began
It should be also noted that the largest portion of the project
to increase in the Yodo River area after suburban cities joined
expense (26.6%), was used for the development of sewerage
Osaka in requiring access to Yodo River water, leading to the
systems2 in the catchment area, which was very effective in
inception of large-scale water resource development (LBCDP).
reducing nutrient loading from domestic sources to the lake.
The Lake Biwa Comprehensive Development Project (LBCDP)
The LBCDP, however, also triggered massive destruction of the
was a major national project (Figure 4), with its primary object
lakeshore and littoral ecosystems as a result, and possibly
being provision of additional supply of Lake Biwa water to the
degradation in the lake water quality, becoming a major
downstream region. The specifi c goals of the project were:
confl ict over the development versus the conservation of Lake
(1) to construct levees1 around the lake, with various fl ow
Biwa. In 1976, demanding the right to enjoy clear water (a
control structures to enable the release of an additional 40
kind of environmental right), more than 1,000 citizens, mostly
m3/sec of lake water through the Yodo River; (2) to improve
residents of Osaka, initiated a lawsuit against the central and
the fl ood control capability of rivers by channelization, and
Shiga Prefectural governments to stop the project. Although
the plaintiffs lost the case after 13 years of civil lawsuit, the
fundamental argumentation in this case came to fruition with
the enactment in 1992 by the Shiga Prefectural Government of
the Reed Belt Conservation Ordinance, the fi rst act in Japan
advocating the importance of an ecosystem, and the Basic
Environment Ordinance in 1996. In line with the trend of the
times, the concern of the watershed inhabitants has been
shifting from comprehensive development to comprehensive
conservation of Lake Biwa.
4. Management
Environment
4.1
Lake Management Programs and Processes
4.1.1 Flood Control and Water Level Control
The water level of Lake Biwa, being controlled by the Seta
Weir, may rise up to 1.4 m above the Biwa-ko Surface Level
(BSL) to prevent downstream fl ooding in the case of torrential
rains, whereas it may decline down to 1.5 m below BSL to meet
downstream water demand in the case of drought. To cope
with such water level fl uctuations, embankments surrounding
the lake were constructed to protect the lakeshore areas,
and drainage facilities were installed to prevent those areas
from inundation within the framework of LBCDP, in which
many mudslide and fl ood control dams also were constructed
upstream of the watershed and courses of many rivers
downstream were changed and improved for fl ood control.
Figure 4. Basic Framework of the LBCDP.
64 Lake
Biwa

---

The fl ood control measures made within LBCDP have been have been turned into conifer plantations, they are not well
successful to some degree, with fl ood damages in the lake
maintained today, since forestry in Japan as a whole has been
watershed and downstream areas declining signifi cantly.
declining and the numbers of forest workers decreasing. A
However, adverse effects of water level control on the lake
plan for the future of forestry in Shiga Prefecture is still being
and its littoral ecosystems have since become prominent, sought. Ironically, however, ecological services provided by the
even though they were not as apparent at the beginning of
forests in the catchment area have been enhanced.
LBCDP implementation. To this end, and involving a wide range
of stakeholders, a process to review the rule of water level
4.1.4 Fishery
control at Seta Weir was begun a few years ago.
Fishing is not a major industry in Shiga Prefecture. Thus, there
is no serious water pollution associated with aquacultures in
4.1.2 Agriculture
the lake. However, fi shery in Lake Biwa has fostered a unique
Pumping facilities to lift the lake water also were established
food culture in the prefecture, including small Ayu fi sh boiled in
widely over the prefecture within the LBCDP framework. sweetened soy sauce and "Funa-Zushi", a ferment food made
Prior to these facilities, Shiga Prefecture population relied of indigenous cyprinid fi sh named "Nigorobuna" (Carassius
exclusively on rivers and groundwater for irrigation. Of a total
auratus grandoculis). In addition, among other diverse
of 600 km2 of farmland in Shiga, 90% is paddy fi elds3. For
piscatologies, "Eri", a unique and traditional fi xed-trap netting
many years, people in most parts of Shiga Prefecture suffered
in the lake, provides a scenic beauty shape off the shores. The
from water shortage for rice cultivation. Thus, many, sluice
lake fi shery plays a central role in the Japanese freshwater
gates and reservoirs were constructed, developing a very fi shery. Shiga Prefecture also ships a large quantity of juvenile
water-conserving irrigation system, in which water discharged
Ayu fi sh (Plecoglossus altivelis altivelis), the most popular
from upstream paddy fi elds was used in downstream fi eld in
freshwater fi sh in Japan, to the other prefectures, although the
a cascade manner. Such irrigation watercourses connected shipment today is not as much as it used to be. Cultivation of
paddy fi elds, creeks, and lagoons, thereby also establishing
freshwater pearls also was once-booming in the lake.
water corridors for aquatic lives. The corridors acted as
regulating pondages, and created unique and irreplaceable The LBCDP cast a shadow over the lake fi sheries. Within the
semi-artifi cial ecosystems around the lake.
project, fi shermen were paid a high level of compensation,
separate from one for individual lakeshore development, for
However, today farmers in Shiga Prefecture can use as much
the lowering of the lake water level associated with the project.
water as they want and, when necessary, with the pumping
With this compensation, expensive, high-tech fi shing boats
facilities. They have no incentive to save water. In addition,
and gears became available for fi shermen, thereby aggravating
because of the complete separation of irrigation and drainage
over-fi shing of the lake to some extent.
ditches with farmland improvement projects, all the drainage
water from paddy fi elds runs through drainage ditches Fishermen in Shiga Prefecture recently are trying to shift from a
directly into the lake. Further, aquatic creatures can no longer
fi shery of catching to one of cultivating. Stocking the lake with
migrate within the water corridors. Thus, the unique aquatic
artifi cially hatched and raised native fi sh has been attempted.
ecosystems are on the verge of disappearing.
However, because of the loss of breeding and spawning sites
for native fi sh together with adverse effects of invasive fi sh, fi sh
4.1.3 Forestry
catches in Shiga Prefecture have been declining signifi cantly.
Most of the forests in Shiga Prefecture are secondary forests,
Thus, the lake fi shery faces serious problems today.
consisting of two types which have been utilized sustainably,
but in different ways. Forests on the slopes of the mountains
4.1.5 Nature
Conservation
in the watershed which border the lake's basin were formerly
Lake Biwa and its surrounding areas were designated in
used for commercial fuel, mainly charcoal, production. Those
1950 as the fi rst quasi-national park in Japan. Together
fuel forests, dominated by oak and other deciduous trees, have
with four other nature reserves, protected areas occupy
been cut periodically at 20-30 year intervals and, thereafter,
37% of the lake catchment area. Some 30 million tourists
left for natural regeneration by sprouting from cut stumps.
come to Shiga Prefecture each year to enjoy its nature and
On the other hand, forests covering low hills located near picturesque beauties. The lake is also an important wintering
villages were used by farmers to harvest undergrowth plants
site for migratory birds, including ducks, and thus became a
and litter as manures for paddy fi elds, as well as to obtain
designated wetland of the Ramsar Convention in 1993. On the
fuel wood, resulting in the dominance of pine trees that can
other hand, agricultural damage by wild life, including boars,
tolerate severely exploited poor soils. However, such functions
deer, and monkeys, and fi sheries damage by cormorant have
of both forest types became no longer necessary after WWII
become serious issues. In addition, abuse of the lake and
with the advent of oil fuel and chemical fertilizers. As a result,
lakeshore by excessive numbers of visitors is causing another
pine woods, which once surrounded farming villages, have serious issue, as previously discussed in Section 3.2.
been rapidly disappearing. The rate of disappearance has
been accelerated by the outbreak of pine-wilt disease, and
by changing to deciduous forests more or less resembling
fuel forests. Although considerable area of former fuel forests

