Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis of
the Botswana Portion of the Okavango
River Basin
Output 3: Irrigation Development
Wellington R.L. Masamba
Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre
July 2009
TDA Botswana Irrigation Development
TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS OF THE
BOTSWANA PORTION OF THE OKAVANGO RIVER BASIN
Output 3: Irrigation development
Wellington R.L. Masamba
Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre
P/Bag 285
Maun
Botswana
July, 2009
2
TDA Botswana Irrigation Development
TABLE OF CONTENTS
AKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................................................... 5
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................................................ 6
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .................................................................................................................................. 7
1.
INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................................... 8
2
METHODOLOGY .................................................................................................................................. 11
2.1
Knowledge gathering workshop ................................................................................................. 11
2.2
Discussions with Government Officers ....................................................................................... 11
2.3
Literature .................................................................................................................................... 11
3.0
IRRIGATION IN BOTSWANA ............................................................................................................ 12
3.1
Present Irrigation and Plans for Expansion ................................................................................. 12
3.2
Water Demand ............................................................................................................................ 13
3.3
Sources of Water for Irrigation ................................................................................................... 14
3.3.1
Groundwater ..................................................................................................................... 14
3.3.2
Surface water .................................................................................................................... 14
3.3.3
Reclaimed Wastewater ........................................................................................................... 15
4.
CURRENT IRRIGATION IN THE OKAVANGO DELTA AREA .................................................................... 16
4.1
Ngamiland East District (Maun) .................................................................................................. 16
4.2
Ngamiland West (Gumare) ......................................................................................................... 16
4.2
Okavango District ........................................................................................................................ 17
4.4
Water Usage ................................................................................................................................ 21
4.4.1
Current and short-term future water usage .................................................................. 21
4.4.2
Long Term Water Usage ................................................................................................. 23
5.
Use of Fertilisers and Pesticides ......................................................................................................... 24
6.
ISSUES OF TRANSBOUNDARY IMPORTANCE ...................................................................................... 26
6.1
Water abstraction ....................................................................................................................... 26
6.2
Pollution ...................................................................................................................................... 26
6.2.1
Pollution resulting in high salinity ....................................................................................... 26
6.2.2
Pollution resulting in low water infiltration rates ........................................................... 26
6.2.3
Pollution resulting in toxicity ............................................................................................ 26
6.2.3
Other factors ..................................................................................................................... 27
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TDA Botswana Irrigation Development
7. CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................................. 28
8.
RECOMMENDATIONS ......................................................................................................................... 29
9.
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................................ 30
Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis of the Botswana Portion of the Okavango River Basin: Land Use
Planning .................................................................................................................................................. 33
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE 1. AVERAGE MONTHLY WATER REQUIREMENTS FOR NAMPAADD SCENARIOS. FT4
IRRIGATION DEVELOPING, FT5IRRIGATION ESTABLISHED AND FT6IRRIGATION ADVANCED. ........................ 13
FIGURE 2. PROPORTION OF AREA UNDER EACH VEGETABLE IN NGAMILAND EAST. .......................... 16
FIGURE 3. PROPORTION OF AREA UNDER EACH VEGETABLE IN THE OKAVANGO DISTRICT. .......... 17
FIGURE 4. LOCATION OF IRRIGATION PROJECTS IN THE OKAVANGO DELTA REGION. ...................... 18
FIGURE 5. LAND SUITABILITY MAP OF BOTSWANA. THE AREA AROUND THE OKAVANGO DELTA
HAS SOILS THAT WOULD PROVIDE MODERATE TO MODERATELY HIGH CROP YIELDS (FROM
SMEC 2006). ..................................................................................................................................................... 24
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE 1. GDP BY ECONOMIC ACTIVITYSELECTED YEARS (CONSTANT 1993/94 PRICES) MILLION PULA. DATA FROM
NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PLAN 9, 2003, EXCEPT FOR 20052008 WHICH IS FROM NATIONAL ACCOUNTS
STATISTICS, MARCH 2009) ................................................................................................................................... 9
TABLE 2. TOTAL AREA DEVELOPED FOR IRRIGATION AS OF DECEMBER 2004. ........................................................... 13
TABLE 3. THE POTENTIAL PRODUCTION AND PLANNED IRRIGATION FOR NAMPAADD SCENARIOS IN ML/YEAR.
SOURCE: NAMPADD QUOTED IN SMEC 2006. ................................................................................................... 14
TABLE 4. SMALL DAMS CURRENTLY USED FOR IRRIGATION (SOURCE: DATA FROM MOA QUOTED BY SMEC 2006). 15
TABLE 5. IRRIGATION PROJECTS IN NGAMILAND EAST DISTRICT (MAUN). SOURCE: MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE,
CROP PRODUCTION SECTION, MAUN. ............................................................................................................... 19
TABLE 6. IRRIGATION PROJECTS IN NGAMILAND WEST DISTRICT (GUMARE). SOURCE: MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE,
CROP PRODUCTION SECTION, MAUN. ............................................................................................................... 20
TABLE 7. IRRIGATION PROJECTS IN OKAVANGO DISTRICT. SOURCE: MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE, CROP
PRODUCTION SECTION, MAUN. ......................................................................................................................... 21
TABLE 8. CURRENT AND FUTURE WATER FOR IRRIGATION IN NGAMILAND EAST. THE COLUMN MARKED 15.2 HA
CORRESPONDS TO CURRENT WATER USAGE AND THAT MARKED 48.3 HA CORRESPONDS TO FUTURE SHORT
TERM ESTIMATED WATER USAGE IN IRRIGATION. ............................................................................................ 22
TABLE 9. CURRENT AND FUTURE WATER FOR IRRIGATION IN NGAMILAND WEST AND OKAVANGO. THE COLUMN
MARKED 16.15 HA CORRESPONDS TO CURRENT WATER USAGE AND THAT MARKED 139.39 HA
CORRESPONDS TO FUTURE SHORT TERM ESTIMATED WATER USAGE IN IRRIGATION. .................................... 23
TABLE 10. PESTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES RECOMMENDED FOR VEGETABLES BY THE DEPARTMENT OF
AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH. ................................................................................................................................ 25
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TDA Botswana Irrigation Development
AKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank the following people who provided information that is included in
this report: Mrs Elizabeth Keabetswe of the Regional Agricultural Office, Maun; Dr G.
Wiles of the Department of Agricultural Research in Maun; Mr Kapele of National
Agricultural Master Plan for Arable Agriculture and Dairy Development (NAMPADD) and
the library staff of the Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre. I would also like
to thank Mr. M. Dhliwayo who prepared some of the maps in this report, and the
participants of the knowledge capture workshops that took place on 24th and 25th
February 2009 and 15 to 16 July 2009 for their input.
