Okavango River Basin Trans-Boundary
Diagnostic Assessment (TDA):
Botswana Component
Out Put 5:
Socio-Economic Profile
G. Mmopelwa
July 2009

TDA Botswana Socio-Economic Profile

OutPut 5:
SocioEconomic Profile

G. Mmopelwa
7/30/2009

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TDA Botswana Socio-Economic Profile
Contents
Executive Summary ....................................................................................................................................... 5
1. CONTINGENT VALUE OF EACH MAJOR RIVE RELATED RESOURCE USED AND ITS IMPORTANCE ON IN
PEOPLE'S LIVES IN TERMS OF POVERTY ALLEVIATION .................................................................................. 8
1.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 8
1.2 Value of resources .............................................................................................................................. 9
1.2.1 Livestock and crop farming .......................................................................................................... 9
1.2.2 Fishing ........................................................................................................................................ 11
1.2.4. River reed, grass and papyrus and palm leaves ....................................................................... 11
1.2.5 Poles, timber and fuelwood ....................................................................................................... 13
1.2.6 Wild foods, upland foods and medicinal plants ......................................................................... 13
1.2.7 Tourism ...................................................................................................................................... 14
1.2.8. Overall value of wetland resources .......................................................................................... 16
2. ASSESSMENT OF LIVELIHOODS; RELIANCE ON RIVER AND ASSOCIATED RESOURCES FOR HOUSEHOLD
INCOME FOR REPRESENTATIVE SOCIAL AREAS WITHIN BOTSWANA PORTION OF THE OKVANGO RIVER
BASIN ........................................................................................................................................................... 17
2.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 17
2.2 Livelihood resources and household resource utilization ................................................................ 19
2.2.1 Natural capital ............................................................................................................................ 19
2.2.2 Physical capital ........................................................................................................................... 20
2.2.3 Human capital ............................................................................................................................ 20
2.2.4 Financial capital .......................................................................................................................... 21
2.2.5 Social capital .............................................................................................................................. 21
2.3 Livelihood activities, strategies and outcomes ............................................................................. 21
2.3.1 Livestock farming ....................................................................................................................... 22
2.3.2 Arable farming ........................................................................................................................... 22
2.3.3 Fishing ........................................................................................................................................ 24
2.3.4 Basket weaving .......................................................................................................................... 24
2.3.5 Community based tourism ......................................................................................................... 24

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TDA Botswana Socio-Economic Profile
3. ASSESSING FOOD SECURITY AND NUTRITION VALUE ASSOCIATED WITH RIVER AND ASSOCIATED
RESOURCES WITHIN EACH REPRESENTATIVE SOCIAL AREA. ...................................................................... 26
3.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 26
3.2 Role of wetlands resources as safety nets ........................................................................................ 26
4. CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................................................... 28
5. REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................................ 29

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Total economic value framework for wetlands ............................................................................ 9
Figure 2: Household net private value (BWP) for livestock and crop farming in different areas of the
Delta (2005 prices) (Source: Turpie et al., 2006) ........................................................................................ 10
Figure 4: Household net private value (BWP) for river reed, grass and palm leaves in different areas of
the Delta (2005 prices) (Source: Turpie et al., 2006) .................................................................................. 12
Figure 5: Household net private value (BWP) for poles and timber in different areas of the Delta (2005
prices) (Source: Turpie et al., 2006) ............................................................................................................ 13
Figure 6: Household net private value (BWP) for wetlands foods and medicinal plants in different areas
of the Delta (2005 prices) (Source: Turpie et al., 2006). ............................................................................. 14
Figure 7: Overall household net private values of resources (2005 prices) (Turpie et al., 2006) .............. 16
Figure 8: The Sustainable livelihood framework ........................................................................................ 18

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Estimated value of annual gross output and gross value added (BWP) in the Okavango Delta
based tourism ............................................................................................................................................. 15
Table 2: Percentage of household harvesting resources in the Panhandle, west, south west, south east
and central of the Delta .............................................................................................................................. 19

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TDA Botswana Socio-Economic Profile
Executive Summary

This report contains three sections. The first section is a review of literature to estimate, per
representative social area within Botswana, continent value of each major river-related resource
used and its importance in people's lives in terms of poverty alleviation. The second section is
an assessment of livelihoods and reliance on river (and associated resources) for household
income for representative social areas within Botswana portion of the Okavango River Basin is
done. The third section deals with assessing food security and nutrition value associated with
river and associated resources within each representative social area
The Okavango Delta resources in northern Botswana form the basis of livelihoods for many of
the communities, many of whom are poor. Studies have been carried out to estimate gross and
household private values for resources and livelihoods in the Panhandle, south west, south east
and central part of the Okavango Delta.
Livestock farming is one of the most important livelihood activities. Livestock, especially cattle,
is kept at cattle posts and villages. The total estimated household net private value for livestock
keeping at the cattle-post and villages were BWP54.5 million and 6.6 million, respectively. The
value of cattle keeping was highest in the western part and lowest in the southern part of the
Delta.
There are two types of arable farming systems; flood recession agriculture and reinfed
agriculture. The average size of area cultivated for both systems is 2.1 hectares. The total
household net private value for flood recession was estimated at BWP2.2 million, with the
highest value occurring in the western part and the lowest occurring in the Panhandle.
Subsistence/traditional, commercial and recreational fishing are also important economic
activities. The turnover for subsistence and commercial fishing has been estimated at BWP1.5
million. The preferred subsistence and commercial fish species are Oreochromis spp,
Serranochromis spp, Hydrocynus vittatus, while bream and the tiger fish (Hydrocynus vittatus)
are the preferred species for recreational fishing. The total net private value of traditional fishery
and gillnet fishery were estimated at BWP657 883 and BWP1031, respectively. The net
household private value of traditional fishery was highest in the Panhandle, while that for gillnet
fishery was highest in the central part of the Delta.

Communities in the Delta harvest a number of plants and/or their products which they utilize in
diverse ways. These include river reed, grass, palm leaves, papyrus, poles, timber, fuelwood,
wild foods and vegetables and medicinal plants. The total household net private value of river
reed was estimated at BWP2 252 361, and the highest net household private value was
recorded in the south east, while the smallest was recorded in the central part of the Delta. The
total household net private value of grass was estimated at BWP3 087 761. The highest net
private value of grass was highest in the Panhandle. Palm leaves were estimated to have a total
net household private value of BWP1 787 837. The highest net private values were recorded in
the Panhandle.

The values of poles, timber and fuelwood were estimated at BWP1 681 222, BWP568 697
BWP8 581 022, respectively. The net household private value of poles was highest in the south
west, while the highest for timber and fuelwood was recorded in the Panhandle and west of the
Delta, respectively.

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TDA Botswana Socio-Economic Profile
Wetland foods were estimated to have a total net household private value of BWP 99 207. The
highest net household private value was recorded in the Panhandle, while the smallest was
recorded in the south east of the Delta. The total household net private value for medicinal
plants was estimated at BWP277 729.8. The highest household value of medicinal plants was in
the western part, while the smallest was in the central part of the Delta.
The Delta also supports a large tourism industry in various ways, including wildlife viewing,
safari hunting, canoe rides, site-seeing, motor boat cruises, and recreational fishing. The gross
(direct) output of tourism in the Okavango Delta Ramsar site was estimated at BWP1115.8
million, and the gross value added was estimated at BWP 401 million. Using an estimated 40-50
000 tourists visiting Moremi Game Reserve annually, consumer surplus accruing wildlife viewing
have been estimated to be between USA$ 9.4 million to 11.8 million.