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
65

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4.2
Reduction of Lake Stresses
In the wake of the freshwater red tide in 1977, the
Eutrophication Control Ordinance was enacted in 1979.
The regulatory program for industrial discharge control began
The ordinance prohibits the use, sale, and gift of synthetic
to take effect fi rst in Japan in the early 1970s. Preceding this
detergents containing phosphate; sets the very fi rst nitrogen
movement of the central government, the Shiga Prefectural
and phosphorus standards for industrial effl uent in the
Government enacted the Pollution Control Ordinance in 1969
world; and formulates guidelines for the appropriate use of
to regulate industrial wastewaters.
artifi cial fertilizers and the management of irrigation water in
agriculture, and for appropriate treatment of livestock wastes
In 1970, environmental standards for water quality were and gray waters from domestic sources (guidelines which were
established, based upon the Basic Law for Environmental to control non-point sources of nitrogen and phosphorus). The
Pollution Control of 1967. They consist of standards for the
ordinance is highly regarded, since it recognized the need to
protection of human health and for the conservation of living
reduce the external loading of nitrogen and phosphorus to
conditions; the former were applied to all waterbodies, and
prevent lake eutrophication, and that comprehensive and well-
the latter were further classifi ed into six types by taking into
planned countermeasures are indispensable for addressing
consideration the kind of waterbody, either rivers, lakes or the problem. Such countermeasures are necessary, since
seas, and its current usage and water quality. Lake Biwa is
nitrogen and phosphorus may drain from a wide range of
classifi ed as Type AA, the clearest water, because it is the most
sources which often cannot be readily differentiated from the
important freshwater body in Japan.
victims in this issue, a fundamentally different characteristic
from point source pollution.
As the Water Pollution Control Law went into effect in 1971, the
prefectural government set another stricter standard, which
The Eutrophication Control Ordinance of Shiga Prefecture had
topped the national standards for industrial wastewaters, a tremendous infl uence on the water quality control of lakes
as well as revised the Pollution Control Ordinance4. The and environmental movements in Japan. Six years later after
revised ordinance adopted a license system for installation
its implementation, the national Water Pollution Control Law
and change of specifi c facilities using hazardous materials;
was revised, setting down effl uent standards of nitrogen and
strengthened effl uent standards on hazardous substances phosphorus for lakes for the fi rst time. In addition, with a view
as severe as environmental standards; and established an to taking comprehensive and systematic actions to improve
additional standard for antimony, as antimony pollution only
water quality of lakes, a Special Law for Lake Water Quality
occurred in Shiga Prefecture..
Conservation was enacted in 1984 at the national level, in
which each local government in charge of a designated lake
In short, the central and prefectural government's policy of
has to formulate a water quality conservation plan every fi ve
the 1970s for water pollution control was to achieve and years.
comply the environmental standards by controlling industrial
wastewaters, based on the type of receiving waterbody. With
With the enforcement of the Eutrophication Control Ordinance,
all the above efforts, the water quality of Lake Biwa has the phosphorus concentration of the South Basin has
complied with the environmental standards for human health
apparently decreased. However, environmental standards for
up to the present time.
0.035
0.5
0.030
0.4
0.025
0.020
0.3
South Basin
0.015
North Basin
ogen (mg/L)
0.2
0.010
South Basin
0.1
North Basin
0.005
T
otal Phosphorus (mg/L)
T
otal Nitr
0.000
0.0
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
Year
Year
Figures 5 and 6.
Total Phosphorus and Total Nitrogen Concentrations in Lake Biwa (Source: Adapted from Shiga Prefecture
Environmental White Papers).
66 Lake
Biwa

