---

Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
November 1999
CONTENTS
PAGE
THE BENGUELA ­ BACKGROUND AND INTRODUCTION
3
·
A Unique Environment
·
Fragmented Management: A Legacy of the Colonial and Political Past
·
The Need for International Action
·
The Success Story of BENEFIT
·
The Emerging BCLME Programme
·
What Has Been Achieved
·
Towards a Sustainable Future: The Next Steps
USERS' GUIDE TO THE TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS
10
·
Definitions and TDA Objective
·
Design of the TDA
·
More Information
BCLME TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS
12
·
Geographic Scope and Ecosystem Boundaries
12
·
Level One: Synthesis
13
·
Synthesis Matrix
14
·
Level Two: Action Areas
17
ANALYSIS TABLES AND EXPLANATORY NOTES
Tables A 1­5:
Sustainable Management and Utilisation of Resources
18
A1 Facilitation of Optimal Harvesting of Living Resources
A2 Assessment of Mining and Drilling Impacts and Policy Harmonisation
A3 Responsible Development of Mariculture
A4 Protection of Vulnerable Species and Habitats
A5 Assessment of Non-Harvested Species and their Role in the Ecosystem
Tables B 1­3:
Assessment of Environmental Variability,
30
Ecosystem Impacts and Improvement of Predictability
B1 Reducing Uncertainty and Improving Predictability
B2 Capacity Strengthening and Training
B3 Management of Consequences of Harmful Algal Blooms
Tables C 1­5:
Maintenance of Ecosystem Health and Management of Pollution
42
C1 Improvement of Water Quality
C2 Prevention and Management of Oil Spills
C3 Reduction of Marine Litter
C4 Retardation/Reversal of Habitat Destruction/Alteration
C5 Conservation of Biodiversity
Table D:
Benguela Current Large Marine Ecosystem Stakeholders
50
List of Acronyms
51

---

---

The Benguela
BACKGROUND AND INTRODUCTION
A Unique Environment
from more localised biological decay processes. There
are also teleconnections between the Benguela and
The Benguela Current Large Marine Ecosystem
processes in the North Atlantic and Indo-Pacific Oceans
(BCLME) is situated along the coast of south-western
(e.g. El Niño). Moreover, the southern Benguela lies at
Africa, stretching from east of the Cape of Good Hope
a major choke point in the "Global Climate Conveyor
in the south equatorwards to the Angola Front, near
Belt" whereby on timescales of decades to centuries
the northern geopolitical boundary of Angola (see
warm surface waters move from the Pacific via the
Figure 1). It encompasses one of the four major coastal
Indian Ocean through into the North Atlantic. (The
upwelling ecosystems of the world which lie at the
South Atlantic is the only ocean in which there is a net
eastern boundaries of the oceans. Like the Humboldt,
transport of heat towards the equator!) As a conse-
California and Canary systems, the Benguela is an
quence, not only is the Benguela at a critical location in
important centre of marine biodiversity and marine
terms of the global climate system, but it is also poten-
food production. The BCLME's distinctive bathymetry,
tially extremely vulnerable to any future climate
hydrography, chemistry and trophodynamics combine
change or increasing variability in climate.
to make it one of the most productive ocean areas in
the world, with a mean annual primary productivity of
Centuries before the arrival in southern Africa of the
1.25 grams of carbon per square metre per year ­ about
first European explorers and settlers, indigenous
six times higher than the North Sea ecosystem. This
coastal peoples harvested intertidal and near-shore
high level of primary productivity of the BCLME sup-
marine life. Commercial exploitation in the BCLME
ports an important global reservoir of biodiversity and
commenced in the first part of the seventeenth century
biomass of zooplankton, fish, sea birds and marine
with the harvesting of fur seals, and was followed by
mammals, while near-shore and off-shore sediments
extensive whaling operations in the eighteenth and
hold rich deposits of precious minerals (particularly
nineteenth centuries. Commercial trawling started
diamonds), as well as oil and gas reserves. The natural
around 1900 and commercial purse-seine fishing for
beauty of the coastal regions, many of which are still
sardine some 50 years later. Fisheries expanded rapidly
pristine by global standards, have also enabled the
in the 1960s and 1970s during a period when there was
development of significant tourism in some areas.
heavy exploitation of resources by foreign fleets ­
Pollution from industries and poorly planned and man-
resulting in the severe depletion and collapse of sever-
aged coastal developments and near-shore activities is,
al fish stocks. Superimposed on this fishing pressure
however, resulting in a rapid degradation of vulnerable
was the impact of the inherent natural environmental
coastal habitats.
ecosystem variability and change. Together with the
other factors mentioned in the following paragraphs,
The Namib Desert, which forms the landward bound-
this has made the sustainable use and management of
ary of a large part of the BCLME, is one of the oldest
BCLME living resources difficult.
deserts in the world, predating the commencement of
persistent upwelling in the Benguela (12 million years
before present) by at least 40 million years. The
Fragmented Management:
upwelling system in the form in which we know it
A Legacy of the Colonial and Political Past
today is about 2 million years old. The principal
upwelling centre in the Benguela, which is situated
Following the establishment of European settlements
near Lüderitz in southern Namibia, is the most concen-
at strategic coastal locations where victuals and water
trated and intense found in any upwelling regime.
could be procured to supply fleets trading with the East
What also makes the Benguela upwelling system so
Indies, the potential wealth of the African continent
unique in the global context is that it is bounded at both
became apparent. This resulted in the great rush for
northern and southern ends by warm water systems,
territories and the colonisation of the continent ­ most-
viz the tropical/equatorial Eastern Atlantic and the
ly during the nineteenth century. Boundaries between
Indian Ocean's Agulhas Current respectively. Sharp
colonies were hastily established, often arbitrarily and
horizontal gradients (fronts) exist at these boundaries
generally with little regard for indigenous inhabitants
of the upwelling system, but these display substantial
and natural habitats. Colonial land boundaries in the
variability in time and in space ­ at times pulsating in
Benguela region were established at rivers (Cunene,
phase and at others not. Interaction between the
Orange). Not only were the languages and cultures of
BCLME and the adjacent ocean systems occurs over
the foreign occupiers different (Portuguese, German,
thousands of kilometers. For example, much of the
English, Dutch) but so were the management systems
BCLME, in particular off Namibia and Angola, is natu-
and laws which evolved in the three now independent
rally hypoxic ­ even anoxic ­ at depth as a conse-
and democratic countries of the region ­ Angola,
quence of subsurface flow southwards from the tropical
Namibia and South Africa. Moreover, not only were the
Atlantic. This is compounded by depletion of oxygen
governance frameworks very different, but a further
T H E B E N G U E L A : B A C K G R O U N D A N D I N T R O D U C T I O N
3