The sustainable livelihood framework was used to assess livelihoods in the Okavango Delta.
Five different forms of capital are recognized, and these are natural, physical, financial, human
and social capital. Natural capital includes a wide range of natural resources harvested from the
Delta which include vegetation and its products, water and fishing. The first level of stakeholders
who derive livelihoods from natural capital, (who are mostly the poor) are vulnerable to shocks
such as drought and changes in flooding, because they lack alternative means of living.
One of the common and very important physical capital in the Delta is the use of cattle as
source of drought power. Other forms of physical capital include storage facilities for fishers.
Most fishers lack adequate and good storage facilities. They also lack the means of transporting
their catch to other market outlets.
Family labour, as opposed to hired labour, is a common form of human capital in households'
pursuance of various livelihoods. Another important, but less recognized form of human capital
is indigenous knowledge possessed by fishers. This knowledge is used by fishers in the
sustainable utilization of fish. Centralized fisheries management, driven by government policy
has tended to ignore this knowledge and emphasize top-down management.
Most famers lack financial capital, and are too poor to access credit. While the distribution of
cattle is skewed, farmers who own cattle convert them to the needed cash.
Social capital is found in the form of community trusts, fishing syndicates and farmers
associations. These networks enable members to benefit from programmes that may be
financially supported by government.
In pursuit of livelihoods, households combine two or more different activities to spread risk.
Activities that are often combined include arable farming, livestock farming, fishing, basket
making, and community based tourism. Activities such as fishing and flood recession agriculture
can be adversely affected by changes in flood. Assets such as cattle are affected by drought
and disease outbreaks (e.g. Food and Mouth and lung disease), while tourism can be affected
by factors such as political instability, market changes and local and international policies.
Assessment of food security in this study was based on considering efforts by government and
households to ensure food security at household level. Food security refers to a condition when
all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food
at the individual or household level. Poor people are more likely to be food insecure because
they lack access to sufficient food. In the past, the government of Botswana instituted social
safety net programs as an acknowledgement that poverty is widespread in rural areas. These

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TDA Botswana Socio-Economic Profile
programmes include home based care, school feeding, old age pension and drought relief.
While the contribution of social safety net programs to poverty alleviation is significant, there has
been a general lack of understanding of the critical role of natural safety nets in food security.
Natural resources are source of a variety of food that supplement and complement what is
normally consumed at the household level. Their direct contribution to food security is through
their supply, (e.g. subsistence utilization), while their indirect contribution is revenue generation.
For instance, green leafy vegetables harvested during the rainy season and high flood season
and tubers (Nymphaeas family) harvested during low flood season in the Panhandle, contribute
to nutrition security as well as dietary diversity for most of poor households. Thus, these
products provide a critical safety net function for the riparian households as they become as
source of food during emergency period such as drought, famines, floods and sickness and
thereby reduce household risk and vulnerability to falling deeper into poverty.

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TDA Botswana Socio-Economic Profile
1. CONTINGENT VALUE OF EACH MAJOR RIVE RELATED
RESOURCE USED AND ITS IMPORTANCE ON IN PEOPLE'S LIVES IN
TERMS OF POVERTY ALLEVIATION
1.1 Introduction

Worldwide, wetlands are prone to loss and degradation because their values (especially
functional values) are not understood, or where these values are understood, they are simply
not appreciated (Winpeny, 1991). They are also often considered wastelands, unproductive and
without value (Turner et al., 2000; Silvius, 2000). Most of their products are also not marketed,
making them appear to have low economic values which in turn leads to inefficient resource
allocation (Daily et al., 1997). Wetlands also have characteristics of public goods, implying that
the services they provide are not paid for by the users- people do not want to pay for things
which do not belong to any private body (Barbier et al., 1997; Daily et al., 1997). Further,
wetlands are in many cases open access resources where no rules apply to their use, hence
are often subjected to over-exploitation. This market failure is considered one of the most
important causes of wetland conversion and loss (Turner et al., 2000; Barbier et al., 1997; Daily
et al., 1997).

The Okavango Delta wetland holds the largest freshwater reserves of the country and supports
the livelihood of many communities, many of whom are poor (Gumbricht et al., 2004; Ashton et
al., 2003; Silvius et al., 2000; Rothert, 1997; Neme, 1997). The poor are generally those who
lack adequate food and shelter, education and health, face extreme vulnerability to ill-heath,
economic dislocations and natural disasters and often exposed to ill treatment by institutions of
the state and are powerless in influencing key decisions affecting their life (World Bank, 2000).

Like most other wetlands, the Okavango Delta provides a variety of goods and services to
communities living in and around it. Estimating the economic value of these goods and services
is extremely important for the sensitization of policy makers on the need to plan for the
conservation and sustainable utilization of the Delta's resources. Economic valuation of river
based resources also presents the use value of these resources to those who are income poor
and depending on these resources.
The total economic value framework (Figure 1) is often used to present various values of
resources (Pearce and Turner 1990; Adger et al., 1994). The total economic value is an
aggregate of direct use value (benefits that arise from people's direct use of the resource),
indirect use values (benefits derived from services that the environment provides, and do not
require any good to be harvested, nor do they enter a market at all), option value (the
willingness to pay for an environmental resource arising from the fact that an individual values
an environmental resource because he/she has the option to use that resource in the future),
existence value (value attached to knowing that an environmental asset exists even though the
value attributer may not be interested in consuming that resource) and bequest value (value that
an individual derives from ensuring that the resources will be available future generations).

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TDA Botswana Socio-Economic Profile

Total economic

values

Use values
Non-use values

Direct use
Indirect use
Option
Existence
Bequest

values
values
values
value
values

Figure 1: Total economic value framework for wetlands

1.2 Value of resources

1.2.1 Livestock and crop farming

Livestock keeping is one the most important livelihood activities in Okavango Delta (Turpie et
al., 2006). Livestock comprises cattle, goats, sheep, donkeys and horses. Cattle are used as
source of income, meat, draught power and milk; goats and sheep are also used as source of
meat and income; while donkeys are a source of draught power (pulling scot carts and
ploughing). Horses are predominantly used for transport (riding).

Livestock is often kept at cattle post and at villages. In five study areas of Panhandle, west,
south west, south east and central of the Okavango Delta, Turpie et al. (2006) found that the
average number of cattle kept per household at the cattle posts and villages was 38 and less
than 5, respectively. The total number of large stock unit in the study areas was estimated at
655 000. The total estimated net household net private value of livestock kept at cattle posts
and villages was BWP54,5 million and BWP6, 6 million, respectively (Turpie et al., 2006). Figure
2 shows that the net private value per household of livestock farming in cattle post was highest
in the western part of the Delta, while the highest value of livestock farming in villages occurred
in the south western part of the Delta. Due to the fact that cattle owners usually do not reveal
the actual number of livestock they have, these values may be considered underestimates.

Arable farming is another important livelihood activity in the Okavango Delta. In the Panhandle,
west, south west, south east and central of the Okavango Delta, 47% of the households
practiced dryland farming, while 28% practiced flood recession farming, locally known as
molapo farming (Turpie et al., 2006). The size of area cultivated for both systems is quite small,
averaging 2.1 ha per household. Dryland farming is practiced around Etsha villages by the
Hambukushu ethnic group. Molapo farming is practiced in the flood plains mostly by the Bayei
and the Batawana (Bendsen and Meyer, 2003). The total household net private value for flood
recession farming in the Panhandle, west, south west, south east and central of the Okavango
Delta was estimated at about BWP2.2 million (Turpie et al., 2006) Figure 2 indicates that the

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TDA Botswana Socio-Economic Profile
highest net private value per household of molapo farming occurred in the western part of the
Delta, while the smallest occurred in the Panhandle where there are no floodplains.

