Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis of
the Botswana Portion of the Okavango
River Basin:
Output 4: Water
Supply and Sanitation
Wellington R.L. Masamba
Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre
July 2009

TDA Botswana Water Supply & Sanitation
TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS OF THE
BOTSWANA PORTION OF THE OKAVANGO RIVER BASIN

Output 4: Water Supply and Sanitation

Wellington R.L. Masamba
Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre
University of botswana
P/Bag 285
Maun
Botswana

July, 2009

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TDA Botswana Water Supply & Sanitation
TABLE OF CONTENTS
AKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................................................ 5
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ..................................................................................................... 6
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .......................................................................................................................... 7
The findings of this work are as follows:................................................................................................... 7
1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................ 9
The terms of reference for this work are: ............................................................................................... 11
a.
Assess requirements (quality, quantity, timing) of existing and planned formal water supply
schemes .................................................................................................................................................. 11
2. METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................................................. 12
2.1
Workshop .................................................................................................................................... 12
2.2
Discussions with Government Officers ....................................................................................... 12
2.3
Literature .................................................................................................................................... 12
3. WATER DEMAND FOR BOTSWANA .......................................................................................... 13
3.1
Urban Water Demand ................................................................................................................. 13
3.2 Rural Demand ................................................................................................................................... 13
3.3
Water demand for Agriculture .................................................................................................... 16
3.4
Livestock ...................................................................................................................................... 16
3.5
Wildlife water consumption ....................................................................................................... 16
3.6
Environmental water requirements for the environment .......................................................... 16
4. THE OKAVANGO DELTA AREA .................................................................................................. 18
4.1
Existing domestic water schemes ............................................................................................... 18
4.2
Future Domestic water schemes ................................................................................................ 20
4.3
Total present and future water abstractions .............................................................................. 20
4.3.1
Surface water .................................................................................................................... 20
4.3.2
Groundwater ..................................................................................................................... 21
4.3
Direct Household Use ................................................................................................................. 23
4.4
Water usage by tour operators in the Okavango Delta .............................................................. 23
4.4.
Surface Water Quality ................................................................................................................. 24
4.5
Groundwater ............................................................................................................................... 24
5.0
ON SITE SANITATION IN BOTSWANA .................................................................................. 28

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TDA Botswana Water Supply & Sanitation
6.0
SANITATION IN NGAMILAND ................................................................................................... 31
7.0
CONCLUSIONS ........................................................................................................................... 34
8.0
RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................................................................... 35
REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................................... 36

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Urban water demand for Botswana in 2004/2005 .............................................................. 13
Figure 2. Major groundwater resources of Botswana ......................................................................... 14
Figure 3. Major aquifer resources and abstraction rates ................................................................... 15
Figure 4. Location of present groundwater abstractions .................................................................... 22
Figure 5. Location of future groundwater abstractions ....................................................................... 23
Figure 6. Faecal coliform counts beteenMohembo and Shakawe .................................................. 25
Figure 7. On site sanitation in Botswana .............................................................................................. 29
Figure 8. Main wastewater treatment plants in Botswana ................................................................. 30

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. List of organisations and their water portfolios for Botswana .............................................. 9
Table 2. Regional rural water demand for 2005 .................................................................................. 16
Table 3. Environmental Flow Requirements of 4 rivers ..................................................................... 17
Table 4. Domestic water demand and production for areas supplied by the North West District
Council (Data from NWDC) and Department of Water Affairs (data provided by DWA, Maun) .. 18
Table 5. Surface water abstraction from the Okavango Delta .......................................................... 20
Table 6. Groundwater abstractions in the Okavango Delta area ...................................................... 21
Table 7. Concentrations of various parameters in surface water of the Okavango Delta.. .......... 26
Table 8. Groundwater quality.. ............................................................................................................... 27
Table 9. Comparison of adequacy of sanitation services in Botswana ........................................... 28
Table 10. Sewarage coverage of Botswana ........................................................................................ 29
Table 11. On site sanitation for Botswana and Ngamiland. ............................................................... 32
Table 12. Progected wastewater generation rates, 2006-201 .......................................................... 33

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TDA Botswana Water Supply & Sanitation
AKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank Mr. July of Northwest District Council and Dr. Naido and Mr. T.C. Tshere of
the Department of Water Affairs for information on water supply and consumption. I would also
like to thank Mr. M. Dhliwayo who prepared some of the maps in this report, and the participants
of the knowledge capture workshop that took place on 24th and 25th February 2009 and 5th and
16th July for their input.

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TDA Botswana Water Supply & Sanitation
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
CSO
Central
Statistics
Office
DO
Dissolved
oxygen
DWA
Department of Water Affairs
EC
Electrical
conductivity
EFR
Environmental Flow Requirements
EPSMO
Environmental Protection and Sustainable Management of the Okavango River
Basin
GDP
Gross
Domestic
Product
GEF
Global
Environment
Facility
MoA
Ministry
of
Agriculture
MPWWS
Master Plan for Waste Water and Sanitation
NAMPAADD National Agricultural Master Plan for Arable Agriculture and Dairy Development
Ml/year Million
litres
per
year
NDP
National
Development
Plan
NWDC North West District Council
NMPWWS
National Master Plan for Wastewater and sanitation
NWMPR
National Water Master Plan Review
OKAKOM
Permanent Okavango River Basin Water Commission
ORB
Okavango
River
Basin
ODRS
Okavango Delta Ramsar Site
SAP
Strategic
Action
Program
TDA
Trans-boundary
Diagnostic
Analysis
UFW
Unaccounted
for
water
WDS
Water
Development
Sector
WWTP Wastewater Treatment Plant
ZAMCOM Zambezi
Watercourse
Commission

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TDA Botswana Water Supply & Sanitation
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

This report covers the water and sanitation component of the Trans-boundary Diagnostic
Assessment (TDA) whose term of reference:
Assess requirements (quality, quantity, timing) of existing and planned formal water supply
schemes
Assess requirements (quality, quantity, timing) of informal hosehold direct use of river water for
the Botswana part of the ORB
Assess current and projected changes in sanitation services in the Botswana part of the ORB.

