Generic Root Causes
Complexity
Inadequate
Poor legal
Inadequate
Inadequate
Insufficient
Inadequate
of
capacity
framework
imple-
planning at
public
financial
ecosystem
develop-
at the
mentation
all levels
involvement
mecha-
and high
ment
regional
of available
nisms
degree of
(human
and
regulatory
and
variability
and infra-
national
instruments
support
structure)
levels
and
training
Major Transboundary Problems
·
Decline in BCLME commercial fish stocks and non-optimal harvesting
of living resources
·
Uncertainty regarding ecosystem status and yields in a highly variable
environment
·
Deterioration in water quality ­ chronic and catastrophic
·
Habitat destruction and alteration, including inter alia modifications
of seabed and coastal zone and degradation of coastscapes
·
Loss of biotic integrity and threat to biodiversity
·
Inadequate capacity to assess ecosystem health
·
Harmful algal blooms
Areas Where Action is Required
Sustainable management and
Assessment of environmental
Maintenance of ecosystem
utilisation of resources
variability, ecosystem impacts
health and management of
and improvement of
pollution
predictability
FIGURE 2 Major transboundary problems, generic root causes and areas requiring action
1 6
F I G U R E 2

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Level Two: Action Areas
Action Area A:
Sustainable management and utilisation of resources
An Overview of Specific Transboundary
Generic Actions:
Problems, Causes, Impacts, Actions Required
· Capacity strengthening and training
and Anticipated Outputs
· Joint surveys and assessments of shared
resources and intercalibration
In Level One: Synthesis, three broad action areas were
· Policy harmonisation and integrated
identified in order to address the perceived major
management
BCLME problems and the main root causes of these
· Co-financing with private sector/industry
problems. The action areas correspond to the three
· Development of new industries
main issues in the BCLME, namely utilisation of
(e.g. mariculture, tourism)
resources, environmental variability, and ecosystem
health and pollution. For each action area a set of more
specific actions was specified in the Synthesis Matrix.
Action Area B:
These specific actions were formulated collectively
Assessment of environmental variability, ecosystem
through consensus among stakeholders at the Second
impacts and improvement of predictability
Regional BCLME Workshop to identify the specific
Generic Actions:
problems associated with each main issue. These have
· Capacity strengthening and training re trans-
been prioritised and the outputs or solutions emanat-
boundary concerns
ing from the specific actions have been listed and cost-
· Regional networking and international linking
ed. The essential information has been summarised in
· Development of regional early warning sys-
the set of analysis tables which follow. These tabular
tem, assessment and prediction capability (in-
summaries are necessarily brief ­ often in point form ­
cluding re-assessments) and joint response
and where additional clarification has been deemed
policies
necessary, this has been provided following each table
· Cross-cutting demonstration projects
in the form of explanatory notes.
What is not immediately apparent from the Level Two
Action Area C:
tables, developed by consensus at the Second
Improvement of ecosystem health and management
Workshop, is that there are a number of generic actions
of pollution
which cut across the specific actions within each of the
three broad action areas, and indeed even between the
Generic Actions:
broad action areas. For the sake of completeness the
· Capacity strengthening and training
essence of this alternative but complementary approach is
· Policy harmonisation, and development
as follows:
· Development of regional framework for
assessment
· Establishment of effective surveillance and
enforcement agencies
· Development of stakeholder participation
structures
What emerges quite clearly from the above approach
is that generic actions, such as capacity strengthening
and training, the development of regional collabora-
tion or networking in respect of surveys and assess-
ments, and policy development and harmonisation,
are over-arching actions. These are obvious priorities
for GEF support.
L E V E L T W O : A C T I O N A R E A S
1 7

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Analysis Tables and Explanatory Notes
NOTE: The numbering of these Tables corresponds with the Action Areas identified in the Level One Synthesis Matrix
TABLES A: SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT AND UTILISATION OF RESOURCES
TABLE A1: FACILITATION OF OPTIMAL HARVESTING OF LIVING RESOURCES
Problems
Causes
Impacts
Risks/Uncertainties
A1.
· Fishing over-capacity
· High by-catch and
· Irreversible ecosystem
Non-optimal harvesting
· Inadequate tools
undersize catch
change
of living resources:
· Non-sustainable utili-
· Fisheries impacting
· Biodiversity change
sation of resources
productivity cycle
· Habitat destruction
Non-optimal harvesting includes over-
· Lack of collaborative
· Ecosystem change
· Collapse of commer-
harvesting, such as over-fishing, as well
assessment and
· Resource depletion
cially important stocks
as wastage through dumping of bycatch
monitoring
and the catching and dumping of under-
· Human population
size fish. It also includes not taking ad-
· Inadequate information
movements (local and
vantage of resources with the potential
· Inadequate manage-
regional)
to offer sustainable development oppor-
ment
· Large variation in
tunities (e.g. seaweed, some inverte-
· Inadequate control
landings
brates). This often results from a lack
· Lack of collaborative
· Variation in food supply
of technology or knowledge of the
management of shared
for birds, seals etc.
opportunities available.
resources
· Conflict (e.g. artisanal
· International policy on
vs. commercial
seal harvesting
vs. recreational;
conflict with mining)
· Exploding seal
population
· Competition for
exploited resources
A1 EXPLANATORY NOTES
there is no effective mechanism within the region
PROBLEM: NON-OPTIMAL HARVESTING
to ensure that collaborative assessment takes place.
