TDA Botswana Land Use Planning.
Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis:
Specialist Report
Country: Namibia
Discipline: Water Quality Requirements
for Human Health in the Okavango
River Basin
C. Paxton
December 2009
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EFA Namibia Water Quality Requirements
PAGSO
EPSMO
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AND SUSTAINABLE
MANAGEMENT OF THE OKAVANGO RIVER BASIN (EPSMO)
TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS
Specialist Report
Discipline: WATER QUALITY REQUIREMENTS FOR HUMAN HEALTH IN
THE OKAVANGO RIVER BASIN
Country: NAMIBIA
Author: Charlie Paxton
Date: 7th December 2009
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EFA Namibia Water Quality Requirements
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The Okavango River Basin (ORB) remains one of the few rivers in Africa to have low
levels of pollutants and contaminants. This is because the water has almost no
industrial waste, very little chemical runoff and a fairly low level of sewage effluents.
Even though the river supports a mainly rural population of over 600,000 across the
entire basin from Angola through Namibia and Botswana, who utilize this river on a
daily basis for domestic and livestock needs, there are only few rural-urban areas of
any significance in the River Basin (RB), (namely In Angola; Menongue, Kapiko,
Savate, Kwatwitwi, Kwangar, Dirico and Mucusso. In Namibia; Nukrenkuru, Rundu
and Divundu; In Botswana; Skakawe, Etsha, Gumare and Maun). There are
currently few to no commercial industries of any note and any impact from several
agricultural projects is considered low. The pollutants and contaminants that do enter
the water, mainly come from sewage, (solid and liquid waste), livestock manure,
soap and detergent. Currently these are readily absorbed and diluted in the large
and diverse river system. In the Angolan highlands there is a rapid flow rate which
has a cleansing affect on effluents in the river causing them to break down and
disperse quite quickly. Also even in the young river rapid flow areas are interspersed
with "sponge-like" flood-plains that act as natural filters. In the mid-lower flow areas
from Angola through Namibia to Botswana the river becomes an increasingly slow
and meandering, with extensive flood-plains that filters water through reed beds,
riverine grasslands and papyrus beds that enable the river systems to clean itself
along its course from the Angolan highlands to the Delta in Botswana. The river is
unique in that not only is it a large, long perennial river it does not flow into any ocean
but drains into an alluvial fan called the Okavango Delta which is also an
international Ramsar site.
The river does of course carry water dependent bacteria, protozoa, parasites and
vectors that cause water borne diseases and these are influenced by seasonal
flooding and ebbing in the rate of flow, as well as water temperature. Slow flowing
water, trapped or standing water with stagnant pools in a sub-tropical climate are
ideal breeding grounds for parasites and bacteria. However, to date, according to
health history there has been almost no Cholera, Typhoid, Botulism, Lead Poisoning
and Hepatitis; while there is a high incidence of Malaria, Bilharzias and Dysentery;
(although Malaria is not river dependent it is worsened by standing water and
stagnant pools). In Namibia and Botswana (information on this from Angola was not
verifiable) Dichlow-difphenyi-trchorethylene (DDT) is used by their respective health
departments, to spray homesteads, clinics and structures to combat Malaria,
however both Governments have strict policies on how they manage this activity and
care is taken not to contaminate the river?
Information in this report is not limited to the two sites were selected as part of an
Environmental Flows Assessment (EFA) research done in the Okavango River
Basin. However a thorough review of reports produced during the Transboundary
Diagnostic Analysis (TDA) was done to substantiate the findings in this report. Rivers
and water borne diseases is a well studied field particularly in Africa and Namibia,
several publications and reports including those relating to river quality, sanitation
and the socio-economic papers completed during the EFA study were used.
Nevertheless, even though Okavango River is one of the cleanest rivers in Africa, it
does have threats and challenges. Currently issues around solid and liquid waste,
increased incidence in some water borne diseases and chemical pollutants used for
agricultural projects (fertilizers and insecticides) are factors that need management
and control. In the future along with general population growth the threats are going
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EFA Namibia Water Quality Requirements
to increase in keeping with socio-economic development. These include expansion
in commercial areas, tourism, industry, proposed dams, hydro-electric schemes and
agricultural projects that are planned, especially in Angola and all this needs to be
taken into consideration for future management strategies.
There are both human and environmental influences that will impact the riparian
health status and threats to the spread of human water borne disease will logically
increase in keeping with these trends, health after all is directly connected to water
quality. Those most likely to be negatively affected are the very people, whose lives
development is trying to improve; particularly those depend on the river for their
livelihoods in relation to anticipated deterioration in water quality and cleanliness
related to industrial, agricultural, rural-urban growth. Any hydro-electric schemes and
dam development on the river system will influence the current balance of the
ecological integrity of the river basin. Balance between the needs of the people who
depend on the river and the potential impact on the water quality requirements for
human health is essential. Communicable water borne disease will exponentially
increase in keeping with interference caused by socio-economic growth and
strategies that mitigate this potential should be foreseen, developed and
implemented by the relevant health and water administrations in the river basin in all
three countries accordingly and OKACOM remains a good forum to drive this
process forward.
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EFA Namibia Water Quality Requirements
TABLE OF CONTENTS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ............................................................................................................... 3
TABLE OF TABLES ....................................................................................................................... 6
ABBREVIATIONS ......................................................................................................................... 7
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................................. 7
1. Background ........................................................................................................................ 8
2. Findings ............................................................................................................................ 10
3. Water Hygiene and quality .............................................................................................. 11
3.1
Livelihoods ............................................................................................................... 11
3.2
In relation to communicable disease, water and sanitation ................................... 11
3.3
Government policies and control ............................................................................ 12
3.4
Impact of Agricultural activities on water quality ................................................... 12
3.5
HIV/Aids and Water Quality .................................................................................... 13
4. Sanitation and sewage .................................................................................................... 14
5. Main Water Borne Diseases ............................................................................................ 14
5.1
Malaria ..................................................................................................................... 15
5. 2
Dysentery and Gastroenteritis ................................................................................ 15
5.3
Schistosomiasis (Bilharzias') .................................................................................... 16
6. Recommendations ........................................................................................................... 17
6.1
Liaise and link with health workers, Ministries and NGOs active in the Region . 17
6.2
Problems and threats need to be clearly identified ............................................ 17
6.3
Activities and strategies need to be developed to meet this needs and best
address the threats and problems identified .................................................................. 17
6.4
Implement training and capacity building activities for both trainers and the
riparian communities ...................................................................................................... 17
7. CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................... 18
8. References ....................................................................................................................... 19
9. APPENDIX ........................................................................................................................ 20
9.1
Appendix 1 ............................................................................................................... 20
9.2
Appendix 2 ............................................................................................................... 20
9.2.1.