---

phosphorus (0.01 mg/L) and nitrogen (0.2 mg/L) have not yet
quality of Lake Biwa has not been apparent because of the
been achieved for the entire lake (see Figures 5 and 6).
lake's long water retention time, and because of persistent
pollutant loading from non-point sources in the catchment
To protect the water quality of Lake Biwa, Shiga Prefecture has
area. Unfortunately, very little activity has been implemented
the strictest industrial wastewater effl uent standards in Japan.
beyond those dictated in the Eutrophication Control Ordinance
Factories and establishments have installed highly advanced
to control pollution loading from non-point sources in Shiga,
facilities for wastewater treatment to comply with these even though the importance of the latter is highly recognized5.
standards. In addition, the construction of treatment plants
The reduction and reuse of irrigation return fl ow from paddy
for human wastes and treatment facilities for communities'
fi elds are the only countermeasures that have been attempted,
wastewater have been facilitated in Shiga Prefecture since the
and which have not yet produced any effective results.
late-1970s under the framework of the LBCDP, as well as the
construction of sewerage system, the population coverage of
In the mean time, the prefectural government enacted the Basic
the latter being far below the national average in the 1970s. All
Environment Ordinance in 1996, with the goal of promoting
the treatment facilities are capable of removing nitrogen and
and implementing its environmental policies toward sound
phosphorus. The population coverage of sewerage treatment
and high quality environment. One of its fundamental policies
in Shiga Prefecture is today greater than 70%, compared to the
is to achieve a harmonious coexistence of nature and humans,
national average of 60%.
while other policies are directed to developing a recycling-
oriented society, achieving a sound environment with citizens'
With the above-noted infrastructure, pollution loading to participation, and contributing to the solution of global
the lake from point sources in its catchment area has been
environmental issues. This ordinance was lead by the Reed
considerably reduced. However, improvement in the water Belt Conservation Ordinance, which is to protect and cultivate
Table 1. Legislative Framework for the Management of Lake Biwa and its Catchment Area.
Objectives
Name of laws and ordinances
Long term objectives and guidelines for
· Basic Environment Law
environment policy
· Basic Environment Ordinance*
· Mother Lake 21 Plan*
Regulation on water withdrawal and
· River Law*
diversion
Pollution control
· Water Pollution Control Law*: Environmental standards for human health,
living conditions, and eutrophication control
· Special Law for Lake Water Quality Conservation*: Conservation plan for water
quality including chemical oxygen demand (COD), total nitrogen and total
phosphorus
· Ordinance for more stringent prefectural effl uent standards based upon Water
Pollution Control Law*: Effl uent standards for human health, living conditions,
and eutrophication control
· Pollution Control Ordinance*: Addition of control subjects and parameters
Eutrophication Control Ordinance*: Regulation on detergents, industrial
effl uents, fertilizers, etc.
· Domestic Wastewater Control Ordinance6
Regulation on development
· National Land Utilization Planning Law: National land use plan and general
plan of land use
· City Planning Law: Urbanization-designated and -restricted areas
· Law Concerning the Improvement of the Agricultural Promotion Area:
Agricultural developing area
· Forest Law: Regional forest plan
· Natural Parks Law
· Natural Environment Conservation Ordinance
· Prefectural Natural Parks Ordinance
· Environmental Impact Assessment Ordinance
Conservation of Ecosystems
· Nature Protection Law
· Wildlife Protection and Hunting Law
· Natural Environment Conservation Ordinance
· Reed Belt Conservation Ordinance*: Conservation, preservation, and ordinary
areas
· Designated as a Ramsar Convention Wetland*
· Appropriate Leisure Use Ordinance*: Regulatory zoning of pleasure boats,
prohibition of the re-release of invasive fi sh, and etc.
Conservation of Landscape
· Landscape Conservation Ordinance: Lake, roadside, and river landscape areas
*A law or ordinance referred to in this document.