---

S
Angola Front
(Northern Boundary)
CABINDA (ANGOLA)
5°
Congo River
SOUTH
EQUATORIAL
COUNTER
Edge of continental 200m
CURRENT
shelf
LUANDA
ANGOLA
10°
Angola
Angola
Dome
Current
Benguela
25 - 50
ANGOLA Angola-Benguela
cm·s-1
BASIN
Front
15°
(±5 000m)
Namibe
Cunene River
Cape Frio
NAMIBIA
20°
15 - 20
cm·s-1
Eastern part
Swakopmund
WALVIS BAY
of
South Atlantic
Gyre
Cold, windy,
25°
central zone
Lüderitz
BENGUELA
CURRENT
10 - 30
alvis Ridge
Orange River
cm·s-1
±15 Sv
30°
W
SOUTH
AFRICA
Vema
"jet"
Seamount
Port
Cape Colombine
25 - 75
Elizabeth
CAPE
cm·s-1
CAPE TOWN
BASIN
35°
(4 000 - 5 000m)
AgulhasR
Cape
ing
Agulhas
Agulhas
Bank
Leakage via
SOUTH ATLANTIC
Agulhas Rings
CURRENT
(2 - 10 Sv)
Southern Boundary
AGULHAS CURRENT
15 - 40
60 - 80 Sv
Cape of
cm·s-1
Good Hope
40°
WARM
CURRENT
COLD
Agulhas
Agulhas Ridge
CURRENT
Retroflection
Plateau
5°
10°
15°
20°
25°
E
FIGURE 1 Ocean currents in the Benguela region
4
T H E B E N G U E L A : B A C K G R O U N D A N D I N T R O D U C T I O N

---

consequence of European influence was the relative
develop a viable joint and integrative mechanism for
absence of inter-agency (or inter-ministerial) frame-
the sustainable environmental management of the
works for management of the marine environment and
region as a whole, i.e. at the ecosystem level.
its resources, and scant regard for sustainability. To this
day mining concessions, oil/gas exploration, fishing
rights and coastal development have taken place with
The Need for International Action
little or no proper integration or regard for other users.
For example, exploratory wells have been sunk in
In the BCLME the issue of sustainable ecosystem man-
established fishing grounds and the well-heads (which
agement, under conditions of environmental variabili-
stand proud of the sea bed) subsequently abandoned.
ty and uncertainty within a developing regional con-
Likewise the impact of habitat alterations due to min-
text, provides an ideal opportunity for the international
ing activities, and ecosystem alteration (including bio-
community to provide material assistance to enable
diversity impacts) due to fishing, have not been prop-
the three countries, via a joint partnership, to establish
erly assessed.
and implement the appropriate framework for man-
agement actions. Countries such as Norway and
Prior to the coming into being of the United Nations
Germany are already providing much-needed expert-
Convention on the Law of the Sea and declaration and
ise and assistance through the co-ordinated regional
respecting of sovereign rights within individual coun-
BENEFIT mechanism (discussed in the next section),
tries' Exclusive Economic (or Fishing) Zones, there was
but there is a clear need for greater international
an explosion of foreign fleets fishing off Angola,
involvement to enable the region to, for example,
Namibia and South Africa during the 1960s and 1970s
repair the damage done by the ravages of gross over-
­ an effective imperialism and colonisation by mainly
exploitation of fish resources by foreign fleets in the
First World countries of the BCLME, and the rape of its
1960s, 1970s and 1980s. As previously mentioned,
resources. This period also coincided with liberation
there exists a sharp capacity gradient (human and
struggles in all three countries, and associated civil
infrastructure) from south to north in the BCLME, and
wars. In the case of Namibia, over whom the mandate
while there is a very obvious willingness in the region
by South Africa was not internationally recognised,
to share knowledge, expertise and facilities with those
there was an added problem in that prior to independ-
who are more disadvantaged, international commit-
ence in 1990, an EEZ could not be proclaimed. In an
ment from the Global Environment Facility (GEF)
attempt to control the foreign exploitation of Namibia's
International Waters Programme towards capacity and
fish resources, the International Commission for the
institutional strengthening and integrated management
South-east Atlantic Fisheries (ICSEAF) was established,
will greatly help to accelerate this process.
but this proved to be relatively ineffectual at husband-
As has been noted, the mobile components of the
ing the fish stocks. In South Africa prior to 1994, envi-
BCLME do not respect the arbitrary geopolitical (coun-
ronmental issues and sustainable management were
try) boundaries. Several fish stocks straddle or are
low on the political agenda. Moreover, the legacy of the
shared between the countries or otherwise migrate
past has resulted in a marked gradient in capacity from
through the Benguela. Actions by one country, e.g.
south to north in the region. Consequences of the civil
over-exploitation or habitat destruction of their part of
wars have been the human population migration to the
a migrating or shared resource, could in effect nega-
coast, localised pressure on marine and coastal
tively impact on one or both neighbouring countries.
resources (e.g. destruction of coastal forests and man-
Joint management and protection of shared stocks is
groves), and severe pollution of some embayments.
one of the few available options to the countries bor-
While mineral exploration and extraction and develop-
dering the BCLME. In this manner, a better sense of
ment in the coastal zone obviously occurs within the
ownership of the region's resources can be attained,
geographic boundaries of the three countries (i.e. with-
and "owners" tend to protect their property more so
in the EEZs), and can to a large degree be independ-
than those enjoying a free service. There is thus a
ently managed by each of the countries, mobile living
strong need for harmonising legal and policy objec-
marine resources do not respect the arbitrary geo-
tives and for developing common strategies for
graphic borders. This has obvious implications for the
resource surveys, and investment in sustainable
sustainable use of these resources, particularly so in
ecosystem management for the benefit of all the people
the case of straddling and shared fish stocks.
in the Benguela region. Only concerted regional action
and enablement from the international community to
Thus the legacy of the colonial and political past is that
develop regional agreements, and legal frameworks
the management of resources in the greater Benguela
and assessment/implementation strategies, will in the
area has not been integrated within countries or within
longer term protect the biological diversity of the
the region. The real challenge of the BCLME will be to
greater Benguela.
T H E B E N G U E L A : B A C K G R O U N D A N D I N T R O D U C T I O N
5

