EFA Namibia Irrigation Development.
Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis of
the Okavango River Basin
The Status of Tourism Development in
the Okavango Delta, Botswana
Joseph E. Mbaiwa
Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre
May 2009
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TDA Botswana Tourism Development
Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis of the Okavango
River Basin
The Status of Tourism Development in the Okavango Delta, Botswana
Joseph E. Mbaiwa, PhD
Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre
University of Botswana
May 2009
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TDA Botswana Tourism Development
CONTENTS
TABLES: .................................................................................................................................. 4
Executive Summary ................................................................................................................... 5
1. Introduction ................................................................................................................... 7
2.
Objectives of the Study ..................................................................................................... 8
3.
National Policies and Plans ................................................................................................ 9
3.1
The Tourism Policy of 1990 ....................................................................................... 9
3.2
The Wildlife Conservation Policy of 1986 .................................................................. 9
3.3
The CBNRM Policy of 2007 ...................................................................................... 10
3.4
The Botswana National Ecotourism Strategy of 2002 ............................................. 11
3.5
Ngamiland Tourism Development Plan of 2007...................................................... 12
3.6
Okavango Delta Management Plan ......................................................................... 13
3.7
Maun Development Plan (1997 2021).................................................................. 14
3.8
Ngamiland Integrated Land Use Plan ...................................................................... 15
3.9
Shakawe and Mohembo Development Plan (2006 2030) .................................... 15
4.
Tourism Resource Uses ................................................................................................... 17
4.1
Consumptive Wildlife Resource Uses ...................................................................... 17
4.2
Nonconsumptive Wildlife Resource Use ................................................................ 17
4.3.
Types of Nonconsumptive Tourism Activities ........................................................ 18
4.4.
Kinds of tourists ....................................................................................................... 18
5.
Segments of wildlifebased Tourists................................................................................ 19
5.1
The "High Cost" Tourist ........................................................................................... 19
5.2
The Mobile Safari Tourists ....................................................................................... 19
5.3
The Independent or "Low Cost" Tourists ................................................................ 20
5.4
Day Visitors .............................................................................................................. 20
5.5
Safari Hunters .......................................................................................................... 20
6.
Tourist Trends Analysis .................................................................................................... 22
6.2
Okavango Delta Tourism ......................................................................................... 23
6.3
International tourists and domestic tourists ........................................................... 24
7.
Tourism Infrastructure Development .............................................................................. 26
7.1
Transport and Communication Systems ................................................................. 27
7.2
Airports and Airstrips ............................................................................................... 29
7.3
The Impacts of Tourism to Rural Livelihoods .......................................................... 31
7.3.1
Employment opportunities in Remote areas .................................................. 31
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7.3.2
Financial benefits from tourism development ................................................ 32
7.3.3
Availability of meat at household level ........................................................... 34
7.3.4
The provision of social services ....................................................................... 34
8. Tourism and HIV/AIDS Prevalence .................................................................................. 36
9.
Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 37
References .......................................................................................................................... 38
Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis of the Botswana Portion of the Okavango River Basin:
Land Use Planning ............................................................................................................... 41
TABLES:
TABLE 1: TYPE OF TOURISTS AND TOURIST ACTIVITIES IN THE OD ........................................................ 19
TABLE 2: INTERNATIONAL TOURISM ARRIVALS...................................................................................... 22
TABLE 3: SUMMARY STATISTICS FOR TOURISM DEMAND IN BOTSWANA FOR 2005 ............................ 22
TABLE 4: TOURIST NUMBERS ACCORDING TO SEGMENT AT MOREMI GAME RESERVE ........................ 24
TABLE 5: TOURIST NUMBERS ACCORDING TO COUNTRY OF RESIDENCE, 1999 2006 ......................... 24
TABLE 6: ACCOMMODATION FACILITIES IN THE OKAVANGO DELTA IN 1989 AND 2001 ...................... 26
TABLE 7:NUMBER OF BEDS AND ROOMS IN THE OKAVANGO DELTA .................................................... 26
TABLE 8: THE ROAD NETWORK IN NORTHERN BOTSWANA, 19892001 ............................................... 28
TABLE 9: ROADS MAINTAINED BY THE CENTRAL GOVERNMENT, 1994 1999 (IN KILOMETERS) ......... 28
TABLE 10: AIRCRAFT MOVEMENT AT MAUN AIRPORT, 2000 ................................................................ 29
TABLE 11: PRIVATE AIR COMPANIES AND NUMBER OF AIRCRAFTS, 2000 ............................................. 29
TABLE 12: EMPLOYMENT AT SANKOYO, KHWAI AND MABABE ............................................................. 32
TABLE 13: REVENUE (BWP) GENERATED BY SANKOYO, KHWAI AND MABABE ...................................... 33
TABLE 14: SOCIAL SERVICES FUNDED BY CBNRM INCOME, 2007 .......................................................... 34
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TDA Botswana Tourism Development
Executive Summary
This report provides a description of the current status of tourism development in the
Okavango Delta, Botswana. The report is guided by the following objectives:
· Examine how national policies and plans will affect future development of
tourism in the Okavango Delta.
· Review literature on the different type of tourism activities dependent on
water resources.
· Carry out a trend analysis of the number of different types of tourists visiting
the Okavango Delta.
· Examine the impact of tourism development in the Okavango Delta on
livelihoods.
· Review the level of development of tourism infrastructure within the
Okavango Delta.
National Policies and programmes which were analyzed in this report and are
considered key to the development of tourism in the Okavango Delta include the
following: The Tourism Policy of 1990 (under revision); CBNRM Policy of 2007;
Ecotourism Strategy of 2002; Wildlife Conservation Policy of 1986 (under revision);
Okavango Delta Management Plan; and the Ngamiland Tourism Development Plan.
Analyses of the above documents indicate that the major goal of the Botswana
Government is to expand tourism revenue in the Okavango Delta. This means tourist
numbers, tourist activities and tourism infrastructure such as lodges and hotels are
bound to increase. The increase of tourism development in the Okavango Delta is
thus bound to have socio-cultural, economic and environmental impacts in the
wetland. The report further notes that tourism in the Okavango Delta is characterized
by both non-consumptive and consumptive activities. Consumptive tourism activities
are mainly safari hunting while some of the non-consumptive activities include the
following: bird watching; game viewing; mokoro safaris; sex tourism; fishing; horse
riding; crafts; walking trails; and, hot air balloon
Tourism activities described above define the kinds of tourists that visit the Okavango
Delta. The report list the kind of tourists that visit the Okavango Delta to include the
following: ecotourists; business people; study tourists; family and friends tourists;
wildlife-based tourists (with the different price preferences); safari hunting and leisure
tourists. Between 1994/5 and 2007, tourist numbers have been on the increase in
Botswana and in the Okavango Delta. Tourist infrastructure such as roads, airstrips,
lodges and campsites have also been on the increase. Maun International Airport
has been expanded twice in the same period to accommodate bigger aircrafts and
higher tourist numbers.
The expansion of tourism development in the Okavango Delta impacts on
neighboring countries such as Namibia. For example, the Okavango region is one of
the areas affected by HIV/AIDS, while there is no evidence that the spread of
HIV/AIDS in the Okavango is related to cross border travelling, such a possibility
cannot be ruled out.
This report has also shown that the expansion of tourism in the Okavango Delta has
resulted in positive impacts rural livelihoods. For example, communities such as
Sankoyo, Mababe and Khwai Villages are involved in Community-Based Natural
Resource Management projects. Such projects are largely tourism based and have
led to the creation of employment opportunities, income generation, and the
provision of social services such as sponsorship to school children, funeral
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TDA Botswana Tourism Development
insurances, construction of house for the needy and orphans, household dividends,
provision of transport and provision of water reticulation in households.
Finally, this report indicates that in order to achieve the sustainable tourism
management of the Okavango Delta, the Botswana Government has come up with
the Ngamiland Tourism Development Plan. This Plan provides for zonation of the
Okavango Delta where different tourism activities will be carried out e.g. Maun is
planned for mass tourism while Moremi Game Reserve which in the inner and most
sensitive parts of the Okavango Delta is being having tourist numbers in the area
controlled through the Limits of Acceptable Change approach.
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TDA Botswana Tourism Development
1.
Introduction
Wildlife and to a lesser extent wilderness, are Botswana's biggest tourist
products for holiday makers. Wildlife-based tourism in Botswana is carried out in
national parks and game reserves. Most of these protected areas are located in the
northern parts of the country in areas such as the Okavango Delta and Chobe
region. The Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis (TDA)-tourism component study is
carried out at a time when international tourism in wilderness areas considered
"unpoilt and pristine" in developing countries is on the increase particularly in the last
30 years. The Okavango Delta is one such international nature-based destination in
Africa. The Okavango Delta is largely known for its rich natural resources such as
forests, wildlife, water, birds, reptiles and many others. The availability of permanent
water resources in the Delta is critical for the survival of these species. In the past
five years, more than a quarter of a million tourists experienced the incomparable
beauty of the Okavango Delta, almost double the number of the previous five years.
Growth not only in tourist numbers but also in facilities, infrastructure, aircraft
operations, and tourism services have led to a booming tourist economy built around
what is perceived internationally as a "new" and "exotic" destination.
Tourism growth and development in the Okavango Delta should not be studied in
isolation of other land use activities in the Okavango River Basin. The Okavango
River Basin covers countries of Angola, Namibia and Botswana. In addition, tourism
development in the Okavango Delta should take cognizant of the fact that negative
socio-cultural, economic and environmental impacts if not mitigated can destroy the
tourism in the wetland. As a result, tourism development in the Okavango Delta
should aim at achieving sustainability. It should also be noted that while tourism
development continues to grow in the Okavango Delta, there is likelihood that the
environment can be negatively affected, resulting in the reduction of flood levels in
the Okavango Rivers especially in the upstream. As a result, there is need for
baseline data on tourism development in the Okavango Delta. This data is necessary
if scenarios on potential future threats to tourism development in the Okavango Delta
are to be successfully made with some degree of accuracy. The TDA study is
therefore well situated to provide baseline information in order to make future
projections on the impacts of flooding in the Okavango Delta.