Water Supply and Uses ................................................................................... 20
9.2.2
Sanitation coverage and type .......................................................................... 21
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EFA Namibia Water Quality Requirements
TABLE OF TABLES
TABLE 1. 1: SUMMARY OF MAIN COMMUNICABLE DISEASES ................................................................. 9
CHART 5. 1: DIAGRAM OF SCHISTOSMIASIS CYCLE ................................................................................ 16
TABLE 2. 1: ACCESS TO SANITATION IN KAVANGO REGION ................................................................... 22
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EFA Namibia Water Quality Requirements
ABBREVIATIONS
ABBREVIATION
MEANING
Aids Auto-immune-deficiency
Syndrome
CD4
cluster of differentiation 4
DDT Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane
HIV Human
immunodeficiency
virus
EFA
Environmental Flows Assessment
Gastro Gastroenteritis
MAWF
Ministry Agriculture, Water and Forestry
MET
Ministry Environment and Tourism
MoHSS
Ministry of Health and Social Services
Min Ministry
Moz Mosquito
NR Natural
Resources
ORB
Okavango River Basin
RB River
Basin
Rx Treatment
STD
Sexually Transmitted Diseases
TDA
Trans Boundary Diagnostic Analysis
VIP
Ventilated Pit Latrine
WASSP
Water Supply and Sanitation Policy
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to acknowledge the following people and institutions for helping in the
information gathering and analyses of this report:
The Namibia Nature Foundation, EPSMO, OKACOM, RAISON, MAWF
Jonathan Barnes, Shirley Bethunie, Colin Christian, Babara Curtis, Rachel Malone,
John Mendelsohn, Herman Mughongora, Mwazi Mwazi, Ndinomwaameni Nashipili,
Cynthia Ortman, Mark Paxton, Chaminda Rajapakse, Dorothy Wamunyima.
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EFA Namibia Water Quality Requirements
1. Background
The methodology used to collate this report is from a range of resources. It presents
information provided by the Health Environmental Practitioner who is the Control
Health Inspector for the Kavango Region, Mr. Herman Mughongora and has tapped
into the reports completed for the EFA, namely the Socio-economic, The Water
Supply and Sanitation, Water Quality and the Ecosystems TDA reports. In additional
data from an internet search and literature review has been incorporated along with
personal knowledge and experience.
The Okavango River begins its journey in highlands in Central Angola, where it has a
rapid flow rates interspersed with slower flowing areas and floodplains as it drops
into the Namibian belt, where it is a relatively slow flowing river. It traverses through
extensive flood-pains that enable the river to cleanse its waters through a filtration
process reliant on reed beds, grassy flood plains and further down stream papyrus
beds/islands. This intensifies as it goes through Botswana an area where the river
spreads out starting with the Shakawe pan-handle ending in the Delta, which is
described as a low gradient alluvial fan. During its more than 1000 km journey it
provides water, life and livelihoods to its riparian population of over 600 000 of which
200 000 reside in Namibia. The ORB (Okavango Rive Basin) encompasses over
120 000km2. Has a sub-tropical climate with an average rainfall of between 400 to
700mm p.a. which falls normally during the months of September through to April,
peaking in December, January, February and March. Along this journey it goes from
a wetter, more tropical Angola to the increasing arid and the highly water dependent
environments of Namibia and Botswana. The river basin carries a wide range of
biodiversity in terms of fauna and flora. It supports a range of largely rural livelihoods
i.e.; fishing, harvesting of natural resources (NR) e.g. Grass, reeds, wild fruits,
livestock etc. Supports a burgeoning tourism industry (growing in Namibia and
intensive in Botswana but only emerging in Angola), irrigation for
agricultural/horticultural endeavours and most importantly is the main water supply
for human consumption and domestic/livestock use. Plans are afoot for increasing
water utilization in the form of dams, irrigation for mainly agricultural purposes and
hydro-electrical power, particularly in Angola. There are currently no known major
industrial developments planned, although there is discussion around both biodiesel
and the cotton industry. However any increased demands made on the river have
the potential to threaten the environmental balance and impact the ecosystems that
sustain the good clean status of the river that is enjoyed by all today and these
changes that will lead to deterioration in the water supply and water quality. While
water abstraction for particularly commercial use, farming, tourism etc. is still limited
throughout the river basin, Namibia currently uses more water when compared to
Angola and Botswana. Water abstraction is closely monitored by the relative water
authorities. Angola is keen to develop irrigation schemes and hydro-eclectic power
and see these options as critical to address social-economic needs and improve
livelihoods of its population. All of which have potentially harmful effects on the water
supply and quality in the river basin particularly the Okavango Delta.
Access to safe water for domestic use and clean drinking water are basic needs for
survival and has an overwhelming impact on the health status of any community.
Fortunately this river is able to provide a sustained level of overall clean good quality
water and this is proven by the absence of serious water borne disease such as
Cholera, Typhoid, Botulism and Lead Poisoning. There is a low incidence of
Hepatitis and occasional Meningitis/Encephalitis outbreaks. Polio has been recorded
in the North West of Namibia and with the extensive immunization campaigns is not
considered a health problem in the Kavango Region. However the increase in the
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EFA Namibia Water Quality Requirements
Schistosomiasis (Bilharzias'), there are two strains, urinary and intestinal has been
alarming and a major cause for concern. The main human disease areas of highest
concern are listed in table 1.1.
1.1 The main health areas that need to be addressed are as follows:
Table 1. 1: Summary of main Communicable Diseases
TYPE OF
DISEASES
SOURCE/CAUS
SYMPTOMS
MANAGEMENT COMMENTS
INFECTION
E
Protozoan:
Amoebiasis
Faecal to mouth,
Gastroenteritis, i.e.