OF LIVING RESOURCES
® Inadequate information ­ The biology of all harvested
and potentially harvested species is not always well
known. In the latter, some groups with economic
Causes
potential, such as seaweeds and some invertebrates,
are very poorly known within the region.
® Fishing over-capacity ­ Too many fishers, too many
® Inadequate management ­ Management due to
boats, excess processing capacity.
insufficient information, vulnerable to pressure
® Inadequate tools for assessment ­ Currently available
from industry, over-riding socio-economic and
tools for assessment do not always produce effec-
political pressures. Lack of informed advice some-
tive results, data for assessment are not equally
times results in ill-advised management decisions.
available and are not in a uniform format. Assess-
® Inadequate control ­ Even when assessments and
ment tools that are available are not applied equally
within the region, and fishing methods are not suf-
quotas are used to manage fisheries, the control
ficiently selective.
and enforcement mechanisms are often lacking.
®
®
Non-sustainable utilisation of resources due to over-
Lack of collaborative management of shared resources.
fishing, high bycatch, catches of small fish and non-
® International policy on seal harvesting ­ Conser-
targeted species. This is a tradition in world-wide
vation pressure on national governments prevents
fisheries management.
utilisation of seals, and contributed to the increase
® Lack of collaborative assessment and monitoring ­
in seal populations, with implications for other
components of the ecosystem.
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Socio-Economic
Transboundary
Incremental
Anticipated
Activities/Solutions
Priority
Consequences
Consequences
Cost (5y)
Outputs
· Variable and uncertain
· Most harvested
· Provision of information:
1
$ 500 000
· Optimal sustain-
job market
resources are shared
to facilitate regional
able resource
· Loss of national
between countries, or
assessments of shared
utilisation
revenue
cross national borders,
resources and eco-
· Improved fore-
over-fishing in one
system impacts
· Lack of food security:
casting
country can cause
artisanal /industrial
· Joint surveys and
1
$ 2 000 000
· Establishment
depletion in a neigh-
assessments
· Erosion of sustainable
of a regional
bouring country
livelihoods
· Gathering and
1
$ 400 000
forum
· Common problems
calibration of baseline
· Missed opportunities
· Prevention of
· Shared solutions
information
(under-utilisation and
irresistable
wastage)
· Analysis of socio-
1
$ 400 000
ecosystem
economic consquences
change
· Loss of competitive
for the whole eco-
edge on global markets
system
· Assessment of potential
2
$ 1 000 000
of new resources
· Establish a regional
1
$ 800 000
forum for stock
assessment, eco-
system assessment
and annual advice
Impacts
positional pathways that may lead to increases in fre-
quency/intensity of anoxic events. (S.Afr. J.Mar.Sci.12)
® Resource depletion ­ This is an obvious effect of
® Human population migration (local and regional)
over-harvesting, a depletion of the resource below
­ Declines in opportunities in resource harvesting at
optimal levels.
the coast leads to increased migration into cities, and
® High bycatch and undersize fish catch ­ This reduces
the expansion of urban poverty, exacerbated by
the productivity of fisheries, and may lead to eco-
large slumps in catches. (BCLME Thematic Report 6)
system change (uncertainty) and decreased yields.
® Large variation in landings ­ Results should be pre-
® Fisheries impacting productivity cycle ­ The deple-
cautionary approach leading to reduced levels of
tion of, for example, a grazer such as pilchard from
over-harvesting. Regularity of employment, reliabil-
the system could cause the diversion of production
ity of markets etc., all suffer when variation is great.
into eutrophication with subsequent sulfur eruptions
® Variation of food supply for birds, seals etc. Humans
that might kill off zooplankton grazers and further
and other organisms compete for food. Over-harves-
shift the system out of balance. Changes in the sys-
ting of resources by humans may lead to a
tem could reduce yields in other ways too, e.g.
decrease in food supply available to seabirds, seals,
changes that favour large gelatinous plankton.
and other marine organisms that may themselves be
Recruitment fisheries result in productivity and
important as tourism resources. (S.Afr. J.Mar.Sci.12)
yields that are less than what they could be under
®
better management.
Conflict (e.g. artisanal vs. commercial vs. recreational)
­ Artisanal, recreational and commercial fishers
® Ecosystem change ­ Over-harvesting of ecologically
often compete for the same resources. Conflicts
important species may change the nature of the eco-
among these sectors may increase when resources
system, such as diverting productivity into decom-
become depleted.
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® Exploding seal population.
® Erosion of sustainable livelihoods ­ Livelihoods of
® Competition for exploited resources ­ Harvesting of
coastal people may often depend on activities that
pelagic resources has had a huge impact on food
are based on assets (e.g. fish resources) that are
availability for other top predators.
harvested by other sectors. Over-harvesting of those
assets, either by coastal dwellers themselves or by
industrial harvesting, may erode the livelihoods of
Risks/uncertainties
coastal people, and bring about increased urban
migration and increases in urban poverty and the
® Irreversible ecosystem change ­ The degree to which
spreading of poverty-related diseases.
changes that take place in the ecosystem (as a result
®
of over-harvesting) are reversible is not known.