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TDA Botswana Tourism Development
2.
Objectives of the Study
· Examine how national policies and plans will affect future development of
tourism in the Okavango Delta.
· Review literature on the different type of tourism activities dependent on
water resources.
· Carry out a trend analysis of the number of different types of tourists visiting
the Okavango Delta.
· Examine the impact of tourism development in the Okavango Delta on
livelihoods.
· Review the level of development of tourism infrastructure within the
Okavango Delta.
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TDA Botswana Tourism Development
3.
National Policies and Plans
There are several policies and development plans that are likely to affect the
development of tourism in the Okavango Delta. These include the following:
· The Tourism Policy of 1990 (under review)
· The Wildlife Conservation Policy of 1986 (under review)
· The Community Based Natural Resource Management Policy of 2007
· National Ecotourism Strategy of 2002
· Ngamiland Tourism Development Plan 0f 2007
3.1 The Tourism Policy of 1990
The key policy in the promotion of tourism in Botswana and the Okavango Delta in
particular is the Tourism Policy of 1990. The policy describes tourism as the new
"engine of growth" of which the main aim is to diversify the country's economy from
reliance on diamond mining through the promotion of tourism (GoB, 1990). Some of
the specific objectives of the policy include the following:
· To increase foreign exchange earnings and government revenue.
· To generate employment, mainly in rural areas.
· To raise incomes in rural areas in order to reduce urban drift.
· To promote rural development and stimulate the provision of the services in
remote areas of the country.
The Tourism Policy also emphasis the need for increased local participation in the
tourism industry. It acknowledges the need for diversification of the tourism product
to lessen concentration in the well attractions in the northern part of the country such
as the Okavango Delta and the Chobe National Park. The Tourism Policy is currently
under review. It is assumed that the review will expand tourism development in the
Okavango Delta. The future impacts of the reviewed Tourism Policy in the Okavango
Delta are that tourism activities, infrastructure development and tourist numbers will
increase. As a result, increase pressure on natural resources will result in
environmental impacts, if not managed, this can be degrading the wetland. The other
scenario is that if flooding levels in particular parts of the Okavango Delta changes
(e.g. decrease) either through the natural process or through human interference in
the upstream (e.g. Namibia or Angola), there is likelihood that tourism development
in the wetland will be affected. For example, during high flooding patterns, roads
become impassable and self-drive tourists are unable to drive. As a result, gate
takings at Moremi Game Reserve will do down. In addition, tourism companies that
rely on self-drive tourism will have their business go down. When dry, the tourism
business in the Okavango Delta is also likely to go down mainly because tourists get
attracted to the Okavango Delta because of the permanent water resources which
attracts wildlife and beautiful forests (refer to Flooding patterns report of the Eflows
study for more details on flooding and tourism business).
3.2 The Wildlife Conservation Policy of 1986
The Wildlife Conservation Policy of 1986 is frequently seen as the blue-print for the
re-introduction of community involvement in wildlife conservation through the
implementation of Community Based Natural Resource Management Projects
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TDA Botswana Tourism Development
(CBNRMP). The Wildlife Conservation Policy is the precursor of virtually all the
changes in wildlife conservation currently being carried out. The Wildlife
Conservation Policy was designed to promote economic development of rural areas
through the implementation of tourism projects. The policy recognizes the potential
value of both consumptive and non-consumptive use of Botswana's wildlife
resources by the people living in wildlife areas. The overall aims and objectives of the
Wildlife Conservation Policy are:
· To develop a commercial wildlife industry in order to create economic
opportunities, jobs and incomes for the rural population and to enable more
rural communities to enter the modern wage economy. This is hoped to
reduce the number of rural people relying on subsistence hunting.
· To implement rational and effective conservation and management programs
that will ensure that wildlife is utilized on sustainable basis.
· To obtain good economic return on the land allocated for wildlife utilization.
Through the Wildlife Conservation Policy of 1986, land in wildlife areas was sub-
divided into land zones known as Controlled Hunting Areas (CHAs). CHAs are
administrative blocks or land units used by the DWNP to allocate wildlife quotas to
local communities for tourism purposes. After allocation of a CHA, a community
decides on the type of land use for that particular area, that is, either for hunting or
photographic purposes. From communities that use their CHAs for safari hunting,
most of them sub-lease them to safari hunting companies who have such knowledge
and skills. Most of these companies are international companies mostly coming from
developed countries. That government policies and the zoning of the Okavango into
CHAs for community-based tourism purposes indicates a partial return of land and its
resources to local communities as they were disposed of such resources a century
ago when Botswana came under British colonial rule. Access to land for community-
based safari hunting purposes is therefore an empowerment to local people and has
the potential of improving rural livelihoods and sustainable wildlife resource use in
the Okavango Delta.
3.3 The CBNRM Policy of 2007
The CBNRM Policy of 2007 recognizes that "rural livelihoods in Botswana are today
less dependent on arable and livestock farming-based agriculture than in the past...
47% of all households cannot meet their basic needs" (Ministry of Environment,
Wildlife & Tourism, 2007: 1). As a result, of this limitation by agricultural
development, government aims at diversifying the rural economy through natural
resource development in order to fight against rural poverty and sustain livelihoods.
The Government of Botswana also recognizes that "people who live closet to natural
resources generally absorb the greatest costs associated with their conservation.
Given proper awareness and incentives, they are most likely to successfully benefit
from and conserve such natural resources within their environs. For communities to
actively engage in natural resource conservation, the benefits from such resources
must exceed the costs of conservation. CBNRM aims to achieve this by offering
eligible communities opportunities to earn tangible benefits from sustainable natural
resources management" (Ministry of Environment, Wildlife & Tourism, 2007:1). This
therefore shows that government is aware of problems of poverty in rural areas and
that natural resources found around these communities as is the case in the
Okavango Delta can be used as a diversification tool to achieve sustained livelihoods
through CBNRM tourism enterprises.
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TDA Botswana Tourism Development
The CBNRM Policy of 2007 was also adopted on the background that "CBNRM
across the country is taking place without the guidance of a formal policy. As a result
the dynamics of power relationships and personal interests in some communities has
jeopardized the welfare of the wider community. Inappropriate financial management
practices have prejudiced the well being of some communities. Although numerous
private enterprises and Community Based Organizations (CBO) have established
mutually beneficial partnerships, in most cases the private sector partner purchases
a community's wildlife quota without actively involving the community in the
management of the business" (Ministry of Environment, Wildlife & Tourism, 2007: 1-
2). Because of this problem, the adoption of the CBNRM Policy was among other
issues "intended to guide and facilitate the strengthening of, and support to, existing
and future CBNRM activities. The policy needed to safeguard the interest of
communities in natural resources management and to attract investment in natural
resources based enterprises. CBO management practices require regulation for
more equitable community benefit sharing. The policy pursues community-private
sector partnerships in which communities assume responsibility for business
cooperation and adequately manage such partnerships for the benefit of all
community members" (Ministry of Environment, Wildlife & Tourism, 2007: 2). Based
on these goals, specific objectives of the CBNRM Policy can be summarized as
follows:
· To provide guidance on CBNRM implementation on communal and state-
owned land, except within such specifically excluded areas as officially
gazette protected areas, forest reserves, national parks and game reserves.
· To give communities incentives to engage in conservation activities leading to
sustainable development and poverty reduction.
· To establish an institutional, regulatory and participatory framework for the
implementation of CBNRM; and
· To promote and ensure a responsible, accountable and transparent decision
making process in CBNRM.
3.4 The Botswana National Ecotourism Strategy of 2002
The goal of the National Ecotourism Strategy (NES) is to create an environment in
which all elements of tourism development planning and management facilitate,
promote and reward adherence to the key `principles' of ecotourism by all of those
involved in the tourism industry. There are five main principles which have come to
guide ecotourism development in Botswana, these include the following:
· Minimising negative social, cultural and environmental impacts.
· Maximising the involvement in, and the equitable distribution of economic
benefits to, host communities and citizen entrepreneurs.
· Maximising revenues for re-investment in conservation.
· Educating both visitors and local people as to the importance of conserving
natural and cultural resources.
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TDA Botswana Tourism Development
· Delivering a quality experience for tourists (without which tourists will not
continue to visit, and so the benefits to conservation and development will not
be sustained).
The NES promotes community-based tourism development in Botswana using any
nature based product that can be sold in the tourism market. The Okavango Delta is
endowed with a variety of natural resources. As a result, if the various communities
in the Okavango Delta are to benefit from tourism development in their local
environment as the NES envisages, there is bound to be increased pressure in the
use of natural resources in the wetland.
3.5 Ngamiland Tourism Development Plan of 2007
The vision of the Ngamiland Tourism Development Plan of 2007 is to strive for the
development of a world class nature-based tourism destination that is economically
sustainable and optimizes benefits to local communities and the nation within agreed
limits of acceptable. In its development of tourism in the Okavango Delta, the
Ngamiland Tourism Development Plan is guided by the following ideals:
· Develop and promote Maun as the gateway to the Okavango Delta.
· Develop a tourism gateway business centre at Maun Airport. This
centre links the airport to the commercial area to the main road to north
into a specifically identified and zoned tourism development node
within Maun. A full range of tourism related economic, retail, service,
travel, hospitality and restaurant facilities would be provided.
· Broaden the permissible configuration of tourist lodges in the
Okavango Delta. This concept challenges the current regulation limiting
the number of tourist beds in a concession to 24 beds. It also promotes
a range of different configurations of accommodation facilities
permissible with a defined tourism development node or nodes in
concession areas. The number of permissible tourist facilities is
dependent upon the defined, mapped tourism resources within the
concession area.
· Close part of Moremi Game Reserve to self-drive tourists. The concept
of closing part of Moremi Game Reserve to self-drive tourists is to
create opportunities for the provision of less sophisticated tourism
products that may be provided by emerging, local tourism operators.