Hygiene, wash hands,
More common
These are not
Micro-organisms
contaminated
diarrhoea, (travelers
clean eating utensils
than recognized
river dependent
water, including
tummy) vomiting,
and water purification
Not only in river
can occur in any
ground water
abdominal pain,
(filtering and boiling)
water, any
type of water
sewage, manure.
symptoms are often
unclean water
self limiting and
can be
subside
contaminated
spontaneously
Of concern for
HIV/Aids suffers
as condition can
become chronic
and debilitating
Parasitic:
Schistosomiasis
parasitic illness
Skin itch/ rash at
Medical treatment (Rx)
Spread of
None of these
(Bilharzias')
caused by a
time of infection, can
Campaigns to break
disease has
are not river
In ORB only 2
Schistosoma
be asymptomatic
cycle.
increased
dependent can
Urinary Bliharzia
"fluke" or
for years, symptoms
Rx with Praziquantel
dramatically with
occur in any
Schistosoma
Snail-worms.
present with
(Biltricide), single dose
pop. growth &
type of water.
haematobium
gastroenteritis,
on weight.
mobility Dept
Infection occurs
bloody dysentery
Small water bodies
Health does
Bilharizia is
Intestinal Bilharzia
when people
blood in urine pain
can be treated with
regular
spread along
Schistosoma
swim, paddle,
on micturition
chemicals e.g. copper
monitoring,
water courses.
mansoni
bath, wade in any
(urination). Back &
sulphate.
testing & large
open fresh water,
abdominal pain
Awareness &
scale Rx
Malaria occurs
rivers,
fever, malaise
education to avoid
campaigns when
in all tropical and
canals, etc. fluke
contamination, e.g.
symptoms
sub-tropical
burrows under
not to urinate in
present
areas and not
skin infection is
water, as is
intestinal or
dependent on
not only in
dependent on both
kidney damage
river
stagnant waters
human and fluke
may have
but less likely in
cycles. Be alert to first
occurred
rapids
symptoms and prompt
Rx
5 types world-wide
incl.parts of Asia
favours tropics &
sub-tropics, higher
prevalence in
Africa
Malaria
Bite from an
Body pain, high
Prevention, use moz
Has highest
(Plasmodium
Anopheles
fever, rigors, nausea
repellent, burn coils,
mortality rate in
falciparum)
mosquito (female),
& vomiting severe
treated moz nets.
Africa.
is corpuscular
headache, malaise
Prophylactic not used
Develops drug
(active evening
by residents in an
resistance
and early
endemic area, but
morning), silent
quick diagnosis and
and dependent on
prompt Rx is key.
warmer climate,
Dept Health sprays
dies off in winter.
with DDT
Requires human
to moz. cycle
Worms
Faecal to mouth
Gastro. weight-loss,
Common particularly
Under estimated
transmission.
weakness & malaise
in children.
in adults, severe
Deworm all family
infestations can
members and pets
be debilitating
regularly
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EFA Namibia Water Quality Requirements
Bacterial:
Gastro-intestinal
Faecal to mouth,
Gastro symptoms
Clean water and
Encourage use
None of these
Tract infections:
sewage, stagnant
Sanitation. Chorea
of well placed
are not river
Chorea, E-coli
putrid water
and Typhoid are
VIP.
dependent can
(Escherichia coli),
source,
notifiable diseases. Rx
Proper sewage
occur in any
Typhoid,
contaminated
antibiotics, important
disposal/septic
type of water.
Dysenteries
water
to keep hydrated
tanks.
(Salmonella and
Boiling and
Shigella). Etc
filtering of
drinking water.
Tuberculosis
Airborne
Most common is
Isolation until disease
This is a
(Tubercle Bacillus.
transmission, poor
respiratory, but can
is under control. Long
notifiable
ventilation,
infect most organs.
term drug therapy,
disease. Prone
overcrowding
Tiredness,
improved nutrition,
to drug
coughing, night
resistance.
sweats, weight loss.
Is complicated
Is a chronic
when patient is
condition
HIV positive
Viral Respiratory
Tract
Faecal to mouth,
Flu-like symptoms
Medical Rx and
Min of Health
infections, Polio
sewage, stagnant
With Polio pain and
immunization,
run extensive
putrid water
paralysis
sanitation and hygiene
immunization
source,
campaigns
contaminated
water
HIV/Aids
STD
spread
After an initial slight
Prevention &
Prevalence is
through
fever and a feeling
awareness, safe sex
increasing
unprotected sex
of being unwell HIV
practice. Voluntary
throughout
with an infected
can be
Council ling & testing
Namibia.
partner, blood and
asymptomatic for
is encouraged. Once
Mobility &
mother to child
years. Blood test
diagnosed patients are
transboundary
transmission.
registers antibodies
closely monitored,
travel seem to
(while pregnant
when HIV positive.
when HIV positive
increase
and through
Aids presents with
status progressed to
prevalence.
breast milk)
auto immune
Aids, under close
symptoms when
supervision ARV's are
recovery from illness
given, there are 3
is prolonged. CD4
regimes of different
drops and it
drug combinations
becomes
used to enhance
increasingly
response and reduce
debilitating, with
resistance. Healthy
weight loss,
lifestyle improves
weakness and
remission. There is no
persistent illness
cure
until death occurs
from inability to
recover from an
disease e.g.
pneumonia
2. Findings
All of which are linked to seasonal slow flow regimes, climatic conditions, absorption
of sewage and waste into the river system and population densities and is directly
linked to water supply and sanitation. Therefore, pertinent to water quality and health
requirements for human consumption is this inclusion (Appendix 2) taken directly
from the TDA/EFA report by Ms Ndinomwaameni Nashipili covering Water Supply
and Sanitation, (see App 1 pg)
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EFA Namibia Water Quality Requirements
3. Water Hygiene and quality
The team working on Water Quality under Ms Cynthia Ortmann worked with seven
(7) indicators to assess water quality and how these indicators varied at the EFA
sites during high and low flow episodes. The finding indicated that most of the
problems with water quality were during low flow periods. The report states:
"However, as good as the quality of the river water is at this stage, there are
human and environmental impacts on riverine environments which can
compromise this state of affairs in future. As part of a holistic water
management approach, this study aims to investigate the existing
relationships between the river ecosystem and the riparian peoples'
livelihoods and to predict possible development-driven changes to the flow
regime and thus to the water quality of the river.