5
TDA Botswana Irrigation Development
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
DWA
Department of Water Affairs
EPSMO
Environmental Protection and Sustainable Management of the Okavango
River Basin
GDP
Gross Domestic Product
GEF
Global Environment Facility
MoA
Ministry
of
Agriculture
MPWWS
Master Plan for Waste Water and Sanitation
NAMPAADD National Agricultural Master Plan for Arable Agriculture and Dairy
Development
Ml/year
Million litres per year
NDP
National Development Plan
NMPWWS National Master Plan for Wastewater and sanitation
NWMPR
National Water Master Plan Review
OKAKOM
Permanent Okavango River Basin Water Commission
ORB
Okavango River Basin
SAP
Strategic Action Program
TDA
Trans-boundary Diagnostic Analysis
WDS
Water Development Sector
WWTP
Wastewater Treatment Plant
ZAMCOM Zambezi
Watercourse
Commission
6
TDA Botswana Irrigation Development
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This report covers the irrigation component of the Trans-boundary Diagnostic Assessment
(TDA) whose term of reference was to review the current irrigation planning and development
initiatives in Botswana as they related to the Okavango Basin. The findings of this work are as
follows:
1. The main irrigation planning and development initiative for Botswana is under the
National Agricultural Master Plan for Arable Agriculture and Dairy Development
(NAMPADD)
2. Only 1,800 ha are currently under irrigation in Botswana. This is to increase to
5,400 ha by 2012 under NAMPADD. Depending on successful negotiations
within ZAMCOM (Zambezi Watercourse Commission), there are future plans to
irrigate up to 40,000 ha in the Pandamatenga area
3. The water requirements for the 5,400 ha planned by the year 2012 are 53,000
Ml/year
4. The Central District has the highest irrigation. These are mostly commercial
farms located along the Limpopo in the Tuli Block
5. Groundwater constitutes the main source of water for irrigation. The registry at
DWA records a total of over 11,000 permits issued for groundwater abstraction,
which corresponds to an estimated 11,500 Ml/year
6. Surface water supplies for irrigation are limited to abstraction from rivers and
streams when they have flow, small and medium livestock dams and recycled
wastewater. Availability of river water flows is limited as Botswana has only two
perennial rivers, the Okavango and the Chobe, but international agreements for
large scale use of these rivers have not been concluded.
7. Reclaimed wastewater offers an excellent source of water for irrigation in
Botswana but only 10 % of the return flows from wastewater treatment plants are
reused, the rest being lost to seepage and evaporation.
8. Only 31.35 ha of land is being irrigated around the Okavango Delta out of an
allocated area of 188.15 ha.
9. Around the Okavango Delta, 520,000 m3/year is used for current irrigation and
3,000,000 m3/year would be used if all the allocated land were irrigated.
10. Currently, there are no plans for major irrigation using waters of the Okavango
11. There is very little, unquantified use of fertilisers and pesticides around the
Okavango Delta
12. Upstream activities that would result in reduced quantity and poor quality water
would affect future irrigation projects.
7
TDA Botswana Irrigation Development
1. INTRODUCTION
The Ministry of Agriculture has emphasized the need for irrigation if the agricultural
sector is to be developed further in Botswana. Irrigation is required in most areas as a
result of poor performance of rain fed agriculture attributed to, among other reasons,
inadequate and unreliable rainfall. Annual rainfall ranges from 250 mm in the extreme
south-west to 650 mm in the extreme north-east. Most of the rainfall comes in summer
when moisture loss to the atmosphere is high and tends to limit the amount of moisture
available for crops to grow and mature.
Irrigation development in the country focuses mainly on expanding horticultural
production to meet a larger percentage of domestic demand and to generate
employment. With the implementation of the National Agricultural Master Plan for Arable
Agriculture and Dairy Development (NAMPAADD), a total of 5,200 ha 5,400 ha is
planned for irrigation by the year 2012 (from a total of 1,800 ha in 2004); with 3,600 ha
proposed to be irrigated by treated wastewater. The total amount of irrigation water to
meet these goals is estimated at 51,000 Ml/year to 53,000 Ml/year.
The impact of the agricultural sector, in general, on the economy of Botswana in terms
of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is quite small compared to other sectors like
mining, manufacturing, trade and tourism. The sector's contribution to GDP has been
declining from 42.7% at independence in 1966 to 1.7% in 2008 (Table 1). The
Government of Botswana continues to promote this sector for food security and
employment, especially for people in rural areas.
The Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) engaged TAHAL consultants in 1998 to prepare
NAMPAADD. The objective of this Master Plan was "to improve the performance of the
agricultural sector and ensure sustainable use of the country's resources".
NAMPAADD's planning horizon was 10 years from 2002-2012. NAMPAADD considered
two scenarios for agricultural development; a socially oriented scenario where rural
employment and household food security take precedence over economic efficiency;
and an economically oriented scenario where competitiveness and the most
economically efficient of resources assume precedence. The potential for employment
was envisaged at 50% under the NAMPAADD socially oriented scenario (NAMPAADD
2000).
The Okavango River Basin (ORB) remains one of the least human impacted basins on
the African continent. Mounting socio-economic pressures in the riparian countries;
Angola, Botswana and Namibia, threaten to change its present character. The
Permanent Okavango River Basin Water Commission OKAKOM) therefore solicited
funds from the three governments and the Global Environment Facility (GEF) and
8
TDA Botswana Irrigation Development
Table 1. GDP by Economic Activity-Selected years (constant 1993/94 prices) million Pula. Data from National
Development Plan 9, 2003, except for 2005-2008 which is from National Accounts Statistics, March 2009)
Economic
1966 1975/76 1985/86 2000/01 2005
2007
2008
activity
Value Share Value Share Value Share Value Share Value Share
Value Share
Value Share
(%)
(%)
(%)
(%)
(%)
(%)
(%)
Agriculture 387.6
42.7 431.1
20.7 318.9 5.6 434.0
2.6 401.1 1.8 432.8 1.8 435.0 1.7
Mining and
-
-
565.3
17.5 2790.8
48.9 6027.2
36.5 9,134.2 40.7 9,661.7 39.2 9,293.7 36.6
quarrying
Manufacturing
51.4
5.7 159.2
7.6 224.9
3.9 681.3
4.1 785.4 3.5 952.8 3.9 972.3 3.8
Water and
5.2 0.6 48.4
2.3 113.1
2.0 391.3
2.4 490.5 2.2 544.9 2.2 574.3 2.3
electricity
Construction 71.2 7.8 267.1
12.8 260.7 4.6 954.8 5.8 1,009.4 4.5 1,183.0 4.8 1,208.7 4.8
Trade, hotels, 81.4
7.8 267.1
12.8 260.7
4.6 954.8
5.8 2,051.7 9.1
2,245.1 10.1 2,653.0 10.4
restaurants
Transport 39.4
4.3 23.5
1.1 141.5
2.5 623.7 3.8 720.7 3.2 881.8 3.6 1,013.2
4.0
Banks,
183.0
20.1 97.5
4.7 367.4
6.4 1794.7
10.9 2,238.5 10.0 2,606.3 10.6 2,996.8 11.8
insurances,
Business
Services
General
89.2 9.8 305.0
14.6 730.5 12.8 2640.6
16.0 3,740.0 16.6 3,847.6 15.6 4,146.6 16.3
Government
Social and
- - 57.8
2.8 145.4
2.5 663.2
4.0 909.9 4.0 973.8 3.9 1,040.0
4.1
personal
services
9
TDA Botswana Irrigation Development
initiated the Environmental Protection and Sustainable Management of the
Okavango River Basin (EPSMO) Project.