---

While shared living resources present the most obvi-
to promote optimum utilisation of natural resources
ous case for co-management, there are many activities
and thereby greater food security in the region.
and issues which can benefit from expertise and man-
agement structures developed and implemented in
BENEFIT has been planned in two five-year phases
individual countries. These include inter alia mining,
(1997-2002, 2002-2007). The science and technology
declining coastal water quality (pollution abatement
component of BENEFIT has three foci, viz resource
and control, oil spill clean-up technology), oil/gas
dynamics, the environment (of the resources) and link-
extraction, coastal zone development, tourism and
ages between resources and the environment. These
eco-tourism development, mitigation of the effects of
foci are increasing knowledge of resource dynamics
introduced species (aliens) and harmful algal blooms ­
through improved research on the resources and their
which can also have system-wide impacts.
variable environment. The capacity development com-
ponent of the Programme is being addressed through
The BCLME Programme, which builds on existing
a suite of task-orientated framework activities to (a)
regional capacity and goodwill, could serve as a blue-
build human capacity, particularly in areas of greatest
print for the design and implementation of LME initia-
need and greatest historical disadvantage, (b) develop,
tives in other upwelling regions and elsewhere in the
enhance and maintain regional infrastructure and co-
developing world. Moreover, the BCLME Programme
operation, and (c) make the countries in the region and
will address key regional environmental variability
the region as a whole more self-sufficient in science
issues that are expected to make a major contribution
and technology. The BENEFIT Secretariat is based in
towards understanding global fluctuations in the
Namibia, while management meetings are held on a
marine environment, including climate change.
rotating basis in Angola, Namibia and South Africa.
The launch of BENEFIT in April 1997 coincided with
The Success Story of BENEFIT
two major research cruises/surveys that focused on the
fisheries and environment of the Angola-Benguela
In April 1997 a major regional co-operative initiative
Front. (This front is situated west of Angola and is
was launched jointly by Angola, Namibia and South
thought to play an important role as a permeable inter-
Africa together with foreign partners "To develop the
nal "boundary" within the BCLME, demarcating the
enhanced science capacity required for the optimal and
northern extent of pronounced coastal upwelling.)
sustainable utilisation of living resources of the
During the past two years BENEFIT increasingly gath-
Benguela ecosystem by (a) improving knowledge and
ered momentum with funding for priority projects
understanding of the dynamics of important commer-
being allocated and real progress in human capacity
cial stocks, their environment and linkages between
development being made. Some recent achievements
the environmental processes and the stock dynamics,
are briefly as follows:
and (b) building appropriate human and material
® Several reports and scientific/technical papers have
capacity for marine science and technology in the
countries bordering the Benguela ecosystem". This
been published on the results of the 1997 Angola-
BENEFIT (BENguela-Environment-Fisheries-Interaction
Benguela Front surveys, and several regional scien-
& Training) Programme evolved out of a Workshop/
tists and technicians received hands-on training at
Seminar on "Fisheries Resource Dynamics in the
sea, in the laboratory and in data analysis
Benguela Current Ecosystem" held in Swakopmund in
® A German sponsored BENEFIT Training Course
mid-1995. The workshop was hosted by the Namibian
was conducted in Namibia in 1997 and a number
Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources in partner-
of regional scientists received further training sub-
ship with the Norwegian Agency for Development Co-
sequently in Germany and in Norway
operation (NORAD), the German Organisation for
Technical Co-operation (GTZ) and the Intergovern-
® Fifteen fisheries and fisheries-environment (incre-
mental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) of UNESCO.
mental) projects have been approved for funding in 1999
BENEFIT was developed in the region by Angola,
® Two training workshops have taken place (1998
Namibia and South Africa and is jointly managed and
and 1999) and a BENEFIT Training Plan to comple-
directed by the three countries. BENEFIT has attracted
ment the Science Plan is under development this year
substantial incremental support from overseas coun-
tries and international donor agencies. It remains,
® In the first half of 1999 over 50 persons from the
however, essentially a regional "self help" initiative,
broad SADC region have been trained during three
and has been endorsed by the Southern African
BENEFIT cruises, including a 40-day survey of
Development Community (SADC) and accepted as a
resources and the environment, which extended
SADC programme. It is providing a unique opportunity
between Cape Town and Luanda, primarily funded
for development of partnerships within and beyond
by the African Development Bank and the World
the southern African region in science and technology,
Bank.
6
T H E B E N G U E L A : B A C K G R O U N D A N D I N T R O D U C T I O N