Flow-related location: In slow flowing water, decomposition of organic
material takes place faster and the nutrient concentration increases. During
fast flows the nutrient concentration decrease rapidly and is leached through
the water system."
Please refer to this report for further information; clearly good human health is
directly influence by water quality.
3.1 Livelihoods
Poverty is one of the main vectors of disease therefore income and livelihoods are
important to good health status of a population and water quality, is a perquisite to
good livelihood opportunities. Any toxins, raw sewage, livestock manure, affluent,
chemical pollutants that degrade the water quality will become a breeding ground for
vectors of disease and this is of particular concern during low flow periods and during
the times when floodplains are draining.
3.2
In relation to communicable disease, water and sanitation
According to the health inspector Herman Mughongora. Communicable health
issues the Okavango River system are low relatively speaking when compared to for
example the Oshana's, Kunene river and even the Zambezi riverine systems. There
are few to no cases of Cholera, Typhoid and Hepatitis in the Okavango River as per
the "Essential Health Indicators for Kavagno Region" he submitted as an attachment
to this report. (See Appendix 3 attached). However it is proven that during low flow
periods the risk of communicable disease is increased. It is also recognized that in
keeping with socio-economic growth trends and as the human population increases
within the RB that threats to water quality and sanitation will also increase. To this
end to mitigate water deterioration Ministry of Health vets all business, lodges,
ventures, schemes and projects. In order to obtain required licenses to operate, be it
a registration with the Namibian Tourism Board or a Shebeen License, Ministry of
Health is required to do an inspection and issue a fitness certificate. Licenses can
only be obtained once a fitness certificate is obtained and in order to qualify a set of
criteria are stipulated, such as proper waste and sewage management. Strict
guidelines on the prevention of solid and liquid waste draining into the river system
are enforced. However, it is a large river basin, with dense areas of human
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EFA Namibia Water Quality Requirements
population and it is beyond the means of a few health inspectors to monitor and
control all aspects of pollution. Particularly when it comes to bush latrines in
reedbeds, along the riverine edge and in the flood-plains. Great effort has been
undertaken to ensure all schools and clinics have proper VIPs as an example of
good, manageable and economic means of dealing with sewage. Unfortunately
much work is needed to enlighten most of the rural population to the value of
constructing, maintaining and the correct use of proper latrines.
At the more urbanized areas such as Rundu, Nkurenkuru and Divundu there are
functioning sewage works, however these are ageing systems and most are not
operating well enough to cope with the increased human excrement coming into
them. There have been leakages into the river system, but it is fair to say that for the
most part this is still leans toward the minimum and whilst the water quality
immediately down stream from these leakages is contaminated, further downstream
this affluent becomes diluted and filtered. At this stage the river appears to be
coping as indicated in the water quality report submitted, however as population
increases in the RB so will the solid, liquid waste and sewage and the existing
sewage works will require up-grading and expansion.
3.3
Government policies and control
The Government through MoHSS, Rural Water Supply, Min. of Fisheries, MAWF (including
veterinary services) and MET has developed policies and practices to implement good
measures for human and animal diseases control within the RB. However again in many
instances resources are stretched quite thin and these practices are not always fully and
competently enforced. There is a large need for training, awareness and capacity building
within the riparian populations and among Ministry staff.
3.4 Impact
of
Agricultural activities on water quality
To what extent agricultural activities may have also had an impact on the river health, is quite
difficult to fully establish. There are four extensive agricultural projects in the Namibian
section of the ORB. Musese in the West, Mashare and Shitemo in the central area and
Shadigongoro to the East. MAWF monitors water abstraction and use of chemicals,
insecticides and fertilizers. There are indications that some contaminants leak into the river
system especially through the alluvial sandy soil substrate. Even so findings in the water as
reported in the water quality report, showed that this had a nominal impact at this stage.
Should future large scale agricultural project be implemented along the riverine area such as
the Green-scheme strategies to mitigate contamination of this nature would need to be
developed and implemented. What however, is of much greater concern linked directly to
agricultural projects is the large scale deforestation that it encourages, for example tractor
sloughing versus oxen sloughing imposes that root-stock of tertiary forest be aggressively
removed to facilitate the ploughing and supposedly increase per hectare crop yield. In terms
of environmental protection and integrity this may require further investigation on how
sustainable is modern technology in a rural and relatively poor population? The degradation
of river banks and erosion of deforested areas are already confirmed and needs to be
addressed more effectively. This includes livestock trampling and degradation of river banks
that occurs during watering.
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EFA Namibia Water Quality Requirements
3.5
HIV/Aids and Water Quality
HIV/Aids is not related directly to the water and the river system, it is an infectious disease
that is spread by a mobile population. It is therefore wide spread throughout the country, how
it does relate to the river is that a large percentage of the rural population live closer to the
river where there is easier access to water, therefore the prevalence rate is possibly higher
closer to the more densely populated zones. The highest prevalence of HIV in the country is
directly influence by particular cross border transport routes.
Health awareness and education throughout the basin including Angola and Botswana are
actively conducted at various levels through the relevant health care administration, at NGO
level and through the private sector. In fact some of the best HIV/Aids training tools are
being used in Angola and were developed by UNICEF, who also did extensive training
amongst active NGO and government departments on how to make use these. (A
photography copy is available from the author). Namibia operates and rolls out a top notch
service in the Kavango Region through "New Start Clinics" attached to district hospitals,
training of the staff is done by Intrahealth who visit these clinics quarterly. The district
hospitals all have a mobile clinic unit who do primary health care. Botswana has a very
similar system that is managed from their Communicable Disease Control Centre in Maun.
Botswana does lead the RB in the provision of clean drinking water being made available to
its rural population. Throughout the RB HIV/Aids is not managed as separate from general
health issues.
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EFA Namibia Water Quality Requirements
4. Sanitation and sewage
With the exception of the urban areas that have municipal water borne sewage that
is disposed of in functional sewage dam systems, the majority of Kavango Residents
do not have access to suitable sewage disposal. In the areas where sewage is
managed and either extracted or water borne to a sewage settling ponds, or through
septic tanks, raw sewage getting into the river system does not occur. MoHSS and
its health inspection division are particularly interested in the management of raw
sewage and the impact that this has on both human health and contamination of the
river. All tourism ventures and permanent dwellings are inspected to ensure that
they either have properly managed septic tanks, or adequate sewage drainage
including waste water, such as bath or kitchen water, is properly drained/managed.