30000000
25000000
20000000
15000000
Livestock (cattle post)

(Pula)
Livestock (villages)
10000000
Value
Molapo farming
5000000
0
Panhandle
West
South South East Central
West
5000000
Area

Figure 2: Household net private value (BWP) for livestock and crop farming in different areas of the Delta (2005 prices)
(Source: Turpie et al., 2006)

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TDA Botswana Socio-Economic Profile
1.2.2 Fishing

Subsistence, commercial and recreational or sport fishing are common in the Delta (Mmopelwa
et al., 2005). According to Mosepele (2001), 65% of the Ngamiland north population depends on
fishing and that the total annual economic turnover in the Okavango fishery is approximately
BWP1.5 million. However, the number of fishers varies widely for the reason that there are
occasional fishers whose individual time spent on fishing is low, and who, for most part of the
time, use simple gear; part-time fishers, who fish during part of the year; and professional
fishers who live entirely by fishing (Welcome, 1985). The most preferred commercial fish
species are Oreochromis spp, Serranochromis spp, Hydrocynus vittatus (Mosepele, 2001).
Most of these species are also the preferred species for subsistence fishers, while preferred fish
species for recreational fishing are bream and the tiger fish (Hydrocynus vittatus). Figure 3
shows household net private value of both traditional and gillnet fishers in the Delta. The total
net private value of traditional fishery and gillnet fishery were estimated at BWP657 883 and
BWP1031, respectively (Turpie et al., 2006). The net private value per household of traditional
fishery was highest in the Panhandle, while that for gillnet fishery was highest in the central part
of the Delta as shown in Figure 3.

1800000
1600000
1400000
1200000
1000000

(Pula)
800000
Traditional fishery
600000
Value
Gillnet fishery
400000
200000
0
200000
Panhandle
West
South West South East
Central
Area

Figure 3: Household net private value (BWP) for fishing in different areas of the Delta (2005 prices) (Source: Turpie et al.,
2006)

1.2.4. River reed, grass and papyrus and palm leaves

River reed (Phragmites spp) is harvested on an open access basis in the Delta. Its direct use
value arises from harvesting it for household use and income generation (Barnes et al., 2001). It
is generally used in fencing of courtyards, construction, making different types of fish catching
equipment such as fishing baskets and making floor mats. Turpie et al. (2006) estimated the
total household net private value in different areas of the Delta at BWP2 252 361. The highest

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TDA Botswana Socio-Economic Profile
net private value per household of the harvested river reed was in the south east of the
Delta,while the smallest was in the central part of the Delta (Figure 4).

Grass is harvested from the river and is used as a roofing material. Turpie et al. (2006)
estimated that 174 000 bundles of thatching grass annually are collected from Panhandle,
west, south west, south east and central of the Okavango Delta. The total household net private
value of grass was estimated at BWP3 087 761 (Turpie et al., 2006) which is higher than that for
river reed. Households in the Panhandle had the highest net private value of grass than in other
areas of the Delta.

Papyrus (Cyperus papyrus), found in permanently inundated channels and pools, is used in
making sleeping mats that are sold for income. It is collected mostly in the panhandle and in the
central part of the Delta (Turpie et al., 2006). Since papyrus is generally not sold, its value is
much lower than for grass and reed (Figure 4). The net private value per household of the
harvested papyrus was highest in the central part of the Delta.

Palm leaves are important in basket weaving and making other handicrafts that are sold for
income. The leaves are used together with other plant parts to make baskets. For instance, the
roots of Berchemia discolor are used for dyeing the leaves. Palm leaves are not usually sold like
other products. The total household net private value of palm leaves in the Panhandle, west,
south west, south east and central of the Okavango Delta, was estimated by Turpie et al. (2006)
to be BWP1 787 837. Households in Panhandle had the highest net private values of harvested
palm leaves (Figure 4).

1600000
1400000
1200000

(Pula)
1000000
River reed
800000
Value
Grass
600000
Papyrus
400000
Palm leaves
200000
0
Panhandle
West
South West South East
Central
200000
Area

Figure 4: Household net private value (BWP) for river reed, grass and palm leaves in different areas of the Delta (2005 prices)
(Source: Turpie et al., 2006)

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TDA Botswana Socio-Economic Profile
1.2.5 Poles, timber and fuelwood

Woody resources are important as they have a variety of uses in the Delta. Poles are used as
fencing materials and in general construction, while timber is used for making various products
including canoes, hoe handles, yokes, tables, doors, chairs, and pounding pots (Turpie et al.,
2006). Fuelwood is used as source of energy. Many tree species are used as source of
fuelwood. Table 4 shows the household net private value for poles, timber and fuelwood in
different areas of the Delta. The values of poles, timber and fuelwood were estimated at BWP1
681 222, BWP568 697 BWP8 581 022, respectively (Turpie et al., 2006). The net private value
per household of poles harvested from the Delta was highest in the south west of the Delta,
while the highest for timber was in the Panhandle of the Delta (Figure 5). Households in the
west of the Delta had the highest net private value of firewood collected than in other areas.

5000000
4500000
4000000
3500000
3000000

(Pula)
2500000
Poles
2000000
Value
Timber
1500000
Fuelwood
1000000
500000
0
Panhandle
West
South West
South East
Central
Area

Figure 5: Household net private value (BWP) for poles and timber in different areas of the Delta (2005 prices) (Source: Turpie
et al., 2006)
1.2.6 Wild foods, upland foods and medicinal plants

A variety of wild foods are harvested in the Delta. They include monkey orange (Strychnos
cocculoides), spiny leaved monkey orange (Strychnos pungens), kalahari pobery (Dialium
engleranum), false brandybush (Grewia bicolor), brandybush (Grewia flava), large sour plum
(Ximenia caffra), rough-leaved raisin bush (Grewia flavascens), rough-leaved raisin bush
(Grewia retinervis), makettii tree (Recinidendron rautenenii), African mongostein (Garcinia
livingstonei), bird plum (Berchemia discolor), water lily (Nymphaea caerula) and African ebony
(Diospyros mespiliformis) (Mmopelwa, 2006).

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TDA Botswana Socio-Economic Profile
The main wild fruits often sold in the market include Strychnos cocculoides, Strychnos pungens,
Grewia bicolor, Grewia flava, Garcinia livingstonei Berchemia discolor and Nymphaea caerula.
Turpie et al. (2006) estimated the household net private value of wetlands foods in the in the
Panhandle, west, south west, south east and central of the Okavango Delta, at BWP 99 207.
The highest net private value per household of wild foods collected was in the Panhandle, while
the least was in the south east of the Delta (Figure 6).
A number of plants are also harvested and used as traditional medicine. They include Diospyros
lycioides, Bauhinia variagata, Terminalia serecea, Combretum collinumn, Recinidendron
rautenenii, Acacia erioloba, Acacia tortilis, Adansonia digitata, combretum imberbe, Bocia
albitrunca, Acacia galpinii, Rhus tenuinervis, Clerodendrum ternatum, Ximenia americana,
Melhania griquensis, Enicostema ascillare, Combretum hereroense, Pterocarpus capasa, Ficus
sycomorus, Gardenia spatulifolia,, Croton megalobotrys, Albizia anthelmentica,
Colophospermum mopane, Ficus thonningii, Euclea divinorum and Harpagophytum
procumbens. The total household net private value for medicinal plants was estimated at
BWP277 729.8 (Turpie et al., 2006). The highest per household value of medicinal plants was in
the western part of the Delta, while the smallest was in the central part of the Delta (Figure 6).