The findings of this work are as follows:
1. In Botswana, water responsibilities are distributed between seven different institutions
2. All the rivers in Botswana except the Okavango and the Chobe/Zambezi are ephemeral
hence groundwater is a vital resource which is used in most water supply schemes
3. Urban demand is 125,200 million litres consumed (2005) and highest for domestic uses
(33%) followed by unaccounted for losses (20%) then mining (19%) and institutional
uses (18%). Rural demand is at 63,300 million litres/annum
4. Rural demand is 63,300 million litres per year
5. The projected water demand for irrigated agriculture in 2012 when NAMPAADD is fully
implemented is 53,000 million litres/year of which 11,500 million litres/year is expected to
be from groundwater.
6. The water demand for livestock is estimated at 44,500 million litres/annum while that for
livestock is estimated at 6,000-10,000 million litres/annum
7. A study has estimated that the environmental flow requirement for the Okavango is 390
m3/s in the panhandle.
8. Of the total daily domestic water output of 15,501 m3/day for the Okavango Delta region,
13,317 m3/day (85.9%) is from groundwater. The projected demand up to 2015 for the
Delta region is 28,611 m3/day
9. Total surface water abstractions for 2005 for the Okavango Delta region were 46,540
m3/day with a projected abstraction of 68,074 m3/day in 2025.
10. Water demand by settlements that draw water directly from the river is estimated at 94
m3/day; and is therefore insignificant compared to other users.
11. Total groundwater abstraction for 2005 was 16,446 m3/day for the Okavango Delta area
and was projected to increase to 44,371 m3/day.
12. Large scale abstractions upstream may affect water availability for various uses
13. Upstream pollution may affect water quality for various uses
14. Surface water is of good chemical quality but may be unsafe due to precence of bacteria
while groundwater usually has low bacteria counts but may contain high total dissolved
solids, fluoride, arsenic, chloride, sodium and iron.
15. The average percapita water usage in tourism establishments is 205 litres/day for
permanent lodges, camps and 12-63 litres/day for mobile land excursions and 77-188
litres/day for houseboats.
16. Ngamiland has the largest population without any sanitation services with 76% of
residents of Ngamiland West having no toilets

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TDA Botswana Water Supply & Sanitation
17. Maun is the only village with a sewage system, with one in Gumare under construction.
There are sewage systems for tourist lodges and camps as well as foe a few institutions.
18. There is only one sanitary landfill located in Maun and nine other gazetted dumping sites
in Ngamiland.
19. There is concern of water pollution from septic tanks (whose soakaways may sometimes
be very close to the river), sewage systems with poor effluent and dumping sites.

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TDA Botswana Water Supply & Sanitation

1. INTRODUCTION

The climate of Botswana may be described as semi-arid to arid. The country is largely flat and
surrounded by plateaus of Zambia to the north, Zimbabwe to the northeast, South Africa to the
south and southeast and Namibia to the west. As a result of this physiography, there are no
prominent barriers to the flow of moist air and orographic influences on the formation of clouds
and precipitation are virtually non-existent (NWMPR, 2006, Vol 1, 2006). There is a northeast-
southwest gradation of mean annual rainfall from Kasane (645.1 mm) through Maun (452.4 mm
and Tsane (346.3 mm) to Tsabong (289.7 mm) and Bokspits (170.9 mm). There is also a south-
north gradation along the eastern flank of the country starting from Gaborone (529.6 mm) to
Mahalapye (457.7 mm) and Francistown (469.5 mm) and Nata (432.5 mm). The mean monthly
maximum temperature ranges from 29.2 慢 to 37慢 in summer, and 19.8 慢 to 28.9慢 in winter.
Mean monthly minimum temperatures range from 16.2 to 20 in summer and -6 to 13.6 in winter
(NWMPR 2006, Vol 3).

The low rainfall and high rates of potential evapotranspiration in Botswana combined with its
very flat topography results in low rates of surface runoff and low rates of groundwater recharge.
The only part of the country that has measurable runoff is the area lying within the Limpopo
basin in the east and a small segment draining into the Makgadikgadi Pans from the east via
Nata, Motsetse, Mosope and Lephashe Rivers (viol 1). In the north, the Okavango River enters
Botswana at Mohembo with a mean discharge of about 350 m3/s, but largely dissipates itself in
the Okavango Delta. The outflow from the Delta is only 4% of the inflow. The Zambezi has a
large mean annual flow of 1088 m3/s (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoria_Falls#cite_note-WW-
1).

All the rivers in Botswana except the Okavango and the Chobe/Zambezi are ephemeral hence
groundwater is a vital resource. Most of the areas of the country rely on it for water supply
needs. However, groundwater is a finite resource and subject to pollution and groundwater
mining, hence there is need to protect it.
In Botswana, water responsibilities are distributed between seven different institutions (Table 1).
For example, the ministry of Minerals, Energy and Water Recourses is responsible for
development of water policies; water allocation, water resource assessment, and also for
supplying water to 17 major villages whereas District Councils are responsible for provision of
water to all villages not supplied by the Ministry of Minerals, Energy and Water Resources.
Table 1. List of organisations and their water portfolios for Botswana (source: Kalaote, 2006)
Organisation Portfolio
Ministry of Minerals, Energy and Water
Water policy, water allocation, Water Resources
Resources
assessment, water authority for 17 major villages1
Ministry of Local Government (District
Provision of water at local level
Councils)
Ministry of Agriculture
Agricultural Water Development

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TDA Botswana Water Supply & Sanitation
Ministry Of Health
Ensure purity of water
Water Utilities Corporation (WUC)
Water Authority for Gaborone, Lobatse, Salebi
Phikwe, Francistown, Jwaneng
DEBSWANA
Water supply to Orapa, Lethlakane and Damtshaa
mines
Botswana Power Corporation
Water supply to Morupule mine
1There are plans that WUC will take over the function of supplying water to major villages from
the Ministry of Minerals, Energy and Water Resources.

The Okavango River Basin (ORB) remains one of the least human impacted basins on the
African continent. Mounting socio-economic pressures in the riparian countries; Angola,
Botswana and Namibia, threaten to change its present character. The Permanent Okavango
River Basin Water Commission OKAKOM) therefore solicited funds from the three governments
and the Global Environment Facility (GEF) and
initiated the Environmental Protection and Sustainable Management of the Okavango River
Basin (EPSMO The long-term objective of the EPSMO Project is to achieve global
environmental benefits through concerted management of the naturally integrated land and
water resources of the Okavango River Basin. The specific objectives of the project are to:

a. Enhance the depth, accuracy, and accessibility of the existing knowledge base of basin
characteristics and conditions and identify the principal threats to the trans-boundary water
resources of the Okavango River Basin through a Trans-boundary Diagnostic Analysis
(TDA);
b. Develop and implement, through a structured process, a sustainable and cost-effective
program of policy, legal and institutional reforms and investments to mitigate the identified
threats to the basin's linked land and water systems through the Strategic Action Program
(SAP); and,
c. Assist the three riparian nations (Angola, Botswana and Namibia) in their efforts to improve
their capacity to collectively manage the basin.

The SAP will include baseline and additional actions to address priority trans-boundary issues
and provide a monitoring and evaluation tool for implementation. It will also recommend the
development and testing of a set of institutional mechanisms and implementation
methodologies, including pilot demonstrations that explicitly link regional, national and local
initiatives in land and water management. Additionally, it will involve preparation of a basin-wide
framework in which trans-boundary priorities can be addressed and project interventions
monitored.

The TDA will inform and guide the development of the SAP and will be a platform where trans-
boundary externalities can be examined and resolved. The TDA will underpin the SAP design
and indicate monitoring and reporting criteria for SAP implementation. Most importantly, the
process of completing the TDA will inform policies and initiatives to be launched in preparation
for SAP implementation. This report is part of the TDA with focus on irrigation.