These products include safari operating through the provision of safari
vehicles and guides, game guides, non-permanent fly camps at certain
locations within the reserve, hospitality products at north and south
gates to Moremi Game Reserve.
· Establish a development zone on the eastern side of Moremi Game
Reserve that provides an appropriate range of experiences and
facilities appropriate for the self-drive tourist market that provide
optimal benefits to local host communities.
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TDA Botswana Tourism Development
· Establish a new national tourism asset in the form of Tsodilo National
Park based on the San art and culture.
· Establish a new tour route on the periphery of the Okavango Delta
aimed at the overseas coach market-the Three Countries Triangular
Tour Route.
The above tourism development ideals of the Ngamiland Tourism Development Plan
indicate government intentions to develop tourism to its maximum in the Okavango
Delta. Through this approach, no piece of land will be left unutilised in the Okavango
Delta. This shows that if the Plan is to be effectively and successfully implemented, it
will increase tourism activities in the Okavango Delta.
3.6 Okavango Delta Management Plan
The Okavango Delta Management Plan (ODMP) is the Government of Botswana's
initiative through the support of German, Swedish and Danish governmental
agencies such as German Development Service (DED), Swedish International
Development Agency (SIDA) and Danish Development Agencies (DANIDA)
respectively in developing a management plan for the Okavango Delta. The overall
objective of the ODMP is to carefully manage a well functioning ecosystem of the
Delta in a manner that ensures equitable and sustainable utilisation, which will
provide benefits to the local, national as well as international stakeholders.
The overall Goal of the ODMP is made up of three Strategic Goals, each with several
Strategic Objectives as outlined below:
Strategic Goal 1. To establish viable institutional arrangements to support integrated
resource management in the Okavango Delta.
i)
Strategic Objective 1.1: To establish viable management
institutions for the sustainable management of the Okavango
Delta.
ii)
Strategic Objective 1.2: To improve the planning and regulatory
framework for sustainable management of the Okavango Delta
iii)
Strategic Objective 1.3: To raise public awareness, enhance
knowledge and create a platform for information exchange and
learning about the Okavango Delta.
Strategic Goal 2: To ensure the long-term conservation of the Okavango Delta and
the provision of existing ecosystem services;
i)
Strategic Objective 2.1: To conserve the ecological character (biotic
and abiotic functions) of the Okavango Delta, and the interactions
between them;
ii)
Strategic Objective 2.2: To maintain or restore the wetland habitats
and ecosystems of Okavango Delta.
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TDA Botswana Tourism Development
Strategic Goal 3. To sustainably use the natural resources of the OD in an equitable
way and support the livelihoods of all stakeholders:
i)
Strategic Objective 3.1 : To sustainably use the natural resources of
the OD for the long term benefit of all stakeholders;
ii)
Strategic objective 3.2: To develop socio-economic opportunities to
improve livelihoods of the OD stakeholders.
The development of ODMP therefore will go a long way in ensuring integration of
resource management and long-term conservation as well as provision of benefits of
the present and future well-being of the people, through sustainable use of its natural
resources.
3.7 Maun Development Plan (1997 2021)
Maun has in the last two decades become popular with tourism development. The
tourism industry represents the most important part of the Maun local economy.
While this is the case, Maun and its surrounding areas lack the attraction to benefit
from, and acts predominately as a gateway or visits' transit to the Okavango Delta
(Ministry of Lands & Housing, 2008). Maun has also grown in terms of human
population (CSO, 2002) and infrastructure development to support the tourism
industry (Mbaiwa, 2002). Because of these developments in the last two decades, a
spatial development plan for Maun has been developed, some of the key spatial
development objectives of Maun include the following:
a) To transform Maun into a compact, vibrant and sustainable town.
b) To strengthen the Maun tourism product. That is, to develop Maun as a "must
see town" for both the international and domestic tourist markets where
people will want to come and stay.
c) To support development of a high level educational and research centre and
knowledge based economy.
d) To expand and sustain a prosperous Maun core area.
e) To provide high quality transport infrastructure.
f) To maintain and enhance an attractive landscape setting along with
preservation, protection and manage use of natural resources and amenities.
The above objectives suggest that a transformation of Maun's spatial structure from
a predominately low density, rural land use environment into one which will offer
improved development prospect. In this regard, modern forms of business activities
and service concentration particularly those that encourage tourism development are
supported in Maun. The implications of these planning goals to tourism are that
Maun will in the near future develop into a modern city that will promote mass
tourism development.
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TDA Botswana Tourism Development
3.8 Ngamiland Integrated Land Use Plan
The Ngamiland Integrated land Use Plan of 2009 is a single unifying document that
guides and shapes utilisation of land and other resources in Ngamiland. This goal is
to be achieved in a sustainable and equitable manner, based on existing land tenure,
land use potential and land utilisation type. As a result, the overall goal of the
Ngamiland Integrated land Use Plan is to have a plan that will show new direction in
Ngamiland land use planning and a new map that will depict the land use zones.
Some of the key and specific objectives of the plan include the following:
g) To facilitate balanced land use utilisation and where appropriate remedy
imbalances and solve conflicts. Balanced land utilisation in this context
relates to ensuring that natural resources are allocated to competing land
uses in a manner that acknowledges the socio-economic and environmental
significance as well as sustainability of the uses.
h) To promote conservation of natural resources for the benefit of existing and
future generations. This objective underlines the need to protect natural
resources from total encroachment and possible extinction by human
activities and settlement expansion.
i) To rationalise and promote optimal utilisation of land.
j) To interact with all relevant Government Ministries and departments where
necessary in order to facilitate a smooth implementation of the national
projects and policies without causing much land use problems.
k) To advise Tawana land Board, the Department of Land Board Service
Management and other relevant key players on land use concerning the
allocation of land on the basis of the approved land use zones.
What emerges in the Ngamiland Integrated land Use Plan of 2009 is the recognition
of natural resources as a key commodity that has to be used sustainably. In this
regards, the allocation and use of these resources should be done in a sustainable
manner. The collaboration with stakeholders particularly government ministries and
departments as well as local people is meant to reduce land use conflicts thereby
achieve sustainability. There is no doubt that Ngamiland is known for its rich
biodiversity which has become Botswana's key tourism attraction. As a result, if
planning for such resources is done with the goal of minimising resource conflicts
and over exploitation of the resources, there is no doubt that wildlife-based tourism in
the Okavango Delta will rise sharply in the planning period provided all other factors
remain constant including flooding patterns within the Okavango River Delta.
3.9 Shakawe and Mohembo Development Plan (2006 2030)
The Shakawe and Mohembo Development Plan (2006 2030) is supposedly built
upon the Ngamiland Integrated land Use Plan of 2009. Shakawe and Mohembo falls
within the purview of the physical planning component of the Okavango Delta
Management Plan. The Shakawe and Mohembo Development Plan (2006 2030)
has in total ten goals, some of the key goals include the following:
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TDA Botswana Tourism Development
a) To create well planned and organised living environments for Shakawe and
Mohembo West respectively that are decent, safe, functional and satisfy
various community needs.
b) To provide adequate residential land to meet existing and future housing
needs in Shakawe and Mohembo West.
c) To boost and diversify the economic bases of Shakawe and Mohembo West
and enhance the opportunities for the creation of employment and investment
flows.
d) To provide safe, functional and convenient circulation systems in the
development plan areas.
e) To improve infrastructure services in Shakawe and Mohembo West to
adequate and affordable standards.
f) To improve sanitation practices in the development plan areas.
g) To provide adequate civic, community and social services in the development
plan areas.
h) To protect and preserve the fragile environment and the conservation of
natural resources in the development plan areas, in the interest of sustainable
development.
i) To the extent practicable, protect and preserve fertile arable land from
settlement encroachments, and the encouragement of good agricultural
practices in the development plan areas.
j) To establish unique identities and images of the village based on aesthetically
pleasing environments.
Like many other plans in Ngamiland, the Shakawe and Mohembo West Plan aims at
conservation of the natural resources found in the area through sustainable means of
allocation and managing these resources. The Shakawe and Mohembo West Plan
takes into consideration the Okavango River Panhandle Management Plan of 2001
which cover aspects of land use and land management, tourism development and
carrying capacities, conservation of natural resources and the protection of the
environment, boat engines sizes that can be allowed in the river, community
involvements in resources management and tourism development. When these
measures are applied, a good atmosphere for tourism development is created. As a
result, it is safe to assume that tourism development in the Shakawe and Mohembo
areas will rise in the event that all other factors remain constant.
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TDA Botswana Tourism Development
4.
Tourism Resource Uses
In the Okavango Delta, tourism activities are largely based on the commercial
utilisation of wildlife resources. This is categorised into two broad groups, namely:
· Consumptive
uses
· Non-consumptive
uses
4.1 Consumptive Wildlife Resource Uses
Consumptive wildlife resource utilization involves the process of wildlife off-take such
as spot hunting or trophy hunting, game farming, live capture and export of live
animal or translocation, and taxidermy and trophy processing. In the Okavango,
because of the sufficient wildlife resources, consumptive wildlife utilization has taken
the form of hunting tourism safaris. Safari hunting is done outside protected areas in
Controlled Hunting Areas (CHAs) or in concession areas. Several hunting safari
companies, mostly based outside Botswana but with offices in Maun, operate the
hunting safaris in the region.
Safari hunters, mainly from the industrialized western societies visit the delta for the
purpose of sport hunting and for obtaining trophies. Scout Wilson Consultants (2001)
note that safari hunting in the delta starts in the United States where hunters from all
over the world attend the Safari Club International (SCI) convention in January every
year. At this convention safari hunting companies sell their hunts for up to 2-3 years
in advance. The report further notes that the majority of the hunters are Americans,
followed by Spanish and Italians. Hunting quotas and hunting licences are provided
by the Department of Wildlife and National Parks to individuals, Community
Organizations, and to safari hunting companies. These permits are provided for
hunting during the hunting season from April to September of each year. Safari
hunting tourism has generated much revenue for local communities in Ngamiland
and for Botswana as well as creating employment for the local people.