Missed opportunities (under-utilisation and wastage)
­ There may be many opportunities for the novel
® Biodiversity change ­ Changes in biodiversity (genetic,
utilisation of marine resources. Examples include
species, ecosystem) may occur as a result of the over-
drugs from both inshore and deep-water inverte-
harvesting of resources, but the lack of good base-
brates, as well as drugs and other low-volume,
line data makes this difficult to assess. Hence we do
high-value products from seaweeds. A co-ordinated
not know the degree to which over-fishing affects
regional assessment of such resources and co-ordi-
biodiversity.
nated development could bring regional benefits in
® Habitat destruction ­ The degree to which over-har-
this area.
vesting affects habitat through impacts on domi-
® Competitive edge on global markets ­ Lost markets
nant species, or directly through impacts of the har-
are difficult to regain, and could have global impacts
vesting technology (e.g. bottom trawls) is unknown.
(retain dominating role in hake market, regain role in
Baseline data are lacking.
fishmeal market). Increases or reductions in yields
® Actions in one country can cause collapse of a
in one area may impact upon another area (country),
shared commercially important stock (e.g. collapse
resulting in market competition among the BCLME
of Benguela hake stock in 1970s as a result of gross
countries. To retain a competitive edge in rapidly
over-fishing by foreign fleets).
changing markets, stability of the throughput and
quality enhancement that comes with that stability
Socio-economic consequences
are essential.
® Financial and job numbers ­ Over-harvesting of
Transboundary consequences
resources reduces the number of jobs and the
financial gain accruing to coastal communities.
® Most of the region's important harvested resources
Jobs lost in one country may result in an increase
are shared between countries (i.e. straddle national
in job opportunities in another country due to
boundaries), or move across national boundaries at
changes in employment opportunities.
times. (See Oceanogr. Mar. Biol. Ann. Rev. Vol 25,
® Loss of national revenue ­ If resources are over-
pp 353 - 505, and also BLCME Thematic Report 1.)
harvested, or if opportunities for developing new
Over-harvesting of a species in one country can
resources on a sustainable basis are missed, then
therefore lead to depletion of that species in another,
the contribution of those resources to the national
and in changes to the ecosystem as a whole. (For
revenue base is reduced.
example, the collapse of the Namibian sardine in
the 1970s followed the collapse of the sardine in
® Lack of food security (artisanal/industrial) ­ Artisanal
South African waters.)
fishers depend on fisheries resources directly for
protein; over-harvesting by the industrial sector may
® Inappropriate management of regional resources en-
erode the food security of coastal artisanal fishers
dangers sustainability of resources and consistency
and their families. Loss of jobs in the industrial sec-
of catches, and leads to sub-optimal use, resulting in
tor may also increase poverty, and decrease food
lower food production, loss of jobs and national
security.
revenue, and increased reliance on foreign aid.
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® Potential irreversible changes in nature of ecosystem
essential to generate regional capacity needed to
due to depletion of widely distributed ecologically
address the transboundary issues, and to promote
important species. (S.Afr. J.Mar. Sci.12)
sustainable integrated management. Co-operative
® Movement of vessels and humans across borders
training targeted at communities will be necessary.
Training ­ in management, enforcement, and the
in response to depletion of resources. Increased
creation of new opportunities.
local and regional conflicts. (Refer to ICSEAF reports)
®
® Co-operative assessment of potential new resources.
Depletion and/or large-scale distributional shifts in
Many biological resources and potential new
predator species in response to reduced prey abun-
resources in both offshore and inshore areas are
dance (S. Afr. J. Mar. Sci 12). For example, there is
common to the BCLME, and assessments should
evidence that the Namibian seal population was
be conducted co-operatively. Only those activities
severely depleted and some animals migrated into
which address transboundary problems requiring
Angola and South African waters following the
incremental funding are listed.
1995 Benguela Niño.
Activities/solutions
Priority
®
® Proposed activities are ranked on a scale of 1-3 in terms
Co-financing with industry ­ Co-financing from the
of their perceived priority. Only those activities which
fishing industry and other donors is a priority for
address transboundary problems requiring incre-
effective management.
mental funding are listed.
® Provision of information to facilitate regional assess-
ments of shared resources. This will be augmented
by BENEFIT outputs (co-financed). A structure should
Anticipated outputs
be established to conduct regional stock assess-
® Optimal resource utilisation ­ This is the most obvious
ments, ecosystem assessments, evaluate resource-
output from the suggested solutions; there will be a
environmental linkages, and facilitate post-harvest
reduction in the exploitation level of resources that
technology.
are deemed to be over-harvested so that stocks can
® Joint surveys and assessments carried out co-op-
be rebuilt to optimum levels, and an increase in the
eratively will help produce enhanced management
benefit to coastal communities from the exploita-
and optimal utilisation. These joint surveys will be
tion of novel or currently unexploited resources.
offered as a five-year demonstration of the benefits
® Improved forecasting ­ Joint assessment will enable/
to the individual nations of joint transboundary
improve predictions of sustainable resource-harvest
assessments.
levels.
® Gathering and calibration of baseline information ­
® Establish regional structure ­ This regional struc-
This should be done on resources, potential
ture will be responsible for producing annual stock
resources before harvest, as well as ecosystems.
assessment reports, annual ecosystem reports, and
® Co-operative analysis of socio-economic conse-
provide advice or suggestions of resource harvesting
quences ­ Analyses of the socio-economic conse-
levels, and other matters related to resource use,
quences of non-optimal and improved use of
particularly fisheries.
resources should be done with a view to appropriate
® Training packages on management, enforcement,
intervention within the framework of improving
and opportunity creation ­ all at the regional level
sustainable livelihoods.
to advance the concept of sustainable integrated
® Co-operative training ­ Co-operative training will be
management of the BLCME.