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TDA Botswana Water Supply & Sanitation
The terms of reference for this work are:

a. Assess requirements (quality, quantity, timing) of existing and planned formal water
supply schemes
b. Assess requirements (quality, quantity, timing) of informal household direct use of river
water for the Botswana portion of the ORB.
c. Assess current and projected changes in sanitation services in the Botswana portion of
the ORB.

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TDA Botswana Water Supply & Sanitation
2. METHODOLOGY

Information was collected from a knowledge gathering workshop, discussions with Government
Officers and the literature.

2.1 Workshop
A knowledge gathering workshop was conducted on 24th � 25th February 2009. The participants
had been asked before hand to prepare information on water issues (and the other TDA areas).
Preliminary information was therefore obtained during the workshop. In addition to the
information, participants also provided input as to what they expected to be included in this
report. A second workshop was held from 15 to 16 July 2009 when feedback was provided to
stakeholders and additional input sought.
2.2
Discussions with Government Officers
Additional information was obtained by visits to the Department of Water Affairs and District
Council Offices in Maun.

2.3 Literature
Secondary data was sourced from the offices or libraries. Most of the information in this report is
derived from various volumes of the National Water Master Plan Review Volume (NWMPR) and
of the National Master Plan for Wastewater and Sanitation (NMPWWS). Additional sources are
indicated in the text.

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TDA Botswana Water Supply & Sanitation
3.
WATER DEMAND FOR BOTSWANA

The water demand for Botswana for urban, rural water supply, agriculture, wildlife and livestock
and environment is discussed below.
3.1
Urban Water Demand
The water demand for urban Botswana for 2004/2005 is given in Figure 1 Based on NWMPR
2006 Vol 5. A total of 125,200 million litres were consumed with domestic demand accounting
for the highest demand (33%). Also of importance is that unaccounted for water (UFW) account
for 20% of the water demand. MWMPR 2006 vol 5 contends that a conservative estimate of
UFW in Botswana lies between 40% and 50%. The Department of water affairs estimated
average losses at 27% with a range of 6% at Lethlakane to 48% in Kanye, Ramotswa and Maun
(NMMPR 2006 Vol 5). The UFW for Maun has been reduced to 8-14% (Tshere, personal
communication).

24,700, 20%
Domestic
42,000, 33%
Industrial
Institutional
23,500, 19%
Mining
UFW
23,000, 18%
12,000, 10%

Figure 1. Urban water demand for Botswana in 2004/2005 (From NWMPR 2006 Vol. 6)

3.2 Rural Demand
The source for rural water supply has traditionally been groundwater extracted from District
Council or government boreholes. Figure 2 shows the distribution of known aquifers in the
country, with their estimated yields. It can be noted that the most of the aquifers lie in the South
to East corridor between Lobatse/Kanye and Francistown.

13

TDA Botswana Water Supply & Sanitation

Figure 2. Major groundwater resources of Botswana (From NWMPR 2006 Vol. 1).

Figure 3 shows the abstraction rates of Kalahari aquifers of the country. The abstraction
patterns differ from the distribution of groundwater resources in that it is not concentrated in the
South-East corridor between Lobatse/Kanye and Francistown. Table 2 shows the regional
water demand that was projected for 2005 (NWMPR 2006 Vol 6). The south and south east
regions have the highest demand at about 29,000 million litres each, followed by the northern
and then the western regions.

14

TDA Botswana Water Supply & Sanitation

Figure 3. Major aquifer resources and abstraction rates (From: NWMPR: Vol. 4).

15

TDA Botswana Water Supply & Sanitation
Table 2. Regional rural water demand for 2005
Region Water
demand
(million litres)
Eastern 29,000
South East
28,500
Western 1,700
Northern 4,100
Total 63,300

3.3
Water demand for Agriculture
The projected water demand for irrigated agriculture under when NAMPAADD (see
accompanying report: irrigation) is fully implemented is 53,000 million litres/year of which 11,500
million litres/year is expected to be from groundwater.

3.4 Livestock
Water demand for livestock has not been quantified. However, the NDP 8 projected that of the
total water demand of 193,400 million litres for the year 2000, 23% was for livestock. This would
give a water demand for livestock of 44,500 million litres for the year 2000.

3.5 Wildlife
water
consumption
Wildlife and wildlife based tourism are renewable resources and if wisely used and sustainably
managed, will continue making an increasingly important contribution to the Botswana
economy. Tourism is currently the second biggest export sector in Botswana following mining.
Elephant dominate the wild water dependent animals with an appreciable number of buffalo,
impala, hartebeest, wilderbeest, zebra and kudu. The NWMPR 2006 Vol 9 gives a herbivore
water demand for 2001 of 10,000 million litres. Other workers have given demand of between
6,000-8,000 million litres/year (see references in NWMPR 2006 vol 9).

3.6
Environmental water requirements for the environment
While there is no doubt that the environment is a consumer of water, there is difficulty in
determining the magnitude of this demand. Various environmental methods, generally called
environments flow requirements (EFR) have been used for this. Environmental flows are
defined as the stream flow necessary to sustain habitats, encourage spawning and the
migration of fauna species to previously unpopulated habitats, enable the processes upon which
succession and biodiversity depend, and maintain the desired nutrient structure within lakes,
streams wetlands and riparian areas when ecosystems are subjected to flow regulation and
competition from multiple water users. For Botswana, EFR assessments for some rivers are
given in Table 3. (NWMPR 2006 Vol 9). For the three rivers - Nata, Thume and Shashe, flows of
5 to 6 m3/s are needed (during high flows) in order to ensure that the environmental needs of

16

TDA Botswana Water Supply & Sanitation
the rivers are met. For the Okavango, flows of 390 m3/s are required, mainly to sustain the
Okavango Delta ecosystem. Another EFR study for the region is currently underway.

Table 3. Environmental Flow Requirements of 4 rivers (NWMPR 2006,Vol 9)
RIVER EFR
(m3/s) METHOD
Nata
5
Flow exceeded 50% of the time
Thune 5.5
Q80
Shashe, downstream of
6.0 Q80
Dikgathong Dam
Okavango River
390
Q20

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TDA Botswana Water Supply & Sanitation
4.
THE OKAVANGO DELTA AREA

4.1
Existing domestic water schemes
There are four general suppliers of water in the Okavango Delta area: (i) North West District
Council for all villages other than Maun (ii) the Department of Water Affairs (DWA)for Maun (iii)
tour operators for tourism facilities in areas that are not supplied by NWDC or DWA and (iv)
individuals in most ungazetted settlements. The existing water supply schemes for the
Okavango Delta region, with the exception of tour operators and ungazetted areas are given in
Table 4. Of the total daily demand of 2709 m3/day for the villages supplied by the NWDC, 1485
m3/day (55%) is from boreholes. The remaining 54% is from surface water with uptake at the
panhandle (Mohembo East, Shakawe, Sepoa 1 and Sepopa 2).
Of a total of 12,792 m3/day of the daily output for Maun, only 960 m3/day (7.5%) is from surface
water, and this is only utilised when there is flow in the Thamalakane as the river sometimes
dries out. Groundwater is therefore a major source of water for the region, especially Maun. Of
the 15,501 m3/day total daily output for NWDC and DWA , 13,317 m3/day (85.9%) is from
groundwater.
Table 4. Domestic water demand and production for areas supplied by the North West
District Council (Data from NWDC) and Department of Water Affairs (data provided by
DWA, Maun)
Village Source
Daily
Daily output
Remarks
demand
(m3/d)
(m3/d)
SUPPLIED BY NWDC
Matlapana , Disaneng,
Borehole 100
415