The long-term objective of the EPSMO Project is to achieve global
environmental benefits through concerted management of the naturally
integrated land and water resources of the Okavango River Basin. The
specific objectives of the project are to:
a. Enhance the depth, accuracy, and accessibility of the existing knowledge base
of basin characteristics and conditions and identify the principal threats to the
trans-boundary water resources of the Okavango River Basin through a Trans-
boundary Diagnostic Analysis (TDA);
b. Develop and implement, through a structured process, a sustainable and cost-
effective program of policy, legal and institutional reforms and investments to
mitigate the identified threats to the basin's linked land and water systems
through the Strategic Action Program (SAP); and,
c. Assist the three riparian nations (Angola, Botswana and Namibia) in their efforts
to improve their capacity to collectively manage the basin.
The SAP will include baseline and additional actions to address priority trans-
boundary issues and provide a monitoring and evaluation tool for
implementation. It will also recommend the development and testing of a set
of institutional mechanisms and implementation methodologies, including pilot
demonstrations that explicitly link regional, national and local initiatives in land
and water management. Additionally, it will involve preparation of a basin-
wide framework in which trans-boundary priorities can be addressed and
project interventions monitored.
The TDA will inform and guide the development of the SAP and will be a
platform where trans-boundary externalities can be examined and resolved.
The TDA will underpin the SAP design and indicate monitoring and reporting
criteria for SAP implementation. Most importantly, the process of completing
the TDA will inform policies and initiatives to be launched in preparation for
SAP implementation. This report is part of the TDA with focus on irrigation.
The term of reference for this work was to review the current irrigation
planning and development initiatives in Botswana as they related to the
Okavango Basin
10
TDA Botswana Irrigation Development
2 METHODOLOGY
Information was collected from a knowledge gathering workshop, discussions with
Government Officers and the literature.
2.1
Knowledge gathering workshop
A knowledge gathering workshop was conducted on 24th 25th February 2009. The
participants had been asked before hand to prepare information on irrigation (and the
other TDA areas). Preliminary information was therefore obtained during the
workshop. In addition to the information, participants also provided input as to what
they expected to be included in this report. A feedback workshop was conducted
from 15 to 16 July 2009 where additional input was provided by the workshop
participants.
2.2
Discussions with Government Officers
Additional information was obtained by visits to offices (Agricultural Research, Maun,
Regional Agricultural Office, Maun, NAMPPAARD offices in Gaborone)
2.3 Literature
Secondary data was sourced from the offices or libraries. Most of the information in
this report is derived from SMEC (2006)-the National Water Master Plan Review
Volume (NWMPR) Volume 8-Agriculture.
11
TDA Botswana Irrigation Development
3.0 IRRIGATION IN BOTSWANA
Irrigation in Botswana is mainly for high value horticultural production and
citrus. Whereas small scale farmers dominate other forms of agriculture;
large-scale farmers dominate irrigated horticultural production. Irrigation is
predominantly carried out in the Tuli Block area which has high yielding wells
and good soils along the Limpopo River. The farmers in this area also have
standby pumps to abstract water from the river during the months when there
are flows. Small-scale farmers comprise many farmers, most of whom have
one hectare or less, mainly because of low borehole yields. This denies the
growers the economies of scale. The potential for commercial horticultural
production is largely underutilized, even within the limitations of water supply.
In regards to irrigated agriculture, especially horticultural production, the
objective of the Government is to increase domestic production to meet 70%
of the domestic horticultural demand. This is motivated by the need for some
level of food security and employment generation (NAMPAADD Government
White Paper No. 1 of 2002).
The history of planed water usage in the Okavango delta has been reviewed
by several workers (Randall 1957; Scudder et al 1993). The proposals in
Randall (1957) focused on draining the Okavango delta for crop production.
Pike (1970) evaluated the Okavango as a primary water resource, and
irrigation zoning around the Nhabe River in Ngamiland was carried out where
approximately 1,100 ha were zoned for irrigation (van der Sluis 1990). Prior to
this, the Southern Okavango Development project proposed the potential
development of 10,000 ha for irrigated agriculture along the Delta's southern
fringe (SMEC 1987). This project was later abandoned by Botswana
Government. Currently no major irrigation is planned for the Okavango Delta
region until international agreements for the use of the waters of the
Okavango are signed.
3.1
Present Irrigation and Plans for Expansion
The majority of farms using irrigation grow horticultural products whereas a
few small-scale farms grow field and fodder crops. Estimates show that a total
of 1,800 ha is cultivated under irrigation to produce vegetables and fruits
(Regional Project inventories 2004 quoted in SMEC (2006). Table 2 provides
a summary of the irrigated areas in 2004 by region. The Central District has
the highest irrigation. These are farms mostly commercial farms located along
the Limpopo in the Tuli Block. Small-scale irrigation projects have been
developed in other parts of the country, including along the Tati River in the
vicinity of Francistown and in Gaborone and the Southern Regions.
12
TDA Botswana Irrigation Development
Table 2. Total area developed for irrigation as of December 2004.
Region Area
(ha)
Western 25.36
Southern 240.85
Gaborone 288.36
Central 593.90
Francistown 273.53
Northwest 339.00
TOTAL 1760.97
(Source: Regional project inventories 2004 quoted SMEC 2006)
3.2 Water
Demand
The extent of irrigation development in Botswana is constrained by the
seasonal availability of water. In the absence of storage and relocation
facilities, the maximum area that can be cultivated is the area that can be
adequately supplied with water during the period of highest demand.