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
67

---

reed belts in and around the lake. Reed belts are original ordinances described in Section 4.2 resulted from the efforts
scenery of Lake Country, Shiga, habitat for a wide range of fi sh
of the prefectural government to fulfi ll its responsibility. The
and birds, a natural barrier for shore protection, and a water
prefectural government is today carrying out the management
purifi cation facility. The lake also was designated as a Ramsar
and conservation of the lake and its watershed within the
Convention site in 1993. Restoration of littoral ecosystems and
framework of the legal system shown in Table 1 (Note: "Laws"
wetlands are one of the major challenges today in regard to
are national-level; "Ordinances" are prefectural-level).
the lake.
A major challenge for the Shiga Prefectural Government today
Consistent with the above, another major environmental issue
is to develop a new legal system not only to protect, but also to
for Lake Biwa today is the adverse effects of invasive species.
restore and revitalize, the lake and its coastal ecosystems that
In regard to the overgrowth of Canadian pondweed (Elodea
were damaged by LBCDP and other development works.
nuttallii and Egeria densa), an invasive weed to the lake, the
prefectural government has studied the ecological functions of
4.3.2 Changes in Administration System
weeds, including these invasive species, as well as the most
The prefectural government is directly in charge of the
effective way to frequently harvest the weeds. Further, as the
management and conservation of Lake Biwa and its catchment
damage to native and endemic fi sh from invasive fi sh became
area. To manage the lake and its catchment area appropriately,
apparent in the 1990s, the Ordinance for Appropriate Leisure
and to respond to the demands of the times, the prefectural
Use of Lake Biwa, prohibiting the release of invasive fi sh once
government has continuously evolved its administration
they were caught, was enacted in 2002. A subsidy system system and structure. It has a history going for the integration
for buying invasive fi sh at a rate of about US$2-3/kg from
of relevant administration organs for that purpose. Table 2
fi shermen also has been implemented as an extermination summarizes the changes in the administration system of the
measure. However, none of these countermeasures have prefectural government.
yet had a noticeable effect on invasive fi sh; precautionary
measures may, in fact, be the only way to prevent the invasion
As shown in Table 2, the pollution control administration of the
of exotic species.
prefectural government began in 1970 with one division. It was
strengthened in 1972, becoming an independent administration
4.3 Enabling
Environment
unit in 1974. In 1979, the system was reorganized to address
the eutrophication problem, with the enactment of the
4.3.1 Legislative Framework for the Management of
Eutrophication Control Ordinance. Incorporating into divisions
Lake Biwa
for forestry and sewerage administration, the latest reform
In the River Law, the governor of Shiga Prefecture is appointed
was made in 1996, to implement a new framework for the
as the administrator of Lake Biwa. This is an exceptional case
promotion of watershed management.
in Japan and only applicable to Lake Biwa. This situation
exists because then-governor of Shiga Prefecture refused 4.3.3 Monitoring and Research Capacity
to transfer the administrative right of the lake to the central
Lake Biwa is the most-studied lake in Japan, with a rich data
government when the River Law was revised in 1964. At that
base. Its water temperature and transparency have been
time, the administrative right for the other major rivers and
monitored by the Fishery Experiment Station since 1922. The
lakes, including Lake Kasumigaura, the second largest lake
current monitoring system, consisting of 48 in-lake stations,
in Japan, were all transferred to the central government. was established in 1966; the focus of monitoring in Shiga
From that point on, the prefectural government has taken Prefecture thereby was shifted from industrial pollution to lake
on major responsibility, as well as signifi cant power and water quality as a whole. The monitoring of the lake is carried
authority, for Lake Biwa. The innovative and wide-ranging out today mainly by the Institute of Public Health & Environment
Table 2. Changes in Environmental Administration System of the Shiga Prefectural Government.
Year
Department and division in charge of Lake Biwa and its catchment area
1970
Department of Welfare (Antipollution Measure Offi ce)
1972
Department of Planning, Life Environment Bureau (Antipollution Division, Drinking Water and Waste
Management Division, Nature Conservation Division, Prefectural Life Division)
1974
Department of Life Environment (Antipollution Division, Environmental Policy and Waste Management
Division, Nature Conservation Division, Prefectural Life Division)
1979
Department of Life Environment (Environment Offi ce, Waste Management Division, Nature Conservation
Division, Prefectural Life Division)
1996
Department of Lake Biwa and the Environment (Water Policy Administration Division, Environmental
Policy Division, Waste Management Division, Ecological Lifestyle Promotion Division, Nature Conservation
Division, Forest Conservation Division, Forestry Administration Division, Sewerage Construction Division,
Sewerage Planning Division)
Source:
The entire organization of the Shiga Prefectural Government is accessible at the website: http://www.pref.shiga.jp/b/kokusai/
siryou/soshikimei/index.html#03
68 Lake
Biwa