Sexaxa, Matsaudi
Shorobe Borehole
50
80

Sankoyo Borehole
22
25

Chanoga Borehole
23
75

Phuduhudu Borehole 23
80

Sehitwa, Bothatogo,
Borehole 250
620
Many
Bodibeng, Toteng,
breakdowns,
Legotwane, Kareng
desalination
Makakung, Semboyo
Borehole
65
164 desalination
Tsau Borehole
100
238

Mababe Borehole
12
100

Somelo Borehole
30
66
Poor
access,
aeration for
iron removal
Komana Borehole
13
58

Makalamabedi Borehole
21
180
Desalination
Nokaneng, Habu,
Borelole
100
87 Boreholes
curved in,

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TDA Botswana Water Supply & Sanitation
supplemented
by bowsing,
Iron problems
Qooshe Borehole
11
15
Borehole
dry,
bowsing
Qangwa
Borehole
20
18 Supply at risk,
pumping long
hours
Tubu Borehole
24
65

Etsha 13
Surface
110
185
Sepopa, Mokwana,
Borehole 170
410

Ikoga, Tamacha
Ngarange Borehole
48
180

Seronga, Gunitsoga
Borehole
155
178
Gudigwa Borehole
27
100

Gani Borehole
27
87

Beetsha Borehole
41
57

Mogotho Borehole
15
45

Chukumuchu Borehole 15
27

Gumare, Etsha 1-12
Surface
600
700
Xakao, Mohembo East,
Surface 210
400

Kauxwi, Jejeda,
Sechenje,
Sekondomboro,
Kaputura, Goa, Tobera
Xaixai Borehole
13
45

Shakawe, Okusi,
Surface 350
400

Nxomokao, Nxamasere,
Mohembo West, Xaoga,
Shaikarawe
Nxaunxau Surface 18
50

Eretsha Surface
25
15
Bowsing
Kajaji
Surface
21
0 Safe water not
provided-to be
bowsed and
then
connected
SUPPLIED BY DEPARTMENT OF WATER AFFAIRS-MAUN
Maun Boreholes

Surface water
Shashe

2,784 only 2% of the
Sexaxa
1,608 total. High
Kunyere
1,008 salinity of
Tsutsubega
6,432 groundwater,

poor
Surface
groundwater

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TDA Botswana Water Supply & Sanitation
Wenela
960 quality.
Surface water
only available
when there is
flow in the
Thamalakane
River
Total
15,501

4.2
Future Domestic water schemes
� In Maun, the Maun Groundwater Development Project Phase 2 recommended the
decommissioning of the Shashe welfied (currently under use) due to salinisation and a total
of 30 boreholes to be developed at Matsibe, Kunyere and Gomoti with a total abstraction
rate of 26,944 m3/day against a projected demand of 22,222 m3/day.
� The plans for the NWDC include:
o connection of Kajaja 1 to the Shakawe treatment. Approximately 50 m3/day is
expected to be consumed. This is expected to be completed by the end of this year,
2009.
o Development of the Khwai water supply scheme to supply approximately 30 m3/day.
This is expected to be completed by the end of this year, 2009
o Construction of an aeration plant at Komana
o Construction of an aeration plant at Chanoga
o Rehabilitation of the Shakawe treatment plant
o Groundwater Investigation, Boreholes Drilling, Design & Construction of Water
Supply at Ditshiping, to supply an estimated 30 m3/day
o Construction of aeration plant and rehabilitation and borehole connection at
Nokaneng/Habu
o Interconnection of Seronga, Teekae, Gunitsonga, Ndorotsha, Eretsha, Beetsha and
Gudigwa to the Sepopa treatment plant. The water demand is estimated at
1357m3/day and the project has been designed to provide 1000m3/day.
4.3
Total present and future water abstractions
The total water abstraction was estimated during the Okavango Delta Management Planning
process (ODMP 2006).
4.3.1 Surface water
Data for total surface water abstractions from the Okavango Delta based on permits issued by
the DWA is given in Table 5. These abstractions are for domestic water supply, livestock, game,
small scale irrigation and construction. The total permitted abstraction (2005) from the Delta is
46,540 m3/day or 17 Mm3/annum. This is 0.22% of the average inflows from 1987 to 2002.
Future projected abstractions based on increase in population and rates of consumption is
25Mm3/annum or 0.32 % of the average inflow. It should be noted that large abstractions are
from Maun which is downstream of the Okavango Delta.
Table 5. Surface water abstraction from the Okavango Delta

Abstraction (M3/day)
River
2005 2025

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TDA Botswana Water Supply & Sanitation
Okavango 6,285
9,107
Thaoge 1,475
2,140
Boro 1,483
2,710
Maunachira 275
399
Khwai 148
215
Thamalakane 26,571
38,553
Nhabe 5,100
7,400
Boteti 5,203
7,549
Total 46,540
68,074

4.3.2 Groundwater
Data for surface water abstraction was also given in ODMP (2006) (Table 6). A total of 16,448
M3/day was abstracted in 2005 and a projected 44,377 m3/day in 2025. The 2025 figure
includes 6,800 m3/day of saline water expected to be used by DML copper project near Toteng
for processing copper ore (Discovery Metals Limited, personal communication). The current and
future groundwater abstraction sites are shown in Figures 4 and 5.

Table 6. Groundwater abstractions in the Okavango Delta area

Abstraction (M3/day
Location
2005 2025
Seronga 210
287
Ngarange 137
185
Etsha 6
387
522
Etsha 13
136
184
Nokaneng 212
286
Gumare 515
696
Sehitwa 230
310
Tsao 191
257
Toteng 234
316
DMC mine
-
6,800
Shorobe 230
310
Tsutsubega 1,643
4,026
Shashe 4,654
-
Gomoti 7,666
10,066
Kunyere -
12,079
Matsibe -
8,053
Total 16,446
44,371

21

TDA Botswana Water Supply & Sanitation

Figure 4. Location of present groundwater abstractions (ODMP 2006)

22

TDA Botswana Water Supply & Sanitation

Figure 5. Location of future groundwater abstractions (ODMP 2006)

4.3
Direct Household Use
The Okavango Delta has a population of 2,688 people (CSO 2001). Settlement water
consumption is not accurately known. When standpipe consumptions based on the Botswana
National Wastewater and Sanitation Planning design for public standpipe (35 l/c/d) is used, this
would give a daily consumption of 94,080 litres per day.
4.4 Water usage by tour operators in the Okavango Delta
A study of 40 permanent lodges and camps showed that 60% of these establishments obtained
their water requirements directly from the Delta system; 10% from boreholes and 30% from
hand dug wells (Aqualogic 2008). They found the average per capita water usage for permanent
tourist lodges/camps to be 205 litres/day, with a range of 58 � 352 litres per capita per day. For
mobile safaris, water usage ranged from 12-63 litres/capita/day for on land excursions and 77-
188 litres/capita per day for house boats (Aqualogic 2008).