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TABLE A2: ASSESSMENT OF MINING AND DRILLING IMPACTS AND POLICY HARMONISATION
Problems
Causes
Impacts
Risks/Uncertainties
A2.
· Pipelines
· Habitat destruction
· Cumulative impacts
Mining and Drilling Impacts:
· Drilling and dredging
· Seabed modification
· Effects on benthos
· Seismic exploration
· Coastal soil, beach,
· Change of biodiversity
Exploration for oil and gas and minerals
intertidal and subtidal
such as diamonds is expanding
· Cost/ benefit
profile destruction
throughout the Benguela. This involves
drilling, dredging and seismic explo-
· Conflicts (fish, dia-
ration. There is substantial oil extrac-
monds, gas)
tion in northern Angola (Cabinda) while
· Behaviour of resources
the development of oil/gas fields (with
· Mortality of larvae
pipelines) are planned further south
(e.g. Namibia). Capped wellheads ham-
per fishing while drill cuttings and
hydrocarbon spills impact on the envi-
ronment. Extensive diamond mining is
being conducted using dredging equip-
ment along the coasts of and continen-
tal shelves of Namibia and South Africa.
Ecosystem effects of these activities are
not fully known.
A2 EXPLANATORY NOTES
seismic surveys) and mortality (e.g. mortality of larvae)
PROBLEM: MINING AND DRILLING IMPACTS
of resources ­ Fish migrating away from, and fish
larvae being killed by, activities.
Causes
Risks/uncertainties
® Pipelines
® Cumulative impacts ­ The cumulative impacts of lots
® Drilling and dredging
of smaller impacts from mining, as well as the
® Seismic exploration
cumulative effects over time, are unknown, but may
be significant within the context of the ecosystem.
Impacts
® Effects on benthos ­ The effects of mining on benthic
®
communities are uncertain.
Habitat destruction ­ Habitat destruction from drilling
may be localised, but dredging for diamonds dis-
® Change of biodiversity ­ It is not known whether mining
rupts large areas of seabed, disturbs the sediments
impacts lead to a reduction in biodiversity in the mined
and changes the particle size distribution. The
areas
impact of this on benthos and other resources, par-
® Cost/benefit ­ Costs and benefits to the environment
ticularly fisheries resources, needs to be assessed
from mining and drilling in this perspective are unknown.
and mitigated if necessary.
® Seabed modification ­ Seabed modification, related
Socio-economic consequences
to habitat destruction, may impact on the exploitation
of other resources; for example, pipelines and well-
® Negative: Exclusion zones around mining operations,
heads and their potential impact on availability of
wellheads on Agulhas Bank
bottom areas to trawl fishing.
Positive: Reserves ­ A negative effect of mining is the
® Coastal soil, beach, intertidal and subtidal profile
closure of large areas of coastline, restricting access to
destruction. Coastal mining moves the coastal
living resources by coastal dwellers or potential dwellers.
soils, alters the beach profile and destroys coastal
A positive effect is that exclusion zones could act as
vegetation, and intertidal and subtidal habitats.
biotic reserves.
® Conflicts (fish, diamonds, oil and gas). Conflicts may
® Reduced artisanal fisheries ­ This is a negative effect
arise between different sectors. Appropriate strate-
of the exclusion, as well as the impact of mining-
gies are needed to decrease the potential for con-
related coastal activities.
flict, and to resolve conflicts that arise (e.g. lobster/
® Coastal tourism ­ The closure of large areas of coast
diamond, fishing/oil).
reduces the potential for tourism development in
® Behaviour (e.g. scaring of mammals and fish during
affected areas.
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Socio-Economic
Transboundary
Incremental
Anticipated
Activities/Solutions
Priority
Consequences
Consequences
Cost (5y)
Outputs
· Financial and employ-
· Three countries share
· Policy harmonisation
1
$ 100 000
· Environmental
ment benefits
common problems
· Enhanced consultation
2
($ 100 000)
management
· -ve: exclusion
· Cumulative impacts are
­ sectoral and regional
plan
+ve: reserves
unknown but may be
· Cumulative impact
1
$ 500 000
· Integrated
· Reduced artisanal
substantial
assessment for BCLME
($ 500 000)
management
fisheries
· Shared solutions
industry
· Solution to
· Coastal tourism
capacity problem
· Onshore development
· Effects on coastal
communities, post-
mining
® Onshore development ­ Onshore development in-
resources and cumulative impacts and their mitiga-
creases opportunities for jobs, but also modifies habi-
tion, will be needed.
tats through construction and pollution. In addition,
® Cumulative impact assessment for BCLME (industry
coastal migration, urbanisation and poverty may be an
co-funding) ­ An overall impact assessment of the
impact where open towns are adjacent to mining
mining industry is needed.
areas.
® Enhanced consultation (sectoral and regional) is needed
® Effects on coastal communities post mining ­ Mines
to reduce impacts of mining and ensure benefits accrue
eventually close, leaving former mine workers with-
and conflicts are reduced.
out obvious sources of sustainable employment.
® Co-operative training will be needed for the effective
Transboundary consequences
management of mining impacts, as well as deve-
loping activities following cessation of mining.
