Okavango River Basin
Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Specialist Report
Country: Namibia
Discipline: Water Supply and Sanitation
Ndinomwaameni Nashipili
February 2009
EFA Namibia Water Supply & Sanitation
Okavango River Basin Technical
Diagnostic Analysis
Specialist Report
Country: Namibia
Discipline: Water Supply and Sanitation
Author: Ndinomwaameni Nashipili
Date: 27 February 2009
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EFA Namibia Water Supply & Sanitation
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Introduction ................................................................................... 5
1.1
Background Information ....................................................................... 5
1.1.1
Water availability ........................................................................................... 5
1.2
Water Supply and Uses ......................................................................... 6
1.3
Sanitation coverage and type ............................................................... 7
2. Methodology ................................................................................. 9
3. Findings ...................................................................................... 10
3.1
Water Supply ........................................................................................ 10
3.1.1
Water Quality .............................................................................................. 14
3.1.2
Planned and Projected Water Supply Schemes ........................................ 15
3.1.3
Sustainable Water usage ............................................................................ 17
3.1.4
Conclusion and Recommendations ............................................................ 19
3.2
Sanitation ............................................................................................. 21
3.2.1
Current Sanitation coverage ....................................................................... 21
3.2.2
Sustainability of current Sanitation ............................................................. 23
3.2.3
Conclusions and Recommendations .......................................................... 23
4. References ................................................................................. 24
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EFA Namibia Water Supply & Sanitation
TABLE OF TABLES
Table 1: Runoff in Perennial Rivers Bordering Namibia .................................................... 5
Table 2: Access to sanitation in Kavango Region .............................................................. 8
Table 3: Water requirements for the different water uses ................................................ 10
Table 4: Water used at different irrigation schemes ........................................................ 11
Table 5: Crop water demand under in the North and North-east .................................... 11
Table 6: Water Abstraction from Surface and Ground water sources by NamWater in
2008 .................................................................................................................................. 13
Table 7: Future water demand for irrigation under sprinkler irrigation ............................. 15
Table 8: Future water demand for irrigation under drip and micro irrigation ................... 15
Table 9: Current and projected water demand for the different water uses .................... 16
Table 10: Shows number of constructed toilets in rural areas between 2001 and 2007 21
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EFA Namibia Water Supply & Sanitation
ASSESSMENT OF WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION IN THE
OKAVANGO RIVER BASIN IN NAMIBIA
1.
INTRODUCTION
This chapter presents the findings of the assessment of Water Supply and Sanitation for
Okavango River Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis 2009 on the Namibian side. The
chapter looks at the existing water supply arrangements formal and informal, and the
existing sanitation coverage and type. It further identifies planned programmes to
increase water supply to various uses and improves sanitation coverage in Kavango
Region. The chapter further assesses the sustainability of the current water use
practices, environmental sound of the existing sanitation and proposed alternative
sustainable measures.
1.1
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
1.1.1 Water availability
Rising in highlands in Central Angola the Okavango River transverses for over 1000 km
(Kgathi et al, 2006) crossing three countries namely Angola, Namibia and Botswana.
The entire basin covers an area of approximately 120 000km2. Most of the 500-600 mm
average annual rainfall falls within the water-rich Angola. Namibia and Botswana
contribute a very low percentage to the stream flow of the Okavango River. In Table 1
the mean annual runoff are summarised for two points in Namibia.
Table 1: Runoff in Perennial Rivers Bordering Namibia
River
Runoff site
Runoff (MAR)
(Mm³/a)
Okavango Rundu
5
500
Okavango Mukwe
10
000
The sub-tropical climate and water-abundant in Angola makes water use from the
Okavango River of less important to that country compared to the two water scarce
countries, Namibia and Botswana. This riparian river supports abundance of biodiversity
and local livelihood through fishing, tourism, irrigation and horticulture, water supply and
potentially energy supply. These often competing water uses pose a threat to the
environment and associated ecosystems through changed of water quantity and quality.
At the moment water abstraction from the Okavango River is limited throughout the
basin. Namibia uses more water from the Okavango River as compared to Angola and
Botswana. Whereas Botswana relies more on groundwater sources for various uses in
parts of the Kalahari deserts. Although the interconnections between groundwater and
surface water are not well understood it is believed that groundwater in that parts of
Botswana are fed by the Okavango River given the fact that the Okavango River
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EFA Namibia Water Supply & Sanitation
discharges into the Okavango Delta region. Currently there are very limited major water
infrastructure in the entire basin with only small dams such as the Omatako Dam in
Omatako River, Namibia and Mopipi Dam in Botswana. Similarly, up until now there has
been limited development in the upper reaches of the basin, but with the return of peace
to the Angola part of the Basin, it is fair to accept that Angola would want to develop
irrigation schemes and possibly hydropower to address social-economic needs and
encourage people to move back in the catchment. Possible future developments can
have profound consequences on the water availability and quality to the Okavango
Delta.
Increased water withdrawal from the river system to meet the growing population and
socio-economic development will alter the flow of the river and negatively impact on the
environment downstream. Likewise agricultural runoff, improper disposal of sewage and
inadequate sanitation facilities can have effects on one of the last pristine river systems
in Africa (Green Cross International, 2000).
1.2
WATER SUPPLY AND USES
Water supply can be grouped into three categories:
commercial bulk water supplied by NamWater to local authorities, regional
councils and settlements and Villages;
rural water supplied by the Directorate of Rural Water Supply (DRWS) to rural
communities;
and direct water drawing from the river or stream by rural communities, tourist
lodges and campsite, irrigation and fish farms.
NamWater has nine water abstraction points along the Okavango River and twelve
groundwater supply schemes. Most of water supplied by DRWS in Kavango Region is
mainly from boreholes as at the moment DRWS does not operate any surface water
supply scheme. About 70% of the population in the basin in Namibia live within a 5 km of
the river and indirectly dependent on water from the Okavango River (Mendelsohn and
el Obeid, 2003).