23

TDA Botswana Water Supply & Sanitation
4.4. Surface
Water
Quality
Generally, the surface water of the Okavango Delta area is of good quality, having low dissolved
solids and bacteria. Tables 7 shows the average results from HOORC's water quality monitoring
programme on water quality for main channels at Mohembo, Sepopa, the Boro settlement and
Maun. Generally, the pH is near neutral and electrical conductivity very low-ranging from 38
猶/cm in the panhandle to 127 猶/cm in Maun. Metals are generally low with lead, nickel, cobalt
and cadmium less than the detection linit of the instrument used; Na (2.0 mg/l-9.4 mg/l); K
(1.7mg/l-4.7mg/l); Mg (0.8 mg/l-3.3mg/l); Fe (0.08 mg/l-0.14 mg/l) and Mn (up to 0.04 mg/l).
Dissolved oxygen is highest at Mohembo (6.77) and is lower downstream, probably as a result
of high dissolved organic matter, which uses up oxygen upon decomposition, in downstream
waters. Total nitrogen was in the range 0.23 mg/l to 0.73 mg/l; TSS (4-12 mg/l). The other
parameters e.g. anions are also low. General y, there is an increase in concentration of the
water quality parameters from Mohembo to the downstream village of Maun.
Figure 6 shows the faecal coliform counts for the surface water in panhandle between
Mohwmbo and Shakawe (unpublished HOORC monitoring data). The results show that the
water is contaminated by bacteria and is therefore not fit for direct human consumption.
Microbiological water quality was determined for the lower Delta with Faecal coliform (range 0 �
48 counts/ 100ml) and Faecal streptococci (40 � 260 counts/100ml) being lower than the
panhandle (Masamba and Mazvimavi 2008). This could be attributed to the filtering effect of the
Delta. However, even in the lower Delta, the water is not suitable for direct human consumption.

4.5 Groundwater
Groundwater quality is routinely monitored by the DWA around Maun for water quality. The
NWDC also monitors water quality for its boreholes while the Maun groundwater project also
determined the water quality in the Boro, upper Thamalakane , Kunyere, Gomoti and Matsibe
welfields when investigations for extending the Maun water supply were conducted. Unlike
surface water, groundwater tends to have better microbiological quality but poorer chemical
characteristics. Table 8 gives the water quality of the groundwater quality of some boreholes in
the Okavango Delta area. While some of the boreholes meet the Botswana Bureau of
Standards drinking water specifications, others do not. Parameters that are sometimes
exceeded include electrical conductivity, chloride, arsenic, sodium and iron. In some cases, the
water is treated e.g. at Makalamabedi (desalination) and at for high electrical conductivity (total
dissolved solids), Somelo for iron (See Table 6).

24

TDA Botswana Water Supply & Sanitation
400
350
300
250
200
100 ml 150
s/ 100
50
count
0
Faecal coliforms
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Site

Figure 6. Faecal coliform counts for eight sites between Mohembo and downstream of
Shakawe (HOORC monitoring data)

25

TDA Botswana Water Supply & Sanitation
Table 7. Concentrations (mg/l unless otherwise specified) of various parameters in surface water of the Okavango Delta.
pH is unitless.

EC
pH
(us/cm) DO Turb CO3 HCO3 Cl SO4 NO3 PO4
Na K Ca
Mohembo 6.84 38
6.77 3.92 0.0 44
0.58 1.34 0.02 0.01 2.0 1.7 3.0
Sepopa
6.74 39
3.45 2.29 0.0 46
0.41 0.44 0.10 <0.01 2.2 1.9 3.7
Boro
6.70 119
5.82 0.56 0.0 125 0.95 0.08 0.02 <0.01 9.0 4.5 9.8
Maun
6.94 127
3.48 9.20 0.0 129 1.00 0.16 0.19 <0.01 9.4 4.7 9.9

Table 7 Continued

Mg Fe Mn
Cd,
Pb,
Ni,
Co TN TSS DOC
Mohembo
0.8 0.14
0.04
<0.01
0.23 6.4 4.2
Sepopa
1.0 0.13
0.01
<0.01
0.32 4.4 5.2
Boro
3.1 0.10
<0.01
<0.01
0.64 4.3 10.8
Maun
3.3 0.08
<0.01
<0.01
0.73 5.0 11.8

26

TDA Botswana Water Supply & Sanitation
Table 8. Groundwater quality. All concentrations in mg/l unless otherwise specified. pH is unitless (From Maun Water
Resources Consultants 2004, DWA, NWDC and HOORC data).
Borehole Location
Year
pH EC
As
DOC HCO3 CO3 F Cl K Mg
Fe Na
sampled
(猶/cm)
BH7188 Shashe
2005
8.24 1850 0.0027 4.1 1104 23 0.87 263 13 1.4 <0.01
BH8786 Shashe
2005
7.64 4140 0.0094 3.1 769 0 0.72 693 20
<0.01
BH9250 Tubu
2005
5.65 291
0.0041 25 29 0 0.24 3
6.4 0.2 7.09
BH8022 Nokaneng
2005
6.65 1053 0.0064 6.1 294 0 0.51 4
12 19 <0.01
BH9029 Makalamabedi 2005
10.5 7460 0.014 14.7 1699 642 16.3 1269 33 0.1 0.08
Makalamabedi
2005 10.1 572 0.0017 2.4
61 22
0.69 94 2.0 0.1
<0.01
after treatment
BH9834 Boro
2002
6.6 160
0.035

0.96 80 14 0.8 0.22 392
BH9826 Boro
2002
7.9 246

0.14 17 8.0 10.0 0.11 10
BH9593 Upper
2002 6..6
130
0.10 1.7
6.4 1.9
8.2 14
Thamalakane
BH9595 Upper
2002 8.6 2950

0.5 622 15 3.9 1.9 10
Thamalakane
BH9904 Gomoti
2002 8.3 1480 0.09

1.3 64 5.2 0.4 0.08 370
BH9900 Gomoti
2002
8.2 1480 0.36

2.20 167 2.8 0.2 0.06 339
BH9707 Kunyere
2002
7.3 2800 0.010

0.32 494 19 13 0.31 533
BH9788 Kunyere
2002
8.1 1140 0.31

2.41 34 5.3 0.40 0.29 289

27

TDA Botswana Water Supply & Sanitation
5.0 ON SITE SANITATION IN BOTSWANA

The 2001 census indicated that by the World Health Organisation (WHO) definition of adequate
sanitation, 77% of all households in Botswana have access to adequate sanitation. Urban areas
have 95% sanitation level whereas rural areas have 51% (Botswana National Master Plan for
Wastewater and Sanitation (NMPWWS) 2003, Vol. 1). These are above the average for Africa
which stands at 81% for urban areas and 41% for rural areas (Table 9). Of importance is the
fact that 23% of the population do not have any sanitation service -i.e. they use the bush.
Botswana has defined the minimum level of sanitation to be the ventilated improved pit latrine
(VIP) for houses which are not serviced by individual water connections. This implies that the pit
latrine is not an appropriate sanitation option for the people of Botswana. Using this definition of
adequate sanitation service, only 39% of the households have adequate sanitation service, 53%
in urban areas and 18% in rural areas. Figure 7 shows a schematic indication of the sanitation
for the whole country. It can be noted that Ngamiland has the worst sanitation in the country.
Ngamiland only has one main wastewater treatment plant located in Maun (Figure 8). Smaller
treatment plants, mainly serving institutions will be discussed in subsequent sections. Maun is
also the only locality that has an engineered landfill.