4.2 Non-consumptive Wildlife Resource Use
Unlike consumptive wildlife utilization, non-consumptive wildlife resource utilization
does not involve a wildlife off-take. The Okavango Delta is one of the major areas in
Botswana where wildlife resources are important for scientific, educational and
recreational purposes. Apart from hunting, wildlife use in the Okavango is mostly
associated with photographic tourism. Photographic tourism involves activities such
as photographic safaris, photographic camps and lodges, air charter operators, and
the wildlife film industry. In addition to accommodation, camping, food and
beverages, photographic tourism safaris in the delta offer game drives, boat safaris,
and walking safaris. Some operators in the delta also offer elephant and horse riding
safaris. Photographic tourism allows nature to take its own course. In fact, it is
environmentally friendly and suits the interests of the international animal rights
groups (Mothoagae, 1995). Among other things, this depends on numbers of people
involved. If the number is high, this can disturb the animals and birds in an area.
Photographic tourism is especially important in Moremi Game Reserve, which offers
what can be described as protected area safari tourism. The World Conservation
Union (International Union of Conservation of Flora and Fauna-IUCN) defines a
protected area as an area which contains exceptionally beautiful or unique
17
TDA Botswana Tourism Development
landscape, fauna and flora of national and international importance. Wildlife-based
tourism is the only type of land use allowed in these areas because it is assumed
that tourism is compatible with the primary wildlife conservation goals of protected
areas. The establishment of tourist facilities such as lodges and camps is done by
private enterprise to promote tourist activities in Moremi Game Reserve. The primary
management goals of the tourist use of protected area are to conserve the natural
features and maintain biodiversity. Photographic tourism in the Okavango Delta is
also carried out in what has come to be known as commercial photographic and
community photographic areas.
4.3. Types of Non-consumptive Tourism Activities
Non-consumptive tourism activities in the Okavango Delta include the following:
· Bird
watching
· Game
viewing
· Mokoro
safaris
· Sex
tourism
· Fishing
· Horse riding
· Crafts
· Walking
trails
· Hot air balloon
4.4. Kinds of tourists
The kinds of tourists that visit the Okavango Delta can be categorized into the
following:
· Ecotourists
· Business
people
· Study
tourists
· Family and friends tourists
· Wildlife-based tourists (with the different price preferences)
· Safari
hunting
· Leisure
tourist
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TDA Botswana Tourism Development
5.
Segments of wildlife-based Tourists
Wildlife-based tourists that visit the Okavango Delta can further be sub-dived based
on price segments. These visitors can be categorized into non-consumptive (e.g.
photographic) and consumptive (e.g. trophy hunters) visitors. Photographic tourists
include: independent (private), mobile, high cost (fixed lodge) and day visitors while
consumptive tourists include safari hunters (trophy hunters). Safari hunters are not
new to the Okavango Delta, they have been in the wetland since the 1850s (Tlou,
1985). The policy made the safari hunting tourism sector more organized as it began
to be carried out in Controlled Hunting Areas.
Table 1: Type of Tourists and Tourist Activities in the OD
Type of Tourist
Tourist Activities
Remarks
High cost or fixed
Game drives, night
High paying tourists, pay for visit as a
drives, walking trails,
package in countries of origin, stay in 2-3
boating, bird watching,
camps for 2-3 nights (total 6-8 nights)
fishing, canoeing
Mobile
Game drives (at times
Stay in private and public camps, spend 5-
boating), bird watching,
21 days, pay for visit as a package in
fishing, canoeing
country of origin, second highest paying
tourists
Self-drive
Game drives, bird
Stay in public campsites, spend 8-10 days,
(independent, low
watching, fishing
drive own or rent vehicles, least spending
cost)
tourists
Day Visitors
Game drives, boating,
Visit the OD in the morning and come back
bird watching, canoeing
in the evening (they are largely conference
and business delegates in Maun)
Safari hunters* (spot
Hunting (some combine it Some combine hunting with photographic
or trophy hunters)
with photographic
activities hence classified as high cost
activities as in high cost
tourists.
tourists)
*The study did not focus on safari hunters hence impacts they cause are not
discussed in this paper
5.1 The "High Cost" Tourist
The most important type of tourist visiting the Okavango Delta are "high cost"
tourists. A high cost tourist is defined as a person who chooses to stay at a
permanent camp operated by private camp operators/owners (Borge et al, 1990). In
the Okavango Delta, "high cost" tourists mostly come from Europe, North America,
and New Zealand/Australia. These clients either fly into Maun from Johannesburg,
Victoria Falls, or Windhoek. From Maun they are then flown directly to permanent
camps in the Okavango Delta. High cost tourists rarely use accommodation facilities
in Maun. "High-cost" tourists pay a high price for the package in advance and are
generally confined to high cost camps owned by a safari company from which they
bought their package. On average, high cost tourists pay USD 6,000 for a safari
package in the delta. They usually visit two or three camps owned and operated by
the same company spending 2-3 nights in each.
5.2 The Mobile Safari Tourists
The second most important type of tourist visiting the Okavango Delta are "mobile
safari" tourists. Mobile safari tourists stay in private, public or Hotel and Tourism
Association of Botswana (HATAB) campsites. Like the "high cost" tourists, they fly
19
TDA Botswana Tourism Development
into Maun from Johannesburg, Victoria Falls or Windhoek. From Maun they depart
on a circuit that involves camping in the Okavango Delta. Mobile safaris take
between 5-21 days with fees ranging from less than USD 200 per night for
participatory camping (the least expensive option), USD 200 500 per night (for
modest priced packages) and over USD 5,000 per night for the up market packages.
Mobile tourists in the Okavango Delta also include those who are on tours that
encompass the wider east and southern African wildlife areas. Such trips are made
on overland trucks and can take up to eight months, commencing in South Africa or
Namibia and ending in Kenya or Tanzania or vice versa.
5.3 The Independent or "Low Cost" Tourists
The third group of tourists who visit the Okavango Delta are "independent or low
cost" tourists. Roberts et al (1985) define the independent tourist as one who "travels
independently, relying upon his own resources and not as part of an organized tour
group". These travelers may drive independently, hire a guide, or charter a flight.
Borge et al (1990) state that their distinguishing feature is that they usually do not
pay package price before entering Botswana and they generally use public facilities
such as campsites run by the Department of Wildlife National Parks in protected
areas or privately owned campsites elsewhere. Independent tourists are also termed
"low cost" tourist because of the assumed low expenditure they incur while in the
delta. Independent tourists in most cases visit Botswana from neighboring countries
such as South Africa, Zimbabwe, and Namibia. These tourists travel on private four-
wheel drive vehicles such as Land Rovers or Land Cruisers with as many as five
passengers in a single vehicle often in family groups. Independent tourists often visit
Botswana for the first time to view the country's unique environment and to
experience the unrestricted wildlife areas. At times independent and mobile tourists
combine both types of travel in their journeys to northern Botswana.
5.4 Day
Visitors
Visitors or tourists who visit a particular place for pleasure for a period of less than 24
hours are referred to as "day visitors". The Department of Tourism (2001) defines a
day visitor as a visitor who does not spend the night in a collective or private
accommodation in the place visited. In the case of the Okavango Delta, day visitors
mostly drive or fly from Maun in the morning into various parts of the delta (either for
mekoro safaris or game drives) during the day and come back in the evening. Day
visitors do not stay in a safari camp or lodge in the Okavango but perhaps find
lodging or campsites in Maun. As a result, when compared with the above three main
categories of tourists the prices they pay are much less.
5.5 Safari
Hunters
Safari hunters also form an important part of tourists in the Okavango Delta. As
already noted, safari hunters (i.e. spot or commercial hunters) mostly come from
North America, Europe and New Zealand/Australia. A typical safari hunter in the
Okavango Delta generates more revenue than a photographic tourist, so safari
hunting contributes more money to Botswana's tourism industry than photographic
tourism.
The coming of other tourist segments like day and mobile visitors indicates that the
Tourism Policy has not necessarily discouraged other tourists segments in favour of
those that stay in permanent accommodation as the policy aimed to achieve. As a
20
TDA Botswana Tourism Development
result, additional tourist segment in the Okavango Delta can lead to crowding of
facilities and threats to environmental sustainability of the wetland.
The different tourist segments in the Okavango Delta will be affected differently by
flooding patterns. For example, in 2000 when there were floods in the Okavango
Delta, only the self-drive and mobile tourists were affected as Moremi Game Reserve
became closed because roads where impassable. Permanent lodges were not
affected since they fly into the Okavango Delta and are generally not affected by
difficult roads.
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TDA Botswana Tourism Development
6.
Tourist Trends Analysis
Tourism development in Botswana and the Okavango Delta in particular is carried in
the context of global and regional tourism trends. As a result, it is critical to
understand international and regional tourism trend analysis in order to understand
tourist trends in the Okavango Delta. Table 2 shows international tourism arrivals.
Table 2: International Tourism Arrivals
Day
Total Visitors
Year
Tourist
Visitors
Arrival
Growth
Rate
(%)
1994 463,196
156,386 619,582
1995 521,041
12.5
115,440 636,481
1996 512,118
-1.7 143,845
655,963
1997 606,781
18.5
157,624 764,405
1998 749,544
23.5
190,413 939,957
1999 852,365
13.7
196,109 1,048,473
2000 969,291
13.7
201,974 1,171,264
2001 1,193,399
23.1
257,228 1,450,627
2002 1,273,814
6.7
211,355 1,485,169
2003 1,405,985
10.4
186,512 1,592,497
2004 1,522,847
8.3
203,870 1,726,717
2005 1,675,132
10.0
209,986 1,885,118
Average Annual
Growth Rate 1994-
13.7%
3.0%
11.8%
2005
Source: WTTC,2007
Tourism arrivals in Botswana have grown significantly since 1994 as depicted in
Table 2 above. Table 3 shows a summary statistics for tourism demand in Botswana
for 2005. According to the Botswana Travel and Tourism Satellite Account data, the
rate of growth of tourist arrivals over the period from 1994 to 2005 averaged 13.7%
per annum, exceeding the world average growth rate of around 4% in the same
period. For 2007, Botswana Travel and Tourism is expected to grow 7.3%, and over
the next ten years travel and Tourism Demand is forecast to average 5.0% growth
per annum. This would exceed expected worldwide growth of 4.4% per annum, and
Sub-Saharan African annual average forecast of 4.5%.