100000
90000
80000
70000
60000

(Pula)
50000
wetlands foods
40000
Value
Medicianl plants
30000
Column3
20000
10000
0
Pamhandle
West
South west
South east
Central
Area

Figure 6: Household net private value (BWP) for wetlands foods and medicinal plants in different areas of the Delta (2005
prices) (Source: Turpie et al., 2006).
1.2.7 Tourism

The Okavango Delta supports a large tourism industry, the second most important economic
activity after diamonds. The importance of tourism in the country is evidenced by a build-up of
lodges and increasing tourist visitors from all over the world. Wildlife based tourism in the Delta
provides 40% of employment opportunities in the north (Tupie et al., 2006). The main tourism
attractions are the complex mosaic of dryland, island fringe, wetland habitats, and associated
wildlife diversity that include big and small game, birds, fishes, reptiles and amphibians

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TDA Botswana Socio-Economic Profile
(Masundire et al., 1998; Ashton et al., 2003). One of the game reserves, Moremi (3880 sq. km),
located in the northern eastern part of the Okavango Delta, is an area of considerable ecological
diversity and scenic beauty particularly with its wilderness combinations of water, riverine
woodland and wildlife (Barnes, 1998). The Delta provides an appealing scenery and novel
recreational activities that include canoe rides, site-seeing, motor boat cruises, and game fishing
(Rothert, 1997; Mbaiwa, 2002; Gumbricht et al., 2004). Further, the river system provides a
medium for traditional transport and communication, primarily through the use of boats. The
dug�out canoe has been adopted by the tourist industry as a way for tourist to experience the
Delta (Cassidy, 1997).
A number of studies (e.g. Mmopelwa et al., 2007; Mmopelwa and Blignaut, 2006; Turpie et al.,
2006; Kgathi et al., 2008) have been undertaken to estimate the values associated with tourism
activities. For instance, the gross (direct) output of tourism in the Okavango Delta Ramsar site
was estimated at BWP1115.8 million, while the gross value added was estimated at BWP 401
million (Turpie et al., 2006). The contribution of the various components of tourism are shown in
Table 1.

Table 1: Estimated value of annual gross output and gross value added (BWP) in the Okavango Delta based tourism
Component Gross output Gross value added
Non-consumptive tourism 899.7 310.6
Hunting tourism 172.5 67.2
CBNRM tourism 40.1 16.8
Total 1115.8 401.0
Source: Turpie et al. (2006)

The sources of revenue are park entry fees, accommodation (camping fees), vehicle fees, boat
fees, aircraft landing fees and other fees (such as filming and permit renewals for guides). Park
entry fees and camping fees are P120 and BWP30 per person per day, respectively. Mmopelwa
et al. (2007) found in Moremi Game Reserve that overseas visitors were willing to pay more for
park and camping fees, provided that Moremi game reserve was to be managed by an
independent conservation organization. They were willing to pay an increase of BWP29 for park
fees and and BWP9 for camping fees per tourist.
In another survey of tourists in the Delta, Kgathi et al. (2008) estimated the total expenditure of
tourists for the whole trip to the Delta (including the costs of multiple destination travellers and
single destination travelers) to be USA$ 5704.00. The study calculated the mean consumer
surplus accruing to tourists in the Okavango Delta to be USA$ 235 or 7% of the mean
expenditure for the Okavango Delta trip. Using an estimate of 40-50 000 tourists who visit
Moremi Game Reserve annually, the authors estimated the untapped consumer surplus that
accrues to wildlife viewing tourists to be between USA$ 9.4 million to 11.8 million per annum.
Clearly, the potential consumer surplus is well above these figures because some of the tourists
from other market segments outside Moremi Game Reserve are not included in the calculation
(Kgathi et al., 2008).

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TDA Botswana Socio-Economic Profile

1.2.8. Overall value of wetland resources

The total net private value of resources is shown in Figure 7. The highest values were those of
cattle kept in cattle post, with annual values of above BWP50 million. This shows the
importance of livestock farming in the study area. All other values were below BWP10 million.
The smallest net private values were of medicinal plants and timber.

60000000
50000000

(BWP)
40000000
30000000

vaules
20000000
10000000

private
0
Net
Resources/activity

Figure 7: Overall household net private values of resources (2005 prices) (Turpie et al., 2006)

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TDA Botswana Socio-Economic Profile
2. ASSESSMENT OF LIVELIHOODS; RELIANCE ON RIVER AND
ASSOCIATED RESOURCES FOR HOUSEHOLD INCOME FOR
REPRESENTATIVE SOCIAL AREAS WITHIN BOTSWANA PORTION OF
THE OKVANGO RIVER BASIN

2.1 Introduction

The assessment or analysis of livelihoods in this section follows the sustainable livelihood
framework which presents the main components of and factors affecting people's livelihoods
(Figure 8). Scoones (1998) defined a livelihood as comprising the capabilities, assets (including
both material and social resources) and activities required for a means of living. A livelihood is
sustainable when it can cope with and recover from stress and shocks, maintain or enhance its
capabilities assets while not undermining the natural resource base.
Household livelihoods are affected by an external environment, often called the vulnerability
context (Department for International Department, 1999; Scoones, 1998). The vulnerability
context is the risk factors surrounding making a living (Ellis and Freeman, 2005). This is the
environment which the farmer has no control over. The components of the vulnerability context
include trends, shocks, and seasonal shifts (Department for International Development, 1999).
Shocks are sudden unpredictable disturbance such as flood and epidemics (Scoones, 1998).
Trends are more predictable and include factors such as continuing/declining rainfall, changes
in population and expansion of local economy (Brock, 1999). Seasonal shifts in prices,
employment opportunities and food availability can also affect livelihoods in a negative or
positive manner (Department for International Development, 1999).
Within a livelihood framework, five types of capital or assets are identified: natural capital (the
stock of natural resources and environmental services from which livelihood are derived),
physical capital (infrastructure, tools and technology); financial capital (cash, credit, remittances,
pensions, wages and other economic assets), human capital (skills, knowledge and labour to
enable household to pursue livelihood strategies), and social capital (net works, social relations
and associations which people draw upon to pursuing different livelihood strategies) (Krantz,
2001).
Households combine different activities (e.g. fishing and livestock farming) to achieve certain
goals. The combination of various activities by households is referred to as livelihood strategies
(Department for International Development, 1999). Depending on seasonal cycles, households
may pursue different activities simultaneously or sequentially, with certain activities more
specialized than others (Scoones, 1998).
Households' goals of combining different activities are referred to as livelihood outcomes.
Households may pursue different portfolios for increased income, increased wellbeing,
improved food security, reduced vulnerability or more sustainable use of resources) (Scoones,
1998). Most households have a great diversity of livelihoods strategies primary because they
have to cope with stress and shock. When a household is able to cope with an external force
such as drought, then the livelihood of that household is socially sustainable (Krantz, 2001).

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People's decisions to combine different activities (livelihood strategies) for desired outcomes
are affected by policies that exist at local, national, regional and international levels and
institutions and processes (Scoones, 1998). Institutions or patterns of behavior are governed by
normal rules of a society and mediate access to livelihood resources, ultimately affecting
livelihood strategies and outcomes (Krantz, 2001).