Table 9. Comparison of adequacy of sanitation services in Botswana (NMPWWS 2003,
Vol. 1)
% African
Continent
Botswana (WHO
Botswana (GOB
(WHO definition)
definition)
definition)
Urban 81 95 53
Rural 41 51 18
Total 55 77 39

28

TDA Botswana Water Supply & Sanitation

Figure 7. On site sanitation in Botswana (NMPWWS 2003, Vol. 1)

The 2001 census provides information on sewerage coverage for Botswana. This is indicated in
Table 10. The national coverage is at 12.5%; with urban centres at 22% and 5% for rural areas
respectively. Of the 64 major wastewater treatment plants in the country, 45 (70%) are pond
type systems; the remaining 19 (30%) are made of 3 activated sludge, 1 trickling filter, 4 rotating
biological contactors(RBC's), and 11 wetland systems. Their location is given in Figure 8.

Table 10. Sewarage coverage of Botswana
% Sewer
Other
Sanitation
Total
Urban 22 73 95
Rural 5 44 51
National Total
12.5
64.9
77.4

29

TDA Botswana Water Supply & Sanitation
The effluent quality of the various sewage systems is given in Figure 8. The pond systems were
found to be only 10% compliant with the Department of Water Affairs (DWA) effluent guideline.
The RBC's achieved a 90% compliance.

Figure 8. Main wastewater treatment plants in Botswana

30

TDA Botswana Water Supply & Sanitation
6.0 SANITATION
IN
NGAMILAND

It can be noted that Ngamiland has the largest proportion of people without any sanitation
services. Table 10 shows the percent households that own different sanitation services
compared to the national average (NMPWWS 2003, Vol. 3). It can be noted that Ngamiland, is
on average worse than the national average in the following cases: own flush, own VIP, own pit
latrine, communal VIP, communal pit latrine, and no toilets at all; and has marginally better
percentages only for own environ-loo (0.7 nationally against 1.0 in Ngamiland), communal flush
(0.8 nationally against 1.7 for Ngamiland), and neighbours toilet (5.9 nationally against 6.0 in
Ngamiland). Of particular concern is the fact that 53.7% of Ngamiland residents do not have a
toilet at all. The problem is even exemplified when it is noted that 76% of the residents of
Ngamiland West (Gumare) do not have any toilets.

Ngamiland only has one main sewage system in Maun. This consists of a vacuum tanker
discharge bay, manually raked screens, degritting canals, anaerobic ponds, facultative ponds
and aerobic ponds. The treated effluent is disposed of on an irrigation area, but no commercial
agriculture has been established. The inflow of the plant is 400 m3/day (NMPWWS 2003 Vol 6).
The effluent quality of the treatment plant does not comply with national disposal standards
(NMPWWS 2003, Vol. 6; Motsholabatho 2008). Other wastewater systems include a
constructed wetland at Thuso rehabilitation Centre (10 m3/day) and a pond system at Boro
Prison designed for 100 m3/day. The new Maun Hospital has also commissioned a wastewater
treatment plant. A constructed wetland system is under construction for the Botswana Defence
Force Camp at Shakawe, and another wastewater treatment plant is about to be commissioned
at Gumare. Wastewater systems used in the Okavango Delta have been reviewed and while
others had satisfactory performance, there were some which were poor (Aqualogic 2008). The
projected wastewater generation rates for the ODRS are given in Table 12 (Aqualogic 2006).

It should be noted that sewage systems cover only a small fraction of the households, with most
households relying on toilets and septic tanks. The danger of these has been shown this year,
2009, when some villages and settlements were flooded. Some soak aways were also covered
by water.

31

TDA Botswana Water Supply & Sanitation
Table 11. On site sanitation for Botswana and Ngamiland. Comm.-Communal; Neig.-Neighbour; E-L enviro-Loo
Own
Own
Own
Own E-L
Comm.
Comm. Comm. pit Neig.
None Not
flush
VIP
pit
flush
VIP
latrine
toilet
reported
latrine
Nation
20.7
18.5
25.1 0.7
0.8
0.8 4.9
5.9 22.5 0.1
Average
9.3 8.0 15.9 1.0
1.7
0.6 3.8
6.0 53.7 0.1
Ngamiland
Ngamiland
2.7
0.2
0.4 0.0
36 0.2 7.6
0.2 52.5 0.0
Delta
Ngamiland
12.7
10.6
22.5 0.4
1.1
0.5 4.5
8.3 39.2 0.1
East
Ngamiland
4.3
4.4
6.5 2.0
0.9 0.8 2.4
2.7 76.0 0.1
West

32

TDA Botswana Water Supply & Sanitation

Table 12. Progected wastewater generation rates, 2006-2011 (Aqualogic 2006)
Wastewater sources
Year
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
On-site systems (projected for ODRS) 1832 1850 1869 1888 1906
1925
Generation rate (m3/day)
725 733 740 748 755 762
Projected wastewater from off-site
308 337 371 408 662 716
systems (Maun) (m3/day)
Projected wastewater from off-site
21 21 21 21 21 21
systems (Gumare) (m3/day)
% collected by on-site systems
69
67
65
64
52
51
Total (m3/day)
1054 1091 1132 1177 1438 1499

It was estimated that the solid waste generated in the Okavango Delta area is 0.28
kg/person/day (Aqualogic 2006). Based on this, the total solid waste generated in the Okavango
Delta Ramsar Site was estimated at 18,305 tonnes/year. There is only one sanitary landfill in
Maun and "dumping" sites nine other villages: Tsau, Sehitwa, Toteng, Gumare, Nokaneng,
Gumare, Etsha 6, Sepopa and Nxamasere. Concerns of groundwater pollution by the use of
these dumping sites has been raised (Aqualogic 2006). More engineered landfill sites should be
constructed in other villages located strategically around the Okavango delta Ramsar site.