Of recently large scale irrigation has seen great increase and interest in the Kavango
Region (Mendelsohn and el Obeid, 2003). As a result irrigation activities has been on
increase along the Namibian side of the river with about seven large irrigation schemes
in operation and five more in the pipeline as Namibia government seeks to improve food
security. In attempts to increase food security, create employment and generate income
at community level, fish farming activities along the Okavango River have also increased
of recently. At the moment the Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources operates
three community-based fish farms at Nkurenkuru, Kangongo and Kaisosi in Kavango
Region. The latest addition to the inland fish farming is the construction of the
Kamutjonga Inland Fisheries Institute (KIFI) which will be used for research and
development of inland and freshwater fish in the whole country is expected to be in full
operation by 2015. In addition water from the Okavango River is used by various tourist
lodges situated off the banks of the Okavango River many of which abstract water
directly from the river.
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EFA Namibia Water Supply & Sanitation
The existing data shows that Namibia uses approximately 22Mm3 per year from the
Okavango River (Mendelsohn and el Obeid, 2003). Of which an estimated of 74% is
used for large scale irrigation schemes, 15% rural communities for livestock watering
and domestic, and 11% used for urban domestic in Rundu. This information does not
include the water that is directly drawn from the river for tourist lodges and campsites
along the stretches of the river, schools and clinics, and other urban settlements such as
Nkurenkuru.
Propose development include plans to abstract water to feed the National Eastern Water
Carrier to supply water to the City of Windhoek and Construction of a hydropower at
Popa fall rapids. In 2003 Namibia proposed to construct a hydropower plant at Popa falls
to provide reliable power supply to Rundu and Katima Mulilo towns and for rural
electrification in surrounding areas. Though hydropower is not a consumptive water use,
its development can have an impact in the water quality and environment downstream.
There is a perception in Botswana that the construction of hydropower and increased
water abstraction from the Okavango River will negatively affect the ecologically
sustainability of the Okavango Delta (Kgathi, et al, 2006).
Water demand for the different users varies between seasons. For instance water
demand for domestic decreases during the cold winter months and increases during the
hot summer months. Readily available water in natural ponds during the rain season
reduces water demand from boreholes for livestock and in certain cases for rural
domestic as communities would often opt to use the nearest water source. Water
demand for tourist increased on average by 50% during the high season and decreases
by 70% during low season (Kgathi, et al 2006). Likewise water requirements for livestock
fluctuates between seasons, during the hot summer months livestock drinking frequency
increases compared to winter months where livestock go to the water points once in two
days.
Similarly water demand for irrigation increases during the growing season as the plants
need more water to produce grains and decreases as the plants matures and ripen.
Though, high water demand for irrigation during growing season in summer months can
be supplemented by the rainfall, due to the erratic nature of the rainfall pattern in the
country, dry spells are very common, necessitating irrigation throughout the growing
season. The fluctuation on water demand for the various uses during dry and wet
season can impact on the available water if such increased seasonal demands coincide
with low water levels in the river or drought.
1.3
SANITATION COVERAGE AND TYPE
The management and responsibility for provision of sanitation services and facilities falls
under the jurisdiction of local authorities, regional council and the Ministry of Health and
Social Services. The Ministry of Health is responsible for ensuring that the types of
sanitation in place do not pose danger to public health.
The Town Councils of Rundu and Nkurenkuru provide sanitation services and facilities to
the urban dwellers. Sanitation in the urban areas consists of flushing toilets, septic tanks
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EFA Namibia Water Supply & Sanitation
and wastewater treatment plants. In informal housing areas in towns such as
Nkurenkuru and Rundu (Pamwe and Kaisosi settlement areas) there still a large
proportion of population without proper sanitation therefore still making use of bushes.
The majority of rural communities still use bushes for sanitation purposes. The Kavango
Regional Council in collaboration with the Directorate of Rural Water Supply and
Sanitation Co-ordination are responsible for provision of sanitation facilities to the rural
communities consisting mainly of pit latrines and VIPs. Construction of unlined pit
latrines or VIP's may pollute the relative shallow groundwater along the Okavango River.
There are also places such as clinics, schools and hospitals located outside urban areas
where maintenance of sanitation facilities falls under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of
Works and Transport. Existing arrangements for maintenance and servicing of sanitation
infrastructures often had left sanitation at many of such institutions in dare needs due to
unclear line of responsibilities and budgetary constraints.
Generally access to sanitation is still very low for both urban and rural communities. The
information gathered during the National Housing and Population census conducted in
2001 reveals that as high as 82% of the population residing in Kavango Region are
without toilet facilities (NPC, 2007). Only 15% of Rundu residents are connected to the
sewer system by 2002 (Sinime pers communication, 2008). Some residences in Rundu
Town have septic tanks that are pumped out or soak away which may pollute the
shallow groundwater near the river. Most of Rundu residences particularly those that are
living in what is called informal areas make use of pit-latrines or green toilets (bushes).
However a new wastewater treatment plant is under construction to be completed in
2009 to increase the number of residents to the sewer network.
Table 2: Access to sanitation in Kavango Region
Type of toilet used
% of the population served
Private flush toilets
5
Shared flush toilets
2
Ventilated Improved Pit latrine (VIP)
1
Pit latrine (long drop)
9
Bucket/pail 1
Bushes 82
[Source: National Planning Commission, 2003]
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EFA Namibia Water Supply & Sanitation
2.
METHODOLOGY
Data collection involved literature review on water supply and sanitation in the Kavango
Region. Primary data was obtained through interviews with local authorities, regional
councils NamWater, DRWS, MHSS and local communities. Population number and
population growth rate were obtained from the National Population and Housing census
Report of 2001. While number of livestocks were extracted from Mendelsohn' and el
Obeid, 2004.
Apart from the metered water abstraction by NamWater, all other water users directly
drawing water from the river including large-scale irrigation schemes, fish farm and
tourist establishments either do not have water meters to measure their water
abstraction, or have water meters that are not functional or not read. This implied that
water supply for many uses had to be estimated and extrapolated.
Information on water supply for urban domestic use was extracted from NamWater water
accounts data, and cross checked with information obtained from the Town Councils of
Rundu and Nkurenkuru. The number and sizes of the irrigation schemes were obtained
from the Agricultural Engineer within the Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Forestry. The
Directorate of Rural Water Supply does not monitor the water abstracted from boreholes
therefore data on water supply to rural communities are not available. Hence water use
for rural communities were obtained by multiplying the number of people living in the
rural areas by 25 litres per person per day, the World Health Organisation and
Directorate of Rural Water Supply recommended water use for daily basin human water
needs.