Table 3: Summary Statistics for Tourism Demand in Botswana for 2005
International Tourist Arrivals
1,625,132
Average Annual growth rate: 1994-2005 (tourist arrivals)
13.7%
Average length of stay (nights)
5.5
International Tourist Expenditure( Pula)
2.4 billion
Average Spent per Person per Day (Pula)
274
Room Nights Sold
615,069
Bed Nights Sold
1,024,623
Room Occupancy Rate
41.5%
Visits to National Parks
237,258
Revenue at National Parks (Pula)
23.6 million
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TDA Botswana Tourism Development
Source: WTTC, 2007
Figure 1 below shows the overall revenue generated by national parks and game
reserves in northern Botswana of which Moremi Game Reserve located within the
Okavango Delta is a part.
National Park Entry Revenue 2006
All Pans 4%
Southern
Parks 9%
Moremi
(OD) 27%
Chobe
60%
Chobe
Moremi (OD)
All Southern Parks
Pans Source: Department of
Wildlife and National Parks
Figure 1 shows that at present, tourism activities are largely concentrated in the
northern part of the country, especially in the Chobe National Park and the Okavango
Delta. According to the 2006 Department Wildlife and National Parks data, of the
P25.7 million park entry revenue generated, Chobe National Park's contribution was
60% (P15.5 Million) while Moremi (OD) generated 27% (P6.94 Million), the Pans 4%(
P1.03 million) and the Southern Parks 9% (P2.31 Million). The Okavango Delta and
the Chobe National and the Pans together accounted for 95 percent of all park
entries and 91% of all park revenues in 2006.
The growth of tourism as depicted in the data indicate that there is a possibility of
future over utilisation of the areas if no proper steps are not taken to reduce possible
pressure on the northern areas. Tourism product diversification is therefore
necessary to ensure the distribution of resource utilisation in the country. The
increase in numbers in the current situation reflects increases in the dominant
destinations of the Okavango Delta and the Chobe National Park.
6.2 Okavango Delta Tourism
In their 1998 survey at border entry points in Botswana, the Department of Tourism
(2001) estimated that 52,512 tourists visit the Okavango Delta annually. The number
of visitors at Moremi Game Reserve has also been used to estimate annual tourist
numbers in the Okavango Delta. Moremi Game Reserve is used because it is
located within the Okavango Delta. It is assumed that the majority of tourists who
visit the Okavango also visit the reserve. Table 4 shows data from the Department of
Wildlife and National Parks (DWNP) annual reports which indicate that between 1995
and 2006, there has been an increase of visitors in all the tourists segments at
Moremi Game Reserve. For example, in 1971, only 4,500 private tourists visited
Moremi Game Reserve (DWNP, 1991), this figure increased to 16,367 in 1999 and
23
TDA Botswana Tourism Development
12,585 in 2005. In 2000, 2001 and 2005, visitor numbers for private and mobile
tourists went down because of heavy rains that made roads flooded and impassable
for driving resulted in closure of the reserve for several months (e.g. in 2000, the
reserve was closed for eight months).
Table 4: Tourist Numbers According to Segment at Moremi Game Reserve
Number of Tourist
Year
Independent
Mobile
High Cost (Fixed Totals
(private)
Lodge)
1995
8,025
12,570
15,479
36,074
1996
7,495
15,395
15,314
38,204
1997
11,298
17,487
14,202
42,987
1998
14,560
17,890
17,106
49,556
1999
16,367
14,835 15,487
46,707
2000
8141
8,521 14,173
30,835
2001
7035
7,687 16,351
31,073
2002
12,538
10,801 16,395
39,734
2003
10,659
8,650
18,069
37,378
2004
12,585
8,426
17,411
38,422
2005
9,431
7,979
24,103
41,513
2006
10,533
8,116
18,732
37, 381
Source: DWNP Annual Reports (1995-2006)
The increase of tourist numbers at Moremi Game Reserve indicates that the Tourism
Policy which aimed at reducing tourist numbers in wilderness areas by charging
higher prices is not successful. These ever increasing tourist numbers threaten the
ecological sustainability of the Okavango Delta as a natural system. Table 2 also
shows that tourists that stay in permanent accommodation increased from 15,479 in
1995 to 24,103 in 2005. This means that sections of the Tourism Policy which aims
at increasing this tourist segment is being successful.
6.3 International tourists and domestic tourists
The shift from casual campers to up-market tourists resulted in the majority of
the tourists visiting the Okavango Delta originating from developed countries.
Table 5 shows data from DWNP indicates that between 1999 and 2005 most
visitors in the Okavango were from European countries, North America and
South Africa.
Table 5: Tourist numbers according to country of residence, 1999 - 2006
Country 1999
2000
2001
2002
2003 2004 2005 2006
Citizens
3,761
2,787
3,353
3,728
4,630
2,849
2,344
1,359
Residents
3,456
2,595
5,500
3,240
2,679
2,120
1,568
709
South Africa
9,625
5,007
9,213
6,744
6,509
7,307
5,416
4,721
Other Africa
987
613
3,031
627
636
757
614
269
North America
7,461
6,154
8,331
6,820
6,147
6,435
10,197
129
South America
1,057
693
1,933
867
551
945
1,244
22
United Kingdom
3,762
2,426
4,968
3,184
3,267
3,406
4,034
292
Other Europe
14,122 8,993
19,62
11,97
12,982
13,056
14,356
2,862
Australia & New
1,761
1,148
5
8
1,351
1,204
1,319
164
Zealand
347
109
2,550
872
318
235
241
5
Asia
821
130
875
258
88
108
180
1
Other
277
89
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TDA Botswana Tourism Development
Total 47,160
30,835
31076
31,02
39,158 38,422 41,513 10,53
3
3
Source: DWNP Annual Reports (2000-2006)
Data in Table 5 also shows that citizen visitors in the Okavango Delta were
lower when compared to those from other countries. This may be a result of
high prices charged in tourism facilities in the wetland. The exclusion of
citizens from visiting the Okavango due to high prices has the potential to
create land use conflicts and negative perceptions of local people towards
international tourism in the Okavango.
Tourists from the SADC region are likely to be affected differently by flooding
patterns in the Okavango Delta. Most of the tourists that visit the Okavango
Delta from the SADC region are self-drive tourists from South Africa. As a
result, in the event of high floods as already noted, roads will become
impassable in the wetland and this may force some roads like those in
Moremi game reserve to be closed.
25
TDA Botswana Tourism Development
7.
Tourism Infrastructure Development
There has been an increase in accommodation facilities in the Okavango
Delta from the 1990s. As shown in Table 6, in 1989 for example, there were
32 accommodation facilities in the Okavango Delta (Mpotokwane, 1990). This
figure was found to have increased to 63 accommodation facilities in 2001, to
73 in 2004 and to 80 in 2009. However, this is likely to be a conservative
figure as hunting camps used by safari hunters are not included in Table 6.
Table 6: Accommodation Facilities in the Okavango Delta in 1989 and 2001
Type of Facility
1989
2001
2004
Lodges
8
10
Camps
23
51
Hotels
1
2
Totals
32
63
75
Source: Mbaiwa (2002)
In 2009, the Tawana Land Board Consultancy for Tourism Related Sites
Identification in the Okavango Delta Ramsar Site notes that there are 80
tourism establishments in the Okavango Delta (this figure excludes facilities in
Maun). The Consultancy also provides the number of rooms and beds in
these facilities (Table 7, also see map 1).
Table 7:Number of Beds and Rooms in the Okavango Delta
Type of Facility
Rooms
Beds
Camp
407
810
Camp (allocated but not operational)
8
16
Guest House
31
51
Hotel
55
110
Hunting Camp
107
182
Lodge
201
374
Mobile
13
26
Photographic & Hunting Camp
6
8
Photographic/Hunting/Cultural Group
6
12
Photographic Camp
23
46
Grand Total
857
1635
26
TDA Botswana Tourism Development
The implication of the increase in the number of photographic and hunting
camps in the Okavango Delta is that environmental pressure is being
increased on the wetland. There is also likely to be competition and conflicts
over land use and resources over specific sites in the Okavango Delta.
Studies (e.g. Darkoh & Mbaiwa, 2005) have shown that whenever there is
competition and conflicts over land use and resources occur, resource
degradation happens. While there is an increase in tourism establishments in
the Okavango Delta, the desiccation of the western part of the Okavango
Delta is reported by Okavango Jakotsha Community Trust (comprising of Jao,
Etsha 1-13, Ikoga and Thaoge villages) to be negatively impacting on their
lodging business. The Trust argues that their lodge has not been operational
for a few years partly because the Thaoge channel (one of the Okavango
River Channels) is dry and attracts no tourists any more. This shows that
flood levels in the Okavango Delta determine the level of tourism investment
in the wetland.
7.1 Transport
and
Communication Systems
In the late 1980s, northern Botswana was very much inaccessible because
there were virtually no tarred roads. The situation gradually changed. During
the National Development Plan 6 of 1986 to 1991, Government realized that
tourism in northwestern Botswana had the potential of positively contributing
to the economy of the country. At present, northern Botswana has over 1622
kilometers of tarred road as shown in Table 8. Tarred roads provide a link
27
TDA Botswana Tourism Development
between northern Botswana's man centres of Maun and Kasane with other
eastern towns like Francistown and Gaborone. They also provide a link with
neighboring countries of Zimbabwe, Zambia, and Namibia's Caprivi Strip. The
road network in northern Botswana has improved accessibility of the region
with other eastern centers hence increased the efficiency in the delivery of
social services. The network is also an important aspect of tourism
development in northern Botswana, especially in the Okavango and Chobe
regions. As noted, tourism development in Botswana is linked to that of
southern Africa since most tourists (i.e. self-drive, mobile and high-costs) who
visit Botswana (e.g. the Okavango and Chobe) also visit Zimbabwe, South
Africa, Namibia and Zambia.