Reservoirs can provide the necessary storage but it is unlikely to be cost
effective to construct on-farm storage areas on the majority of the scattered
farms in Botswana. For boreholes, treated wastewater, river and sand river
withdrawals, the highest daily yield will constrain the irrigable area. Monthly
water requirements for various NAMPAADD scenarios are given in Figure 2.
Generally the scenarios give similar water demand.
Figure 1. Average monthly water requirements for NAMPAADD Scenarios. FT4-
Irrigation developing, FT5-irrigation established and FT6-irrigation advanced.
The total planned irrigated area under horticultural and field crops in
NAMPAADD under the economic and social scenario is 5,200 and 5,400 ha,
respectively. Of this 1,600 ha in the economic scenario and 1,900 ha in the
social scenario is planned for irrigation with mainly groundwater and
complimented by some river extractions. The remaining area will be irrigated
13
TDA Botswana Irrigation Development
by treated wastewater. Table 3 presents the summary of potential production
and planned utilization for irrigation for the two NAMPAADD scenarios
Table 3. The potential production and planned irrigation for NAMPAADD
scenarios in Ml/year. Source: NAMPADD quoted in SMEC 2006.
Existing
Existing
Existing
Potential
Potential
Total
boreholes
dams
streamflow
groundwater wastewater
Potential production
19622
1694
5102
22840
47500
96758
Planned utilization by 8210 2482
3496 1453 35047 50688
2010 (socially oriented)
Planned utilization by 6134 2058
3445 1042 35047 47726
2010 (Econ. Oriented)
3.3
Sources of Water for Irrigation
Groundwater (including sand river water extractions), river withdrawals,
wastewater and small dams comprise the main source of water for irrigation.
Monitoring of these sources is not conducted systematically and therefore
there is lack of reliable data on quantity and quality of water used.
3.3.1 Groundwater
Groundwater constitutes the main source of water for irrigation. The registry at
DWA records a total of over 11,000 permits issued for groundwater
abstraction, which corresponds to an estimated 11,500 Ml/year. The actual
quantity abstracted may be higher than this figure as there are no controls of
policing of abstractions.
3.3.2 Surface water
Surface water supplies for irrigation are limited to abstraction from rivers and
streams when they have flow, small and medium livestock dams and recycled
wastewater. Availability of river water flows is limited as Botswana has only
two perennial rivers, the Okavango and the Chobe. Both rivers are subject to
international protocols that have not been finalized. Other rivers are
ephemeral, with the majority having no flows at all.
Although the permits to pump water specifies the maximum amount of water
that can be abstracted, it is not adhered to due to lack of monitoring and
therefore data on surface water usage is scarce (SMEC 2006). NAMPAADD
projects that by 2010, the potential availability of water for irrigation in rivers
will be 7,118Ml/year. The Water Development Sector (WDS) of the Ministry of
Agriculture (MoA) builds operates and maintains a large number of small and
medium livestock dams (currently approximately 800) throughout the country.
The primary function of these dams is to provide storage for livestock watering
but surplus water may be available for irrigation. The WSD initially identifies
15 or so dams with some potential for irrigation but presently there are only
seven dams with some potential for irrigation (Table 3).
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TDA Botswana Irrigation Development
Table 4. Small dams currently used for irrigation (Source: Data from MoA
quoted by SMEC 2006).
Dam
Location
Approximate area that can be
irrigated (ha)
Mmamokhasi Kanye
20
Kubung Kubung
8
Somanka Malotswane 5
Dikabeya Palapye
60
Mmakgodumo Kanye
8
Semarule Molopolole
18
TOTAL 119
3.3.3 Reclaimed
Wastewater
Reclaimed wastewater offers an excellent source of water for irrigation in
Botswana. The Botswana National Master Plan for Waste Water and
Sanitation (NMPWWS) (2003) states that only 10 % of the return flow from
wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) are reused, the rest being lost to
seepage and evaporation. The NMPWWS (2003) estimated that 12,000
Ml/year of treated waste water is available in Botswana. Of these 80% is from
the five major urban centres of Gaborone, Francistown, Selibe-Phikwe,
Lobatse and Orapa.
15
TDA Botswana Irrigation Development
4.
CURRENT IRRIGATION IN THE OKAVANGO DELTA
AREA
There is little irrigation being undertaken around the Okavango Delta area
(Figure 2). The following data was obtained from the Regional Agriculture
Office and Department of Agricultural Research in Maun. Out of 188.15 ha
allocated for irrigation, only 31.35 ha (17%) is being utilised. Most of the
irrigation is for vegetables. All the irrigation farms are owned by citizens
except for the 81.25 ha commercial farm which is being run by a non citizen. It
must also be noted that only 1.25 of this area is currently under utilization.
4.1
Ngamiland East District (Maun)
The allocated land for irrigation is 48.8 ha. Only 15.2 ha of these (31%) are
under irrigation (Table 4). The mean and mode for the irrigated land is 0.46 ha
and 0 ha, indicating that many of the allocated plots are not being irrigated. All
the irrigation is for vegetables except for two farms. The percent area under
each vegetable grown is given in Figure 2. Rape and tomatoes are the most
grown, covering 28% and 26% of the area under vegetables, respectively.
Squash (12%), cucumber (9%) and spinach (6%) are next in importance in
terms of the percent area under their cultivation. The rest (Figure 2) are grown
on a much smaller area.
g pepper
carrot
s/potato
6%
1%
kale
1%
chunga
2%
spinach
2%
9%
rape
tomato
28%
26%
squash
12%
w melon
3% cucumber
butternut
6%
4%
Figure 2. Proportion of area under each vegetable in Ngamiland East.
4.2
Ngamiland West (Gumare)
Only 20 ha are allocated for irrigation in Ngamiland West, and of these, 8.5
Ha (43%) are being utilised (Table 5). The mean and maximum area utilised
per farmer are 0.6 ha and 1.5 ha, respectively. Six out of the 15 farms in this
area use open wells and the rest use river water. The breakdown of area
under different vegetables was not available.
16
TDA Botswana Irrigation Development
4.2 Okavango
District
A total of 119.35 Ha have been allocated for irrigation in the Okavango
District. Out of these one is a commercial farm that was allocated 81.25 ha.
Only 6% of the allocated land (7.65 ha) is being utilised (Table 6). Except for
one farm that uses a borehole all the others use river water. Figure 3. Shows
the proportion of the area under each vegetable. Rape (34%), cabbage
(16%), spinach (11%) and tomato (11%) are the vegetables grown the most.