® Mining activities occur in all three countries (see
BCLME Thematic Reports 3 and 5). Most of the
Priority
impacts are localised but uncertainty exists regarding
cumulative impacts of oil/gas and diamond mining
® Proposed activities are ranked on a scale of 1-3 in terms
which added to impacts of fishing and pollution
of their perceived priority. Only those activities which
could be significant, especially regarding benthos.
address transboundary problems requiring incre-
As such, an assessment of the cumulative impacts
mental funding are listed.
of mining/drilling is a prerequisite for sustainable
integrated management of the BCLME.
Anticipated outputs
® The mining industry in RSA, Namibia and Angola
® Environmental management plan ­ An overall en-
undertake EIAs for all projects. The oil/gas and
vironmental management plan for the whole BCLME
diamond industry in RSA and Namibia are working
will be produced, including management plans for
together to consolidate baseline information. This
mitigating mining and other impacts.
results in an appreciable level of co-financing.
® Integrated management ­ this will be the output of
® All three countries share common problems. For
the above plan.
example, conflicts between resource users and lack
® Solution to capacity problem ­ This will be the result
of post-mining opportunities.
of training to improve assessment and management
® Regulation of mining activities needs to be standard-
capacity with respect to the transboundary issues.
ised within the region.
® Regional training packages on managing mining
Activities/solutions
impacts, community development following mine
closure.
® Policy harmonisation ­ Co-operative harmonisation
of mining policies, particularly related to shared
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TABLE A3: RESPONSIBLE DEVELOPMENT OF MARICULTURE
Problems
Causes
Impacts
Risks/Uncertainties
A3.
· Inadequate policy
· Threat to biodiversity
· Environmental
Mariculture is under-developed but this
· Differential regional
· Diseases
variability
is rapidly changing:
policy ­ policies differ
· Conflict over space/
· Market uncertainty
in the three countries
markets
· Feasibility
Mariculture has the potential throughout
· Space
· Eutrophication
the Benguela region to provide labour-
· Lack of information
intensive employment, protein and for-
eign currency from export of high-value
products. The respnsible development
of a mariculture industry is hampered
by lack of information and capacity, and
lack of harmonised/regional policy.
Ecosystem effects of mariculture develop-
ments are uncertain; for example intro-
duction of exotic species and trans-
boundary consequences thereof.
A3 EXPLANATORY NOTES
® Diseases ­ Introduction of species for mariculture may
PROBLEM: MARICULTURE REQUIRES
spread disease, and cause other unwanted side effects.
RESPONSIBLE DEVELOPMENT
® Conflict over space/markets ­ Conflicts among sectors
for limited sheltered water space are common.
Transboundary conflicts over markets may occur,
Causes
and countries without clear policies may be denied
certain markets.
® Introduction of exotics ­ Mariculture may use exotic
species, which can create threats to biodiversity and
® Eutrophication is a consequence of uncontrolled
ecosystem function.
development of feed-based mariculture systems.
Such development must occur only within the con-
® Inadequate policy ­ While some countries have policies
fines of strictly enforced guidelines.
in place, others do not. Policy may not be enacted
even where it exists, although at least Namibia appar-
ently has a good policy that is about to be enacted.
Risks/uncertainties
® Differential regional policy ­ Policies differ among
® Environmental variability ­ This creates uncertainty
the three BCLME countries. It will be necessary to har-
about the suitability of the limited sheltered water
monise policies to minimise transboundary effects of
space for mariculture.
mariculture.
® Market uncertainty ­ Means that the development of
® Space ­ The coastline of the region experiences
mariculture carries high risk for potential entrepre-
mostly a high-energy wave climate. This means
neurs.
that sheltered water space needed for mariculture
®
is limited, and other sectors also make use of shel-
Feasibility ­ The feasibility of mariculture is not known
tered water, including ports, fisheries and tourism.
for many potential species.
This results in conflict with other sectors.
® Threat to biodiversity, introduction and spread of
® Lack of information ­ One of the reasons mariculture
diseases.
is poorly developed in the region is lack of informa-
tion and lack of capacity. This is particularly true
Socio-economic consequences
when it comes to the use of mariculture to develop
®
and broaden the livelihoods of coastal communities.
Employment and sustainable livelihoods ­ Maricul-
ture has the potential to allow the broadening of the
livelihoods of coastal communities if developed
Impacts
with a sustainable community development policy.
® Threat to biodiversity ­ The introduction of exotic
® Revenue ­ Revenue may accrue not only to entre-
species for mariculture purposes may threaten indige-
preneurs but also to local communities and to the
nous biodiversity by displacing indigenous species.
national revenue base. However, the latter will be
small due to the limited water space available.
2 4
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Socio-Economic
Transboundary
Incremental
Anticipated
Activities/Solutions
Priority
Consequences
Consequences
Cost (5y)
Outputs
· Employment and sus-
· Biological invasion to
· Undertake socio-eco-
1
$ 300 000
· Report on socio-
tainable livelihoods
adjacent country by
nomic and feasibility
economic
· Revenue
alien species
assessment as basis
assessment
· Potential growth
· Threat to biodiversity
for and harmonisation
· Feasibility report
industry
· Common problems,
of national policy, and
· Harmonised
shared solutions
develop regional policy
policy and
to mitigate against
regional policy
potential problems and
· Training package
promote responsible
development of mari-
culture in the BCLME
® Potential growth industry ­ Mariculture is one of the
Activities/solutions
few industries based on living resources that has
growth potential. There is very limited capacity for
® Socio-economic assessment of potential ­ A full socio-
the expansion of harvesting from the wild. Clear
economic assessment needs to be conducted into
sight must be kept of the limited space availability
the ability of mariculture to contribute to regional
though.
economy and the improvement in the living con-
ditions of coastal communities.