Unfortunately informal latrines are not so well controlled and this includes informal
settlements in urbanized areas as well. Proper, well constructed ventilated pit
latrines are actively encouraged where flushable systems are not possible.
However the majority of Kavango Region residents who live in mainly informal
settlements in both the rural and urban areas do not have access to proper ablution
facilities and the "bush toilet" remains the norm. Health Inspectors and Primary
Health Care workers recommend that these bush toilets, all pit latrines, all flushable
toilets using a septic tank and municipal sewage settling dams to be located well
above high water levels to avoid any sewage effluent from being washed into the
river during the high flooding periods. They also stipulate that any pit latrines be
located a safe distance away from their water source. The implementation that has
been initiated since the revised Water Supply and Sanitation Policy (WASSP) was
adopted in October 2008. Has encouraged improved management strategies with
regard to water supply and sanitation. MoHSS has the role and responsibility to
develop, implement, control and enforce health legislation and policies regarding
sanitation practice, this includes a monitoring and evaluation function. MoHSS is
building links with Local Authorities and Regional Councils to increase responsibility
for water supply and sanitation in their areas. It is hoped that this will promote the
continued healthy state of the river, which is a clear indication that unmanageable
amounts of raw sewage are not having an impact on the health status of the river
system. This in indicated by the general absence of communicable water borne
diseases such as cholera, typhoid and botulism.
Ma
14
EFA Namibia Water Quality Requirements
5. in Water Borne Diseases
5.1 Malaria
Malaria an endemic vector-borne, infectious disease caused by a protozoan parasite.
It is the most common cause of morbidity and mortality in the Kavango Region. It is
not confined or caused by the river, but is exacerbated by stagnant, or still water
lying in and around the waters edge and at all water sources that enable the
Anopheles mosquito to breed. The protozoan is carried by the female Anopheles
mosquito and undergoes a cycle requiring both human and mosquito to survive. The
Kavango Region has the most serious form of malaria Plasmodium falciparum which
if untreated leads to complicated malaria and ultimate death if not treated effectively.
Complications include possible cerebral malaria, kidney complications (known as
black water fever) and damage to both the spleen and liver. Most vulnerable to
complications and mortality are young children, pregnant women, those with positive
HIV status, AIDS and underlying debilitating illnesses.
With regards to malaria prevention is the key, MoHSS spray homestead with DDT in
October and January. Care is taken not to contaminate the river with DDT; they
recycle the cleaning drum and do the washing out of drums above the flood line and
away from other water sources. Prophylactic is not used, but all clinics are
equipped to implement prompt treatment as soon as diagnosis is made. The region
has predominantly chloroquine resistant malaria and the disease is currently treated
with a drug combination therapy.
Reducing the amount of pools and puddles of still water, proper management of
sewage and waste water will reduce the volume of Anopheles misquotes breeding
substantially. However this is impossible to impose and malaria has shown to have
strong resistance to control measures and remains the most common cause of
morbidity and mortality in the region.
5. 2 Dysentery and Gastroenteritis
Diarrhoea is a symptom of the above condition and is caused by consuming
contaminated food or liquid, often referred to as a form as food poisoning.
Homestead hygiene during the preparation and storage of food are causative factors,
however the main cause of Gastroenteritis) is drinking unclean water. It is most
common during low water flows and the beginning of summer when the warmer
temperatures and the low-slow river contribute to the breeding of the bacteria (E-coli)
that cause gastroenteritis. In severe cases bloody diarrhoea (blood in the stools); the
disease if untreated can be life threatening particularly in babies and young children
the main cause of death is dehydration.
The main prevention is to purify the drinking water; this can be done by boiling the
water and storing it to be drunk when cooled down. The prevention of manure and
raw sewage from getting into the river in the first place is critical to reducing
incidence of dysentery.
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EFA Namibia Water Quality Requirements
5.3 Schistosomiasis
(Bilharzias')
There are two types of Schistosomiasis on the Okavango River. Schistosoma
mansoni causing intestinal bilharzia and Schistosoma haematobium causing urinary
bilharzia. The disease is contracted usually when a tiny Schistosomas worms
burrows its way under the skin when the individual is swimming or paddling in river
water. It is dependent on a small snail and requires a human to snail cycle in order
to survive. The urinary form is more common than the intestinal one. The
complications of bilharzias is that aside from the relatively minor itchy dotted rash
that appears just after infection and slight fever is can remain asymptomatic and lie
dormant for years after infection, during which the transmission of the disease
between snail and human is possible, which is one of the main factors that
contributes to its increased distribution. When symptoms do occur usually in the
form of bloody urine (blood in the urine) organ damage has occurred. There is a high
prevalence, in 2000 Dr Skitter with the primary health care department tested a
random sample of school children from Nkurenkuru in the West right across the
whole of the Namibian section of the OR all the way to Mohemba in the East. Over
90% of all children tested positive and were treated. It responds well to treatment
and in the early stages is easy and reasonably inexpensive to treat. Periodically
from the year 2000 to date spot testing of children was implemented and indicated
that the response to treatment has been affective as the trend showed a slow but
steady decline in positive cases among the school children. A more comprehensive
evaluation is scheduled for 2009. If this disease is not detected and left unmanaged
it has a tendency to increase and spread within the river basin. For example there
were far less cases recorded 20yrs ago than there are today, apparently did not exist
in the ORB within Namibia in the early 1970s.
Chart 5. 1: Diagram of Schistosmiasis cycle
16
EFA Namibia Water Quality Requirements
Rash after infection
6. Recommendations
There is clearly a need to foresee threats and challenges that will affect health and
water quality linked to population growth and socio-economic development. Identify
these issues and develop strategies that will best mitigate the negative impacts,
thereby maintain the good quality of water and in so doing best serve the quality of
life, livelihoods of the riparian population who depend on the river basin. A balance
is required that protects and supports both the biodiversity, environmental integrity of
the river basin and the health status of the people who utilize the river on a daily
basis.