Unlike Ngamiland East, cabbages are more significant in the Okavango
District.
coumolier
beetroot
mustard
2%
1% kale
1%
0%
spinach
11%
cabbage
16%
tomato
11%
squash
onion
3%
6%
w melon
s/potato
2%
8%
g pepper
rape
3%
34%
chunga
2%
Figure 3. Proportion of area under each vegetable in the Okavango district.
17
TDA Botswana Irrigation Development
Figure 4. Location of irrigation projects in the Okavango Delta region.
18
TDA Botswana Irrigation Development
Table 5. Irrigation projects in Ngamiland East District (Maun). Source: Ministry
of Agriculture, Crop Production section, Maun.
LOCATION SOURCE OF
PROJECT IRRIGATION
IRRIGATED CROPS
OF WATER
SIZE (Ha) SYSTEM
AREA
GROWN
1 Bodibeng River
1 Stand
pipe
0 Vegetables
2 Boro
Borehole
1 Microjets
0
3 Kareng
Borehole
1 Stand pipe
0
4 Makgalong Open
well,
borehole
1 Sprinkler
1 Vegetables
5 Matlapana
River well point
1.5 Sprinkler
0 Vegetables
6 Matlapana
River
1
Vegetables
7 Matlapana River
2
0.03 Vegetables
8 Maun
Borehole
1 Sprinkler
0 Vegetables
9 Maun
River
2 Sprinkler
1 Vegetables
Tunnels, drip,
10 Maun
River
3.8 sprinkler 0.45
Tomatoes
11 Mawana
Borehole
1 Sprinkler
0
12 Mphampha Borehole
1.5 Microjets
1.5 Citrus
13 Mphampha Borehole
1
1 Citrus
14 Nxaraga
Borehole
1 Stand pipe
0
15 Nxaraga
River
1 Drag
hose
1 Vegetables
Veg.
16 Nxaraga
Borehole
1 Sprinkler,
microjet
1 Orhard
17 Nxaraga
Borehole
1 Sprinkler,
microjet
1 Vegetables
18 Roman
Borehole
1 Hose
19 Samedupi River
1 Sprinkler
1 Vegetables
20 Samedupi River
1.5
0.32 Vegetables
21 Samedupi River
2 Microjets
2 Vegetables
22 Samedupi River
0.5
0.03 Vegetables
23 Samedupi River
1.5
0.07 Vegetables
24 Semboyo Borehole
1 Sprinkler
0 Vegetables
25 Sexaxa
River
1 Sprinkler
0.5 Vegetables
26 Shorobe
Borehole
1 Stand
pipe
1 Vegetables
27 Tsanekona River
1 Sprinkler
0.5 Vegetables
28 Tsao
Borehole
1 Sprinkler
0 Vegetables
29 Xhobe
River
7 Sprinkler
1 Vegetables
30 Xhobe
River
1 Sprinkler
0.05 Vegetables
31 Xhobe
River
1 Microjets
0 Vegetables
32 Xhobe
River
1.5 Sprinkler
0.04 Vegetables
33 Xhobe
River
1 Sprinkler
0.1 Vegetables
34 Xhobe
River
1
0.56 Vegetables
35 Xhobe
River
1
0.05 Vegetables
TOTAL
48.8
15.2
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TDA Botswana Irrigation Development
Table 6. Irrigation projects in Ngamiland West District (Gumare). Source:
Ministry of Agriculture, Crop Production section, Maun.
LOCATION
SOURCE OF
PROJECT IRRIGATION
IRRIGATED
CROPS
OF WATER
SIZE (Ha)
SYSTEM
AREA
GROWN
1 Tubu
Open
well
1 Stand
pipe
1 Vegetables
2 Tubu
River
1 Hose
0.75 Vegetables
3 Sepopa
River
1 Stand
pipe
0.5 Vegetables
4 Tubu
Open
well
1 Stand
pipe
0.5 Vegetables
5 Danega
Open
well
1 Stand
pipe
0 Vegetables
6 Sepopa
River
1.5 Sprinkler
1.5 Vegetables
7 Etsha
6
River
5 Sprinkler
1 Vegetables
8 Tubu
Open
well
1 Bucket
0.25 Vegetables
9 Tubu
Open
well
1 Bucket
0.25 Vegetables
10 Etsha
6
River
1 Hose
0.25 Vegetables
11 Sepopa
River
1
0
Vegetables
12 Etsha
13
River
1 Bucket
0.5 Vegetables
13 Etsha
6
River
1 Hose
0.25 Vegetables
14 Etsha
6
River
1 Bucket
0.25 Vegetables
15 Konde
Open
well
1.5 Hose
1.5 Vegetables
TOTAL
20
8.5
20
TDA Botswana Irrigation Development
Table 7. Irrigation projects in Okavango District. Source: Ministry of
Agriculture, Crop Production section, Maun.
LOCATION
SOURCE OF
PROJECT IRRIGATION
IRRIGATED CROPS
OF WATER
SIZE (Ha) SYSTEM
AREA
GROWN
1 Samochima
River
1Sprinkler
0.5 Vegetables
2 Shakawe
River
3.5Sprinkler
2 Vegetables
3 Shakawe
River
0.6Basin
0.5 Vegetables
4 Seronga
River
1Sprinkler
1 Vegetables
5 Nxamasere
River
0.75Sprinkler
0.25 Vegetables
6 Samochima
River
4Microjets
0 Citrus
7 Shakawe
River
1.5Basin
0.5 Vegetables
8 Shakawe
River
81.25Centre pivot
1.25 Vegetables
9 Shakawe
River
3Sprinkler
Vegetables
10 Shakawe
River
2.5Sprinkler
0.45 Vegetables
11 Beetsha
Borehole
1Hose
0 Vegetables
12 Mohembo
River
3Hose
0 Vegetables
13 Kautwe
Stand pipe
0.2Hose
0.2 Vegetables
14 Shakawe
River
2Hose
0 Vegetables
15 Shakawe
River
1Sprinkler
1 Vegetables
16 Shakawe
River
0.75
Veg. Orhard
17 Mohembo
River
4
Vegetables
18 Seronga
River
3.4
Vegetables
19 Gunotsoga
River
3.5
Vegetables
20 Shakawe
River
1.4
Vegetables
TOTAL
119.35
7.65
4.4 Water
Usage
4.4.1 Current and short-term future water usage
Based on the allocated and actual area under irrigation, the current and future
short-term water usage was estimated using the pan evaporation values of
Maun and Shakawe/Gumare (Table 7). Irrigation is mostly carried out during
the dry months of April to October, hence the current annual water usage in
Ngamiland East is about 264,000 m3. If all the land currently allocated were
used, the future short-term annual water usage would be 837,000 m3.