Table 8: The Road Network in Northern Botswana, 1989-2001
Road Section
Length in Kilometres Year
Completion
Francistown Kasane
500
1989
Nata Gweta
115
1992
Maun-Shorobe
38
1992
Gweta Maun
203
1993
Tsau Gumare
103
1991
Maun Sehitwa
99
1993
Gomare Sepopa
95
1992
Sihitwa Ghanzi
245
2001
Ghanzi Mamono
208
1999
Shakawe Mohembo
16
1995
Total 1622
+
Source: Government of Botswana (1997) and Department of Roads (2002) personal
Communication
The development of the road network in northern Botswana is part of the
government objective to improve the road system in the country. As shown in
Table 9, there has been an expansion of the road network in Botswana from
1990 2002. During Botswana National Development Plan 8 of 1997/98
2002/3, the development of roads account for 58% of the investment
allocation of the Ministry of Works Transport and Communications in National
Development Plan 8 (Botswana Government, 1997).
Table 9: Roads maintained by the Central Government, 1994 - 1999 (in Kilometers)
Year Bitumen
Gravel
Earth/Sand
Total
1990
2565
960
4589
8114
1991
2831
932
4371
8134
1992
3603
2950
2148
8761
1993
3878
2739
2148
8761
1994
4177
2632
1957
8766
1995
4761
2087
1957
8805
1996
4729
2191
1841
8761
1997
4789
2131
1841
8761
1998
4969
2131
1841
8941
1999
5570
2688
1959
10217
2000
6082
2270
1865
10217
2001
6421
1937
1798
10156
6501
1857
1834
10192
2002(March)
Source: Botswana Government (1997), CSO (2002), Department of Roads (2002), Personal
communication
28
TDA Botswana Tourism Development
7.2 Airports and Airstrips
In addition to the tarred road network, in 1993, Maun Airport was improved
with a new terminal and extended runaway. Improvement of Maun Airport has
attracted international flights connecting Maun Airport and Johannesburg,
Windhoek, and Victoria Falls. These links form the main air routes used by
tourists who visit the Okavango Delta. In terms of aircraft operations each
day, Maun Airport is the second busiest airport in Africa after Johannesburg
International Airport (Table 10). Ngami Times (2001:1) illustrates this as
follows: "Maun Airport is regarded as the second busiest international in Africa
in terms of aircraft movements after the combined Johannesburg area (South
Africa) airports of Johannesburg International, Lanseria, Rand and Grand
Central". Maun Airport in 2000 had an average of 256 aircraft landing and
taking off each day during the tourist peak seasons of April to October. In the
non-tourist peak season of November to March, an average of 157 aircraft
landings and take offs each day.
Table 10: Aircraft Movement at Maun Airport, 2000
Description
Total Movements
Percentage
Commercial
International
2,846
7.0
Domestic
34,666
86.1
Non-Commercial
2,786
6.9
Totals
40,246
100.0
Source: DCA (2001)
Most of this aircraft movement is by small engine aircrafts that fly into the
delta either to transport tourists or carry supplies. In 2000, there were eight
privately owned air companies with a total of 44 small engine aircrafts
operating in the Okavango Delta and using Maun Airport as the main base
(Table 11).
Table 11: Private Air Companies and Number of Aircrafts, 2000
Name of Air Company
Number of Airplanes
Percentage
Sefofane Air
15
34.1
Moremi Air
7
15.9
Delta Air
6
13.6
Northern Air
3
6.8
Swamp Air
2
4.5
Mack Air
7
15.9
Bushfree
2
4.5
Safari Air
7
15.9
Total 44
100.0
Source: Mbaiwa (2000)
In the Delta, there are about 23 privately owned airfields and seven
government airstrips in the area, excluding those operated by the Botswana
Defence Force. In addition to the already existing airport facilities in Maun and
in the Okavango Delta, there is a proposed agenda by government to expand
existing airport facilities at Maun Airport, especially the runaway. This idea is
hoped to make Maun Airport capable of having receiving bigger aircrafts. The
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TDA Botswana Tourism Development
expansion of Maun Airport suggests an increase in volume of tourists, airport
facilities, the number of small bush aircrafts and employment opportunities
especially for the local people. While this is a positive economic development,
care should be taken to prevent negative environmental impacts in the area
especially in the Okavango Delta. This, therefore, suggests that limits of
acceptable change or carrying capacity of both Maun and the Okavango Delta
should be decided to determine the level of expansion and the volume of
tourism that the wetland can hold.
30
TDA Botswana Tourism Development
7.3 The Impacts of Tourism to Rural Livelihoods
The introduction of Community-Based Natural Resource Management
(CBNRM) programme in the 1990s in Botswana has led to tourism to benefit
some of the communities living in the Okavango Delta (the level of benefit is
differ from one community to the other). Some of the benefits include the
following:
· Participation of local communities in ecotourism;
· Employment creation in remote areas;
· Income generation for local communities;
· Availability of meat at household level
· The provision of social services
For purposes of illustration in discussing the impacts of tourism development and
CBNRM on livelihoods, the three villages of Sankoyo, Mababe and Mababe are
singled out.
7.3.1 Employment opportunities in Remote areas
Employment is one of the main benefits that has improves livelihoods at Sankoyo,
Khwai and Mababe villages. Employment is provided by both the safari companies
that sub-lease community areas and by Trusts in respective villages. As shown in
Table 12, at Sankoyo, the number of people employed increased from 51 people in
1997 when the Trust started operating to 105 in 2007. At Mababe, the number
increased from 52 in 2000 to 66 people in 2007. At Khwai, the number increased
from five people in 2000 to 74 people in 2007.
31
TDA Botswana Tourism Development
Table 12: Employment at Sankoyo, Khwai and Mababe
Sankoyo Khwai
Mababe
Year
Trust
JVP*
Total
Trust
JVP
Total
Trust
JVP
Total
199
10 41 51 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
7
199
11 51 62 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
8
199
11 51 62 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
9
200
11 51 62 5 N/A 5 15 37 52
0
200
13 9 22 5 N/A 5 15 64 79
1
200
35 56 91 8 N/A 8 16 64 80
2
200
42 56 98 10
N/A
10 18 64 82
3
200
48 56 104 15 40 55 41 18 59
4
200
45 56 101 15 50 65 41 25 66
5
200
46 56 102 19 55 74 41 25 66
6
200
52 56 108 19 57 74 41 25 66
7
Source: Mbaiwa (2008) * Joint Venture Partnership
At Mababe, the percentage of people employed is 22.8%, at Khwai its 21% and 28%
at Sankoyo. These percentages are very high considering that the small populations
of 300 at Mababe, 290 at Khwai and 372 at Sankoyo. The employment rates also
become high when excluding the elderly (i.e. over 60 years), school going children
(less than 18 years), the sick and pregnant mothers. In illustrating the importance of
employment, the Mababe Trust manager remarked, "go to Mababe right now and
you will find zero unemployment. You will only find old people and children in the
village. All the young and strong people are out in camps working". CBNRM is the
most important economic activity that provides employment opportunities in the three
villages. Most people employed from the three villages are semi-skilled (e.g. cooks,
cleaners, storekeepers and escort guides). The creation of jobs in CBNRM projects
is important as a poverty alleviation strategy at Khwai, Mababe and Sankoyo
villages. It should be understood that Ngamiland in which the Okavango Delta is
located does not have any industrial or manufacturing enterprises which would
otherwise provide employment opportunities as is the case with other centres such
as Francistown or Gaborone. As such tourism it the main economic activity that
employs a significant number of people more than any other sector in the district.
Every economy aims at full employment for its labor force, and this is also the case
for the rural economy of Sankoyo, Khwai and Mababe.
7.3.2 Financial benefits from tourism development
Financial benefits are some of the major economic benefits that villages derive from
tourism development in the Okavango Delta. Tourism revenue that accrues to
communities is largely from the following activities: sub-leasing of the hunting area;
32
TDA Botswana Tourism Development
sale of wildlife quota (i.e. wildlife quota fees for game animals hunted); meat sales;
tourism enterprises e.g. lodge and campsite; and, camping fees and vehicle hires.
Income from tourism development accrues to individuals, households and the
community at large when it is finally distributed. Table 13 shows the financial benefits
that accrue to Sankoyo, Khwai and Mababe respectively from the time the projects
started operating to 2007.
Table 13: Revenue (BWP) generated by Sankoyo, Khwai and Mababe
Year
Land Rental
Quota
Others*
Total
Sankoyo Tswaragano Management Trust
1997
285,750
0
12,665
298,415
1998
116,666
60,928
38,826
216,420
1999
151,667
33,470
76,151
261,288
2000
166,833
49,090
148,940
215,923
2001
57,047
55,600
114,801
227,448
2002
492,000
872,550
131,844
1,496,394
2003
466,509
965,772
370,352
1,802,633
2004
562,655
1,096,377
75,634
1,734,666
2005
455,000
1,060,400
612,012
2,127,412
2006
483,250
1,198,700
639,116
2,321,066
2007
613,360
1,272,600
621,537
2,507,497
Khwai Development Trust
2000
1,057,247
0
72,536
1,129,783
2001
585,220
0
248,305
833,525
2002
1,211,533
0
36,738
1,214,567
2003
348,778
0
97,480
446,258
2004
110,000
857,085
283,482
1,250,567
2005
115,500
1,043,707
405,247
1,564,454
2006
121,275
1,248,500
1,248,500
1,691,723
2007
127,339
1,217,187
1,082,146
2,426,667
Mababe Zokotsama Trust
2000
60,000
550,000
77,000
687,000
2001
69,000
632,500
127,233
828,733
2002
79,350
702,606
85,961
867,917
2003
91,205
807,996
98,854
1,121,427
2004
104,940
929,196
149,159
1,183,295
2005
120,681
1,068,575
130,739
1,319,995
2006
120,000
1,202,183
13,500
1,335,683
2007
130,000
1,202,183
29,950
1,362,133
Source: Mbaiwa (2008)
* Camp rental fees, community development fund, meat sales and vehicle hire.