Water for livestock watering was calculated based on 45 litres and 7.5 litres per day per
large stock unit and small stock unit respectively. Water use for tourist were based on
3% of the 22Mm3 total water used from the Okavango river in Namibia, with an average
of about 45 500 tourist beds per annum (Anderson, et al, 2006). Water requirement for
fish farming was calculated based on the size and depth of the fish ponds. The
information sizes, depth and number of fish ponds at each fish farm were obtained from
the Directorate of Inland Fisheries in Rundu.
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EFA Namibia Water Supply & Sanitation
3.
FINDINGS
3.1
WATER SUPPLY
Water supply can be grouped into different categories, those that are supplied with water
by NamWater, those that have their own small water pumps and the rural communities
that get water from boreholes or draw water directly from the river. Water using activities
in the Kavango Region include urban and rural domestic, irrigated and rainfed
agriculture, fish farming, livestock watering and tourism. Large scale agriculture mostly
irrigation accounts for over half of the water used in the Kavango Region. Fish farming
activities at the three fully operational fish farms consume approximately 4%. Whilst
water for urban and rural domestic accounts for about 13% of the total water use per
annum (Table 3).
Table 3: Water requirements for the different water uses
Water Users
Water use Mm3
Urban Domestic
7
Rural Domestic
2
Livestock watering
3
Irrigated Agriculture
36
Fish Farming
2
Tourism industry
1
Total 51
At the moment there are about ten irrigation farms with area under irrigation ranging
from 20 ha to the largest of 800 ha at Ndonga Linena. Most of the irrigation schemes
irrigate throughout the year between summer and winter crops. Table 4, presents the
water required to irrigate the different irrigation farms per year. Using the area under
irrigation, crop water demand (table 4) and type of irrigation system in place, the water
required to irrigate the existing irrigation farms with a total area of about 2400 ha has
been estimated to approximately 36 Mm3 per annum. In cases where multi-cropping is
practiced, it was assumed that vegetables takes 33% of the irrigated field, maize is
grown during summer and wheat is grown in winter. If Lucerne and citrus are grown it is
assumed each crop occupy 50% of the field. Most of the irrigation schemes use sprinkler
and centre pivot and grow mainly maize, wheat, cotton and vegetables. Water use
efficiency for sprinkler and centre pivot ranges between 75% and 85%.
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EFA Namibia Water Supply & Sanitation
Table 4: Water used at different irrigation schemes
Irrigation Farm
Area
Irrigation system
Crop grown
Water
(ha)
requirement
(m3)/a
Musese-Maguni 200 Centre
Pivot
Cotton,
Maize
3280000
Vungu-Vungu 225
Centre pivot,
Lucerne, maize, Oats
Sprinkler
3474900
Ndonga Linena
800 Centre
pivot,
micro,
Maize, Wheat,
9989760
drip
vegetables
Shitemo
400 Centre
pivot
Cotton,
Maize,
Wheat
7280000
Shadikongola
400 Centre
pivot
Cotton,
Maize,
Wheat
7280000
Bangani
40 Micro
Fruits
504000
Research
Divundu Prison
110 Centre
pivot
Maize,
vegetables
1320000
Mashare
140 Centre
pivot,
Maize, Wheat,
1748208
Sprinkler
vegetables
Kaisosi 34
Sprinkler Cotton,
Maize,
545700
vegetables
Shankara 20
Sprinker
vegetables
272000
Total
2369
35694568
Table 5: Crop water demand under in the North and North-east
Crop Type
Net Water
Irrigation System Water Requirement
Requirement
(m3/a)
(mm/season)
Flood
Centre Sprinkler
Drip &
Pivot
-65%
-85%
-75%
Micro
-95%
Citrus
836
12 880
9840
11 150
8 820
Cotton
887
13 100
10440
11 830
9 340
Lucerne
1 630
25 100
19180
21 730
17 160
Maize
506
7 800
5950
6 750
5 330
Potato
448
6 900
5270
5 970
4 720
Sorghum
492
7 600
5790
6 560
5 180
Vegetables
507
7 800
5 970
6 760
5 340
Wheat
659
10 100
7 750
8 790
6 940
[Source MAWF, 2006]
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EFA Namibia Water Supply & Sanitation
Image of the Shadikongola irrigation scheme [source: Kgathi et al, 2006)
Fish farming is deemed to become an important source of protein for the world's growing
population. Currently Government has developed the three community based fish farms
in Kavango Region. The primary fish species bred is Tilapia (Oreochromis andersonii),
with trials for Catfish (Clarias gariepinus) currently underway (MFMR, 2006). Each Fish
Farm is approximately 1.8 hectares large with 14 earthen-based ponds (4 Breeding
Ponds, 4 Nursery Ponds and 6 Production Ponds). The fish farms integrate freshwater
aquaculture with small-scale agriculture to produce vegetable and fruits as cash crops.
Water supply for the fish farms is drawn from the river to fill the ponds. Ponds are
cleaned and filling every two months. Wastewater from the fish ponds drains into the
evaporation ponds and part is used for limited irrigation. At the moment KIFI had two
boreholes to supply water to staff houses and office block, but once the construction is
completed, the institute will abstract water from the river.
Images of an integrated fish farming with horticulture at Karovo fish farm. [Source,
MFMR, 2005)
Water supply for domestic is supplied by NamWater, DRWS or direct water drawing from
the stream or river. NamWater operates about twenty water abstraction points of which
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EFA Namibia Water Supply & Sanitation
nine are surface water and eleven are groundwater (table 7) supplying water to urban
centres of Rundu and Nkurenkuru, settlements, hospitals and schools. In 2008
NamWater sold about 3.4Mm3 to the various customers of which 92% comes from the
surface water. This figure does not include 10% of water losses from the water treatment
plants for surface water abstraction schemes. Of the water abstracted by NamWater in
2008, 2.5Mm3 was supplied to Rundu Purification Plant to supply water to the Town of
Rundu.