A similar estimate for Ngamilang West and Okavango combined shows that
the current annual water used in irrigation is 256,000 m3 and the short term
future requirements will be 2,206,000 m3 (Table 8). The current and short
term use of the water is therefore small.
21
TDA Botswana Irrigation Development
Table 8. Current and future water for irrigation in Ngamiland East. The
column marked 15.2 Ha corresponds to current water usage and that
marked 48.3 Ha corresponds to future short term estimated water usage
in irrigation.
Total (m3) for 15.2 Total (m3)
Month Evaporation m3/ha/month
Ha
for 48.3 Ha
April 199
2274
35,000
110,000
May 189
2160
33,000
104,000
June 158
1806
27,000
87,000
July 183
2091
32,000
101,000
August 218
2491
38,000
120,000
September 263 3006
46,000
145,000
October 307
3509
53,000
169,000
Total (m3/yr) 264,000
837,000
22
TDA Botswana Irrigation Development
Table 9. Current and future water for irrigation in Ngamiland West and
Okavango. The column marked 16.15 Ha corresponds to current water usage
and that marked 139.39 Ha corresponds to future short term estimated water
usage in irrigation.
Total
Total
Month Evaporation
m3/ha/mth
16.15
139.35
April 192
2194
35,000
306,000
May 178
2034
33,000
283,000
June 146
1669
27,000
233,000
July 161
1840
30,000
256,000
August 190
2171
35,000
302,000
September 241
2754
44,000
384,000
October 277
3166
51,000
441,000
Total (m3/yr) 256,000 2,206,000
4.4.2 Long Term Water Usage
So far, Botswana has not planned any major irrigation activities along the
Delta, waiting for international protocols to be finalised. However, based on
the land suitability map (Figure 3), all the area around the Okavango Delta
can result in moderate to moderately high yields in rain-fed agriculture. The
yields would improve if irrigation were used. Most of the unoccupied area in
Ngamiland has, therefore, potential for irrigated agriculture. When Ngamiland
land suitability is considered, 48% of the area (53,000 km2) falls between
moderately high and moderate, showing that a huge area has potential for
irrigation if water resources were available. An irrigation zonation would
indicate which of these areas are actually suitable for irrigation.
23
TDA Botswana Irrigation Development
5.
Use of Fertilisers and Pesticides
Based on the information from the Department of Crop Production, there is
very little use of fertilizers and pesticides in the area around the Okavango
Delta. In some cases, livestock manure is used, but, like fertilizers, the
amounts used are not documented. Table 8 lists the pesticides and fungicides
that have been recommended by the Department of Agricultural research for
application to protect vegetables. Since the amounts that are applied are little,
no further discussion of these will be made except to recommend that
manure, fertilizer and pesticide usage in the Okavango Delta region be
monitored.
Figure 5. Land suitability map of Botswana. The area around the Okavango Delta
has soils that would provide moderate to moderately high crop yields (From SMEC
2006).
24
TDA Botswana Irrigation Development
Table 10. Pesticides and fungicides recommended for vegetables by the
Department of Agricultural Research.
Pesticide/fungicide Pesticide/fungicide Pesticide/fungicide
Mancozeb Permethrin
cypermethrin,
Copper oxychloride
Apron C
Deltamethrin
Funginex Ridomil
Gamma-BHC
Ridomil Bravo
50
Nemacur
Apron C
Dithane M45
thiram
Dichlorvos
Carbofuron
25
TDA Botswana Irrigation Development
6. ISSUES
OF
TRANSBOUNDARY IMPORTANCE
Since Botswana is downstream of the Okavango River Basin, most of the
issues of trans-boundary significance with regard to irrigation will be those
that upstream users would impact on the downstream users. These include:
6.1 Water
abstraction
Extensive abstraction of water upstream would result in low flows into
Botswana. The availability of water for irrigation would therefore be affected,
especially when considering that irrigation would be competing with other
uses of water e.g. domestic, environment for the Okavango delta etc. This is
also true for water abstraction in the northern part of the Delta affecting the
downstream areas. The environmental flow requirement of 390m3/s (vol 6)
needs to be evaluated to check whether it could be adopted for determining
abstractions upstream.
6.2 Pollution
Whereas water for irrigation may not necessarily have to have high quality,
certain water quality parameters may reduce the usefulness of the water for
irrigation if present in high concentrations. Examples of such pollutants
include:
6.2.1 Pollution resulting in high salinity
A salinity problem exists if salts accumulate in the crop zone to a
concentration that causes a loss in yield. These salts may originate from salts
in the applied water. Currently the main-channel water of the Okavango is of
low salt content; but high salt levels are observed in some pools. Any process
that increases the salt content of the water has the potential to contribute to
the salinity problem. Such processes include discharge of wastewater from a
reverse osmosis plant, or discharge of sewage effluent into the water.
6.2.2 Pollution resulting in low water infiltration rates
An infiltration problem related to water quality occurs when the normal infiltration rate
for the applied water or rainfall is appreciably reduced and water remains on the soil
surface too long or infiltrates too slowly to supply the crop with sufficient water to
maintain acceptable yields. Although the infiltration rate of water into soil varies
widely and can be greatly influenced by the quality of the irrigation water, soil factors
such as structure, degree of compaction, organic matter content and chemical make-
up can also greatly influence the intake rate. The two most common water quality
factors which influence the normal infiltration rate are the salinity of the water and its
sodium content relative to the calcium and magnesium content. A high salinity water
will increase infiltration. A low salinity water or a water with a high sodium to calcium
ratio will decrease infiltration.
6.2.3 Pollution resulting in toxicity
Toxicity problems occur if certain constituents in the water are taken up by the plant
and accumulate to concentrations high enough to cause crop damage. Ions of
primary concern are chloride, sodium and boron. Introduction of high concentrations
of these into the water upstream of Botswana will negatively impact on its irrigation.
26
TDA Botswana Irrigation Development
6.2.3 Other factors
Any factor that would impact on water quantity and quality will affect irrigation. This
could range from climate change to deforestation.