Vulnerability
Livelihood
Policies and
Livelihood
Livelihood

context

resources

Intuitions

strategies
outcomes
(shocks,
(Natural,
Financial,

seasonality,
Human,
trends &
Physical, Social

changes
capital)

Figure 8: The Sustainable livelihood framework
(Source: Adapted from Scoones, 1998)

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TDA Botswana Socio-Economic Profile
2.2 Livelihood resources and household resource utilization

2.2.1 Natural capital

Most of the rural based livelihoods in the Okavango Delta are natural resource based. Fresh
water is an important natural capital. It is used for domestic purposes, drinking cooking bathing
and personal hygiene, watering gardens, brick moulding and livestock consumption. Surface
water is sourced directly from the river as well as from standpipes. Before being widely
distributed through standpipes in the village, surface water from the river is treated (Mmopelwa,
2006). Villages that are distantly located from the river are supplied with water from boreholes
recharged by the river.
A range of wild plants and animals that contribute to livelihoods are harvested from the wild
(Applied Development Consultants 2001; Turpie et al, 2006; Government of Botswana, 2003).
The plant based natural resource capital include river reed (used as building material, making
court yard fences, fishing baskets and handicrafts such as mats); papyrus (used in making of
basket and carpets); grass (used as roofing material); wild foods (used for household
consumption and sale); poles and timber (used as building materials, making mortar and pistil,
carving of canoes and household use); firewood (used as a source of energy) and medicinal
plants (used traditionally to cure various ailments). Many of these natural resources can also be
sold directly for income or can be used to make other products.
Among the natural capital users, two groups of stakeholders can be identified. The first level of
people is the primary stakeholders who are directly dependent on resources and derive
immediate benefit from the resources in pursuance of livelihood activities, while the second
group is that of secondary stakeholders (e.g. tour operators), who do not directly depend on
natural resources as they usually derive benefit from the resources at a much higher
commercial level than primary stakeholders (ODMP, 2006). The first level of stakeholders are
usually the poor who are dependent on these resources for subsistence and food security
needs They are usually vulnerable as they lack, assets, savings and alternative means of or
options to deal with shocks and stress (Shackelton et al., 2008).
Table 1 shows household dependence (household percentage) on natural resources in different
areas of the Delta. In the Panhandle, west, south west, south east and central of the Delta,
households using fuelwood constituted the highest percentage. The second most important
resource in the Panhandle was river reed (69%), and wild food in other areas (53% in the west,
64% in the south east and 65% in the central) of the Delta.
Table 2: Percentage of household harvesting resources in the Panhandle, west, south west, south east
and central of the Delta
Resource Panhandle
West
South
west South
east Central
Pottery
3
0
2
1
0
Wetland grass
61
21
2
5
18
Upland grass
8
12
18
16
35

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TDA Botswana Socio-Economic Profile
River reed
69
33
7
18
22
Papyrus
10
1
0
1
12
Palm leaves
12
42
7
29
41
Wild foods
57
53
64
57
65
Medicinal plants
12
12
19
16
10
Firewood
77
86
98
85
96
Timber
1
1
0
1
0
Poles &withies
49
28
34
28
47
Fish
34
6
4
6
20
Honey
2
1
1
2
2
Hunting
36
49
43
42
61
(Source: Adapted from Turpie et al (2006) household survey)
Differences in household dependence of resources is a function of a number of factors including
the availability of resources which in most cases will be determined by the natural conditions
such as flooding, proportion of the population using a particular resource, the effort (labour)
required to harvest the resources, the market demand for the saleable natural resources or
their products.
The implication of direct dependence of primary stakeholders on resources is that should the
availability of resources be adversely affected by environmental shocks such as drought or
flood variability, within or outside Botswana, their wellbeing will be seriously affected because
they lack the means of buffering against such impacts. In a survey of Applied Development
Research Consultants (2001), 70% of the communities reported that fish, river reed, water lily
and grass had declined due to over-exploitation and reduction and flooding and rainfall.

2.2.2 Physical capital

Physical capital refers to the basic infrastructure and producer goods needed to support
livelihoods such as affordable transport and secure shelter (Department for International
Development, 1999). Cattle as a source of draft power is one of the most important physical
capital in the Delta, though its ownership is skewed, and as result many other households do
not have access to draught power (Bendsen and Meyer, 2003). Other physical capital that relate
to fishing includes storage facilities of fishermen, which are of poor standards because fishers
lack financial resource to maintain them. Fishers also lack transport to market their fish in other
areas (Mmopelwa and Ngwenya 2008b).

2.2.3 Human capital

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TDA Botswana Socio-Economic Profile
Most resources are harvested by households using family labour. In certain activities, there is
division of labour. For instance, fishing is predominantly a male dominated livelihood activity.
Women are involved in fishing at subsistence level and use fishing baskets as their fishing gear
(Mosepele, 2001). The other form of capital among fishermen is indigenous knowledge
regarding the catching fish. While most fishers have a generally low level of education and
marketing skills, (Mmopelwa and Ngwenya, 2008b), they posses extensive indigenous
knowledge regarding the appropriate time for fishing, fish migration as well as the location of
fish breeding sites. They use this knowledge in catching preferred species of fish (Mosepele et
al., 2007). This knowledge is passed on from one generation to the next. Indigenous knowledge
of resource users is further found among basket making. Basket weaving is very skillful activity
that is leaned. As with the skills in fishing, those in basket weaving are also learned and
transferred from one generation to the next.

2.2.4 Financial capital

Most farmers lack financial resources. They are too poor to access credit because they do not
have do collateral. The level of investment among famers is thus, very low (Mmopelwa and
Ngwenya, 2008b). Famers who own cattle convert them to cash as cattle are liquid assets.
Other households have remittances as sources of income.

2.2.5 Social capital

Social capital has expanded through community based organization (CBOs) such as trusts and
associations, but has contracted through decreases in traditional extended family systems
(Arntzen, 2005; Wilk and Kgathi, 2007). Members of the community benefit not only financially
and materially, but also non-materially such as by building mutual trust among the resource
users with common interests (Department for International Development, 1999). By being part
of community organisation with common interests, they reduce free riding problem as well as or
conflicts which may otherwise emerge. There are currently seven (7) community trusts in
partnership with a safari tour operator in Delta. The trusts comprise 1-5 villages. In commercial
fishing, fishing syndicates have been formed as a way of reducing transaction costs in the
fishing enterprise as well as to be able to access government aid. For example, when the
Financial Assistance Policy (FAP) was in force, fishers were able to acquire fishing equipment
(e.g. fishing nets) by virtue of being members of the fishing syndicate.

2.3 Livelihood activities, strategies and outcomes

Households make choices about a combination of activities for desired outcome. In most
cases, household combine different activities in order to spread risk (Turpie et al., 2006). In a
survey of fishers in the Panhandle, Mmopelwa and Ngwenya (2008a) found that of all the fishing
households in the study area, 80% were also involved in crop farming, while 40% were involved
in livestock farming.