---

Science, a prefectural research laboratory established in 1972,
Backed by strong public support, the prefectural government
together with the Lake Biwa Works Offi ce of Ministry of Land,
enacted the Eutrophication Control Ordinance in 1979. It
Infrastructure and Transport. Such longtime monitoring has
was an attempt for the fi rst time in Japan to regulate not
revealed, for example, that the dissolved oxygen concentration
only the activities of companies, but also of farmers and
at the bottom of North Basin was being depleted.
ordinary people. The Soap Movement , born in the Lake Biwa
watershed, expanded to become a nationwide movement to
The prefectural government also has continued efforts purge synthetic detergents. Within three years, most of the
to enhance its research capability in order to address prefectural governments in Japan had initiated some actions
the management and conservation of Lake Biwa and its directed to the detergent issue. Thus the Eutrophication Control
watershed. The efforts include the establishment of the Lake
Ordinance of Shiga Prefecture had a tremendous infl uence
Biwa Research Institute in 1982, and the University of Shiga
on the water quality control of lakes and environmental
Prefecture and the Lake Biwa Museum both in 1995. Together
movements in Japan, as previously mentioned in Section 4.2.
with other research institutes located around the lake (e.g.,
those of Shiga University and Kyoto University), those research
Shortly after enactment of the ordinance, the detergent
organs comprise a cooperative framework for comprehensive
manufacturers, who had initially strongly opposed the
studies on Lake Biwa and its surrounding catchment area.
enactment of the ordinance, changed their production
processes to start making synthetic detergents containing no
4.3.4 Environmental Education
phosphate. As a result, no detergents containing phosphate
Each year, primary school children in the 5th grade take a 2-day
are produced or sold in Japan today.
work-study program called the "fl oating school" on Uminoko,
a ship built by the prefectural government exclusively for The Soap Movement is especially signifi cant because it
environmental education. The program began in 1983, and was led by women; because it highlighted that citizens
since then more than 300 thousand children have embarked
were responsible for the degradation of lake water quality;
the ship. In 1995, the "Lake Biwa Museum" was open. As the
because it facilitated enactment of the ordinance by the local
best learning center about Lake Biwa, it welcomes more than
government; and because it changed national policy on water
600 thousand visitors every year.
quality management. It is known and described as the fi rst and
most successful case of citizens' environmental movement in
4.3.5 History of Citizens' Movement
Japan. With this movement, women's participation in society
The history of citizen-based movements for Lake Biwa cannot
also was signifi cantly promoted in Shiga Prefecture, where
be described without referring to the Soap Movement. The
people at that time were very conservative. It produced many
movement originated in the beginning of the 1970s with a women activists, who have led environmental movements
soap use campaign by homemakers who were concerned in Shiga Prefecture from that point on. Another outcome of
about babies' diaper rash and housewives' eczema caused this movement was the establishment of "Environmental
by synthetic detergents. In 1977, however, it changed its focus
Cooperatives," in 1990, which specialize in promotion of the
with the outbreak of red tide in the lake, shifting to a boycott
use of environmentally-sound commercial products.
campaign of phosphate-containing synthetic detergents for
the conservation of lake water quality. This was a result of
This movement, however, lost its goal and impetus shortly
people coming to know through the mass media that synthetic
after the advent of synthetic detergents containing no
detergents might cause eutrophication (red tide). With the phosphate. The percentage of people in Shiga Prefecture who
participation of a wide range of organizations, this citizens'
do not use synthetic detergents, but rather soaps, is less than
movement, which was started by women's consumer groups,
30% today, even though it exhibited a high participation of
spread throughout the prefecture rapidly, and established the
70% in 1980. With the complexity of environmental issues and
"Citizen Forum for Conservation of the Aquatic Environment
the diversifi ed values of people today, the Biwa-ko Forum has
around Lake Biwa (Biwa-ko Forum)" in 1978.
been searching for an alternative goal to the Soap Movement.
However, it has not yet been successful. By the same token,
Meantime, the Shiga Prefectural Government, which also the citizens' movement in Shiga Prefecture has not been
had intended to regulate the use of phosphate-containing very active since the late 1980s, with the exception of a few
synthetic detergents to control eutrophication of Lake Biwa,
unique activities, such as "Fire-fl y Monitoring" by thousands
strongly supported the Soap Movement, starting discussion
of citizens.
about developing an ordinance for that purpose. Detergent
manufacturers responded strongly against this movement of
In Japan as a whole, the activities of NGOs and not-for-profi t
the prefectural government, deploying an extensive campaign
organizations (NPOs) also were fi nally acknowledged by the
against the regulation of synthetic detergents. Ironically, general public through very active involvement of volunteers
this campaign made more people in the prefecture more in the Kobe earthquake of 1995 and the 1997 oil spill of the
knowledgeable about the issue of phosphate-containing Russian tanker "Nakhodka." To that end, the Shiga Prefectural
synthetic detergents.
Government established the "Ohmi (Shiga) Network Center"
in 1997 for NGOs and NPOs, with the goal of promoting and
supporting the voluntary and social activities of citizens.