---

In addition to the above, strong links have been built
World Bank, the United Nations Development
between BENEFIT and three parallel (but distinctly dif-
Programme (UNDP) and the United Nations
ferent) programmes, viz South Africa's established and
Environment Programme (UNEP). An embryonic
internationally acclaimed Benguela Ecology Pro-
GEF/PDF Block B Grant application was developed by a
gramme (BEP), ENVIFISH (a three-year European
small group in late 1995, subsequently refined with the
Union funded project between seven EU states and
assistance of UNDP staff, and submitted to the GEF.
Angola, Namibia and South Africa, focussing primarily
Following grant approval, US$344 000 was made avail-
on the application of satellite data in environment ­
able by the GEF in 1998 to enable the development of
fisheries research and management, and which com-
a comprehensive project proposal including the neces-
menced in October 1998) and VIBES (a bilateral French-
sary instruments, such as the synthesis and assess-
South African initiative focussing on the variability of
ment of information on the BCLME (contained in six
pelagic fish resources in the Benguela, and the envi-
comprehensive Thematic Reports), a Transboundary
ronment and spatial aspects of the system, which also
Diagnostic Analysis (this document), a Strategic Action
commenced in 1998). In all of these initiatives the
Programme and Project Brief.
emphasis is on science and technology per se, and not on
the much-needed transboundary management issues.
What Has Been Achieved?
BENEFIT and related activities provide clear evidence
of the desire and capability of Angola, Namibia and
Following the approval of the PDF Block B Grant, a
South Africa to work together to solve common prob-
small Management Committee was established, with
lems in the Benguela region in partnership with the
members being appointed to represent the govern-
international community. This can form a strong base
ments of the three countries, UNDP and some donors.
on which to develop integrated management structures.
A Project Co-ordinator was appointed, based in
Windhoek, Namibia, with logistical, administrative and
infrastructure support provided by the Namibian
The Emerging BCLME Programme
Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources (as imple-
menting agency) and administrative assistance by the
The seed for the BCLME Programme was sown at the
UNDP Office in Windhoek.
Workshop/Seminar on Fisheries Resource Dynamics
in the Benguela Current Ecosystem, held in
In July 1998 the First Regional BCLME Workshop was
Swakopmund, Namibia, in May/June 1995 ­ the same
held in Cape Town, which was followed by a formal
meeting which laid the foundation for BENEFIT.
meeting of key stakeholders. The Workshop was
However, whereas BENEFIT focuses on science and
attended by approximately 100 regional and interna-
technology as applied to fisheries and the fish environ-
tional experts and stakeholders representing a broad
ment, and science capacity development, the focus of
cross-section of the public and private sectors in
the BCLME Programme is different. In contrast to BEN-
Angola, Namibia and South Africa. The following were
EFIT, the Benguela Current LME programme is a broad-
among the organisations in the three countries repre-
based multi-sectoral initiative aimed at sustainable
sented at the workshop:
integrated management of the Benguela Current
ecosystem as a whole. It will focus on a number of key
From Angola: Ministry of Fisheries, Ministry of Environ-
sectors including fisheries and environmental variabil-
mental Affairs, Ministry of Science and Technology,
ity, sea-bed mining, oil and gas exploration and pro-
Augostino Neto University, TEXACO, National Oil
duction, coastal zone management, ecosystem health,
Company (SONANGOL), National Fishing Industry,
and socio-economics and governance. Transboundary
Swedish International Development Agency (SIDA)
management issues, environmental protection and
From Namibia: Ministry of Environment and Tourism,
capacity strengthening will be of primary concern to
Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources, Ministry
the BCLME programme.
of Agriculture, Water and Rural Development,
Inspired by the 1995 Workshop/Seminar and the
Ministry of Works, Transport and Communication,
progress being made on sustainable management of
Ministry of Trade and Industry, Ministry of Mines and
other LMEs ­ the Black Sea LME in particular ­ and in
Energy, NAMPORT, Meteorological Service, BENE-
order to develop a viable action plan to ensure the sus-
FIT Secretariat, Southern African Development
tainable management of the greater Benguela ecosys-
Community (SADC), Desert Research Foundation,
tem, the three countries bordering the Benguela
National Petroleum Corporation of Namibia (NAM-
(Angola, Namibia and South Africa) requested support
COR), Shell Exploration Namibia, Lalandii, UNDP,
from the Global Environment Facility (GEF), a fund
Namibian Minerals Corporation (NAMCO), German
established in 1991 under the management of The
Organisation for Technical Co-operation (GTZ).
T H E B E N G U E L A : B A C K G R O U N D A N D I N T R O D U C T I O N
7

---

From South Africa: Department of Environmental Affairs
First Regional BCLME Workshop participated in the
and Tourism, Department of Mineral and Energy
Second Workshop, and this provided a fair balance
Affairs, National Parks Board, Cape Nature
across the various stakeholders in the three countries.
Conservation, Western Cape Provincial Adminis-
Although there were necessarily fewer participants
tration, Northern Cape Provincial Administration,
(40), all were either acknowledged regional experts on
SA Pelagic Fishing Industry Association, SA Deep
the BCLME representing the main stakeholders or
Sea Trawling Industry Association, University of
international LME experts (refer to the Report of the
Cape Town, Port Nolloth Sea Farms, Eco-Africa,
Second Regional Workshop for more comprehensive
University of the Western Cape, SOEKOR, CSIR,
information). At the Workshop the participants divided
PORTNET, Ocean Diamond Mining, South-east
into three groups to address the three major issues in
Coast Inshore Fishing Association, Tuna and
the BCLME, viz (1) utilisation of resources, (2) environ-
Linefish Association, De Beers Marine, various con-
mental variability and (3) ecosystem health and pollu-
sultancies.
tion. A breakdown of the sectoral and stakeholders'
involvement in each of these three groups is shown in
The Workshop, which was moderated by an independ-
Table D. Excellent progress was made at the Workshop
ent international facilitator, generated a wealth of infor-
thanks to the quality of leadership provided by the facil-
mation and ideas relevant to the development of a viable
itator, the guidance by the international representatives
BCLME Programme. The objectives of the Workshop
of UNDP-GEF and NOAA (LME concept), and the spirit
were to identify issues and problems/constraints in the
of co-operation and goodwill of the participants. The
Benguela, to attempt to prioritise these and propose
essential elements for the TDA were formulated (and
possible solutions, to forge consensus among the var-
prioritised) as per the path: issues > problems >
ious stakeholders and roleplayers, to develop an imple-
causes > impact > uncertainties > socio-economic con-
mentable work plan and a mechanism for consultation
sequences > transboundary consequences > activities/
and co-operation. At the Workshop, keynote addresses
solutions > priority > outputs > costs. This consensus
were delivered on other LMEs (Yellow Sea, Baltic, Bay
Workshop product forms the basis for the present TDA.
of Bengal, Gulf of Guinea), the LME concept,
Prior to the conclusion of the Workshop, the framework
International Waters and the GEF, and on various
for the Strategic Action Programme was defined and a
aspects of the Benguela per se, viz the environment,
Work Plan to finalise the BCLME project development
fisheries, oil and gas industries, mining, coastal zone
phase was formulated.
management and pollution. These overviews provided
useful inputs for the subsequent group discussions
A small task team was appointed to draft a TDA docu-
from which the consensus on problems and priorities
ment based on the output of the Second Regional
emerged. The Stakeholders Meeting held after the con-
BCLME Workshop. The draft TDA was circulated to the
clusion of the Workshop addressed issues such as
members of the BCLME Management Committee for
communication, the budget, donor involvement, studies/
comment in July 1999, and was revised so as to com-
consultancies, project co-ordination and the work plan.
ply with GEFSEC requirements, before being endorsed
at a meeting of the Management Committee held in
Subsequent to the First Regional Workshop, consultants
Cape Town on 30 September - 1 October 1999.
were appointed to prepare comprehensive syntheses
and assessments of information on the BCLME. This
resulted in the production of six Thematic Reports
Towards a Sustainable Future:
("Integrated Overviews") on:
The Next Steps
® Fisheries
What was clear by the end of the Second Regional
® Oceanography and Environmental Variability
Workshop was that an enormous amount of goodwill,
® Diamond Mining
information and ideas has been generated within the
® Coastal Environments
region relevant to the sustainable management of the
® Off-shore Oil and Gas Exploration/Production
Benguela Current ecosystem. This bodes well for the
® Socio-economics of Some Key Maritime Industries
future and provides a strong foundation, not only to
develop a really viable LME approach to the Benguela
A Second Regional BCLME Workshop was held at
Current region, but also to provide a blueprint for how
Okahandja near Windhoek, Namibia, during April 1999.
"convex" or open-system LMEs should be developed
At this Workshop the Thematic Reports were briefly
internationally. This contrasts the approaches for the
reviewed. These syntheses, together with the output
existing predominantly "concave" or closed-system
from the First Workshop, served as a basis for the
LMEs that have already been developed; in other
development of a draft Transboundary Diagnostic
words, sustainable integrated management of a highly
Analysis (TDA). Many of those who had attended the
variable open-boundary ecosystem.
8
T H E B E N G U E L A : B A C K G R O U N D A N D I N T R O D U C T I O N