27
TDA Botswana Irrigation Development
7. CONCLUSION
Agricultural activities contribute less than 2% to the Botswana's GDP and 80% of this
2% is from the beef industry. Only 1,800 ha are currently under irrigation in
Botswana, with plans to increase this to 5,400 ha in the short term and up to 40,000
in the long term. The long term irrigation is planned for the Panandamatenga-Chobe
area with water drawn from the Chobe/Zambezi. Implementation of this long term
plan is subject to international agreements which are currently not in place. Currently,
only 31.38 ha out of an allocation of 118.15 ha near the Okavango Delta are under
irrigation. There are no plans for extensive irrigation using waters from the Okavango
Delta until international agreements on the use of the water from the Okavango are
reached.
28
TDA Botswana Irrigation Development
8. RECOMMENDATIONS
The following recommendations can be made:
· For planning purposes, an environmental flow requirement (EFR) with an
accompanying definition of the acceptable ecological level of the Okavango
Delta beyond which Botswana is not prepared to go should be undertaken as
a matter of urgency. The EFR is currently being undertaken but there is need
to define the acceptable ecological integrity that balances environmental and
developmental needs. This would then provide a measure of how much water
can be drawn from the Okavango for irrigation
· There is need to have irrigation plans for the Okavango Delta as these can
then be used to test adequacy of water.
· There is need to monitor the use of fertilisers, manure and pesticides in the
Okavango Delta area even though application rates are low
29
TDA Botswana Irrigation Development
9. REFERENCES
NAMPAADD (2000). Final Report, Volume 4. Climate, Soils andWater.
TAHAL Consulting Engineers.
National Accounts statistics-Quarterly Gross Domestic Product, -Fourth
Quarter 2008.
National Development Plan 9 2003/04 2008/09. Ministry of Finance and
Development Planning.
NMPWWS (2003). Botswana National Master Plan for Waste Water and
Sanitation
Pike, J.G. 1970. Interim Technical notes on the hydrology and water
resources of the Okavango River system. FAO and Government of the
Republic of Botswana.
Randall, D. 1957. Factors of Economic Development and the Okavango
Delta. University of Chicago Programme of Education and Research Planning
Research Paper No. 3; Department of Geography Research Paper number
47.
Scudder, T., Manley, R.E., Coley, R.W., Davis, R.K., Green, J., Howard,
G.W., Lawry, S.W., Martz, D., Rogers, P.P., Taylor, A.R.D., Turner, S.D.,
White, G.F., Wright, E.P. 1993. The IUCN review of the Southern Okavango
Integrated Water Development Project. IUCN.
SMEC. 2006. National Water Master Plan Review Final Report Volume 8.
Agriculture.
SMEC. 1987. Southern Okavango Integrated Water Development Project,
phase I: Final report technical study. 5 volumes. Report to DWA by SMEC,
June 1987.
The World FactBook. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-
factbook/geos/bc.html#Econ. Accessed 21 May 2009.
Van der Sluis, T. 1990. Irrigation zoning Nhabe River Ngamiland, Regional
Agriculture Office/DLUPU, Maun.
30
TDA Botswana Irrigation Development
The Okavango River Basin Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis Technical Reports
I
Diagnostic Analysis to establish a base of available
n 1994, the three riparian countries of the Okavango
scientific evidence to guide future decision making.
River Basin Angola, Botswana and Namibia agreed
The study, created from inputs from multi-disciplinary
to plan for collaborative management of the natural
teams in each country, with specialists in hydrology,
resources of the Okavango, forming the Permanent
hydraulics, channel form, water quality, vegetation,
Okavango River Basin Water Commission (OKACOM).
aquatic invertebrates, fish, birds, river-dependent
In 2003, with funding from the Global Environment
terrestrial wildlife, resource economics and socio-
Facility, OKACOM launched the Environmental
cultural issues, was coordinated and managed by a
Protection and Sustainable Management of the
group of specialists from the southern African region
Okavango River Basin (EPSMO) Project to coordinate
in 2008 and 2009.
development and to anticipate and address threats to
the river and the associated communities and
The following specialist technical reports were
environment. Implemented by the United Nations
produced as part of this process and form
Development Program and executed by the United
substantive background content for the Okavango
Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, the project
River Basin Trans-boundary Diagnostic Analysis
produced the Transboundary.
Final Study
Reports integrating findings from all country and background reports, and covering the entire
Reports
basin.
Aylward, B.
Economic Valuation of Basin Resources: Final Report to
EPSMO Project of the UN Food & Agriculture Organization as
an Input to the Okavango River Basin Transboundary
Diagnostic Analysis
Barnes, J. et al.
Okavango River Basin Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis:
Socio-Economic Assessment Final Report
King, J.M. and Brown,
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment Project
C.A.
Initiation Report (Report No: 01/2009)
King, J.M. and Brown,
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment EFA
C.A.
Process Report (Report No: 02/2009)
King, J.M. and Brown,
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment
C.A.
Guidelines for Data Collection, Analysis and Scenario Creation
(Report No: 03/2009)
Bethune,
S.
Mazvimavi,
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment
D. and Quintino, M.
Delineation Report (Report No: 04/2009)
Beuster, H.
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment
Hydrology Report: Data And Models(Report No: 05/2009)
Beuster,
H. Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment
Scenario Report : Hydrology (Report No: 06/2009)
Jones, M.J.
The Groundwater Hydrology of The Okavango Basin (FAO
Internal Report, April 2010)
King, J.M. and Brown,
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment
C.A.
Scenario Report: Ecological and Social Predictions (Volume 1
of 4)(Report No. 07/2009)
King, J.M. and Brown,
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment
C.A.
Scenario Report: Ecological and Social Predictions (Volume 2
of 4: Indicator results) (Report No. 07/2009)
King, J.M. and Brown,
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment
C.A.
Scenario Report: Ecological and Social Predictions: Climate
Change Scenarios (Volume 3 of 4) (Report No. 07/2009)
King, J., Brown, C.A.,
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment
Joubert, A.R. and
Scenario Report: Biophysical Predictions (Volume 4 of 4:
Barnes, J.
Climate Change Indicator Results) (Report No: 07/2009)
King, J., Brown, C.A.
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment Project
and Barnes, J.
Final Report (Report No: 08/2009)
Malzbender, D.
Environmental Protection And Sustainable Management Of The
Okavango River Basin (EPSMO): Governance Review
Vanderpost, C. and
Database and GIS design for an expanded Okavango Basin
Dhliwayo, M.
Information System (OBIS)
Veríssimo, Luis
GIS Database for the Environment Protection and Sustainable
Management of the Okavango River Basin Project
Wolski,
P.