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
69

---

At the same time, more integrated and concerted efforts by
by strong initiatives on the part of the Shiga Prefectural
local people in individual sub-watersheds of rivers fl owing
Government.
into the lake is indispensable to watershed management for
Lake Biwa. One of the very fi rst efforts for this purpose was
5.
Lessons Learned and Recommended
to establish the "Akanoi Environmental Citizen Initiatives"
Initiatives
in 1996, which is a watershed community initiative to clean
up Akanoi Bay (located in south basin of Lake Biwa; one of
5.1
Political Interest and Commitment
the most badly polluted portions of the lake). In the Shiga
Prefecture, there are many other watershed organizations Political interests and commitments involving Lake Biwa,
today. Most of them, however, were founded by different including opposing ones between the Shiga and central
departments of the Shiga Prefectural Government or local government or the downstream prefectures, have changed
municipalities. Although those organizations strive for with time. As far as the Shiga Prefectural Government is
the same goal of the conservation of Lake Biwa's water concerned, its focus was originally placed on fl ood control and
environment, there is no coordination or concerted activities
measures for water shortage, shifting to local development and
among the different types of organizations, mainly because
economic growth in the 1950s/60s, and the control of pollution
of sectionalism among different administrative organizations.
and eutrophication in the 1970s/80s. Shiga Prefecture's major
The morale and economic foundations of those organizations
concern today is to achieve the conservation of the lake and
typically are not adequate for this purpose. Governmental its littoral ecosystems. This goal resulted from refl ecting
organizations tend to demand outcomes within a short period
changes in the values of the Shiga Prefecture population, in
and, therefore, do not fi nancially support such organizations
which the people came to realize the higher resource value
for more than a few years. Thus, a sound partnership between
of the lake as their living standard rose, and political efforts
local governments and watershed organizations, and the to fulfi ll their needs were undertaken. On the other hand, the
fostering of those organizations with people's initiatives, political interest of the Shiga Prefectural Government always
remain major challenges.
has been in confrontation with either the central government
or the downstream areas. As previously described in Section
4.3.6 Private Initiatives
2.2, the LBCDP and the negotiation process for its inauguration
A unique case of private initiatives in Shiga Prefecture was
eventually resulted in resolution of the relevant disputes.
the formation in 1981 of the "Shiga Environment Conservation
Association," which consisted of more than four hundred The strictest effl uent standards in Japan, and the enactment of
relevant local companies. This association originated from the Eutrophication Control Ordinance, were realized by strong
an information exchange group of personnel in charge of political commitment and initiatives of the governors at that
industrial wastewater treatment. Such associations were time. However, they would not be possible solely on the basis
needed for industries in Shiga Prefecture to meet social of political interest and commitment. As illustrated in the Soap
demands for water pollution control, since they had to develop
Movement, which eventually gave birth to the ordinance, they
new technologies ahead of the other prefectures in Japan, became possible because of strong public support.
for the removal of nitrogen and phosphorus from wastewater
effl uents.
·
The higher the perceived resource value of Lake Biwa,
the stronger the interest and commitment becomes.
When the Eutrophication Control Ordinance that established
The political interest and commitment have come in
effl uent standards for nitrogen and phosphorus in industrial
different forms at different times in the history of the
wastewater was enacted, there was no major objection
management of the lake, and they often are the end
from the local industry. Rather, industry had to comply with
result, rather than the achievable objective. When
the ordinance in order to get along with the neighboring
opposing political interests and commitments clash,
communities. For the same reason, many factories make
the process of dispute resolution must be instituted.
voluntary pollution control agreements with neighboring
Dispute resolution may sometimes be enhanced by such
communities, in which stricter effl uent or emission targets
mediating factors as scientifi c knowledge, third-party
were established in most cases.
initiatives and concerns, and innovative institutional
arrangements.
4.3.7 Global Cooperation
The Shiga Prefectural Government, for which the management
·
It is generally diffi cult to achieve sustainable management
of Lake Biwa is a high-priority issue, has committed itself to
of lake resources without political commitment and
international cooperation and information exchange on lake
interest. However, political commitment and interest
issues for years. Consistent with this goal, it hosted the fi rst
alone will not achieve sustainable management of lake
World Lake Conference in Otsu in 1984, and founded the
resources, since sustainability depends greatly on the
International Lake Environment Committee (ILEC) in 1986.
synergy created by the basin communities, individual
The World Lake Vision, which was unveiled at the World Water
citizens, local industries and the local government, all
Forum III in 2003, is another achievement made possible
facilitated by political interest and commitment.
70 Lake
Biwa

---

5.2 Sustainable
Institutions
local governments under LBCDP, the special legislation
to facilitate mobilization of fi nancial resources from the
The Shiga Prefectural Government, rather than the central
central government, including preferential subsidies, as
government, has taken full responsibility for the management
well as from the downstream local governments that
of Lake Biwa, and developed necessary infrastructure
benefi t from development of lake resources, can be of
to fulfi ll its responsibility over the years. The prefectural
critical importance.
government also has continuously improved its administration
system to respond to the demands of the times. It has a 5.4 Legislative
Frameworks
history of administrative system integration toward further
comprehensive conservation of the lake and its catchment Since the Shiga Prefectural Government is a local government,
area. However, the harmful effects of sectionalism among and therefore in the best position to be knowledgeable about
ministries and divisions still remain. Further integration of the
the issues facing Lake Biwa, it became possible to implement
administration system in the true sense of that purpose is a
appropriate and proper management efforts to meet specifi c
continuing necessity.
lake requirements and the needs of local communities. Such
proper lake management and conservation have been realized,
·
Regardless of development or conservation goals, the
with implementation of a thorough legislative framework for
comprehensive management of large lakes that support
that purpose.
municipal, industrial and agricultural activities of
signifi cant magnitude, like that of Lake Biwa, will require
·
Lake management encompasses a wide range of
very strong local government capacity to implement the
environmental issues, each of which has to be properly
needed infrastructure development projects, which
addressed with specifi c legal provisions that will meet
typically may span decades.
the particular requirements specifi c to individual lakes.
The legal provisions to promote regional development,
·
Many of the infrastructure projects for lake resource
with the specifi c goal of developing the resource values
development and conservation will require decades
of a lake, may or may not have adequate provisions
of continuous construction works and sustainable
for environmental and ecological needs of the lake
management. Special institutional design, with
and its catchment. It will be most useful to introduce
integrated rather than sectoral arrangements, is quite
and implement formal and informal legal provisions,
useful for effi cient implementation of these projects.
including local government ordinances, which can meet
specifi c needs of the local communities that must deal
·
Suitable institutional arrangements that satisfy local
with such environmental requirements.
government needs to provide basic environmental
services to the communities (e.g., sewerage, industrial
5.5 Stakeholder
Participation8
waste management, etc.) are not necessarily
suffi cient to bring about the needed improvements Citizen initiatives in lake management can take many different
in the environmental and ecological condition of the forms. The housewives' initiatives in the promotion of the
lake, since lake management will invariably require "Soap Movement" is well known in the case of Lake Biwa.
integrated management of water, air and land resources,
Other well-known Lake Biwa examples include an NGO
encompassing such activities as control of non-point activity specializing in local water-culture studies, with "Fire-
sources of pollution, restoration of ecological functions
fl y Monitoring" by thousands of citizens, the nation's fi rst
of land and riparian environments, etc. Accordingly, "Environmental Cooperatives" that specialize in promotion of
effi cient mobilization of limited fi nancial and manpower
the use of environmentally-sound commercial products, and a
resources to deal with a range of interrelated watershed community initiative to clean up the Bay of Akanoi,
environmental issues will require holistic and fl exible
the "Akanoi Environmental Citizen Initiative." These and other
institutional arrangements.
citizen initiatives constitute an essential part of environmental
governance that must deal with the extremely complex issues
5.3 Financing
Mechanism7
typically involved in lake management.
A major reason why Shiga Prefecture, a once-poor prefecture,
Many relevant lessons can be learned from the LBCDP.
could signifi cantly manage its economic development and The following are lessons learned from LBCDP, in terms of
the conservation of Lake Biwa was the implementation of the
stakeholder participation:
LBCDP.
·
For a lake as complex as Lake Biwa, the resolution of
· The
fi nancial base of lake-region governments alone
confl icting resource-use interests among sectors, of
may not be suffi cient to undertake the necessary
severely strained relationships between the upstream,
development and conservation projects. As implied
downstream and riparian local governments, and of
in the Special Law for Lake Biwa Comprehensive
the development impetus of industries versus the
Development, and cost-sharing with the downstream
environmental conservation initiatives of citizens