Table 6: Water Abstraction from Surface and Ground water sources by NamWater
in 2008
Surface Water
Water sold
Groundwater
Water sold
Schemes
(m3)/annum
Schemes
(m3)/annum
Kandjimi-Murangi 124339 Bangani
404
Kapako
72418 Nyangana
36 939
Rundu
2532303 Sambyu 31
891
Mashare
86185 Kayengona 103
971
Ndiyona
36361 Mupini 3
458
Linus Shashipapo
34945 Bunja 4
371
Andara
28901 Tondoro 7
207
Mamono
138174 Kahenge 39
534
M'kata 15139 Nkurenkuru
32
312
Rupara 6585 Mpunguvlei
25
017
Total water sold (m3)
3 075 350
285 104
+ system losses (10%)
307 535 + system losses (0%)
0
Total Water
3 382 885
285 104
abstracted (m3)
Most rural communities still rely on the river and stream for their water supply. Water
supply in rural areas involves carrying water from the communal water point or river on
head a chore that is mainly done by women and children. In areas further inland, these
communities rely on water provided by DRWS at water points and often the communities
have to travel long distances to get to the water point. The labour intensity involved in
collecting water by rural communities discourage water wastage, hence limits the water
used at household level. On average 2 Mm3 per annum is water use for rural domestic
this figure excluding water for home-based garden and livestock watering.
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EFA Namibia Water Supply & Sanitation
Image of young girls carrying water from the river at Katere Village
Water use for rural communities exclude rainfed agriculture as it has limited impacts on
surface or groundwater quantity. Most rural communities grow rainfed crops such as
maize, mahangu (pearl millet), beans, melons and pumpkins. Few communities have
murapo gardens that are fed by the flood waters. However nutrients in form of livestock
manure from the crop fields can pollute both surface and shallow groundwater
boreholes.
Water demand for most uses fluctuates during the dry and wet seasons and during high
and low season for tourists. For example water supply to Nkurenkuru Town Council
shows a clear distinct between hot months (October January) and cooler months (April
August). However water abstracted by NamWater from the system remains more or
less the same throughout the year.
3.1.1 Water Quality
Most water uses requires good water quality throughout the year. Fish farming requires
good water quality with no pollutants and toxic substances as these can be detrimental
to the fishes. At the moment the water quality in the river is considered by many
interviewees as generally good with the exception of brownish water during the rain
season when the inflow in the river increases. At the moment water pollution is not a
problem to many of the Kavango Region residents, but increasing fishing and crop
farming along the Okavango River could lead to increased nutrients and pesticides being
washed into the river. Hence changing the water quality particularly during the months
with low river flow to dilute the load concentration. Major irrigation schemes both in
Angola and Namibia will decrease the quality and drainage water should not be allowed
to enter the river system again.
Unplanned sanitation systems (such as unlined pit latrines and unlined VIP's) cattle
kraals (Nitrate pollution), unlined aquaculture ponds, as well as drainage water from
irrigation schemes may pollute the groundwater along the Okavango River. Bank
filtration where boreholes drilled along the river to filtrate water through alluvial sands
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EFA Namibia Water Supply & Sanitation
may be an important source of potable water in the future. It is important that pollution
should be controlled and minimised to protect both the Okavango River and aquifers.
3.1.2 Planned and Projected Water Supply Schemes
There are number of new development proposals in the pipeline mainly related to
irrigated agriculture as Namibia seek to boost national food security. Namibia plans to
increase the area farmed under irrigation in the Kavango Region by four folds from the
current the 2 400 ha to nearly 9 000 ha projected for the next ten years. The
implementation of the planned irrigation schemes will require additionally 140 Mm3 (table
7) increasing the water abstracted from the Okavango River by Namibia for irrigation
from 36Mm3 to approximately 180 Mm3 per year, assuming that planned irrigation will
adopted the currently commonly used sprinkler and centre pivot for irrigation and grow
mainly maize, wheat, vegetables. The water abstraction for irrigation will remain
relatively low amounting to less than 5% of the Mean Annual Runoff (Liebenberg, pers.
comm). However water demand for future irrigation developments can be reduced to
approximately 100 Mm3 if the planned irrigation schemes implement drip and micro
irrigation systems as these irrigation practices low the crop water demand (table 8).
Table 7: Future water demand for irrigation under sprinkler irrigation
Planned irrigation
Area (ha)
Consumption
Required water
farms
(m3/ha/annum)
m3/annum
New Projects
7 500
15 540
116 550 000
Musese&maguni
200
15 540
3 108 000
Simanya
200
15 540
3 108 000
Mashare
670
15 540
10 411 800
Sihete
400
15 540
6 216 000
Total
8970
139 393 800
Table 8: Future water demand for irrigation under drip and micro irrigation
Planned irrigation
Area (ha)
Consumption
Required water
farms
(m3/ha/annum)
m3/annum
New Projects
7 500
11 660
87 450 000
Musese&maguni
200
11 660
2 332 000
Simanya
200
11 660
2 332 000
Mashare
670
11 660
7 812 200
Sihete
400
11 660
4 664 000
Total
8970
104 590 200
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EFA Namibia Water Supply & Sanitation
Additional water supply schemes for rural areas are planned during the National
Development Plan 3 but mainly boreholes. However population growth and development
of new urban centres in the region such as the upgrading of Divundu settlement is
expected to increase the water abstracted for domestic both urban and rural. The water
supply for urban and rural domestic, and livestock watering are also expected to
increase to 11Mm3 and 7Mm3 respectively proportionally to the population increase and
improvement of living standards.
Table 9: Current and projected water demand for the different water uses
Water Uses
2008
2015
2020
Urban, settlements &
7
8
9
institutions
Rural domestic
2
3
3
Livestock 3
4
7
Irrigation 36
175
175
Tourism 1
1
1
Fish farming
2
2
2
Total 51
193
197
One of the proposed developments is the Eastern National Water Carrier to supply water
to the Central Area of Namibia estimated to abstract approximately 33 million cubic
metres per annum by 2030. The implementation of the water banking by the City of
Windhoek through Artificial Aquifer Recharge Scheme may reduce requirements for
supply augmentation significantly. In a recent study funded by NamWater (2004) it was
found that abstraction from the Okavango River for supply augmentation in combination
with the water banking in the Windhoek Aquifer abstraction from the Okavango River
can be downsized from 14 Mm3/a to only 2 Mm3/a for water supply requirements until
2020.
The above figure (33 Mm3/annum) was determined when the canal which for part of the
ENWC was constructed. However Water Demand Management measures applied in
Windhoek, Okahandja & Navachab mine have decreased the figure to less than 50%
and that water banking through artificial aquifer recharge in Windhoek may reduce it
further. In addition City of Windhoek reclaim about 7.6 Mm3/a for recycling and a further
1.2 Mm3/a from unconventional water resources from the dual pipe for re-use for
irrigation of parks, sport fields and landscaping which further reduces the demand from
conventional water resources such as surface and groundwater.