6.1
Liaise and link with health workers, Ministries and NGOs active in the Region
6.2
Problems and threats need to be clearly identified
· Familiarization of OkBMC to identify issues
· Sanitation, solid and liquid waste disposal
· Sewage management, VIPs
· Filtering and boiling drinking water
· Prompt diagnosis and treatment of communicable diseases particularly
Bilharzias, Malaria and Tuberculosis
· VCT for HIV/Aids
· Maternal and Child health
· Nutrition and personal hygiene
6.3
Activities and strategies need to be developed to meet this needs and best
address the threats and problems identified
· Community awareness raising, training workshops, community meetings
with the basin population
· Development of appropriate training materials
6.4
Implement training and capacity building activities for both trainers and the
riparian communities
· Training workshops, meetings and training materials
· Training of resource people within the population to act as peer group
trainers
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EFA Namibia Water Quality Requirements
7. CONCLUSION
The Okavango River Basin is still one of the most pristine and clean river systems in
Africa, largely because there is very little industrial, chemical and effluent absorption.
It also benefits from a filtration and cleansing process of water through a complex of
floodplains containing reed beds, riverine grasslands and papyrus islands (papyrus
occurs towards the lower end of the Namibian stretch of river increasing in amounts
in Botswana). However future water utilization and demand is likely to increase with
greater high-end development planned and necessary to meet livelihood needs
within the riparian population. It is essential that this development is strategically
planned and implemented to maintain environmental integrity, good quality water
supply, the ecological biodiversity of the river basin. The Okavango River transverses
three countries and how the river is utilized and managed the impacts the whole river
basin.
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EFA Namibia Water Quality Requirements
8. References
Andersson, L., Wilk, J., Todd, M., Hughes, D.A., Earle, A., Kniveton, D., Layberry, R.,
Savenije, H.H.G. (2006). Impact of climate change and development scenarios on
flow patterns in the Okavango River. Journal of Hydrology. www.sciencedirect.com.
Retrieved on 6 January, 2009
Clarke, N.V., (May 1997) Report: The Distribution of Freshwater Snails In the
Omusati Region Of Namibia. Department of Water Affairs
Crosby, C.P., (2001). Study Tour Dr. Nick Austin, Water Use Efficiency Advisory
Unit, NSW Agriculture, Australia, Water Research Commission.
Curtis, B.A., (August 1996) Report: Assessment of the Extent of Bilharzia Infection in
the Omasati Region of Namibia, Department of Water Affairs
Curtis, B.A., (April 1990). Report: Investigation into the Distribution of Freshwater
Snails and Snail Borne diseases in Namibia, Ministry of Education and Culture
Green Cross International (2000). The Okavango River Basin.
Kgathi, D.L., Kniveton, D., Ringrose, S., Turton, A.R., Venderpost, C.H.M., Lundqvist,
J., and Seely, M., (2006). The Okavango ; a river supporting its people, environment
and economic development. Journal of Hydrology (2006) 331, 3-17.
www.sciencedirect.com. Retrieved on 6 January, 2009
Mendelsohn, J., and el Obeid, S., ( 2003). Sand and Water. A profile of Okavango
Region. Ministry of Environment and Tourism. Windhoek
Mendelsohn, J., and el Obeid, S., (2004). Okavango River. The flow of a lifeline.
Every River has its people, Namibia Nature Foundation. Windhoek
Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Forestry (2008). Water Supply and Sanitation
Policy. Windhoek.
Pitchford, R.J., (October 1986). Some Aspects of Bilharzia in Southern Africa
Werner, D., (1983). Where there is not Doctor. Macmillan Publishers
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EFA Namibia Water Quality Requirements
9. APPENDIX
9.1 Appendix
1
Seasonal and climatic influences on the riparian population;
This is dependent on climatic conditions,
1.
Rainfall along the basin filling seasonal pans
2.
Rainfall in the catchment
3.
All affecting the rate and rhythm of flooding followed by rate and
flow of drainage,
4.
Seasonal temperatures, the hotter the climate, heating up slow to
drain and therefore stagnating pools and pans, favours bacterial
and parasite growth, the longer it is hotter the greater the bacterial
load, the colder periods with less pools reduces bacteria and
parasite opportunity.
5.
The environmental state of slow to non flowing riverine areas, if
there is a population surrounding this area, who feed into the
system litter, waste and affluent then the conditions for bacterial
and parasititic growth increase accordingly.
9.2
Appendix 2
Appendix 9.2.1 and 9.2.2 are direct extractions from the Water Supply and Sanitation
Report; acknowledgments author Ms Ndinomwaameni Nashipili
9.2.1. Water Supply and Uses
"Water supply can be grouped into three categories:
commercial bulk water supplied by NamWater to local authorities, regional
councils and settlements and Villages;
rural water supplied by the Directorate of Rural Water Supply (DRWS) to
rural communities;
and direct informal water drawing from the river or stream by rural
communities, tourist lodges and campsite, irrigation and fish farms.
Water demand for the different users varies between seasons. For instance, water
demand for domestic decreases during the cold winter months and increases during
the hot summer months. Readily available water in natural ponds during the rain
season reduces water demand from boreholes for livestock and in certain cases for
rural domestic as communities would often opt to use the nearest water source.
Water demand for tourist increased on average by 50% during the high season and
decreases by 70% during low season (Kgathi, et al 2006). Likewise water
requirements for livestock fluctuates between seasons, during the hot summer
months livestock drinking frequency increases compared to winter months where
livestock go to the water points once in two days.
Similarly water demand for irrigation increases during the growing season as the
plants need more water to produce grains and decreases as the plants matures and
20
EFA Namibia Water Quality Requirements
ripen. Though, high water demand for irrigation during growing season in summer
months can be supplemented by the rainfall, due to the erratic nature of the rainfall
pattern in the country, dry spells are very common, necessitating irrigation
throughout the growing season. The fluctuation on water demand for the various
uses during dry and wet season can impact on the available water if such increased
seasonal demands coincide with low water levels in the river or drought.
9.2.2 Sanitation coverage and type
The management and responsibility for provision of sanitation services and facilities
falls under the jurisdiction of local authorities, regional council and the Ministry of
Health and Social Services. The Ministry of Health is responsible for ensuring that
the types of sanitation in place do not pose danger to public health.