Data shown in Table 13 shows that land rentals and quotas increased in each village
over time. For example at Sankoyo, land rentals increased from P 285,750 in 1997 to
P483, 250 in 2006 and game quota fees increased from P60, 928 in 1998 to P1,
198,700 in 2006. Between 2004 and 2006, game quota fees were the largest source
of revenue for each village accounting for almost half of the revenue generated by
each Trust. Income generation from tourism is important because it is used by
communities to sustain their livelihoods. Some of the income which the three
communities derive from tourism subsequently ends up in the households in the form
of dividends. For example, between 1996 and 2001, each household at Sankoyo
33
TDA Botswana Tourism Development
Village was paid P 200, this sum increased to P250 in 2002, P300 in 2003 and P500
between 2004 and 2007. The distribution of income to the various households is an
important aspect in improving rural livelihoods.
7.3.3 Availability of meat at household level
Households at Sankoyo, Mababe and Khwai noted that game meat is one of the
benefits they derive from tourism development. Joint Venture Agreements with safari
operators are such that international clients of these companies only take with them
the animal heads and skins (which are called the trophies) and fillets. The rest of the
animal carcass is taken to respective villages where it is either sold or distributed to
the community depending on the type of animal killed. For instance, animals such as
elephant, warthog and zebra, which are not normally eaten by most residents, are
distributed free. However, meat such as that of impala and kudu and other animals
such as buffalo, which are eaten by most people, are sold by the Trust at a minimal
price (compared to beef sold in other parts of the country) and the money becomes
part of the overall Trust revenue. Some respondents pointed out that the distribution
of meat benefits is important to them since there is no butchery in the village. This
indicates the role that the availability of meat plays in the Okavango Delta. It also
allows the villagers directly benefit from wildlife resources in their local environment.
This has the potential to reduce illegal hunting which before the adoption of CBNRM
was higher in CBNRM villages.
7.3.4 The provision of social services
The people of Khwai, Mababe and Sankoyo agree in kgotla meetings on how to use
money generated from tourism to benefit their villages. These communities have
been able to agree that some of the revenue generated from CBNRM projects should
be used to fund social services and related community development projects. Table
14 shows the social projects and amount used to fund each of these community
development projects in the three villages.
Table 14: Social services funded by CBNRM income, 2007
______________________________________________________________
· Assistance with funerals costs (P200 to P3, 000 per household).
· Support for local sport activities (P5, 000 to P50, 000 per village).
· Scholarships (P7, 000 to P35, 000 per village).
· Household dividends (P200 to P500 per village).
· Services and houses for elderly people (150 to P300 per month per person).
· Assistance for orphans (P40, 000 per Trust).
· Assistance for disabled people (P15, 000 per village).
· Provision of communication tools such as radios
· Transport services particularly in the use of vehicles.
· Installation of water stand pipes in households
Source: Arntzen et al (2003); Schuster (2007); Mbaiwa (2008)
To illustrate on some of the information provided in Table 12, collective decision
making in the three communities has led to the payment of funeral expenses for
community members to the tune of P3, 000 if an adult dies and P1000 if a minor
dies. Community vehicles would also be used to collect fire wood used to prepare
meals for mourners and transport them to and from Maun. Apparently, all the three
34
TDA Botswana Tourism Development
villages bury their dead in Maun and there seemed to be no specific reason why
communities do not want to bury their dead in their respective villages. Community
vehicles are also used to transport the dead persons and are a form of transportation
by members from one village to the other. Community members can also hire these
vehicles in case they want to transport their goods from one point to the other. This is
yet another important aspect of community and rural development in remote parts of
the Okavango Delta. Sankoyo, Mababe and Khwai are located in remote areas of
which accessibility in terms of public transportation is very difficult. The availability of
transportation through Trust vehicles has, therefore, increased accessibility of these
once remote areas to other big regional centers in other parts of the country like
Maun.
Before tourism development, water reticulation was a problem at Mababe, Khwai and
Sankoyo villages. In addressing this problem, individual communities use income
from tourism development to fund water reticulation to each household. For example,
the CBNRM project at Sankoyo funded the provision of water to 56 households out of
the 76 in the village. Mababe funded water to 30 households out of the 54 in the
village. At the time of the study, Khwai was still digging a trench from the Khwai River
to provide water to their village. The other remarkable social service funded by
CBNRM in the three villages is that at Sankoyo, the CBNRM paid for the construction
of seven houses for the poor in 2007. At Khwai 18 houses were built while at
Mababe 10 houses were built for elderly and the poor. In each of the three villages,
CBNRM paid a monthly allowance of P200 to orphans and P500 to the elderly twice
a year. Sankoyo sponsored 14 students to study for catering, professional guiding,
bookkeeping, and computer studies. Mababe sponsored 20 students and Khwai
sponsored 30 students by 2007 with a total sponsorship of P 250,000 to study
tourism related courses like those by students from Sankoyo. For Khwai, all the
villagers got insured with insurance companies for funeral benefits. This shows that
CBNRM in the three villages has taken a social responsibility for community
members and provide them with the necessary livelihoods needs. CBNRM has
therefore transformed communities at Sankoyo, Mababe and Khwai from being
beggars who lived on handouts from the Botswana Govern
s
ment and donor agencie
from Europe and America into produ
are moving t
ctive communities that
owards
achieving sustainable livelihoods.
35
TDA Botswana Tourism Development
8.
Tourism and HIV/AIDS Prevalence
HIV/AIDS scourge has remained Botswana's greatest challenge in the past decade.
The country's prevalence rate among pregnant women aged 15-49 years was 37.4%
in 2003, an increase from the 35.4% in 2002 and 36.2 % in 2001 according to the
2003 Sentinel Surveillance Report. The report also indicated that the Ngami and
Okavango prevalence rate was 38.4% and 32.7 respectively. The most affected
districts are Selibe-Phikwe (52.2%), Bobirwa (49.3%), Chobe (47%), Francistown
(45.8) and Gaborone (44.8). According to 2008 Botswana HIV/AIDS Impact Survey
III (BAIS III), the national HIV prevalence rate stands at 17.6%. The BAIS III survey
showed Selebi-Phikwe (26.5%), Sowa (25.4%), Lobatse (23.1%), Chobe (23.0%)
and North East (21.8%) as the most affected districts. In all the two surveys, the most
affected areas except for Chobe are not necessarily tourist destinations on their own
right. For Chobe District the most probably reason for the higher prevalence rate
seem to be the truck transportation that cross at the Kazugula Border Gate into
neigbouring countries of Zambia. Therefore, it is still to be determined whether there
is a positive correlation between tourism activities and the spread of HIV/AIDS as
there is currently no study that has linked the spread of HIV/AIDS with tourism
activities in Botswana.
However, tourism has the potential to increase the spread of HIV/AIDS in places
where there is no control. In Botswana, commercial sex is prohibited and the
Botswana's tourism product is mostly wilderness experience and it's more enclaves
in nature with less interaction between the host population and the tourists. For the
Okavango Delta in particular, as a Ramsar site, the growth of tourism is regulated,
however, under the Ngamiland Tourism Development Plan of 2007, Maun is planned
to be developed as a mass tourism center. Maun is currently becoming a business
commercial where conference and meetings are held. In these circumstances, the
increase HIV prevalence is likely cannot be ruled out.
36
TDA Botswana Tourism Development
9. Conclusion
Based on the 1998/9 TDA study, tourism development in the Okavango Delta has
grown in the last 10 years. According to the available data, tourism is expected to
grow by 7.3% in 2007 and the forecast for the next 10 years is 5.0% per annum. This
growth will exceed the global growth rate of 4.4% per annum and the sub-Saharan
Africa forecast of 4.5% (Botswana Tourism Board, 2008). Considering the growth
rate of the tourism industry in Botswana in general, its concentration in one side of
the country and future development like the expansion of Maun Airport, it is important
to note that development in the Okavango Delta will continue to grow in the
foreseeable future. There is no doubt that the various policies and development
plans aimed at promoting tourism in the Okavango will yield a tremendous growth in
tourism development in the wetland. Therefore fragile ecosystem must be taken into
consideration as the development in the Delta expands. For the objectives of the
various government policies, which advocate for equitable sustainable use of the
resource, baseline data and a clear monitoring and evaluation mechanism must be in
place to ensure that development of the Delta, compliment the conservation
objectives.
It is important to recognize that all the policies, strategies and development plans
aims at promoting the conservation of natural resources in the Okavango Delta. This
will greatly benefit tourism development in the area since much of it relies on the
availability of natural resources specifically wildlife and forest resources. Increased
tourism particularly mass tourism in Maun and Shakawe will result in more services,
employment opportunities and income generation for the local communities. A
scenario that is likely to improve local livelihoods.
Flooding patterns within the Okavango River Delta needs to be understood since
they influence tourism development in particular parts of the wetland. Information is,
therefore, needed on flooding scenarios and how much they will affect existing and
future tourism development in the Okavango Delta. Even though the effects of
flooding patterns on tourism development were not part of this, it is worth noting that
floods in the Okavango Delta will have an impact on tourism development. For
example, high floods will reduce the number of self-drive and mobile tourists. This
will as a result, affect tourism business and livelihoods. Local people employed in the
tourism business are likely to be retrenched as tourism business goes down. When
dray again, tourism in the Okavango Delta will also go down since the wetness of the
area and rich biodiversity is the key tourism attraction in the wetland.