Nonetheless future developments in the Kavango Region will increase the water
abstracted from the Okavango River in Namibia to about 200 Mm3. Although the
increased water abstraction will remain low, the increased water demand for domestic
and irrigated agriculture during the hot months and growing season in early summer
when water level in the river is at lowest will reduce the available water significantly.
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EFA Namibia Water Supply & Sanitation
3.1.3 Sustainable Water usage
Most of water users in Rundu are metered and the Local Authority has an increasing
block tariff system to discourage water wastage. Nevertheless the per capita water use
in Rundu is unacceptable high amounting to 340 litres per person per day. A more
realistic water demand for Rundu is 120 litres per person per day. There is a potential to
reduce the water requirements of Rundu with more than 50% if WDM is implemented. A
large percentage of water users in Rundu do not pay their accounts which contributes to
the higher usage of water.
NamWater sold 2.34 Mm3 in 2008 to Rundu while only 1.49 Mm3 was sold to consumers.
Non-revenue water amounted to 0.83 Mm3/a (36%) which is unacceptable. The per
capita water demand based on production is more than double that of Windhoek with a
recommended per capita per day of 150 litres. Rundu requires major improvement in
their water management with their local authority area.
Only 20% of the residents in Nkurenkuru are connected to the Town Council water
supply network and use on average 30 litres per person per day. The non revenue water
in Nkurenkuru was 30% of the water bought from NamWater. But there were months
when the Town Council of Nkurenkuru had a 100% of non revenue water (UAfW). It is
difficult to ascertain how much of the non-revenue water is attributed to reticulation
network leakage and which part of non-revenue water can be attributed to inaccurate
water meters, unauthorised use of water, administrative losses, inaccurate meter
reading and poor billing. Most of the non-revenue water at Nkurenkuru were attributed to
aging water reticulation system and absence of town layout plans which in many cases
has led to pipes been gusted when people are digging trenches for new developments
(Shihinga, pers comm, 2009).
With the exception of NamWater measuring water abstraction and domestic water use in
Rundu, metering has not been effectively implemented amongst the users including
government irrigation and fish farms. Those irrigation farms that had water meters
complained about their inefficiency in measuring the water abstracted and they break
within few months requiring regular replacement. Similarly water meters for raw water
abstraction by NamWater are not properly measured because water meters are not well
serviced. Likewise Divundu Rehabilitation Centre has water meters in place but these
meters are not read because the staff at the centre does not know how to read the water
meters. Hence most of the water abstracted the Okavango River is not measured nor
recorded.
Most of the irrigation schemes use a combination of sprinkler and centre pivot irrigation
system. Overhead sprinkler irrigation increases evapotranspiration due to water
intercepted by the foliage which immediately evaporated without ever entering either the
soil or the plant. Thus increasing the water input with little or no contribution to crop
output.
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EFA Namibia Water Supply & Sanitation
Exacerbating the situation is the fact that all irrigation schemes both small and large
farms do not pay for their water usage. Hence they might have little incentive to change
crop patterns to adopt high value crops or adopt better water management practices to
increase water use efficiency for irrigation. At the moment crops such as maize, wheat
are commonly grown. There is a huge potential to lower irrigation water use through
improve irrigation systems and proper scheduling by supplying the correct crop water
requirement when needed by the plant.
Equally tourist facilities do not measure nor do they pay for the water abstracted per se
but rather for pay for the fuel used to pump water, rendering them less enticement to
encourage visitor to save water. Hence water wastage devices are still common in some
tourist camps.
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EFA Namibia Water Supply & Sanitation
3.1.4 Conclusion and Recommendations
Water abstracted from the river is not sufficiently measured. Various uses along the river
have private water pumps and often do not have water meters. Irrigation water meters
are not very reliable which contribute to the non-measurement of irrigation water. Most of
the water abstracted is utilised for irrigation, while the water abstracted by NamWater is
mainly used for urban domestic purposes in Rundu. Most rural communities depend on
informal water supply drawing water directly from the river for basic household
consumption and limited home based gardening. Water usage per capita is extremely
high in Rundu, the biggest town centre in the Kavango Region. If the existing situation is
a true reflection of domestic usage as urban centres develop and mature, water use for
urban domestic will raise tremendously as new urban centres are developed in the
Region.
Future water demand increase is likely to come from irrigation and fish farming, as
development of hydropower and basin transfer schemes require consultation and prior
notification of other basin states in accordance with the UN Convention on the non-
navigational uses of international watercourses to which the three riparian states are
parties.
Water used for irrigation is still relatively low, but planned irrigation schemes will
increase water demand for irrigation particularly during the growing season and will
reduce water availability during low river water level. All irrigation schemes use either
sprinkler or a combination of sprinkler and centre pivot irrigation system. Low value
crops, dominated mainly by wheat and maize and vegetables are commonly grown.
The irrigation sector uses an estimated 70% of the consumptive demand excluding river
requirements and environmental requirements in the Okavango River.
The irrigation sector is not highly regarded in water management circles (van der Merwe,
et al, 2005). There are perceptions, amongst others, that:
·
the majority of farmers do not "schedule";
·
water supplies are not well managed;
·
distribution losses are high;
·
existing systems, both on-scheme and on-farm, are not well maintained;
·
few farmers are concerned about actual crop irrigation requirements;
·
water wastage is excessive;
·
water management has a low priority; and
·
irrigation should be reserved mainly for "high value" crops.
"These are universal perceptions that are not only confined to Southern Africa, and may
or may not be justified. In most developed countries, our competitors in global markets
are taking active steps to improve irrigation farming effectiveness and water use
efficiency. In most developing countries, including Southern Africa, very little support is
given by Central Governments to improve irrigation farming practices and water use
19
EFA Namibia Water Supply & Sanitation
efficiency. There are, of course, individual outstanding exceptions, but they remain
exceptions." (Crosby, 2001).
Experience elsewhere in the world has demonstrated that WDM in the irrigation sector
was only successful if the farmers benefited through improved yields or savings in
operation and labour costs. A good example is the "Water for Profit" scheme in
Queensland (Australia) where farmers are supported by the Government to improve
irrigation systems and farm management to save water and to increase crop production.
With an investment of A$ 41 million by the Queensland Government, 180 Mm3/annum of
water was saved and the value of crop yield improvement was A$ 280 million/annum,
(Robertson, 2003).