---

Correcting decades of over-exploitation of resources in
tional structures and sustainable funding will be avail-
the Benguela ecosystem and fragmented manage-
able in the region to ensure the on-going integrated
ment actions (the consequence of the colonial/political
management of the BCLME. Specific actions in which
past and greed) will require a substantial co-ordinated
the GEF will play a role will include inter alia:
effort during the next decade, to be followed by sus-
®
tained action on a permanent basis. A task of this mag-
Development of appropriate transboundary frame
nitude will require careful planning not only by the gov-
works and mechanisms at both regional, national
ernment agencies in the three countries bordering the
and local levels for consultation, co-ordination and
Benguela Current, but also by all the other stakeholders.
co-operation
There already exists the willingness on the part of the
® Development of institutional capacities of the key
key players to collaborate to achieve this objective, but
agencies and institutions in the region that con-
the real challenge will be to develop systems and struc-
tribute to the integrated sustainable management
tures that take cognisance of the naturally highly vari-
of the BCLME
able and potentially fragile nature of the BCLME and its
® Effective ecosystem assessment and development
coastal environments within the context of a changing
of an early warning system for ecosystem change
society and world. The many issues and problems, as
® Actions to fill the gaps in our understanding of the
well as possible solutions, have been identified and pri-
BCLME, its functioning, and the factors which affect
oritised in the Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
it (biophysical, social, economic and political)
tables. The resolve of the governments of Angola,
Namibia and South Africa to correct the wrongs of the
® Harmonisation of policies and legislation relating to
past, and move forward with a new vision to ensure
activities affecting the BCLME
that the BCLME can be sustainably utilised and enjoyed
® Increased external support for activities to minimise
by future generations for the benefit of all, is embodied
and mitigate the negative impacts of development
in the elements of the Strategic Action Programme. The
(mining, urbanisation, tourism development,
SAP is much more than just a piece of paper; it is a prag-
resource exploitation) through the promotion of sus-
matic, workable framework and unambiguous state-
tainable approaches and the use of appropriate tools
ment of common goals and objectives and the means
® Measures to improve sustainable resource management
of their achievement. Success will depend on thorough
implementation of the principles, commitments and
® Measures to protect biological diversity
actions embodied in the SAP, both explicit and implicit.
® Quantification of the role of the BCLME as a source/
sink of CO2 and clarification of the role of the BCLME
In the TDA synthesis and analysis tables a number of
as a targeted early warning site for global change.
major transboundary problems in the BCLME have
been identified. These include inter alia, non-optimal
This is seen as compatible with the three elements of
harvesting of living resources, uncertainty regarding
the GEF-funded International Waters activities to meet
ecosystem status and yields in a highly variable envi-
incremental costs of:
ronment, deterioration in water quality, habitat
1. Assisting groups of countries to better understand
destruction and alteration, loss of biotic integrity and
the environmental concerns of their international
threat to biodiversity, harmful algal blooms, introduc-
waters and work collaboratively to address them
tion of alien species and inadequate regional capacity
(human and infrastructure). Over-arching generic
2. Building capacity of existing institutions, or through
actions which are needed to address these trans-
new institutional arrangements, to utilise a more com-
boundary problems must focus on capacity strength-
prehensive approach for addressing transboundary
ening and training, policy development and harmoni-
water-related environmental concerns, and
sation, and development of regional collaboration or
3. Implementing sustainable measures that address
networking in respect of surveys and assessment of
priority transboundary environmental concerns.
the ecosystem status. These actions are appropriate
within the context of a GEF project and it is envisaged
Policies, structures and actions developed during the
that the role of the GEF in the implementation phase of
implementation phase of the BCLME Programme, i.e.
the BCLME Programme will take the form of institution
over the next five years, must by the end of the period
building, strengthening capacity needed in the region
be self-sustainable in the region. To achieve this it is
to facilitate integrated management, and sharing the
essential that mechanisms be in place to encourage ­
costs of the actions with the three governments and
indeed ensure ­ a substantial degree of co-financing of
donors. The GEF should be catalytic in helping to lever-
activities. This can best be done by involving and devel-
age sustainable (long-term) funding and mobilise pri-
oping partnerships with maritime and coastal industries,
vate-sector funding. Through such a process it is antic-
the international community, and present and future
ipated that, following the conclusion of the GEF-funded
beneficiaries, i.e. all those who have a stake in the long-
BCLME component, the necessary capacity and institu-
term health and viability of the Benguela as an LME.
T H E B E N G U E L A : B A C K G R O U N D A N D I N T R O D U C T I O N
9