37
TDA Botswana Tourism Development
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The Okavango River Basin Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis Technical Reports
In 1994, the three riparian countries of the Okavango
base of available scientific evidence to guide future
River Basin Angola, Botswana and Namibia
decision making. The study, created from inputs from
agreed to plan for collaborative management of the
multi-disciplinary teams in each country, with
natural resources of the Okavango, forming the
specialists in hydrology, hydraulics, channel form,
Permanent Okavango River Basin Water
water quality, vegetation, aquatic invertebrates, fish,
Commission (OKACOM). In 2003, with funding from
birds, river-dependent terrestrial wildlife, resource
the Global Environment Facility, OKACOM launched
economics and socio-cultural issues, was
the Environmental Protection and Sustainable
coordinated and managed by a group of specialists
Management of the Okavango River Basin (EPSMO)
from the southern African region in 2008 and 2009.
Project to coordinate development and to anticipate
and address threats to the river and the associated
The following specialist technical reports were
communities and environment. Implemented by the
produced as part of this process and form
United Nations Development Program and executed
substantive background content for the Okavango
by the United Nations Food and Agriculture
Organization, the project produced the
River Basin Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis to establish a
Final Study
Reports integrating findings from all country and background reports, and covering the entire
Reports
basin.
Aylward, B.
Economic Valuation of Basin Resources: Final Report to
EPSMO Project of the UN Food & Agriculture Organization as
an Input to the Okavango River Basin Transboundary
Diagnostic Analysis
Barnes, J. et al.
Okavango River Basin Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis:
Socio-Economic Assessment Final Report
King, J.M. and Brown,
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment Project
C.A.
Initiation Report (Report No: 01/2009)
King, J.M. and Brown,
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment EFA
C.A.
Process Report (Report No: 02/2009)
King, J.M. and Brown,
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment
C.A.
Guidelines for Data Collection, Analysis and Scenario Creation
(Report No: 03/2009)
Bethune,
S.
Mazvimavi,
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment
D. and Quintino, M.
Delineation Report (Report No: 04/2009)
Beuster, H.
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment
Hydrology Report: Data And Models(Report No: 05/2009)
Beuster,
H. Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment
Scenario Report : Hydrology (Report No: 06/2009)
Jones, M.J.
The Groundwater Hydrology of The Okavango Basin (FAO
Internal Report, April 2010)
King, J.M. and Brown,
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment
C.A.
Scenario Report: Ecological and Social Predictions (Volume 1
of 4)(Report No. 07/2009)
King, J.M. and Brown,
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment
C.A.
Scenario Report: Ecological and Social Predictions (Volume 2
of 4: Indicator results) (Report No. 07/2009)
King, J.M. and Brown,
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment
C.A.
Scenario Report: Ecological and Social Predictions: Climate
Change Scenarios (Volume 3 of 4) (Report No. 07/2009)
King, J., Brown, C.A.,
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment
Joubert, A.R. and
Scenario Report: Biophysical Predictions (Volume 4 of 4:
Barnes, J.
Climate Change Indicator Results) (Report No: 07/2009)
King, J., Brown, C.A.
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment Project
and Barnes, J.
Final Report (Report No: 08/2009)
Malzbender, D.
Environmental Protection And Sustainable Management Of The
Okavango River Basin (EPSMO): Governance Review
Vanderpost, C. and
Database and GIS design for an expanded Okavango Basin
Dhliwayo, M.
Information System (OBIS)
Veríssimo, Luis
GIS Database for the Environment Protection and Sustainable
Management of the Okavango River Basin Project
Wolski,
P.
Assessment of hydrological effects of climate change in the
Okavango Basin
Country Reports
Angola
Andrade e Sousa,
Análise Diagnóstica Transfronteiriça da Bacia do Rio
Biophysical Series
Helder André de
Okavango: Módulo do Caudal Ambiental: Relatório do
Especialista: País: Angola: Disciplina: Sedimentologia &
Geomorfologia
Gomes, Amândio
Análise Diagnóstica Transfronteiriça da Bacia do Rio
Okavango: Módulo do Caudal Ambiental: Relatório do
Especialista: País: Angola: Disciplina: Vegetação
Gomes,
Amândio
Análise Técnica, Biofísica e Socio-Económica do Lado
39
TDA Botswana Tourism Development
Angolano da Bacia Hidrográfica do Rio Cubango: Relatório
Final:Vegetação da Parte Angolana da Bacia Hidrográfica Do
Rio Cubango
Livramento, Filomena
Análise Diagnóstica Transfronteiriça da Bacia do Rio
Okavango: Módulo do Caudal Ambiental: Relatório do
Especialista: País: Angola: Disciplina:Macroinvertebrados
Miguel, Gabriel Luís
Análise Técnica, Biofísica E Sócio-Económica do Lado
Angolano da Bacia Hidrográfica do Rio Cubango:
Subsídio Para o Conhecimento Hidrogeológico
Relatório de Hidrogeologia
Morais, Miguel
Análise Diagnóstica Transfronteiriça da Bacia do Análise Rio
Cubango (Okavango): Módulo da Avaliação do Caudal
Ambiental: Relatório do Especialista País: Angola Disciplina:
Ictiofauna
Morais,
Miguel
Análise Técnica, Biófisica e Sócio-Económica do Lado
Angolano da Bacia Hidrográfica do Rio Cubango: Relatório
Final: Peixes e Pesca Fluvial da Bacia do Okavango em Angola
Pereira, Maria João
Qualidade da Água, no Lado Angolano da Bacia Hidrográfica
do Rio Cubango
Santos,
Carmen
Ivelize
Análise Diagnóstica Transfronteiriça da Bacia do Rio
Van-Dúnem S. N.
Okavango: Módulo do Caudal Ambiental: Relatório de
Especialidade: Angola: Vida Selvagem
Santos, Carmen Ivelize
Análise Diagnóstica Transfronteiriça da Bacia do Rio
Van-Dúnem S.N.
Okavango:Módulo Avaliação do Caudal Ambiental: Relatório de
Especialidade: Angola: Aves
Botswana Bonyongo, M.C.
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist Report: Country:
Botswana: Discipline: Wildlife
Hancock, P.
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module : Specialist Report: Country:
Botswana: Discipline: Birds
Mosepele,
K. Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist Report: Country:
Botswana: Discipline: Fish
Mosepele, B. and
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Dallas, Helen
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist Report: Country:
Botswana: Discipline: Aquatic Macro Invertebrates
Namibia
Collin Christian &
Okavango River Basin: Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Associates CC
Project: Environmental Flow Assessment Module:
Geomorphology
Curtis, B.A.
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist Report Country:
Namibia Discipline: Vegetation
Bethune, S.
Environmental Protection and Sustainable Management of the
Okavango River Basin (EPSMO): Transboundary Diagnostic
Analysis: Basin Ecosystems Report
Nakanwe, S.N.
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist Report: Country:
Namibia: Discipline: Aquatic Macro Invertebrates
Paxton,
M. Okavango River Basin Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist
Report:Country:Namibia: Discipline: Birds (Avifauna)
Roberts, K.
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist Report: Country:
Namibia: Discipline: Wildlife
Waal,
B.V. Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist Report: Country:
Namibia:Discipline: Fish Life
Country Reports
Angola
Gomes, Joaquim
Análise Técnica dos Aspectos Relacionados com o Potencial
Socioeconomic
Duarte
de Irrigação no Lado Angolano da Bacia Hidrográfica do Rio
Series
Cubango: Relatório Final
Mendelsohn,
.J.
Land use in Kavango: Past, Present and Future
Pereira, Maria João
Análise Diagnóstica Transfronteiriça da Bacia do Rio
Okavango: Módulo do Caudal Ambiental: Relatório do
Especialista: País: Angola: Disciplina: Qualidade da Água
Saraiva, Rute et al.
Diagnóstico Transfronteiriço Bacia do Okavango: Análise
Socioeconómica Angola
Botswana Chimbari, M. and
Okavango River Basin Trans-Boundary Diagnostic Assessment
Magole, Lapologang
(TDA): Botswana Component: Partial Report: Key Public Health
Issues in the Okavango Basin, Botswana
Magole,
Lapologang
Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis of the Botswana Portion of
the Okavango River Basin: Land Use Planning
40
TDA Botswana Tourism Development
Magole, Lapologang
Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis (TDA) of the Botswana p
Portion of the Okavango River Basin: Stakeholder Involvement
in the ODMP and its Relevance to the TDA Process
Masamba,
W.R.
Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis of the Botswana Portion of
the Okavango River Basin: Output 4: Water Supply and
Sanitation
Masamba,W.R.
Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis of the Botswana Portion of
the Okavango River Basin: Irrigation Development
Mbaiwa.J.E. Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis of the Okavango River
Basin: the Status of Tourism Development in the Okavango
Delta: Botswana
Mbaiwa.J.E. &
Assessing the Impact of Climate Change on Tourism Activities
Mmopelwa, G.
and their Economic Benefits in the Okavango Delta
Mmopelwa,
G.
Okavango River Basin Trans-boundary Diagnostic Assessment:
Botswana Component: Output 5: Socio-Economic Profile
Ngwenya, B.N.
Final Report: A Socio-Economic Profile of River Resources and
HIV and AIDS in the Okavango Basin: Botswana
Vanderpost,
C.
Assessment of Existing Social Services and Projected Growth
in the Context of the Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis of the
Botswana Portion of the Okavango River Basin
Namibia
Barnes, J and
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Wamunyima, D
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist Report:
Country: Namibia: Discipline: Socio-economics
Collin Christian &
Technical Report on Hydro-electric Power Development in the
Associates CC
Namibian Section of the Okavango River Basin
Liebenberg, J.P.
Technical Report on Irrigation Development in the Namibia
Section of the Okavango River Basin
Ortmann, Cynthia L.
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module : Specialist Report Country:
Namibia: discipline: Water Quality
Nashipili,
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis: Specialist
Ndinomwaameni
Report: Country: Namibia: Discipline: Water Supply and
Sanitation
Paxton,
C.
Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis: Specialist Report:
Discipline: Water Quality Requirements For Human Health in
the Okavango River Basin: Country: Namibia
41
EFA Namibia Irrigation Development.
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