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TDA Botswana Socio-Economic Profile
2.3.1 Livestock farming

The primary means by which the Okavango Delta supports livestock farming is through supply
of water and grazing grounds. Most of the aquatic habitats in the Delta have vegetation
comprising grass and herb species which are highly palatable to livestock (Kwerepe, 1995). In
many African societies, including Botswana, livestock is kept for economic and cultural reasons
(Burret, 1991; Ouma et al., 2004). Cattle, especially, have become more important valued
livestock species in many developing countries because of the range of values that they
possess (Randeli, 2003). They are a source of protein rich food supplies such as meat and milk,
cushioning smallholder farmers especially against starvation during food scarcity (Bendsen and
Meyer, 2003; Randela, 2003). They have also become an important source of cash because
they can easily be converted to deposable income, enabling households to meet expenditures
such as the payment of school fees of children (Ouma et al., 2004). Cattle are also used as
source of draught power, manure and transport (Burret, 1991; Bendsen and Meyer, 2003). They
are also used as payment for bride and slaughtered during funerals and weddings ceremonies.
They are also viewed as a store of wealth or living assets for future planned expected needs
(Ouma et al., 2004). In years of drought or other times of crisis in the family, cattle become an
important asset which the farmer can turn to (Burret, 1991). Thus they also perform insurance
roles because the capital invested in a herd forms a guarantee for meeting future unexpected
requirements (Ouma et al., 2004). Cattle also are valued for the spiritual and cultural roles
(Burret, 1991). The occurrence of drought in the 1980's and the outbreaks of the lung diseases
(Contagious bovine pleuro-pneumonia) in 1995 and the Foot and Mouth diseases have affected
cattle numbers in negative ways (Arntzen, 2005; Bendsen and Meyer, 2003; Wilk and Kgathi,
2007). Drought event led to decreases in the number of cattle. The outbreak of the contagious
bovine pleura-pneumonia lead to eradication of the entire herd of cattle leading to limited
livelihood options (Bendsen and Meyer 2003; Arntzen, 2005). Another impact on livelihoods has
been the erection of fences within Botswana and between Botswana and other riparian
countries especially Namibia in an effort to control the transmission of cattle diseases. Locally,
disease control fences have to a large extent resulted in limited access to natural resource
harvested (Kgathi et al., 2004; Arntzen, 2005).

2.3.2 Arable farming

There are two distinct farming practices in the Delta, and these are dryland and flood recession
farming. Dryland farming is dependent on rainfall. It is practiced at traditional level and
characterized by minimal production inputs and often low returns because it depends largely on
unpredictable environmental conditions that are beyond the control of the farmer (Bendsen and
Meyer, 2003). Because of dependence of dryland farming on natural environmental conditions,
yields can vary considerable from year to year and from crop to crop (Bendsen and Meyer,
2003). Common crops in dryland farming include sorghum and millet which are more drought
tolerant than maize.
Flood recession farming is dependent on residual flood moisture in the fringes of the Delta.
During high flood season, significant quantities of water spreads over the Delta and when the
flood recedes melapo land dry up due to evapo-transpiration and water infiltration leaving, the
land suitable for cultivation (Bendsen and Meyer, 2003). The most common crop grown under
flood recession agriculture is maize. Crop yields under flood recession agriculture are generally
higher than in dryland farming. For instance, up to 1500 kg/ ha of sorghum has been reported in

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TDA Botswana Socio-Economic Profile
flood recession agriculture as compared to 500kg/ha of sorghum under dryland farming
(Bendson and Meyer, 2003). Since flood recession agriculture depends on floods, changes in
flooding patterns resulting from natural anthropogenic effects may affect the area cultivated
under Molapo farming (Kgathi et al., 2006). For instance, desiccation of river channels owing to
the natural geographic shifts in the flow of water, affects local community dependence on water
as well as the amount of area that may be cultivated under flood recession agriculture (Kgathi
et al., 2006; Wilk and Kgathi, 2007).

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TDA Botswana Socio-Economic Profile
2.3.3 Fishing

Fishing is one of the primary livelihoods in the Delta, especially in the Panhandle (Government
of Botswana, 2003; Arntzen 2005; Mmopelwa et al., 2009). Subsistence and commercial fishing
are very common in the settlements like Samochima, Sepopa and Ngarange (Government of
Botswana, 2003). Three types of fishers are found in the Okavango Delta fishery, and these are
subsistence fishers, commercial and sport fishers (Mosepele, 2001). Subsistence fishers usually
fish for home consumption, but also fish to trade or sell part of their fish catches. Since they sell
part of their catch, they can also be referred to as semi-commercial fishers. They use simple
fishing gear technology such as hook and line and some traditional gears such as fish spears
(Mosepele, 2001). Women fishers use fishing baskets in shallow water (Mmopelwa et al., 2009).
The use of subsistence based fishing gears such as traditional hook and line results in low
annual fish off-take from the Delta fishery (Mosepele et al., 2003). Commercial fishers use
modern fishing gears such as engine powered boats, gill nets and refrigeration or cold storage
facilities (ODMP, 2006). They target highly valued fish species such as large bream
(Orechromis andersonii, Orchromis machrochir, Tillapia rendalli and various Serrannochromis
species (Government of Botswana, 2003). The inter and intra annual variation in the Okavango
Delta flood systems results in short-term temporal and spatial variations in fish species
availability (Mmopelwa et al., 2009). However, fishers have always coped with the systems
through various mechanisms such as by diversifying their livelihood strategies.

2.3.4 Basket weaving

Basket making has been an important commercial activity since the early 1970s and has
provided employment for a number of people (Kgathi et al., 2005). Terry (1999) estimated the
economic benefit of basketry at BWP225 000.00 which accounted for 7% of the total economic
value of all natural resources used in craft production. The raw materials for basket weaving
are mainly plant based. Younger leaves of Mokola palm tree (Hyphaene pertersiana) are
harvested for basket weaving. The roots and/or barks of the bird plum (Berchemia discolor) and
the diamond-leaved Euclea (Euclea divinorum) are used to produce a decoction for dyeing
(Cunningham 1988; Government of Botswana, 2003). The roots of Berchemia discolor are used
to produce red dye while those of Euclea divinorum are used to produce brownish dye.

2.3.5 Community based tourism

In the recent years, growth and development of the tourism sector has led to the establishment
of community based tourism, which is based on the premise that communities living with or
adjacent to wildlife resources stand to derive livelihood benefits if they are made custodians of
those resources. According to Mbaiwa (2004b), the Tourism Policy of 1990 the Wildlife
Conservation Policy of (1986) provided the basis for community based tourism. Following these
and other policies, communities living adjacent to controlled hunting areas (CHA's) were
encouraged to form and register trusts. The registered trusts are then granted land with its
wildlife resources which the community or trust can lease to a safari operator who has the
knowledge and skills of running a tourism enterprises such as safari hunting (Mbaiwa, 2004a).
The benefits accruing to the trust are the payment of lease rental and annual wildlife quota by

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TDA Botswana Socio-Economic Profile
the tour operator or safari partner to the community. Thus, the community benefits financially
from this partnership arrangement while undertaking conservation of wildlife resources. As with
many other livelihood activities, community based tourism is dependant on the available water
that sustains wildlife resources which is the necessary natural capital for community based
tourism. In the event that flooding regimes change in upstream of the Delta, community based
tourism may be affected negatively or positively.

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TDA Botswana Socio-Economic Profile
3. ASSESSING FOOD SECURITY AND NUTRITION VALUE
ASSOCIATED WITH RIVER AND ASSOCIATED RESOURCES WITHIN
EACH REPRESENTATIVE SOCIAL AREA.