The Town Councils of Rundu and Nkurenkuru provide sanitation services and
facilities to the urban dwellers. Sanitation in the urban areas consists of flushing
toilets, septic tanks and wastewater treatment plants. In informal housing areas in
towns such as Nkurenkuru and Rundu (Pamwe and Kaisosi settlement areas) there
still a large proportion of population without proper sanitation therefore still making
use of bushes.
The majority of rural communities still use bushes for sanitation purposes. The
Kavango Regional Council in collaboration with the Directorate of Rural Water
Supply and Sanitation Co-ordination are responsible for provision of sanitation
facilities to the rural communities consisting mainly of pit latrines and VIPs.
Construction of unlined pit latrines or VIP's may pollute the relative shallow
groundwater along the Okavango River.
There are also places such as clinics, schools and hospitals located outside urban
areas where maintenance of sanitation facilities falls under the jurisdiction of the
Ministry of Works and Transport. Existing arrangements for maintenance and
servicing of sanitation infrastructures often had left sanitation at many of such
institutions in dare needs due to unclear line of responsibilities and budgetary
constraints.
Generally access to sanitation is still very low for both urban and rural communities.
The information gathered during the National Housing and Population census
conducted in 2001 reveals that as high as 82% of the population residing in Kavango
Region are without toilet facilities (NPC, 2007). Only 15% of Rundu residents are
connected to the sewer system by 2002 (Sinime pers communication, 2008). Some
residences in Rundu Town have septic tanks that are pumped out or soak away
which may pollute the shallow groundwater near the river. Most of Rundu residences
particularly those that are living in what is called informal areas make use of pit-
latrines or green toilets (bushes). However a new wastewater treatment plant is
under construction to be completed in 2009 to increase the number of residents to
the sewer network.
21
EFA Namibia Water Quality Requirements
Table 2. 1: Access to sanitation in Kavango Region
Type of toilet used
% of the population served
Private flush toilets
5
Shared flush toilets
2
Ventilated Improved Pit latrine (VIP)
1
Pit latrine (long drop)
9
Bucket/pail 1
Bushes 82
[Source: National Planning Commission, 2003]
22
EFA Namibia Water Quality Requirements
The Okavango River Basin Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis Technical Reports
I
Diagnostic Analysis to establish a base of available
n 1994, the three riparian countries of the Okavango
scientific evidence to guide future decision making.
River Basin Angola, Botswana and Namibia agreed
The study, created from inputs from multi-disciplinary
to plan for collaborative management of the natural
teams in each country, with specialists in hydrology,
resources of the Okavango, forming the Permanent
hydraulics, channel form, water quality, vegetation,
Okavango River Basin Water Commission (OKACOM).
aquatic invertebrates, fish, birds, river-dependent
In 2003, with funding from the Global Environment
terrestrial wildlife, resource economics and socio-
Facility, OKACOM launched the Environmental
cultural issues, was coordinated and managed by a
Protection and Sustainable Management of the
group of specialists from the southern African region
Okavango River Basin (EPSMO) Project to coordinate
in 2008 and 2009.
development and to anticipate and address threats to
the river and the associated communities and
The following specialist technical reports were
environment. Implemented by the United Nations
produced as part of this process and form
Development Program and executed by the United
substantive background content for the Okavango
Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, the project
River Basin Trans-boundary Diagnostic Analysis
produced the Transboundary.
Final Study
Reports integrating findings from all country and background reports, and covering the entire
Reports
basin.
Aylward, B.
Economic Valuation of Basin Resources: Final Report to
EPSMO Project of the UN Food & Agriculture Organization as
an Input to the Okavango River Basin Transboundary
Diagnostic Analysis
Barnes, J. et al.
Okavango River Basin Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis:
Socio-Economic Assessment Final Report
King, J.M. and Brown,
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment Project
C.A.
Initiation Report (Report No: 01/2009)
King, J.M. and Brown,
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment EFA
C.A.
Process Report (Report No: 02/2009)
King, J.M. and Brown,
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment
C.A.
Guidelines for Data Collection, Analysis and Scenario Creation
(Report No: 03/2009)
Bethune,
S.
Mazvimavi,
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment
D. and Quintino, M.
Delineation Report (Report No: 04/2009)
Beuster, H.
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment
Hydrology Report: Data And Models(Report No: 05/2009)
Beuster,
H. Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment
Scenario Report : Hydrology (Report No: 06/2009)
Jones, M.J.
The Groundwater Hydrology of The Okavango Basin (FAO
Internal Report, April 2010)
King, J.M. and Brown,
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment
C.A.
Scenario Report: Ecological and Social Predictions (Volume 1
of 4)(Report No. 07/2009)
King, J.M. and Brown,
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment
C.A.
Scenario Report: Ecological and Social Predictions (Volume 2
of 4: Indicator results) (Report No. 07/2009)
King, J.M. and Brown,
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment
C.A.
Scenario Report: Ecological and Social Predictions: Climate
Change Scenarios (Volume 3 of 4) (Report No. 07/2009)
King, J., Brown, C.A.,
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment
Joubert, A.R. and
Scenario Report: Biophysical Predictions (Volume 4 of 4:
Barnes, J.
Climate Change Indicator Results) (Report No: 07/2009)
King, J., Brown, C.A.
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment Project
and Barnes, J.
Final Report (Report No: 08/2009)
Malzbender, D.
Environmental Protection And Sustainable Management Of The
Okavango River Basin (EPSMO): Governance Review
Vanderpost, C. and
Database and GIS design for an expanded Okavango Basin
Dhliwayo, M.
Information System (OBIS)
Veríssimo, Luis
GIS Database for the Environment Protection and Sustainable
Management of the Okavango River Basin Project
Wolski,
P.