---

Users' Guide to the TDA
Definitions and TDA Objective
Second Regional BCLME Workshop (April 1999), syn-
thesised and then condensed into a series of analytical
A Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis is a scientific and
tables. These are presented in this document.
technical assessment, through which the water-related
environmental issues and problems of a region are
The current TDA has been designed at two operational
identified and quantified, their causes analysed and
levels. These are as follows:
their impacts, both environmental and economic,
(a)
Level One: Synthesis: The issues and perceived
assessed. The analysis involves the identification of
main transboundary problems, root causes and
causes and impacts (and uncertainties associated with
areas where action is proposed.
these) at national, regional and global levels, and the
socio-economic, political and institutional context with-
This level, consisting of a Synthesis Matrix and some
in which they occur. The identification of the causes
explanatory text about the transboundary characteris-
should, where appropriate, specify sources, locations
tics of the BCLME, serves as a logistical "map" for the
and sectors. The TDA assessment should indicate
TDA. It considers the main issues and major perceived
which elements are clearly transboundary in character
environmental problems which must be addressed for
and list and prioritise activities or solutions to address
the sustainable integrated management of the BCLME.
the issue/problem and the root causes.
It examines the transboundary elements of the prob-
lems (i.e. elements shared by at least two of the three
Within the context of the TDA, transboundary environ-
countries) and then relates them to their major under-
mental issues include inter alia:
lying institutional, societal or global root causes. In all
® regional/national issues with transboundary causes/
cases the root causes are common to a large number
sources
of problems and require changes to the role given to
environmental issues within the priorities of the gov-
® transboundary issues with national causes/sources
ernments and the public in general. The matrix identi-
®
fies three generic areas (issues) where proposals for
national issues that are common to at least two of the
action can be formulated, viz utilisation of resources,
countries and that require a common strategy and
environmental variability and pollution/ecosystem
collective action to address
health. For each of these generic areas a number of
® issues that have transboundary elements or impli-
more specific issues ("sub-issues") are identified, which
cations (e.g. fishery practices on biodiversity/eco-
are developed at the next level of the TDA. A simplified
system resilience).
version of the Synthesis Matrix is given in Figure 2.
The objective of the Benguela Current TDA is to pro-
(b)
Level Two: Specifics: Comprehensive information
vide, on the basis of clearly established evidence, struc-
on the issues, sub-issues, problems, causes,
tured information relating to the degradation and
impacts, uncertainties, socio-economic conse-
changing state of the Benguela Current LME, to scale
quences, the perceived solutions, priorities, out-
the relative importance of the causes and sources of
puts and costs.
the transboundary water-related problems, and to elu-
Working on the basis of the issues and major problems
cidate practical preventative and remedial actions to
perceived in Level One, the tables and text which com-
ensure the sustainable integrated management of this
prise Level Two examine the nature of the specific
unique environment. The TDA provides the technical
problems identified as contributors to ecosystem
basis for the development of a Strategic Action
degradation and change in the Benguela Current
Programme (SAP), and the Project Brief, for the BCLME
region. They examine the management uncertainties
within the International Waters Area of the GEF.
(in the case of environmental variability, the uncertain-
ty of the variability per se) and knowledge gaps which
need to be filled. They present priority practical and
Design of the TDA
implementable proposals for inclusion in the BCLME
SAP and the cost of the required international action
Comprehensive information about the status of the
where possible. Finally the series of tables identify the
BCLME, the principal issues and problems, and their
outputs (products) which should be obtained through
causes and impacts generated at the First Regional
the successful implementation of the action and lists
BCLME Workshop in mid-1998 and through a suite of
the stakeholders for each problem and action area
Thematic Reports subsequently prepared by
identified. Explanatory text is provided for each sub-
regional/international experts, was examined at the
issue table.
1 0
U S E R S ' G U I D E T O T H E T D A

---

More Information
® Proceedings of the International Symposium on
Environmental Variability in the South-east Atlantic,
Readers requiring more information about the BCLME,
March/April 1998 (approx 600pp)
present state of knowledge about ecosystem structure
and functioning, its complexity, ecosystem status,
® Proceedings of the Workshop on Environmental
ongoing work and principal management problems
Variability, Environmental Monitoring and Environ-
are referred to the following:
mental Strategic Planning, April 1998 (28pp)
® Report on the First Regional BCLME Workshop
® The Benguela and Comparable Ecosystems (South
® Report on the Second Regional BCLME Workshop
African Journal of Marine Science, Vol.5, 1987: 957pp)
® Background Papers for the First Regional BCLME
® Benguela Trophic Functioning (South African Journal
Workshop
of Marine Science, Vol.12, 1992: 1108pp)
® Synthesis and Assessment of Information on the
® Benguela Dynamics (South African Journal of Marine
BCLME: Thematic Reports 1-6
Science, Vol.19, 1999: 512pp)
U S E R S ' G U I D E T O T H E T D A
1 1