Transboundary consequences
® Feasibility assessment ­ The feasibility of maricul-
ture for particular species in certain areas of the
® Mariculture is under-developed in all three countries
region needs to be assessed, and the best species for
and is being activity promoted throughout the
development need to be chosen on the basis of this
region in view of its economic and employment
assessment.
potential. Co-operative transboundary activities
® Formulate harmonised policy for the region ­ Crucial
that promote the responsible development of mari-
if the negative effects of one country's policy on the
culture will minimise negative environmental con-
economic potential of another are to be precluded.
sequences and also help reduce pressure on tra-
® Training ­ Training will be needed, particularly in terms
ditionally (over-) harvested resources.
of promoting community-based mariculture, as well
® Differences in policy among countries in the BCLME
as the overall management of mariculture in the region.
could lead to conflicts (e.g. as a result of the spread of
disease from one country to another, alien species
invasion of the ecosystem from a country point source,
Priority
market conflicts etc), and differential development of
® Proposed activities are ranked on a scale of 1-3 in terms
the mariculture industry. Harmonisation of policy will
of their perceived priority. Only those activities
reduce the potential harmful effects of differential
which address transboundary problems requiring
development.
incremental funding are listed.
® The introduction of exotic species into the region for
mariculture, by any one country, has the potential
Anticipated outputs
to lead to transboundary biological invasions of the
target organism or other species accidentally intro-
® Report on socio-economic assessment, including advice
duced with it. Such invasions have the potential to
for action, particularly targeted at communities.
be a threat to the biodiversity of the BCLME as a
whole.
® Feasibility report, including advice on recommended
species and areas for regional initiatives.
® Policy statement looking at overall and community
potential.
® Training package aimed at managers, communities
and potential entrepreneurs.
TA B L E A 3 : R E S P O N S I B L E D E V E L O P M E N T O F M A R I C U LT U R E
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TABLE A4: PROTECTION OF VULNERABLE SPECIES AND HABITATS
Problems
Causes
Impacts
Risks/Uncertainties
A4.
· Salt production
· Threat to global biodi-
· None given
Threats to vulnerable species:
· Population migration
versity of coastal birds
to coast
· Ecosystem change
Human impact on the ecosystem by
· Pollution
· Loss of wetlands
way of fishing, increasing pressure on
· Reduction of prey
· Population reduction
the coastal zone, pollution etc. has
through fishing
impacted negatively on components of
· Competition for
the system, in particular top predators
· Historical harvesting
exploited resources
such as coastal birds, e.g. penguins and
· Competition for space
gannets.
and prey (seals, birds,
humans)
Vulnerability of habitats: Several habi-
tats, in particular coastal habitats, have
been perturbed or lost as a conse-
quence of development and other
human impacts, e.g. loss of wetlands,
destruction of mangroves, lagoons, etc.
These have transboundary conse-
quences and may be significant globally.
A4 EXPLANATORY NOTES
® Competition for space and prey (seals, birds, humans)
PROBLEM: THREATS TO VULNERABLE
­ Seals and seabirds compete with one another for
SPECIES AND VULNERABILITY OF HABITATS
food and breeding space. Both are in competition
for food and space with human populations.
Causes
Impacts
® Salt production ­ Changes to wetlands and lagoons.
® Threat to global biodiversity of coastal birds e.g. African
® Population migration to coast ­ Especially mangroves.
penguins, bank cormorants. Various scientific publi-
This is a worldwide trend. Logical consequence is a
cations by R.J.M Crawford and co-workers refer ­ also
threat to habitats and resources that are attractive
see BCLME Thematic Reports 1-5 for overviews and
to tourists.
references to changes documented in the BCLME.
® Pollution ­ Impacts on threatened populations, espe-
® Ecosystem change
cially penguins.
® Loss of wetlands
® Reduction of prey through fishing ­ Humans catch
® Population reduction ­ This has happened to several
fish that are the food of seals and seabirds, reducing
resources.
food available for them, and can lead to breeding
®
failures in some years as an example.
Competition for exploited resources ­ Harvesting of
pelagic resources has had a huge impact on food
® Historical harvesting ­ Especially penguins and
availability for other top predators.
gannets, particularly eggs and guano. This is one of
the reasons these populations are in a depressed state.
2 6
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Socio-Economic
Transboundary
Incremental
Anticipated
Activities/Solutions
Priority
Consequences
Consequences
Cost (5y)
Outputs
· Tourism
· Most vulnerable species
· Assessment of status
1
$ 500 000
· Ecosystem
occur throughout the
of vulnerable species
status assess-
region or migrate
and habitats ­ both
ment and report
between countries.
those which are shared
National activities have
between countries and
transboundary conse-
those which play a key
quences.
role in the whole
· Common problems,
ecosystem.
shared solutions.
Risks/uncertainties
Activities/solutions
® None were identified.
® Assessment of status of vulnerable species and habitats
­ Work has started in some countries, but a holistic
Socio-economic consequences
regional study is sought.