Assessment of hydrological effects of climate change in the
Okavango Basin
Country Reports
Angola
Andrade e Sousa,
Análise Diagnóstica Transfronteiriça da Bacia do Rio
Biophysical Series
Helder André de
Okavango: Módulo do Caudal Ambiental: Relatório do
Especialista: País: Angola: Disciplina: Sedimentologia &
Geomorfologia
23
EFA Namibia Water Quality Requirements
Gomes, Amândio
Análise Diagnóstica Transfronteiriça da Bacia do Rio
Okavango: Módulo do Caudal Ambiental: Relatório do
Especialista: País: Angola: Disciplina: Vegetação
Gomes,
Amândio
Análise Técnica, Biofísica e Socio-Económica do Lado
Angolano da Bacia Hidrográfica do Rio Cubango: Relatório
Final:Vegetação da Parte Angolana da Bacia Hidrográfica Do
Rio Cubango
Livramento, Filomena
Análise Diagnóstica Transfronteiriça da Bacia do Rio
Okavango: Módulo do Caudal Ambiental: Relatório do
Especialista: País: Angola: Disciplina:Macroinvertebrados
Miguel, Gabriel Luís
Análise Técnica, Biofísica E Sócio-Económica do Lado
Angolano da Bacia Hidrográfica do Rio Cubango:
Subsídio Para o Conhecimento Hidrogeológico
Relatório de Hidrogeologia
Morais, Miguel
Análise Diagnóstica Transfronteiriça da Bacia do Análise Rio
Cubango (Okavango): Módulo da Avaliação do Caudal
Ambiental: Relatório do Especialista País: Angola Disciplina:
Ictiofauna
Morais,
Miguel
Análise Técnica, Biófisica e Sócio-Económica do Lado
Angolano da Bacia Hidrográfica do Rio Cubango: Relatório
Final: Peixes e Pesca Fluvial da Bacia do Okavango em Angola
Pereira, Maria João
Qualidade da Água, no Lado Angolano da Bacia Hidrográfica
do Rio Cubango
Santos,
Carmen
Ivelize
Análise Diagnóstica Transfronteiriça da Bacia do Rio
Van-Dúnem S. N.
Okavango: Módulo do Caudal Ambiental: Relatório de
Especialidade: Angola: Vida Selvagem
Santos, Carmen Ivelize
Análise Diagnóstica Transfronteiriça da Bacia do Rio
Van-Dúnem S.N.
Okavango:Módulo Avaliação do Caudal Ambiental: Relatório de
Especialidade: Angola: Aves
Botswana Bonyongo, M.C.
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist Report: Country:
Botswana: Discipline: Wildlife
Hancock, P.
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module : Specialist Report: Country:
Botswana: Discipline: Birds
Mosepele,
K. Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist Report: Country:
Botswana: Discipline: Fish
Mosepele, B. and
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Dallas, Helen
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist Report: Country:
Botswana: Discipline: Aquatic Macro Invertebrates
Namibia
Collin Christian &
Okavango River Basin: Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Associates CC
Project: Environmental Flow Assessment Module:
Geomorphology
Curtis, B.A.
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist Report Country:
Namibia Discipline: Vegetation
Bethune, S.
Environmental Protection and Sustainable Management of the
Okavango River Basin (EPSMO): Transboundary Diagnostic
Analysis: Basin Ecosystems Report
Nakanwe, S.N.
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist Report: Country:
Namibia: Discipline: Aquatic Macro Invertebrates
Paxton,
M. Okavango River Basin Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist
Report:Country:Namibia: Discipline: Birds (Avifauna)
Roberts, K.
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist Report: Country:
Namibia: Discipline: Wildlife
Waal,
B.V. Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist Report: Country:
Namibia:Discipline: Fish Life
Country Reports
Angola
Gomes, Joaquim
Análise Técnica dos Aspectos Relacionados com o Potencial
Socioeconomic
Duarte
de Irrigação no Lado Angolano da Bacia Hidrográfica do Rio
Series
Cubango: Relatório Final
Mendelsohn,
.J.
Land use in Kavango: Past, Present and Future
Pereira, Maria João
Análise Diagnóstica Transfronteiriça da Bacia do Rio
Okavango: Módulo do Caudal Ambiental: Relatório do
Especialista: País: Angola: Disciplina: Qualidade da Água
Saraiva, Rute et al.
Diagnóstico Transfronteiriço Bacia do Okavango: Análise
Socioeconómica Angola
Botswana Chimbari, M. and
Okavango River Basin Trans-Boundary Diagnostic Assessment
Magole, Lapologang
(TDA): Botswana Component: Partial Report: Key Public Health
24
EFA Namibia Water Quality Requirements
Issues in the Okavango Basin, Botswana
Magole,
Lapologang
Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis of the Botswana Portion of
the Okavango River Basin: Land Use Planning
Magole, Lapologang
Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis (TDA) of the Botswana p
Portion of the Okavango River Basin: Stakeholder Involvement
in the ODMP and its Relevance to the TDA Process
Masamba,
W.R.
Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis of the Botswana Portion of
the Okavango River Basin: Output 4: Water Supply and
Sanitation
Masamba,W.R.
Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis of the Botswana Portion of
the Okavango River Basin: Irrigation Development
Mbaiwa.J.E. Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis of the Okavango River
Basin: the Status of Tourism Development in the Okavango
Delta: Botswana
Mbaiwa.J.E. &
Assessing the Impact of Climate Change on Tourism Activities
Mmopelwa, G.
and their Economic Benefits in the Okavango Delta
Mmopelwa,
G.
Okavango River Basin Trans-boundary Diagnostic Assessment:
Botswana Component: Output 5: Socio-Economic Profile
Ngwenya, B.N.
Final Report: A Socio-Economic Profile of River Resources and
HIV and AIDS in the Okavango Basin: Botswana
Vanderpost,
C.
Assessment of Existing Social Services and Projected Growth
in the Context of the Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis of the
Botswana Portion of the Okavango River Basin
Namibia
Barnes, J and
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Wamunyima, D
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist Report:
Country: Namibia: Discipline: Socio-economics
Collin Christian &
Technical Report on Hydro-electric Power Development in the
Associates CC
Namibian Section of the Okavango River Basin
Liebenberg, J.P.
Technical Report on Irrigation Development in the Namibia
Section of the Okavango River Basin
Ortmann, Cynthia L.
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module : Specialist Report Country:
Namibia: discipline: Water Quality
Nashipili,
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis: Specialist
Ndinomwaameni
Report: Country: Namibia: Discipline: Water Supply and
Sanitation
Paxton,
C.
Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis: Specialist Report:
Discipline: Water Quality Requirements For Human Health in
the Okavango River Basin: Country: Namibia
25
TDA Botswana Land Use Planning.
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