3.1 Introduction

According to Food Summit (1996) food security is "a condition when all people, at all times,
have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food at the individual or
household level". Poor people are more likely to be food insecure because they lack access to
sufficient food (FAO, 2005). Worldwide, governments have instituted social safety net
programmes for poverty alleviation. Poverty alleviation is an encompassing term and includes
poverty prevention and poverty reduction. Poverty prevention refers to a situation where people
are becoming measurably better over time either in absolute or relative terms, while poverty
reduction refers to a situation whereby people are assisted to maintain a minimum standard of
living (even when it is below a given poverty line) and helping them to survive (Angelsen and
Wunder, 2003). In Botswana social safety net programmes include home based care
programme, school feeding, old-age pension and drought relief programs (Department of Social
Services 2006).
While social safety net programmes are widespread, there has been a general lack of
understanding of the critical role of natural safety net in food security (Shackelton et al., 2008).
Products of wetland are critical for food security. They are a source of variety of food that
supplement and complement what is normally consumed at the household level (Arnold, 2008).
Products of wetlands contribute directly to food security through their supply, (e.g. subsistence
utilization), or indirectly through revenue generation from production and marketing (FAO,
2005). For instance, in the Panhandle of the Delta, Mmopelwa and Ngwenya (2008) estimated
the annual value of fish per commercial fisher to be BWP14397.9
Wetland products contribute to overall food diet in terms of quantity and in meeting the
nutritional requirements. Nyepi et al. (2008) reported that green leafy vegetables harvested
during the rainy season and high flood season and tubers (Nymphaeas family) harvested during
low flood season in the Panhandle, contributed to nutrition security as well as dietary diversity
for most of poor households. Wetland products such as fish are a preferred source of animal
protein with balanced amino-acid and essential minerals for healthy human growth (Meusch et
al., 2003
3.2 Role of wetlands resources as safety nets

Many of the wetlands including the Okavango Delta, provide a critical safety net function for the
riparian households as they become as source of food during emergency period such as
drought, famines, floods and sickness (Arnolds, 2008; Mmopelwa and Ngwenya, 2008). In this
respect these products reduce household risk and vulnerability to falling deeper into poverty.
The products derived from wetlands may not be the principle cash earners but perform a critical
function of gap filling (Angelsen and Wunder, 2003). When essential or main staple foods are
not available during a particular time or season of the year, products of wetlands increasingly

26

TDA Botswana Socio-Economic Profile
become important as they provide a seasonal buffer during this time. During this time they can
be consumed directly or sold to generate income. The income derived from the sale of these
products as quick casht can be used to overcome shortfall in family illness (Angelsen and
Wunder, 2003).
One of the important natural safety nets in the Okavango Delta is fish. In two villages in the
Panhandle, 89% of the surveyed households cited a number of reasons that make fish a critical
safety net (Mmopelwa et al., 2008). First, households in the survey reported that fish in the
Panhandle was an abundant aquatic open access resource exploited by households all year
round. Being an open access resource, households are able to access it to meet their daily
nutritional and income needs. More importantly, the income from fishing is used to meet other
household needs such as payment of school fees for children and purchase of other food items
in the household (Mmopelwa et al., 2008). Second, fish is easily bartered with most food
commodities such as grains or other food commodities. In this study about 60% of gillnet fishers
and 25% of hook and line fishers reported that they barter fish during the critical shock period.
Third, fish is easily processed through smoking or sun-drying, and stored to be used during
times of emergencies such as drought. In the same study, fifty five percent (55%) of the gillnet
fishers and 15% of basket fishers and 30% of hook and line fishers reported that they processed
fish through smoking and sun-drying in order to use to use it during critical time periods.
The participation of community on tourism also contributes to poverty alleviation. Existing joint
venture partnerships between communities and a safari operator makes it possible for
communities benefit to benefit. Communities benefits from tourism in the following ways:
employment of the poor in tourism enterprises (e.g. providing guiding services), supply of goods
and services to tourism enterprises (e.g. maximizing the proportion of visitor spending that is
retained in the local community), direct sales of goods and services tourists (e.g. sale of
handicrafts) (vander Duim and Henkens, 2007). The availability of wetland products as
influenced by hydrological regime and the contribution of community based tourism as
dependent on the Delta resources has serious implications for food security in the area.

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TDA Botswana Socio-Economic Profile
4. CONCLUSION

Most households' livelihoods in the Delta are supported by various natural resources. The
highest net private values of livestock farming, flood recession agriculture, medicinal plants and
fuelwood, were recorded in the western part of the Delta, while the highest values of grass,
palm leaves, timber and wild foods were recorded in the Panhandle. In the south east of the
Delta net private values were those of river reed and poles, while in the central part of the Delta
the highest net private values were those of fishing and papyrus harvesting. Changes in flooding
resulting from socio-economic developments, policies affecting the utilization of shared water or
other kinds of shocks in either Angola or Namibia, are likely to result in changes in flows
downstream (Botswana), which in turn may positively or negatively affect water dependent
livelihood activities such as fishing or economic values associated with such activities. Where
the effects will be negative, the impacts will be felt more by households directly dependent on
river related resources. This will inevitably, have implication on food security and poverty
alleviation.

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The Okavango River Basin Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis Technical Reports
In 1994, the three riparian countries of the Okavango
Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis to establish a
River Basin � Angola, Botswana and Namibia �
base of available scientific evidence to guide future
agreed to plan for collaborative management of the
decision making. The study, created from inputs from
natural resources of the Okavango, forming the
multi-disciplinary teams in each country, with
Permanent Okavango River Basin Water Commission
specialists in hydrology, hydraulics, channel form,
(OKACOM). In 2003, with funding from the Global
water quality, vegetation, aquatic invertebrates, fish,
Environment Facility, OKACOM launched the
birds, river-dependent terrestrial wildlife, resource
Environmental Protection and Sustainable
economics and socio-cultural issues, was coordinated
Management of the Okavango River Basin (EPSMO)
and managed by a group of specialists from the
Project to coordinate development and to anticipate
southern African region in 2008 and 2009.
and address threats to the river and the associated

communities and environment. Implemented by the
United Nations Development Program and executed
The following specialist technical reports were
produced as part of this process and form substantive
by the United Nations Food and Agriculture
background content for the Okavango River Basin
Organization, the project produced the
Transboundry Diagnostic Analysis

Final Study
Reports integrating findings from all country and background reports, and covering the entire
Reports
basin.

Aylward, B.
Economic Valuation of Basin Resources: Final Report to
EPSMO Project of the UN Food & Agriculture Organization as
an Input to the Okavango River Basin Transboundary
Diagnostic Analysis

Barnes, J. et al.
Okavango River Basin Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis:
Socio-Economic Assessment Final Report

King, J.M. and Brown,
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment Project
C.A.
Initiation Report (Report No: 01/2009)

King, J.M. and Brown,
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment EFA
C.A.
Process Report (Report No: 02/2009)

King, J.M. and Brown,
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment
C.A.
Guidelines for Data Collection, Analysis and Scenario Creation
(Report No: 03/2009)

Bethune, S. Mazvimavi,
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment
D. and Quintino, M.
Delineation Report (Report No: 04/2009)

Beuster, H.
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment
Hydrology Report: Data And Models(Report No: 05/2009)

Beuster,
H. Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment
Scenario Report : Hydrology (Report No: 06/2009)

Jones, M.J.
The Groundwater Hydrology of The Okavango Basin (FAO
Internal Report, April 2010)

King, J.M. and Brown,
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment
C.A.
Scenario Report: Ecological and Social Predictions (Volume 1
of 4)(Report No. 07/2009)

King, J.M. and Brown,
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment
C.A.
Scenario Report: Ecological and Social Predictions (Volume 2
of 4: Indicator results) (Report No. 07/2009)

King, J.M. and Brown,
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment
C.A.
Scenario Report: Ecological and Social Predictions: Climate
Change Scenarios (Volume 3 of 4) (Report No. 07/2009)

King, J., Brown, C.A.,
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment
Joubert, A.R. and
Scenario Report: Biophysical Predictions (Volume 4 of 4:
Barnes, J.
Climate Change Indicator Results) (Report No: 07/2009)