---

BCLME Transboundary
Diagnostic Analysis
Geographic Scope & Ecosystem Boundaries
® Western boundary: The Benguela Current is generally
defined as the integrated equatorward flow in the
Conducting a comprehensive transboundary analysis
upper layers of the ocean in the South-east Atlantic
is only possible if the entire LME, including all inputs to
between the coast and the 0° meridian. The BCLME
the system, is covered in the study. In the case of the
Programme will accordingly use 0° as the western
Benguela, which is a very open system where the envi-
boundary, but for practical management purposes
ronmental variability is predominantly remotely
the focus will be on the areas over which the three
forced, this should then include the tropical Atlantic
countries have some jurisdiction, i.e. their Exclusive
sensu latu, the Agulhas Current (and its link with the
Economic Zones extending 200 nautical miles sea-
Indo-Pacific), the Southern Ocean, and the drainage
wards from the land.
basins of all major rivers which discharge into the
greater Benguela Current region, including the Congo
® Southern/Eastern boundary: The upwelling area of
River. Clearly such an approach is impracticable, and
the BCLME extends around the Cape of Good Hope,
more realistic and pragmatic system boundaries have
seasonally as far east as Port Elizabeth. This extreme
to be defined in order to develop and implement a
southern part of the ecosystem is substantially influ-
viable ecosystem management framework. The princi-
enced by the Agulhas Current, its Retroflection (turn-
pal external and internal system boundaries are shown
ing back) and leakage of Indian Ocean water into the
in Figure 1.
Atlantic south of the continent. As the variability of
the BCLME is very much a function of the complex
®
ocean processes occurring in the Agulhas Current ­
Landward boundary: With the exception of the
Retroflection area, this will be taken as the southern
Congo River, the main impact of discharges from
boundary with 27°E longitude (near Port Elizabeth)
rivers flowing into the South-east Atlantic tends to
being at the extreme eastern end.
be episodic in nature, i.e. in terms of significant
transboundary concerns, these are limited to
® Northern boundary: While the Angola-Benguela
extreme flood events. (Their drainage basins never-
Front (more correctly a series of fronts) comprises
theless do include a major part of the southern
the northern extent of the main coastal upwelling
African hinterland.) The Congo River, however,
zone, upwelling can occur seasonally along the
exerts an influence which can be detected over
entire coast of Angola. There are, in any event,
thousands of kilometers of the South Atlantic and
strong linkages between the behaviour of the
drains much of Central Africa. From a practical
Angola-Benguela Front (and the oceanography of
point of view, it is quite beyond the scope of the
the area to the south of it) and processes occurring
BCLME to attempt to include the development of
off Angola, especially the Angola Dome and the
any management structures for a river such as the
Angola Current. Unless these are considered as an
Congo. With respect to land sources of pollution in
integral part of the BCLME, it will not be feasible to
the BCLME (excluding the Congo River area), these
evolve a sustainable integrated management
are only really significant in the proximity of the
approach for the Benguela. Moreover, there is a
principal port-cities (e.g. Cape Town, Luanda,
well-defined front at about 5°S, viz the Angola
Walvis Bay), and the effects are generally very
Front, which is apparent at sub-surface depths. It is
localised. Nevertheless, some of the problems
this front which is the true boundary between the
experienced in these areas are common in nature
Benguela part of the South Atlantic and the tropi-
and could be addressed through similar remedial
cal/equatorial Gulf of Guinea system. A northern
actions. Like coastal development, their impacts
boundary at 5°S would thus encompass the Angola
generally do not have a transboundary character.
Dome, the coastal Angola Current, and the area in
(In contrast, pollution from ships, major oil spills,
which the main oxygen minimum forms and the
introduction of alien species and associated harm-
full extent of the upwelling system in the South-
ful algal blooms, etc. are transboundary concerns.)
east Atlantic. A pragmatic northern boundary is
From a BCLME perspective, the landward bound-
thus at 5°S latitude, which is in the vicinity of the
ary can thus, for all practical purposes, be taken as
northern boundary of Angola (Cabinda) and the
the high water mark at the coast. Specific
southern extent of the Gulf of Guinea Large Marine
allowances can be made in some areas on a case
Ecosystem (GOGLME). Strong links will need to be
by case basis (e.g. during episodic flooding from
built between the BCLME and the GOGLME (and
the Orange and Cunene Rivers, which are situated
other initiatives in the tropical Atlantic) in order to
at the country boundaries of South Africa-Namibia
develop an eventual holistic approach to the man-
and Namibia-Angola respectively).
agement of the South-east Atlantic Ocean.
1 2
B C L M E T R A N S B O U N D A R Y D I A G N O S T I C A N A LY S I S