33

TDA Botswana Water Supply & Sanitation
7.0 CONCLUSIONS

Botswana is a semi-arid to arid country that relies heavily on groundwater. The two perennial
rivers-Okavango and Chobe.Zambezi are subject to international agreements that have not
been finalized. There are many institutions that are currently responsible for supplying water.
The government is streamlining this by removing the water supply function from the Department
of Water Affairs to the Water Utilities Corporation. This may reduce bottleneck that have existed
in the water supply sector. The current and future water abstractions are expected to have only
minor impact on the Okavango Delta system. Direct water draw from the river is considered to
be the insignificant compared to other uses.
Of great concern for the TDA process are (i) sanitation service which are poor in Ngamiland
(e.g. 54% or all residents in Ngamiland do not have a toilet) (ii) poor solid waste disposal as
there is only one sanitary landfill located in Maun. Other villages and locations use gazette or
ungazetted dumping sites. This has potential for groundwater pollution (iii) the main wastewater
treatment plant in Maun produces effluent of poor quality. This has potential for contaminating
groundwater. (iv) Use of septic tanks close to the main river/ Delta has potential to contaminate
the river water.

34

TDA Botswana Water Supply & Sanitation
8.0 RECOMMENDATIONS

The following recommendations can be made:
� The environmental flow requirements for the Botswana part of the ORB needs to be
evaluated to ensure that water uptake from outside and within Botswana would allow for
water needs at a level that is predetermined.
� The projected water abstractions in the Botswana part of the ORB can be implemented
without affecting the integrity of the Botswana part of the ORB
� Upstream activities that may result in pollution should be monitored and steps put in
place to ensure that the water quality is not degraded
� For the Botswana part of the ORB, the following should be done:
o Appropriate solid waste disposal facilities should be constructed to that dumping
sites which pose a threat to both ground and surface water are phased out
o Wastewater treatment system efficiency should be improved so that danger
posed from this source to water resources is reduced
o Houses, especially those with pit latrines and septic tanks should not be built
close to the river or in areas that are prone to flooding

35

TDA Botswana Water Supply & Sanitation
REFERENCES
Aqualogic 2006. Management of solid and liquid waste in the Okavango Delta Ramsar
Site, Report submitted to the North West District Council and the Okavango Delta
Management Plan Secretariat.
Aqualogic 2008. Consultancy for the assessment of liquid waste systems for tourism
establishments in the Okavango delta and transportation, handling and storage of
hazardous substances in the Okavango Delta. Report submitted to the BIOKAVANGO
Project.
Central Statistical Office (CSO) 2002. Population of towns, villages and associated
localities in August 2001; Government Printer, Gaborone.
Kalaote, K. 2006. Overview of the water sector: supply and demand issues. Paper
presented at the Botswana Resource centre conference, Gaborone International
Conference Centre, 13 Jul. 2006.
Masamba, W.R.L. and Mazvimavi, D. 2008. Impact on water quality of land uses along
Thamalakane-Boteti River: an outlet of the Okavango Delta. Physics and Chemistry of
the Earth 33, 687-694.
Motsholabatho, S.S. 2008. Determination of potential environmental impacts of sewage
the Maun Sewage Treatment Plant. Report submitted to the University of Botswana.
National Water Master Plan Review (NWMPR) 2006. Government of Botswana
Okavango Delta Management Plan 2006. Hydrology and water resources: Analysis of
water resources scenarios.
Water Resources Consultants 2004. Maun Groundwater Development Project 2. Report
submitted to Department of Water Affairs.

36

TDA Botswana Water Supply & Sanitation
The Okavango River Basin Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis Technical Reports
In 1994, the three riparian countries of the Okavango
Diagnostic Analysis to establish a base of available
River Basin � Angola, Botswana and Namibia �
scientific evidence to guide future decision making.
agreed to plan for collaborative management of the
The study, created from inputs from multi-disciplinary
natural resources of the Okavango, forming the
teams in each country, with specialists in hydrology,
Permanent Okavango River Basin Water Commission
hydraulics, channel form, water quality, vegetation,
(OKACOM). In 2003, with funding from the Global
aquatic invertebrates, fish, birds, river-dependent
Environment Facility, OKACOM launched the
terrestrial wildlife, resource economics and socio-
Environmental Protection and Sustainable
cultural issues, was coordinated and managed by a
Management of the Okavango River Basin (EPSMO)
group of specialists from the southern African region
Project to coordinate development and to anticipate
in 2008 and 2009.
and address threats to the river and the associated

communities and environment. Implemented by the
The following specialist technical reports were
United Nations Development Program and executed
produced as part of this process and form substantive
by the United Nations Food and Agriculture
background content for the Okavango River Basin
Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Organization, the project produced the Transboundary

Final Study
Reports integrating findings from all country and background reports, and covering the entire
Reports
basin.

Aylward, B.
Economic Valuation of Basin Resources: Final Report to
EPSMO Project of the UN Food & Agriculture Organization as
an Input to the Okavango River Basin Transboundary
Diagnostic Analysis

Barnes, J. et al.
Okavango River Basin Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis:
Socio-Economic Assessment Final Report

King, J.M. and Brown,
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment Project
C.A.
Initiation Report (Report No: 01/2009)

King, J.M. and Brown,
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment EFA
C.A.
Process Report (Report No: 02/2009)

King, J.M. and Brown,
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment
C.A.
Guidelines for Data Collection, Analysis and Scenario Creation
(Report No: 03/2009)

Bethune, S. Mazvimavi,
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment
D. and Quintino, M.
Delineation Report (Report No: 04/2009)

Beuster, H.
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment
Hydrology Report: Data And Models(Report No: 05/2009)

Beuster,
H. Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment
Scenario Report : Hydrology (Report No: 06/2009)

Jones, M.J.
The Groundwater Hydrology of The Okavango Basin (FAO
Internal Report, April 2010)

King, J.M. and Brown,
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment
C.A.
Scenario Report: Ecological and Social Predictions (Volume 1
of 4)(Report No. 07/2009)

King, J.M. and Brown,
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment
C.A.
Scenario Report: Ecological and Social Predictions (Volume 2
of 4: Indicator results) (Report No. 07/2009)

King, J.M. and Brown,
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment
C.A.
Scenario Report: Ecological and Social Predictions: Climate
Change Scenarios (Volume 3 of 4) (Report No. 07/2009)

King, J., Brown, C.A.,
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment
Joubert, A.R. and
Scenario Report: Biophysical Predictions (Volume 4 of 4:
Barnes, J.
Climate Change Indicator Results) (Report No: 07/2009)

King, J., Brown, C.A.
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment Project
and Barnes, J.
Final Report (Report No: 08/2009)

Malzbender, D.
Environmental Protection And Sustainable Management Of The
Okavango River Basin (EPSMO): Governance Review

Vanderpost, C. and
Database and GIS design for an expanded Okavango Basin

37

TDA Botswana Water Supply & Sanitation
Dhliwayo, M.
Information System (OBIS)

Ver疄simo, Luis
GIS Database for the Environment Protection and Sustainable
Management of the Okavango River Basin Project

Wolski,
P.
Assessment of hydrological effects of climate change in the
Okavango Basin

Country Reports
Angola
Andrade e Sousa,
An嫮ise Diagn鏀tica Transfronteiri蓷 da Bacia do Rio
Biophysical Series
Helder Andr� de
Okavango: M鏚ulo do Caudal Ambiental: Relat鏎io do
Especialista: Pa疄: Angola: Disciplina: Sedimentologia &
Geomorfologia