To improve understanding of water abstracted from the river through formal water
withdrawal, it is recommended that effective water metering and record keep is
encouraged amongst all new applicants to abstract water from the Okavango River. At
the moment DRWS does not keep record of water drawn from boreholes for rural
communities because most rural communities do not pay for the water use. However to
monitoring groundwater levels and the installation of water meters at communal water
points are recommended.
To reduce non-revenue water in the towns it is recommended that effective water meter
reading and proper billing should be enforced by the local authorities coupled with the
water users education on the true value of the water. It is commonly perceived that water
wastage commonly occurred when users do not pay for their water used or when water
tariff are set very low.
Furthermore water abstracted from the river can be reduced if water re-use from the fish
farms is effectively implemented. Wastewater from the fish ponds is rich in nutrients and
it can be used for irrigation purposes. This implies that plans for aquaculture farms
includes irrigation gardens to utilise the wastewater and reduce the pollution potential
that can be caused by wastewater from the fish ponds. At the moment wastewater from
the ponds are discharged into the evaporation ponds, with a limited amount being used
for small-scale gardening. The rest of the wastewater thus evaporates or seep into the
ground, which could lead to pollution of groundwater in the long-term.
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EFA Namibia Water Supply & Sanitation
3.2
SANITATION
3.2.1 Current Sanitation coverage
The adoption of the revised Water Supply and Sanitation Policy (WASSP) in October
2008, brought some management arrangements changes around the provision and
supply of water and sanitation. Under the WASSP (2008) water supply and provision of
sanitation services to urban areas and settlements is the responsibility of Local
Authorities and Regional Councils within their areas of jurisdiction coordinated by the
proposed the Directorate of Water Supply and Sanitation Coordination in the Ministry of
Agriculture, Water and Forestry. The Ministry of Health and Social Services is
responsible for developing, implementing and enforcing health policies and legislation, to
promote good sanitation practices. In addition the Ministry of Health and Social Services
will establish and develop monitoring indicators for incidents that can be linked to
sanitation for example number of cases of cholera. The policy further proposes that the
Ministry of Health and Social Services together with the Regional Councils and Local
Authorities will be responsible for raising awareness amongst users to enhance public
health.
Whilst the responsibility to supply water and provision of sanitation services to the
communal rural communities is the responsibility of the Division Rural Services of
Regional Councils to be coordinated by the Directorate of Rural Water Supply and
Sanitation Coordination. Currently the Directorate of Rural Water Supply is busy drafting
a national Sanitation Strategy as a guideline towards improved access and affordable
sanitation. On the same move the regional councils have approved two models for rural
sanitation, a water-borne system and pit latrine. These models are yet to be
implemented but provisional funds are been included in the budgetary allocation.
At the moment sanitation coverage is generally low in the Kavango Region, with as high
as 82% (table 2) of the population still make use of bushes. Those that live in the rural
areas are the worst well off in terms of access to sanitation facilities. Information
gathered from the Ministry of Health and Social Services indicates that construction of
toilets in rural areas has been minimal (table 10). Between 2001 and 2007, about 900
latrines were constructed in the Kavango Region by the Ministry of Health and Social
Services. People that have access to improved sanitation in rural areas use mainly pit
latrines or Ventilated Improved Pit latrines which in many cases are shared between
several households. At Popa Village, two pit long drops are shared between more than
ten houses.
Table 10: Shows number of constructed toilets in rural areas between 2001 and
2007
Kavango
2001
2002 2003
2004
2005 2006
2007
Total
Region
Latrines
241
134
39
111
175 82
81 863
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EFA Namibia Water Supply & Sanitation
The situation is not much different in informal areas of urban centres. In Rundu the
largest urban centre in the Kavango region more than half of the town population of 51
000 inhabitants live in informal settlements of Sauyemwa, Kahemu, Kaisosi all use
communal pit long drop, while some uses bushes. As of 2002 only about 15% of
residential in Rundu were connected to the central sewer system (Sinime, pers comm,
2008). Other formal residential had septic tanks.
In Nkurenkuru Local Authority as high as 80% of the town's population of 7 000 people
use the bushes and only 20% have flushing toilets that are connected to septic tanks.
The septic tanks are pumped out for treatment at the centralized treatment plant
consisting of evaporation ponds.
Most of the institutions located outside municipal areas such as schools, hospitals, and
mission have either pit-latrines or flushing toilets with own localized sewage pumps and
system of oxidation and maturation ponds. However due to the aging and dilapidated
state of pond systems and other sewage systems cases of sewage flowing into the
streams have been reported.
Images of over flowing sewage and sewage treatment pond over growing with weeds
and shrubs at Max Makuse Secondary School.
22
EFA Namibia Water Supply & Sanitation
3.2.2 Sustainability of current Sanitation
At the moment only about 8% of the population in the Kavango region has access to
flushed toilets. Poor sanitation coverage in populated centres poses pollution risk to
water sources especially during inflow and due to increased population. At the same
time water-borne sanitation when not handled properly in terms of treatment and sewage
overflows can pollute the streams. Conversely dry sanitation such as pit long drop
reduces water demand but has a potential to contaminate the groundwater sources in
areas with high water table.
3.2.3 Conclusions and Recommendations
Sanitation coverage is generally low in Kavango region. More than 3/4 of the region
population does not have proper sanitation. Those in rural areas are worst off. Many of
the institutions that are situated outside urban centres many have sewer systems that
are not working properly. Though sanitation is crucial to the management of water
resources, programmes to improve access to proper sanitation are receiving less
attention at the moment with few programmes planned in Rundu' informal settlements.
New towns, settlements and villages can look into the implementation of ecological
sanitation. Ecological sanitation offers a new philosophy of reducing waste and
wastewater. It prevents disease associated with poor sanitation, it protects the
environment because wastewater is not discharged in the environment, and nutrients
and organic matters are recovered which can be used as manures to produce food. The
concept of ecological sanitation offers an opportunity to conserves water due to its
minimal water requirements. However the application and implementation of the
technology requires change in attitudes by the users and stakeholder as many perceive
ecological sanitation as unhygienic.
23
EFA Namibia Water Supply & Sanitation
4.