Assessment of hydrological effects of climate change in the
Okavango Basin
Country Reports
Angola
Andrade e Sousa,
Análise Diagnóstica Transfronteiriça da Bacia do Rio
Biophysical Series
Helder André de
Okavango: Módulo do Caudal Ambiental: Relatório do
31
TDA Botswana Irrigation Development
Especialista: País: Angola: Disciplina: Sedimentologia &
Geomorfologia
Gomes, Amândio
Análise Diagnóstica Transfronteiriça da Bacia do Rio
Okavango: Módulo do Caudal Ambiental: Relatório do
Especialista: País: Angola: Disciplina: Vegetação
Gomes,
Amândio
Análise Técnica, Biofísica e Socio-Económica do Lado
Angolano da Bacia Hidrográfica do Rio Cubango: Relatório
Final:Vegetação da Parte Angolana da Bacia Hidrográfica Do
Rio Cubango
Livramento, Filomena
Análise Diagnóstica Transfronteiriça da Bacia do Rio
Okavango: Módulo do Caudal Ambiental: Relatório do
Especialista: País: Angola: Disciplina:Macroinvertebrados
Miguel, Gabriel Luís
Análise Técnica, Biofísica E Sócio-Económica do Lado
Angolano da Bacia Hidrográfica do Rio Cubango:
Subsídio Para o Conhecimento Hidrogeológico
Relatório de Hidrogeologia
Morais, Miguel
Análise Diagnóstica Transfronteiriça da Bacia do Análise Rio
Cubango (Okavango): Módulo da Avaliação do Caudal
Ambiental: Relatório do Especialista País: Angola Disciplina:
Ictiofauna
Morais,
Miguel
Análise Técnica, Biófisica e Sócio-Económica do Lado
Angolano da Bacia Hidrográfica do Rio Cubango: Relatório
Final: Peixes e Pesca Fluvial da Bacia do Okavango em Angola
Pereira, Maria João
Qualidade da Água, no Lado Angolano da Bacia Hidrográfica
do Rio Cubango
Santos,
Carmen
Ivelize
Análise Diagnóstica Transfronteiriça da Bacia do Rio
Van-Dúnem S. N.
Okavango: Módulo do Caudal Ambiental: Relatório de
Especialidade: Angola: Vida Selvagem
Santos, Carmen Ivelize
Análise Diagnóstica Transfronteiriça da Bacia do Rio
Van-Dúnem S.N.
Okavango:Módulo Avaliação do Caudal Ambiental: Relatório de
Especialidade: Angola: Aves
Botswana Bonyongo, M.C.
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist Report: Country:
Botswana: Discipline: Wildlife
Hancock, P.
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module : Specialist Report: Country:
Botswana: Discipline: Birds
Mosepele,
K. Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist Report: Country:
Botswana: Discipline: Fish
Mosepele, B. and
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Dallas, Helen
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist Report: Country:
Botswana: Discipline: Aquatic Macro Invertebrates
Namibia
Collin Christian &
Okavango River Basin: Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Associates CC
Project: Environmental Flow Assessment Module:
Geomorphology
Curtis, B.A.
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist Report Country:
Namibia Discipline: Vegetation
Bethune, S.
Environmental Protection and Sustainable Management of the
Okavango River Basin (EPSMO): Transboundary Diagnostic
Analysis: Basin Ecosystems Report
Nakanwe, S.N.
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist Report: Country:
Namibia: Discipline: Aquatic Macro Invertebrates
Paxton,
M. Okavango River Basin Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist
Report:Country:Namibia: Discipline: Birds (Avifauna)
Roberts, K.
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist Report: Country:
Namibia: Discipline: Wildlife
Waal,
B.V. Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist Report: Country:
Namibia:Discipline: Fish Life
Country Reports
Angola
Gomes, Joaquim
Análise Técnica dos Aspectos Relacionados com o Potencial
Socioeconomic
Duarte
de Irrigação no Lado Angolano da Bacia Hidrográfica do Rio
Series
Cubango: Relatório Final
Mendelsohn,
.J.
Land use in Kavango: Past, Present and Future
Pereira, Maria João
Análise Diagnóstica Transfronteiriça da Bacia do Rio
Okavango: Módulo do Caudal Ambiental: Relatório do
Especialista: País: Angola: Disciplina: Qualidade da Água
Saraiva, Rute et al.
Diagnóstico Transfronteiriço Bacia do Okavango: Análise
32
TDA Botswana Irrigation Development
Socioeconómica Angola
Botswana Chimbari, M. and
Okavango River Basin Trans-Boundary Diagnostic Assessment
Magole, Lapologang
(TDA): Botswana Component: Partial Report: Key Public Health
Issues in the Okavango Basin, Botswana
Magole,
Lapologang
Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis of the Botswana Portion of
the Okavango River Basin: Land Use Planning
Magole, Lapologang
Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis (TDA) of the Botswana p
Portion of the Okavango River Basin: Stakeholder Involvement
in the ODMP and its Relevance to the TDA Process
Masamba,
W.R.
Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis of the Botswana Portion of
the Okavango River Basin: Output 4: Water Supply and
Sanitation
Masamba,W.R.
Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis of the Botswana Portion of
the Okavango River Basin: Irrigation Development
Mbaiwa.J.E. Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis of the Okavango River
Basin: the Status of Tourism Development in the Okavango
Delta: Botswana
Mbaiwa.J.E. &
Assessing the Impact of Climate Change on Tourism Activities
Mmopelwa, G.
and their Economic Benefits in the Okavango Delta
Mmopelwa,
G.
Okavango River Basin Trans-boundary Diagnostic Assessment:
Botswana Component: Output 5: Socio-Economic Profile
Ngwenya, B.N.
Final Report: A Socio-Economic Profile of River Resources and
HIV and AIDS in the Okavango Basin: Botswana
Vanderpost,
C.
Assessment of Existing Social Services and Projected Growth
in the Context of the Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis of the
Botswana Portion of the Okavango River Basin
Namibia
Barnes, J and
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Wamunyima, D
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist Report:
Country: Namibia: Discipline: Socio-economics
Collin Christian &
Technical Report on Hydro-electric Power Development in the
Associates CC
Namibian Section of the Okavango River Basin
Liebenberg, J.P.
Technical Report on Irrigation Development in the Namibia
Section of the Okavango River Basin
Ortmann, Cynthia L.
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module : Specialist Report Country:
Namibia: discipline: Water Quality
Nashipili,
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis: Specialist
Ndinomwaameni
Report: Country: Namibia: Discipline: Water Supply and
Sanitation
Paxton,
C.
Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis: Specialist Report:
Discipline: Water Quality Requirements For Human Health in
the Okavango River Basin: Country: Namibia
33
TDA Botswana Irrigation Development
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