® Tourism ­ Marine mammals, seabirds, turtles and
Priority
vulnerable habitats (e.g. wetlands) contribute ex-
tensively to tourism.
® Proposed activities are ranked on a scale of 1-3 in terms
of their perceived priority. Only those activities which
Transboundary consequences
address transboundary problems requiring incre-
mental funding are listed.
® Most vulnerable species, including several endemics,
occur throughout the region and in some cases inter-
Anticipated outputs
nationally. Some vulnerable habitats occur regional-
ly (e.g. wetlands and lagoons), others in one country
® Ecosystem report ­ A report on the status of the eco
(e.g. mangroves), but many are of importance to
system, and the impacts of human activities on the
migratory species. Therefore the consequences of
relationships among non-consumptive resources,
any actions, whether national, regional or interna-
together with management advice.
tional, will have direct transboundary consequences
and may be of significance globally.
® National policies to enable protection of vulnerable
species and habitats need standardisation throughout
the region.
TA B L E A 4 : P R O T E C T I O N O F V U L N E R A B L E S P E C I E S A N D H A B I TAT S
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TABLE A5: ASSESSMENT OF NON-HARVESTED SPECIES AND THEIR ROLE IN THE ECOSYSTEM
Problems
Causes
Impacts
Risks/Uncertainties
A5.
· Lack of information
· All impacts are unknown
· Unable to predict
Role of non-harvested species in the
impacts of changes in
ecosystem is unknown.
abundance of unhar-
vested species upon
Assessments of non-harvested species
harvested species
(except for some seabirds and marine
· Predator/prey relation-
mammals) are not conducted. Some of
ships
these species probably have high bio-
· Large unknown
mass (e.g. light and lantern fish), have
biomass
potential for harvesting (and with it job
· Market potential
and wealth creation), yet the conse-
quences of harvesting on the food webs
· Economic viability
and presently harvested species are
· Unknown impact of
uncertain. There is a general lack of
harvest
knowledge on the subject.
· Ecosystem impact of
pollution
A5 EXPLANATORY NOTES
Priority
PROBLEM: UNKNOWN ROLE OF NON-
® Proposed activities are ranked on a scale of 1-3 in terms
HARVESTED SPECIES IN THE ECOSYSTEM
of their perceived priority. Only those activities which
address transboundary problems requiring incre-
Transboundary consequences
mental funding are listed.
® Many unused or under-used taxa in the BCLME have
Anticipated outputs
transboundary distributions, and therefore any
exploitation or shared knowledge gained in one
® Information on non-harvested species and assess-
country would have an effect in all countries. Such
ment of their role in the ecosystem.
ecosystem effects ought to be addressed in a dedi-
® Ecosystem model as a tool for sustainable integrated
cated manner by gaining basic knowledge of what
management of the BCLME.
is in the system, its biology, and what role it plays,
and how it can be impacted by anthropogenic activity.
Activities/solutions
® Joint dedicated surveys and assessment ­ Such
surveys need to be dedicated to the non-harvested
species because of the special technology needed.
2 8
TA B L E A 5 : A S S E S S M E N T O F N O N - H A RV E S T E D S P E C I E S A N D T H E I R R O L E I N T H E E C O S Y S T E M

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Socio-Economic
Transboundary
Incremental
Anticipated
Activities/Solutions
Priority
Consequences
Consequences
Cost (5y)
Outputs
· Food security potential · Many non-targeted
· Dedicated joint surveys
1
$ 1 000 000
· Information on
· Jobs
species have trans-
and assessments of non-
non-harvested
· Revenue
boundary distributions.
harvested transboundary
species, assess-
Some have potential for
species to provide
ment of ecosys-
harvesting, but their
baseline for integrated
tem role.
role in the ecosystem
ecosystem manage-
· Ecosystem
is uncertain. In the
ment.
model for
absence of information,
management.
action by one country
could disturb the
ecosystem.
· Common problem,
shared solutions.
TA B L E A 5 : A S S E S S M E N T O F N O N - H A RV E S T E D S P E C I E S A N D T H E I R R O L E I N T H E E C O S Y S T E M
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TABLES B: ASSESSMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABILITY,
ECOSYSTEM IMPACTS AND IMPROVEMENT OF PREDICTABILITY
TABLE B1: REDUCING UNCERTAINTY AND IMPROVING PREDICTABILITY
Problems
Causes
Impacts
Risks/Uncertainties
B1.
· Complexity of processes
· Change to coastal
· Long-term net change
The BCLME is a complex and highly
· Poor understanding of
ecosystems from altered
or natural cycles?
variable system for which there is evi-
processes and cause
wind field/rainfall
· Time periods sufficiently
dence of system change and fragmen-
and effect relationships
· Changes in coastline
long to detect changes?
tary but important evidence of increas-
· Poor understanding of
morphology
ing instability/variability.
global driving forces
· Damage to coastal
Scales of variability include:
(linkages)
infrastructure
A. large scale sustained events;
· Lack of data/ information
· Unpredictable varia-
B: decadal changes; and
· Inadequate mathe-
tions in zooplankton
C: high frequency short-lived events
matical models
and fish egg/larval
and/or episodic events.