REFERENCES
Andersson, L., Wilk, J., Todd, M., Hughes, D.A., Earle, A., Kniveton, D., Layberry, R.,
Savenije, H.H.G. (2006). Impact of climate change and development scenarios on flow
patterns in the Okavango River. Journal of Hydrology. www.sciencedirect.com.
Retrieved on 6 January, 2009
Crosby, C.P., (2001). Study Tour Dr. Nick Austin, Water Use Efficiency Advisory Unit,
NSW Agriculture, Australia, Water Research Commission.
Green Cross International (2000). The Okavango River Basin.
Kgathi, D.L., Kniveton, D., Ringrose, S., Turton, A.R., Venderpost, C.H.M., Lundqvist, J.,
and Seely, M., (2006). The Okavango ; a river supporting its people, environment and
economic development. Journal of Hydrology (2006) 331, 3-17. www.sciencedirect.com.
Retrieved on 6 January, 2009
Mendelsohn, J., and el Obeid, S., ( 2003). Sand and Water. A profile of Okavango
Region. Ministry of Environment and Tourism. Windhoek
Mendelsohn, J., and el Obeid, S., (2004). Okavango River. The flow of a lifeline. Every
River has its people, Namibia Nature Foundation. Windhoek
Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Forestry (2008). Water Supply and Sanitation Policy.
Windhoek.
Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Forestry (2006). Technical report on Water Accounts.
Windhoek
Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources (2005). The newsletter of the Ministry of
Fisheries and marine resources. Focus on Aquaculture. Windhoek.
NamWater, 2004, Feasibility Study on Water Augmentation to the Central Area of
Namibia, Report No NWPC-IP-TSUM97-1, Study by Central Areas JV Consultants
(Windhoek Consulting Engineers, Environmental Engineering Services and Element
Consulting Engineers).
National Planning Commission (2003). National Report on 2001 Population and Housing
Census. Windhoek
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EFA Namibia Water Supply & Sanitation
National Planning Commission (2007). Regional Poverty Profile Kavango Region.
WindhoekRobertson, S., (30 October 2003), Queensland Scheme Wins National Water
Award, Press Release, Ministry of Natural Resources & Mines, State of Queensland.
van der Merwe, B., Muir, C., Maré, M., du Plessis, F., and Crosby, C., (2005). Water
Conservation and Demand Management. Pre-feasibility study into measures to improve
the management of the lower orange river and to provide for future developments along
the border between Namibia and South Africa. Ministry of Agriculture, Water and
Forestry, Windhoek.
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EFA Namibia Water Supply & Sanitation
The Okavango River Basin Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis Technical
Reports
In 1994, the three riparian countries of the
establish a base of available scientific evidence
Okavango River Basin Angola, Botswana and
to guide future decision making. The study,
Namibia agreed to plan for collaborative
created from inputs from multi-disciplinary teams
management of the natural resources of the
in each country, with specialists in hydrology,
Okavango, forming the Permanent Okavango
hydraulics, channel form, water quality,
River Basin Water Commission (OKACOM). In
vegetation, aquatic invertebrates, fish, birds,
2003, with funding from the Global Environment
river-dependent terrestrial wildlife, resource
Facility, OKACOM launched the Environmental
economics and socio-cultural issues, was
Protection and Sustainable Management of the
coordinated and managed by a group of
Okavango River Basin (EPSMO) Project to
specialists from the southern African region in
coordinate development and to anticipate and
2008 and 2009.
address threats to the river and the associated
communities and environment. Implemented by
The following specialist technical reports were
the United Nations Development Program and
produced as part of this process and form
executed by the United Nations Food and
substantive background content for the
Agriculture Organization, the project produced
Okavango River Basin Transboundary Diagnostic
the Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis to
Analysis.
Final Study
Reports integrating findings from all country and background reports, and covering the entire
Reports
basin.
Aylward, B.
Economic Valuation of Basin Resources: Final Report to
EPSMO Project of the UN Food & Agriculture Organization as
an Input to the Okavango River Basin Transboundary
Diagnostic Analysis
Barnes, J. et al.
Okavango River Basin Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis:
Socio-Economic Assessment Final Report
King, J.M. and Brown,
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment Project
C.A.
Initiation Report (Report No: 01/2009)
King, J.M. and Brown,
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment EFA
C.A.
Process Report (Report No: 02/2009)
King, J.M. and Brown,
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment
C.A.
Guidelines for Data Collection, Analysis and Scenario Creation
(Report No: 03/2009)
Bethune, S. Mazvimavi, Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment
D. and Quintino, M.
Delineation Report (Report No: 04/2009)
Beuster, H.
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment
Hydrology Report: Data And Models(Report No: 05/2009)
Beuster,
H. Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment
Scenario Report : Hydrology (Report No: 06/2009)
Jones, M.J.
The Groundwater Hydrology of The Okavango Basin (FAO
Internal Report, April 2010)
King, J.M. and Brown,
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment
C.A.
Scenario Report: Ecological and Social Predictions (Volume 1
of 4)(Report No. 07/2009)
King, J.M. and Brown,
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment
C.A.
Scenario Report: Ecological and Social Predictions (Volume 2
of 4: Indicator results) (Report No. 07/2009)
King, J.M. and Brown,
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment
C.A.
Scenario Report: Ecological and Social Predictions: Climate
Change Scenarios (Volume 3 of 4) (Report No. 07/2009)
King, J., Brown, C.A.,
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment
Joubert, A.R. and
Scenario Report: Biophysical Predictions (Volume 4 of 4:
Barnes, J.
Climate Change Indicator Results) (Report No: 07/2009)
King, J., Brown, C.A.
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment Project
and Barnes, J.
Final Report (Report No: 08/2009)
Malzbender, D.
Environmental Protection And Sustainable Management Of The
Okavango River Basin (EPSMO): Governance Review
26
EFA Namibia Water Supply & Sanitation
Vanderpost, C. and
Database and GIS design for an expanded Okavango Basin
Dhliwayo, M.
Information System (OBIS)
Veríssimo, Luis
GIS Database for the Environment Protection and Sustainable
Management of the Okavango River Basin Project
Wolski,
P.