---

Level One: Synthesis
and require collective action to address. Moreover,
chronic pollution can favour the development of less
The Issues and Perceived Main Transboundary
desirable species, and result in species migration.
Problems, Root Causes and Areas where Action
Catastrophic events (major oil spills, mari-time acci-
is Proposed
dents) can impact across country boundaries, requiring
co-operative management and sharing of clean-up
Seven perceived major transboundary problems have
equipment and manpower.
been identified. These are listed below, together with a
short description of the transboundary characteristics
Problem (iv): Habitat destruction and alteration,
of each of them. The Synthesis Matrix or "logistical
including inter alia modification of seabed and coastal
map" and Figure 2, which follow the description,
zone, and degradation of coastscapes
encapsulate the essence of the TDA. They highlight the
Transboundary Characteristics: Although most impacts
transboundary elements and root causes associated
may appear localised, habitat alteration or loss due to
with each problem and schematically show how the
fishing and mining can cause migration of fauna and
proposed actions serve to address the causes and help
system-wide ecosystem change. Uncertainties exist
solve the problems.
about the regional cumulative impact on benthos
Problem (i): Decline in BCLME commercial fish stocks
resulting from mining and associated sediment re-
and non-optimal harvesting of living resources
mobilisation. Moreover, certain mining activities are
conducted close to national boundaries and negative
Transboundary Characteristics: Country boundaries do
consequences may be transmitted across into the adja-
not coincide with ecosystem sub-boundaries; most of
cent country's EEZ. Inadequately planned coastal
the region's important harvested resources are shared
developments result in degradation of coastscapes
between countries, or move across national bound-
and reduce the regional value of tourism. Shallow
aries at times. Over-harvesting of a species in one
water/beach mining is a major environmental concern.
country can therefore lead to depletion of that species
in another, and in changes to the ecosystem as a
Problem (v): Loss of biotic integrity (changes in com-
whole. Moreover, many resource management diffi-
munity composition, species and diversity, introduc-
culties are common to all the countries.
tion of alien species, etc.) and threat to biodiversity/
endangered and vulnerable species
Problem (ii): Uncertainty regarding ecosystem status
and yields in a highly variable environment
Transboundary Characteristics: Most harvested fish
species are shared between countries and straddle
Transboundary Characteristics: The Benguela environ-
geopolitical boundaries. Past over-exploitation of tar-
ment is highly variable and the ecosystem is naturally
geted fish species has altered the ecosystem as a
adapted to this. However, sustained large-scale envi-
whole, impacting at all levels ­ including top predators
ronmental events ­ such as Benguela Niños, episodic
­ and reducing the gene pool. Some species (e.g.
hypoxia/anoxia, Agulhas intrusions and changes in
African penguin), are threatened or endangered. Exotic
winds ­ affect the ecosystem as a whole, compounding
species have been introduced into the Benguela. (This
the negative effects of fishing. These events and
is recognised as a global transboundary problem.)
changes generally have their origin and cause outside
the BCLME, but are of such a scale that the impacts
Problem (vi): Inadequate human and infrastructure
occur in the international water areas of all three countries,
capacity to assess the health of the ecosystem as a whole
i.e. the changes propagate across external BCLME
(resources and environment, and variability thereof)
boundaries and internal geopolitical boundaries. The
poor ability to predict the events and change limits the
Transboundary Characteristics: There is inadequate
capacity to manage effectively system-wide. In addi-
capacity, expertise and ability in the region to monitor
tion, the BCLME is believed to play a significant role in
and assess adequately the shared living resources and
global ocean and climate processes and may be an
system-wide environmental variability. Moreover,
important site for the early detection of global climate
there is unequal distribution of this capacity between
change.
the three countries.
Problem (iii): Deterioration in water quality ­ chronic
Problem (vii): Harmful algal blooms (HABs)
and catastrophic
Transboundary Characteristics: HABs occur in all three
Transboundary Characteristics: Although most impacts
countries, which face similar problems in terms of
of chronic deterioration in water quality are localised
impacts and management, and which require collec-
(national issues), they are common to all of the countries
tive regional action to address.
L E V E L O N E : S Y N T H E S I S
1 3

---

SYNTHESIS MATRIX
Major Root
Action
Perceived Major Problem
Transboundary Elements
Causes
Areas
Decline in BCLME commercial fish
Most of the region's important har-
1,2,3,4,5,6,7
A,B (C)
stocks and non-optimal harvesting
vested resources are shared between
of living resources
countries, or move across national
boundaries at times, requiring joint
management effort
Uncertainty regarding ecosystem
Environmental variability/change
1,2,3,7
A,B,C
status and yields in a highly
impacts on ecosystem as a whole,
variable environment
and poor predictive ability limits
effective management. The BCLME
may also be important to global
climate change
Deterioration in water quality ­
While most impacts are localised, the
2,3,4,5,7
C
chronic and catastrophic
problems are common to all three
countries and require collective action
to address
Habitat destruction and alteration,
Uncertainties exist about the regional
2,3,5,6,7
A,C (B)
including inter alia modification of
cumulative impact from mining on
seabed and coastal zone, and
benthos and ecosystem effect of
degradation of coastscapes
fishing. Degradation of coastscapes
reduce regional value of tourism
Loss of biotic integrity* and threat
Fishing has altered the ecosystem as
1,3,5,6
A,C (B)
to biodiversity/endangered and
a whole, reduced the gene pool, and
vulnerable species
caused some species to become
endangered or threatened. Introduced
*Changes in community composition,
alien species are a global transboundary
species diversity, introduction of
problem
alien species etc.
Inadequate capacity to assess
There is inadequate capacity in the
1,2,5,7
A,B,C
ecosystem health (resources and
region to monitor the shared resources
environment, and variability thereof)
and the system-wide environmental
variability, and unequal distribution of
the capacity between countries
Harmful algal blooms (HABs)
HABs are a common problem in all
1,2,3,6,7
A,B,C
three countries and require collective
action to address
1 4
S Y N T H E S I S M AT R I X

---

Main Root Cause
Areas where Action is Proposed
1. Complexity of ecosystem and high degree of
A. Sustainable management and utilisation of
variability (resources and environment)
resources
·
Changing state of the Benguela
·
Facilitation of optimal harvesting of living
·
Inadequate information and understanding
resources
·
Difficulty in monitoring and assessment
·
Assessment of mining and drilling impacts
·
Poor predictability
and policy harmonisation
·
Responsible development of mariculture
2. Inadequate capacity development (human
·
Protection of vulnerable species and habitats
and infrastructure) and training
·
Assessment of non-harvested species and role
·
Colonial/political past
·
Institutional downsizing and brain-drain
·
Limited inter-country exchange (training)
3. Poor legal framework at the regional and
national levels
·
Regionally incompatible laws and regulations
B. Assessment of environmental variability,
·
Ineffective environmental laws and regulations
ecosystem impacts and improvement of
predictability
·
Reducing uncertainty and improving
predictability
4. Inadequate implementation of available
·
Capacity strengthening and training
regulatory instruments
·
Management of consequence of harmful algal
·
Inadequate compliance and enforcement
blooms
(over-fishing, pollution)
·
Indifference and poor communication
·
Posts not filled (some inappropriately)
5. Inadequate planning at all levels
·
Inadequate intersectoral co-ordination
·
Poorly planned coastal developments
·
Limited time horizon of planners
·
Rapid urbanisation and informal settlements
C. Maintenance of ecosystem health and
management of pollution
6. Insufficient public involvement
·
Improvement of water quality
·
Prevention and management of oil spills
·
Lack of awareness, and public apathy
·
Reduction of marine litter
·
Conflicts about rights of access
·
Retardation/reversal of habitat destruction/
alteration
·
Conservation of biodiversity
7. Inadequate financial mechanisms and support
·
Low country GDPs
·
Ineffective economic instruments
·
Insufficient funding for infrastructure and
management; poor salaries
S Y N T H E S I S M AT R I X
1 5

---