· Lack of capacity
survival
Human impacts on the BCLME (e.g. by
· Unpredictable changes
fishing) is superimposed on the inher-
in fish growth, mortality
ent natural variability, and the com-
and recruitment
bined effect of anthropogenic distur-
· Unpredictable changes
bance and this variability has been
in species' abundance,
implicated in ecosystem change and
composition, distri-
the collapse of harvested resources.
bution and availability
· Regime shifts
There is also considerable uncertainty
· Cross-boundary move-
regarding ecosystem status and yields.
ments of fish, seabirds
Lack of information about and under-
and seals
standing of environmental variability
· Change in flux of CO2,
and system-wide impacts hampers sus-
methane and H2S
tainable management of BCLME
between atmosphere,
resources and results in the non-
ocean and sediments
optimal utilisation of these resources.
· Difficulties in managing
resources sustainably
· Operational difficulties
with resource utilisation
· Assessment of anthro-
pogenic impacts
difficult
B1 EXPLANATORY NOTES
Atlantic, Indo-Pacific and Southern Ocean. Unlike the
PROBLEM: HIGHLY VARIABLE SYSTEM,
Humboldt Current there are few long-term data series
to form a baseline against which changes can be pre-
UNCERTAINTY REGARDING ECOSYSTEM
dicted or assessed. There is an uneven spread of data
STATUS AND YIELDS
between disciplines and between the participating
countries. Difficulties in predicting changes in the sys-
Causes
tem is a consequence of:
® Complexity of physical, chemical and biological inter-
The Benguela upwelling area is a highly variable "convex"
system with three open and variable boundaries. It is
actions and processes, and the difficulties in pre-
unique in that it is bounded at both equatorial and pole-
dicting environmental variability.
ward ends by warm water (tropical) systems viz the
® Our limited understanding of cause and effect relation-
Tropical Atlantic and Agulhas Current. It is sensitive to
ships, compounded by the problems of predicting
environmental events (variability and change) in the
environmental variability and eco-system impacts.
3 0
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Socio-Economic
Transboundary
Incremental
Anticipated
Activities/Solutions
Priority
Consequences
Consequences
Cost (5y)
Outputs
· Uncertain employment
Climate Change:
· Develop regional early
1
$ 1 600 000
· Regional early
(job losses and gains)
· Contribution to global
warning system for
warning systems
· Variation in revenue
climate change (CO2,
environmental change
for major environ-
· Over- and under-utili-
methane flux)
· Targeted feasibility
1
$ 400 000
mental events/
sation of resources.
Ecosystem:
assessment of PIRATA
change
· Lack of food security
link-up/application to
· Quantification
· Shifts in distribution
BCLME
of utility/appli-
· Human population
of biota
cation of PIRATA
migration
· Targeted transboundary
1
$ 250 000
· Loss of species/
assessment of large-
for SADC
· High production costs
biodiversity
scale hypoxia/impacts
· Information
· National/regional
· Altered food webs
· Assess role of upwelling
2
($ 300 000)
needed to design
conflicts
· Disruption of faunal
systems as CO2
monitoring/pre-
· Reduced capacity to
migrations
source/sink
dictive systems
support artisanal
Fisheries:
· Analyse plankton data
1
$ 100 000
· Quantification
fisheries
· Unsustainable manage-
archives for measure-
of CO2 flux
· Changes in govern-
ment of shared and
ment of decadal change
· Record of decadal
ment revenue, private
straddling stocks
· Develop transboundary
1
$ 250 000
ecosystem
income and exports.
· Altered fish spawning
state of the environment
changes
patterns and popu-
analysis/reporting
· Regional environ-
lation shifts
system
mental analysis/
· Unpredictable fluctua-
· Develop links with
2
($ 50 000)
reporting system/
tions and availability
CLIVAR
network
of fish stocks
· Adapt/develop predic-
2
$ 300 000
· Knowledge and
· Unpredictable and
tive models
expertise on global
variable distribution of
· Establish regional
2
$ 50 000
climate links
fishery benefits
advisory groups
· Predictions and
· Regional economic
· Data gathering com-
2
$ 100 000
models
instability and unem-
munity projects
· Regional
ployment
· Transboundary environ-
1
$ 400 000
advisory groups
· Regional conflicts with
mental variability net-
· Availability of im-
other users
working (including
portant/useful data
Coastal infrastructure:
Internet)
· Regional environ-
· Costly maintenance of
· Establish links with the
1
$ 50 000
mental variability
coastal infrastructure
Gulf of Guinea LME
network
· Links with Gulf
of Guinea LME
® Our limited understanding of driving forces (global
® Lack of data/information: Long-term data series are
linkages). There is evidence from case studies that
few, and except for the extreme southern Benguela,
inter-annual variability in the northern Benguela is
the ecological processes are poorly understood.
associated with changes in zonal (east-west) winds
® Inadequate mathematical models applicable to the
in the equatorial Atlantic, and also that there are
region: Very little mathematical modeling of the
some common features in the variability of the
Benguela has been done internationally, and there
north and south Atlantic. There is also fragmentary
is a general lack, in the region, of the capacity (skills
evidence linking variability in the Pacific El Niño/La
and technology) to adapt available models from
Niño (ENSO). Thus, although there are pointers to
elsewhere, to run these or to develop new models.
the importance of remote physical (global climate)
This applies to physical, chemical and biological
forcing of the Benguela, the linkages and mech-
(ecosystem) modeling. This is a serious drawback
anisms are not understood.
to developing predictive capacity.
TA B L E B 1 : R E D U C I N G U N C E RTA I N T Y A N D I M P R O V I N G P R E D I C TA B I L I T Y
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