Gomes, Am滱dio
An嫮ise Diagn鏀tica Transfronteiri蓷 da Bacia do Rio
Okavango: M鏚ulo do Caudal Ambiental: Relat鏎io do
Especialista: Pa疄: Angola: Disciplina: Vegeta誽o

Gomes,
Am滱dio
An嫮ise T嶰nica, Biof疄ica e Socio-Econ鏔ica do Lado
Angolano da Bacia Hidrogr塻ica do Rio Cubango: Relat鏎io
Final:Vegeta誽o da Parte Angolana da Bacia Hidrogr塻ica Do
Rio Cubango

Livramento, Filomena
An嫮ise Diagn鏀tica Transfronteiri蓷 da Bacia do Rio
Okavango: M鏚ulo do Caudal Ambiental: Relat鏎io do
Especialista: Pa疄: Angola: Disciplina:Macroinvertebrados

Miguel, Gabriel Lu疄
An嫮ise T嶰nica, Biof疄ica E S鏂io-Econ鏔ica do Lado
Angolano da Bacia Hidrogr塻ica do Rio Cubango:
Subs獮io Para o Conhecimento Hidrogeol鏬ico
Relat鏎io de Hidrogeologia

Morais, Miguel
An嫮ise Diagn鏀tica Transfronteiri蓷 da Bacia do An嫮ise Rio
Cubango (Okavango): M鏚ulo da Avalia誽o do Caudal
Ambiental: Relat鏎io do Especialista Pa疄: Angola Disciplina:
Ictiofauna

Morais,
Miguel
An嫮ise T嶰nica, Bi鏹isica e S鏂io-Econ鏔ica do Lado
Angolano da Bacia Hidrogr塻ica do Rio Cubango: Relat鏎io
Final: Peixes e Pesca Fluvial da Bacia do Okavango em Angola

Pereira, Maria Jo緌
Qualidade da 縵ua, no Lado Angolano da Bacia Hidrogr塻ica
do Rio Cubango

Santos,
Carmen
Ivelize
An嫮ise Diagn鏀tica Transfronteiri蓷 da Bacia do Rio
Van-D𠒇em S. N.
Okavango: M鏚ulo do Caudal Ambiental: Relat鏎io de
Especialidade: Angola: Vida Selvagem

Santos, Carmen Ivelize
An嫮ise Diagn鏀tica Transfronteiri蓷 da Bacia do Rio
Van-D𠒇em S.N.
Okavango:M鏚ulo Avalia誽o do Caudal Ambiental: Relat鏎io de
Especialidade: Angola: Aves

Botswana Bonyongo, M.C.
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist Report: Country:
Botswana: Discipline: Wildlife

Hancock, P.
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module : Specialist Report: Country:
Botswana: Discipline: Birds

Mosepele,
K. Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist Report: Country:
Botswana: Discipline: Fish

Mosepele, B. and
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Dallas, Helen
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist Report: Country:
Botswana: Discipline: Aquatic Macro Invertebrates

Namibia
Collin Christian &
Okavango River Basin: Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Associates CC
Project: Environmental Flow Assessment Module:
Geomorphology

Curtis, B.A.
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist Report Country:
Namibia Discipline: Vegetation

Bethune, S.
Environmental Protection and Sustainable Management of the
Okavango River Basin (EPSMO): Transboundary Diagnostic
Analysis: Basin Ecosystems Report

Nakanwe, S.N.
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist Report: Country:
Namibia: Discipline: Aquatic Macro Invertebrates

Paxton,
M. Okavango River Basin Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist
Report:Country:Namibia: Discipline: Birds (Avifauna)

38

TDA Botswana Water Supply & Sanitation

Roberts, K.
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist Report: Country:
Namibia: Discipline: Wildlife

Waal,
B.V. Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist Report: Country:
Namibia:Discipline: Fish Life
Country Reports
Angola
Gomes, Joaquim
An嫮ise T嶰nica dos Aspectos Relacionados com o Potencial
Socioeconomic
Duarte
de Irriga誽o no Lado Angolano da Bacia Hidrogr塻ica do Rio
Series
Cubango: Relat鏎io Final

Mendelsohn,
.J.
Land use in Kavango: Past, Present and Future

Pereira, Maria Jo緌
An嫮ise Diagn鏀tica Transfronteiri蓷 da Bacia do Rio
Okavango: M鏚ulo do Caudal Ambiental: Relat鏎io do
Especialista: Pa疄: Angola: Disciplina: Qualidade da 縵ua

Saraiva, Rute et al.
Diagn鏀tico Transfronteiri蔞 Bacia do Okavango: An嫮ise
Socioecon鏔ica Angola

Botswana Chimbari, M. and
Okavango River Basin Trans-Boundary Diagnostic Assessment
Magole, Lapologang
(TDA): Botswana Component: Partial Report: Key Public Health
Issues in the Okavango Basin, Botswana

Magole,
Lapologang
Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis of the Botswana Portion of
the Okavango River Basin: Land Use Planning

Magole, Lapologang
Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis (TDA) of the Botswana p
Portion of the Okavango River Basin: Stakeholder Involvement
in the ODMP and its Relevance to the TDA Process

Masamba,
W.R.
Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis of the Botswana Portion of
the Okavango River Basin: Output 4: Water Supply and
Sanitation

Masamba,W.R.
Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis of the Botswana Portion of
the Okavango River Basin: Irrigation Development

Mbaiwa.J.E. Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis of the Okavango River
Basin: the Status of Tourism Development in the Okavango
Delta: Botswana

Mbaiwa.J.E. &
Assessing the Impact of Climate Change on Tourism Activities
Mmopelwa, G.
and their Economic Benefits in the Okavango Delta

Mmopelwa,
G.
Okavango River Basin Trans-boundary Diagnostic Assessment:
Botswana Component: Output 5: Socio-Economic Profile

Ngwenya, B.N.
Final Report: A Socio-Economic Profile of River Resources and
HIV and AIDS in the Okavango Basin: Botswana

Vanderpost,
C.
Assessment of Existing Social Services and Projected Growth
in the Context of the Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis of the
Botswana Portion of the Okavango River Basin

Namibia
Barnes, J and
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Wamunyima, D
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist Report:
Country: Namibia: Discipline: Socio-economics

Collin Christian &
Technical Report on Hydro-electric Power Development in the
Associates CC
Namibian Section of the Okavango River Basin

Liebenberg, J.P.
Technical Report on Irrigation Development in the Namibia
Section of the Okavango River Basin

Ortmann, Cynthia L.
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module : Specialist Report Country:
Namibia: discipline: Water Quality

Nashipili,
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis: Specialist
Ndinomwaameni
Report: Country: Namibia: Discipline: Water Supply and
Sanitation

Paxton,
C.
Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis: Specialist Report:
Discipline: Water Quality Requirements For Human Health in
the Okavango River Basin: Country: Namibia

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