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
71

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and local NGOs, etc., stakeholder participation has the LBCDP. Although many researchers were mobilized in the
been, and will continue to be, an essential part of preparatory study of the project, even these individuals could
lake management. While there is no set formula for not accurately predict the issues currently facing Lake Biwa.
bringing about successful stakeholder participation, This illustrates the limitations of science; that is, science does
not to mention the amicable resolution of confl icts
not always help decision makers make the right decisions.
themselves, the stakeholders must accept the need to
However, science and scientifi c knowledge can reveal and
live with confl icts that may be signifi cantly ameliorated
repair the failures. Indeed, lake management is not feasible
with mutual facilitation over the course of continuous
without adequate scientifi c knowledge. Noting that the long-
dialogues.
term monitoring of Lake Biwa detected oxygen depletion at the
bottom of the lake's North Basin, the local research capability
·
The central government often can play a crucial role in
that makes possible a long-term fi eld study is indispensable
resolving confl icting interests among the riparian local
to lake research. To this end, the prefectural government has
governments, both in terms of being part of the river-
established a series of research institutes, as well as utilizing
lake basin institutional system and through political the results of studies of these organizations.
facilitation, often accompanied with legal, fi nancial and
institutional provisions. In the case of Lake Biwa-Yodo
Furthermore, scientifi c knowledge is meaningless unless it is
River management, the central government played dual
widely disseminated and becomes common knowledge among
roles; both as an important part of the river-lake basin
the public. In the Soap Movement, enactment of the ordinance
system and as a facilitator with legal, fi nancial and was made possible because people came to know the effects
institutional provisions.9
on eutrophication of phosphorus in synthetic detergents.
Consistent with this reality, the prefectural government has
5.6
The Linkages between the Lake Management
continued its efforts to promote a common understanding of
Program and the National and Regional Water
the lake issues among people with environmental education,
Resources Management Efforts
including the previously-noted fl oating school and Lake Biwa
Museum.
The LBCDP was devised to meet the projected water resources
needs of the Keihanshin Industrial Belt to serve the thriving
·
Sustainable lake management is synonymous to
Japanese economy in the early 1970s. While water resources
sustainable use of lake resources. Sustainable use of
remain as important a factor as they were 30 years ago, the
lake resources cannot be achieved unless the respective
subsequent environmental and ecological concerns in lake
water resource users agree on basic principles in
management have evolved and grown to become as important
resource availability in the past, in the present, and
a national agenda as water resource development.
in the future, with due protection and conservation
measures collectively introduced. While scientifi c
On one hand, the fact that Lake Biwa management has
knowledge today is still too limited to determine
had strong linkages with the broader national and regional
how a particular lake may behave with regard to the
water resources management efforts has greatly facilitated
sustainability of its resource values over time, making
achievement of goals for Lake Biwa that the local government
judgments on the sustainability of resources without
alone could not have achieved (i.e., implementation of the
scientifi c knowledge in regard to possible natural and
LBCDP). On the other hand, the strong linkages between
anthropogenic variances would be futile. A scientifi cally
regional and national water resources management efforts did
well-informed decision is important, not because
signifi cantly affect the environmental and ecological integrity
the decision will always be correct, but because the
of the lake watershed and its coastal zones. It is important,
decision can be assessed scientifi cally and updated to
therefore, for local government to be aware that it also
refl ect new scientifi c fi ndings over time. While there is
receives due support from regional and national governments
no good measure of the appropriate level of investment
for the conservation of lake environments.
in scientifi c studies for lake management, the level of
funds wasted because of the lack of needed scientifi c
In contrast, the lake management program of local government
data for lake management far outweighs the required
may infl uence national policy with respect to water quality
fi nancial investment for addressing the latter.
management within the entire water resources management
framework. As an example, the Eutrophication Control 6. Acknowledgements
Ordinance prompted the revision of the Water Pollution
Control Law, and enactment of Special Law for Lake Water
The authors wish to acknowledge the contributions of
Quality Conservation.
Masahisa Nakamura (Director, Lake Biwa Research Institute),
Hiroya Kotani (Retired, Shiga Prefectural Government), Hiroshi
5.7 Scientifi c Information and Research
Murata (Hiyoshi Corporation), Tadashi Nagao (Head, Akanoi-
Biwako Environmental Citizens' Initiative), and Shigeo Naruse
Underestimating the adverse effects of the water level control
(Akanoi-Biwako Environmental Citizens' Initiative), all of
on the littoral ecosystems was one of the major failings of
whom took part and made major contributions during several
72 Lake
Biwa