King, J., Brown, C.A.
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment Project
and Barnes, J.
Final Report (Report No: 08/2009)

Malzbender, D.
Environmental Protection And Sustainable Management Of The
Okavango River Basin (EPSMO): Governance Review

Vanderpost, C. and
Database and GIS design for an expanded Okavango Basin
Dhliwayo, M.
Information System (OBIS)

Ver�ssimo, Luis
GIS Database for the Environment Protection and Sustainable

34

TDA Botswana Socio-Economic Profile
Management of the Okavango River Basin Project

Wolski,
P.
Assessment of hydrological effects of climate change in the
Okavango Basin

Country Reports
Angola
Andrade e Sousa,
An�lise Diagn�stica Transfronteiri�a da Bacia do Rio
Biophysical Series
Helder Andr� de
Okavango: M�dulo do Caudal Ambiental: Relat�rio do
Especialista: Pa�s: Angola: Disciplina: Sedimentologia &
Geomorfologia

Gomes, Am�ndio
An�lise Diagn�stica Transfronteiri�a da Bacia do Rio
Okavango: M�dulo do Caudal Ambiental: Relat�rio do
Especialista: Pa�s: Angola: Disciplina: Vegeta��o

Gomes,
Am�ndio
An�lise T�cnica, Biof�sica e Socio-Econ�mica do Lado
Angolano da Bacia Hidrogr�fica do Rio Cubango: Relat�rio
Final:Vegeta��o da Parte Angolana da Bacia Hidrogr�fica Do
Rio Cubango

Livramento, Filomena
An�lise Diagn�stica Transfronteiri�a da Bacia do Rio
Okavango: M�dulo do Caudal Ambiental: Relat�rio do
Especialista: Pa�s: Angola: Disciplina:Macroinvertebrados

Miguel, Gabriel Lu�s
An�lise T�cnica, Biof�sica E S�cio-Econ�mica do Lado
Angolano da Bacia Hidrogr�fica do Rio Cubango:
Subs�dio Para o Conhecimento Hidrogeol�gico
Relat�rio de Hidrogeologia

Morais, Miguel
An�lise Diagn�stica Transfronteiri�a da Bacia do An�lise Rio
Cubango (Okavango): M�dulo da Avalia��o do Caudal
Ambiental: Relat�rio do Especialista Pa�s: Angola Disciplina:
Ictiofauna

Morais,
Miguel
An�lise T�cnica, Bi�fisica e S�cio-Econ�mica do Lado
Angolano da Bacia Hidrogr�fica do Rio Cubango: Relat�rio
Final: Peixes e Pesca Fluvial da Bacia do Okavango em Angola

Pereira, Maria Jo�o
Qualidade da �gua, no Lado Angolano da Bacia Hidrogr�fica
do Rio Cubango

Santos,
Carmen
Ivelize
An�lise Diagn�stica Transfronteiri�a da Bacia do Rio
Van-D�nem S. N.
Okavango: M�dulo do Caudal Ambiental: Relat�rio de
Especialidade: Angola: Vida Selvagem

Santos, Carmen Ivelize
An�lise Diagn�stica Transfronteiri�a da Bacia do Rio
Van-D�nem S.N.
Okavango:M�dulo Avalia��o do Caudal Ambiental: Relat�rio de
Especialidade: Angola: Aves

Botswana Bonyongo, M.C.
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist Report: Country:
Botswana: Discipline: Wildlife

Hancock, P.
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module : Specialist Report: Country:
Botswana: Discipline: Birds

Mosepele,
K. Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist Report: Country:
Botswana: Discipline: Fish

Mosepele, B. and
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Dallas, Helen
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist Report: Country:
Botswana: Discipline: Aquatic Macro Invertebrates

Namibia
Collin Christian &
Okavango River Basin: Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Associates CC
Project: Environmental Flow Assessment Module:
Geomorphology

Curtis, B.A.
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist Report Country:
Namibia Discipline: Vegetation

Bethune, S.
Environmental Protection and Sustainable Management of the
Okavango River Basin (EPSMO): Transboundary Diagnostic
Analysis: Basin Ecosystems Report

Nakanwe, S.N.
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist Report: Country:
Namibia: Discipline: Aquatic Macro Invertebrates

Paxton,
M. Okavango River Basin Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist
Report:Country:Namibia: Discipline: Birds (Avifauna)

Roberts, K.
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist Report: Country:
Namibia: Discipline: Wildlife

35

TDA Botswana Socio-Economic Profile

Waal,
B.V. Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist Report: Country:
Namibia:Discipline: Fish Life
Country Reports
Angola
Gomes, Joaquim
An�lise T�cnica dos Aspectos Relacionados com o Potencial
Socioeconomic
Duarte
de Irriga��o no Lado Angolano da Bacia Hidrogr�fica do Rio
Series
Cubango: Relat�rio Final

Mendelsohn,
.J.
Land use in Kavango: Past, Present and Future

Pereira, Maria Jo�o
An�lise Diagn�stica Transfronteiri�a da Bacia do Rio
Okavango: M�dulo do Caudal Ambiental: Relat�rio do
Especialista: Pa�s: Angola: Disciplina: Qualidade da �gua

Saraiva, Rute et al.
Diagn�stico Transfronteiri�o Bacia do Okavango: An�lise
Socioecon�mica Angola

Botswana Chimbari, M. and
Okavango River Basin Trans-Boundary Diagnostic Assessment
Magole, Lapologang
(TDA): Botswana Component: Partial Report: Key Public Health
Issues in the Okavango Basin, Botswana

Magole,
Lapologang
Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis of the Botswana Portion of
the Okavango River Basin: Land Use Planning

Magole, Lapologang
Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis (TDA) of the Botswana p
Portion of the Okavango River Basin: Stakeholder Involvement
in the ODMP and its Relevance to the TDA Process

Masamba,
W.R.
Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis of the Botswana Portion of
the Okavango River Basin: Output 4: Water Supply and
Sanitation

Masamba,W.R.
Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis of the Botswana Portion of
the Okavango River Basin: Irrigation Development

Mbaiwa.J.E. Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis of the Okavango River
Basin: the Status of Tourism Development in the Okavango
Delta: Botswana

Mbaiwa.J.E. &
Assessing the Impact of Climate Change on Tourism Activities
Mmopelwa, G.
and their Economic Benefits in the Okavango Delta

Mmopelwa,
G.
Okavango River Basin Trans-boundary Diagnostic Assessment:
Botswana Component: Output 5: Socio-Economic Profile

Ngwenya, B.N.
Final Report: A Socio-Economic Profile of River Resources and
HIV and AIDS in the Okavango Basin: Botswana

Vanderpost,
C.
Assessment of Existing Social Services and Projected Growth
in the Context of the Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis of the
Botswana Portion of the Okavango River Basin

Namibia
Barnes, J and
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Wamunyima, D
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist Report:
Country: Namibia: Discipline: Socio-economics

Collin Christian &
Technical Report on Hydro-electric Power Development in the
Associates CC
Namibian Section of the Okavango River Basin

Liebenberg, J.P.
Technical Report on Irrigation Development in the Namibia
Section of the Okavango River Basin

Ortmann, Cynthia L.
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module : Specialist Report Country:
Namibia: discipline: Water Quality

Nashipili,
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis: Specialist
Ndinomwaameni
Report: Country: Namibia: Discipline: Water Supply and
Sanitation

Paxton,
C.
Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis: Specialist Report:
Discipline: Water Quality Requirements For Human Health in
the Okavango River Basin: Country: Namibia

36

TDA Botswana Socio-Economic Profile

37

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