Assessment of hydrological effects of climate change in the
Okavango Basin
Country Reports
Angola
Andrade e Sousa,
Análise Diagnóstica Transfronteiriça da Bacia do Rio
Biophysical Series
Helder André de
Okavango: Módulo do Caudal Ambiental: Relatório do
Especialista: País: Angola: Disciplina: Sedimentologia &
Geomorfologia
Gomes, Amândio
Análise Diagnóstica Transfronteiriça da Bacia do Rio
Okavango: Módulo do Caudal Ambiental: Relatório do
Especialista: País: Angola: Disciplina: Vegetação
Gomes,
Amândio
Análise Técnica, Biofísica e Socio-Económica do Lado
Angolano da Bacia Hidrográfica do Rio Cubango: Relatório
Final:Vegetação da Parte Angolana da Bacia Hidrográfica Do
Rio Cubango
Livramento, Filomena
Análise Diagnóstica Transfronteiriça da Bacia do Rio
Okavango: Módulo do Caudal Ambiental: Relatório do
Especialista: País: Angola: Disciplina:Macroinvertebrados
Miguel, Gabriel Luís
Análise Técnica, Biofísica E Sócio-Económica do Lado
Angolano da Bacia Hidrográfica do Rio Cubango:
Subsídio Para o Conhecimento Hidrogeológico
Relatório de Hidrogeologia
Morais, Miguel
Análise Diagnóstica Transfronteiriça da Bacia do Análise Rio
Cubango (Okavango): Módulo da Avaliação do Caudal
Ambiental: Relatório do Especialista País: Angola Disciplina:
Ictiofauna
Morais,
Miguel
Análise Técnica, Biófisica e Sócio-Económica do Lado
Angolano da Bacia Hidrográfica do Rio Cubango: Relatório
Final: Peixes e Pesca Fluvial da Bacia do Okavango em Angola
Pereira, Maria João
Qualidade da Água, no Lado Angolano da Bacia Hidrográfica
do Rio Cubango
Santos,
Carmen
Ivelize
Análise Diagnóstica Transfronteiriça da Bacia do Rio
Van-Dúnem S. N.
Okavango: Módulo do Caudal Ambiental: Relatório de
Especialidade: Angola: Vida Selvagem
Santos, Carmen Ivelize
Análise Diagnóstica Transfronteiriça da Bacia do Rio
Van-Dúnem S.N.
Okavango:Módulo Avaliação do Caudal Ambiental: Relatório de
Especialidade: Angola: Aves
Botswana Bonyongo, M.C.
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist Report: Country:
Botswana: Discipline: Wildlife
Hancock, P.
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module : Specialist Report: Country:
Botswana: Discipline: Birds
Mosepele,
K. Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist Report: Country:
Botswana: Discipline: Fish
Mosepele, B. and
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Dallas, Helen
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist Report: Country:
Botswana: Discipline: Aquatic Macro Invertebrates
Namibia
Collin Christian &
Okavango River Basin: Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Associates CC
Project: Environmental Flow Assessment Module:
Geomorphology
Curtis, B.A.
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist Report Country:
Namibia Discipline: Vegetation
Bethune, S.
Environmental Protection and Sustainable Management of the
Okavango River Basin (EPSMO): Transboundary Diagnostic
Analysis: Basin Ecosystems Report
Nakanwe, S.N.
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist Report: Country:
Namibia: Discipline: Aquatic Macro Invertebrates
Paxton,
M. Okavango River Basin Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist
Report:Country:Namibia: Discipline: Birds (Avifauna)
27
EFA Namibia Water Supply & Sanitation
Roberts, K.
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist Report: Country:
Namibia: Discipline: Wildlife
Waal,
B.V. Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist Report: Country:
Namibia:Discipline: Fish Life
Country Reports
Angola
Gomes, Joaquim
Análise Técnica dos Aspectos Relacionados com o Potencial
Socioeconomic
Duarte
de Irrigação no Lado Angolano da Bacia Hidrográfica do Rio
Series
Cubango: Relatório Final
Mendelsohn,
.J.
Land use in Kavango: Past, Present and Future
Pereira, Maria João
Análise Diagnóstica Transfronteiriça da Bacia do Rio
Okavango: Módulo do Caudal Ambiental: Relatório do
Especialista: País: Angola: Disciplina: Qualidade da Água
Saraiva, Rute et al.
Diagnóstico Transfronteiriço Bacia do Okavango: Análise
Socioeconómica Angola
Botswana Chimbari, M. and
Okavango River Basin Trans-Boundary Diagnostic Assessment
Magole, Lapologang
(TDA): Botswana Component: Partial Report: Key Public Health
Issues in the Okavango Basin, Botswana
Magole,
Lapologang
Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis of the Botswana Portion of
the Okavango River Basin: Land Use Planning
Magole, Lapologang
Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis (TDA) of the Botswana p
Portion of the Okavango River Basin: Stakeholder Involvement
in the ODMP and its Relevance to the TDA Process
Masamba,
W.R.
Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis of the Botswana Portion of
the Okavango River Basin: Output 4: Water Supply and
Sanitation
Masamba,W.R.
Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis of the Botswana Portion of
the Okavango River Basin: Irrigation Development
Mbaiwa.J.E. Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis of the Okavango River
Basin: the Status of Tourism Development in the Okavango
Delta: Botswana
Mbaiwa.J.E. &
Assessing the Impact of Climate Change on Tourism Activities
Mmopelwa, G.
and their Economic Benefits in the Okavango Delta
Mmopelwa,
G.
Okavango River Basin Trans-boundary Diagnostic Assessment:
Botswana Component: Output 5: Socio-Economic Profile
Ngwenya, B.N.
Final Report: A Socio-Economic Profile of River Resources and
HIV and AIDS in the Okavango Basin: Botswana
Vanderpost,
C.
Assessment of Existing Social Services and Projected Growth
in the Context of the Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis of the
Botswana Portion of the Okavango River Basin
Namibia
Barnes, J and
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Wamunyima, D
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist Report:
Country: Namibia: Discipline: Socio-economics
Collin Christian &
Technical Report on Hydro-electric Power Development in the
Associates CC
Namibian Section of the Okavango River Basin
Liebenberg, J.P.
Technical Report on Irrigation Development in the Namibia
Section of the Okavango River Basin
Ortmann, Cynthia L.
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module : Specialist Report Country:
Namibia: discipline: Water Quality
Nashipili,
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis: Specialist
Ndinomwaameni
Report: Country: Namibia: Discipline: Water Supply and
Sanitation
Paxton,
C.
Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis: Specialist Report:
Discipline: Water Quality Requirements For Human Health in
the Okavango River Basin: Country: Namibia
28