---

meetings held at the Lake Biwa Research Institute, as well as
central government and 50% from local governments.
the Asian Review Meeting in Manila, to compile and fi nalize
However, within the framework of LBCDP, additional
this lake brief.
fi nancial arrangements (15%) eventually came from the
central and downstream local government; thus, Shiga
7. References
Prefecture only bore 35% of the construction cost. The
operational costs of wastewater treatment facilities are
Jorgensen, S.E., R. de Bernardi, T.J. Ballatore and V.S.
borne by each municipality and user. Although users
Muhandiki. 2003. LakeWatch 2003: The Changing State of
in Shiga Prefecture pay about US$2/m3 of wastewater,
the World's Lakes. International Lake Environment Committee:
municipalities have to make up a large funding defi cit.
Kusatsu, Japan.
3
The national government has protected rice cultivation
Nakamura, M. 1995. "Lake Biwa: Have sustainable
farmers in full scale with its agricultural policy for many
development objectives been met?" Lakes & Reservoirs:
reasons. The fi nancial revenues to rice are very high
Research and Management, 1: 3-29.
because of price supports. In addition, since most
farmers cultivate part-time, they prefer rice, which is the
Nakamura, M. 2002. "Lake Biwa watershed transformation
least labor-intensive farming in Japan.
and the changed water environments." Verh. Internat. Verein.
Limnol., 28: 69-83.
4
Any industrial wastewater must comply with effl uent
standards in the Water Pollution Control Law and
Nakamura, M. and W.Y.B. Chang. 2001. "Lake Biwa: Largest
ordinances. There is no other regulation for industrial
lake in Japan." In M. Munawar and R.E. Hecky (eds). The Great
wastewaters, since such laws and standards were made
Lakes of the World (GLOW): Food-web, health and integrity.
after a long negotiation process among the relevant
Backhuys Publishers: Leiden, The Netherlands.
ministries.
Nakamura, M. and T. Nakajima. 2002. Lake Biwa and Its 5
Shiga Prefecture prioritized the control of point sources
Watershed: A review of LBRI research notes. Lake Biwa
for eutrophication control simply because its cost
Research Institute: Otsu, Japan.
performance was believed to be better than for non-
point sources. It also should be noted that erosion of
Nishino, M. and C. N. Watanabe. 2000. "Evolution and
farmland is not serious in Shiga Prefecture because
endemism in Lake Biwa, with special reference to its gastropod
most farmlands are terraced and bounded paddy fi elds.
mollusk fauna." Advances Ecol. Res., 31: 151-180.
6
The ordinance demands all houses be connected with
Shiga Prefectural Government. 1997. Lake Biwa: Conservation
sewerage system within three years after the completion
of Aquatic Environments. Otsu, Japan.
of the construction in the area. However, there is no
penalty for violation of the ordinance.
Disclaimer
7
There is no specifi c fi nancial mechanism in Japan
The fi ndings, interpretations and conclusions expressed
for water management, except for the charge of
in this report are the views of the authors and do not
wastewater, as well as tariffs for tap water. Most public
necessarily represent the views of The World Bank and its
works, including the construction of sewerage system,
Board of Directors, or the countries they represent, nor do
lack fi nancial mechanisms to recover the expenses.
they necessarily represent the view of the organizations,
This is mainly due to the political fact that public works
agencies or governments to which any of the authors are
have been implemented for job creation and local
associated. Also, the colors, boundaries, denominations, and
economic development. For the same reason, there
classifi cations in this report do not imply, on the part of The
was no evaluation mechanism for public works when
World Bank and its Board of Directors, or the countries they
LBCDP was in progress. However the idea to analyze
represent, and the organizations, agencies or governments to
cost-benefi t and cost-effectiveness of public works
which any of the authors are associated, any judgment on the
at the planning stage and evaluate administrative
legal or other status of any territory, or any endorsement or
performance is becoming more common today, although
acceptance of any boundary.
such mechanisms are still not fully developed.
1
Transportation capability of Shiga Prefecture has 8
Most laws and ordinances today demand public
also improved signifi cantly with the construction of
comments through public hearing etc., to the fi nalization
motorway-topped levees around the lake, which was
of plans. Some ordinances, including the Appropriate
not however the primary objective of the construction.
Leisure Use Ordinance and Mother Lake 21 Plan, dictate
the establishment of local people's organizations to
2
In Japan, fi nancial arrangements for the construction
fulfi ll the objectives.
of sewerage system generally come 50% from the

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
73

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9
The central government happened to play the crucial
role in mediating between Shiga Prefecture and the
downstream local governments in the preparatory
process of LBCDP, mostly because the central
government had power, including fi nancial power
through budget and allocation rules sharing revenues
between central and local governments, to resolve
the confl ict and was in the position of a third party.
However, the situation today is much more complicated,
since a wider range of stakeholders are invited into the
decision-making process. As a result, dispute resolution
is getting more and more problematic.
74 Lake
Biwa

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