E-Flows Delineation Report
OKAVANGO RIVER BASIN
ENVIRONMENTAL FLOW ASSESSMENT
DELINEATION REPORT
Report No: 04/2009
S. Bethune, et al.
June 2009
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E-Flows Delineation Report
DOCUMENT DETAILS
PROJECT
Environment protection and sustainable management of
the Okavango River Basin: Preliminary Environmental
Flows Assessment
TITLE: Delineation
Report
DATE: July
2009
LEAD AUTHORS:
S. Bethune, D. Mazvimavi, M. Quintino
REPORT NO.:
04/2009
PROJECT NO:
UNTS/RAF/010/GEF
FORMAT:
MSWord and PDF.
EDITORS:
J.M. King, C. A. Brown
THE TEAM
Project Managers
Chaminda Rajapakse
Botswana
Nkobi Moleele
Casper Bonyongo (Team Leader)
Geofrey Khwarae
Pete Hancock
Lapologang Magole
Angola
Wellington Masamba
Manuel Quintino (Team Leader)
Hilary Masundire
Carlos Andrade
Dominic Mazvimavi
Helder André de Andrade e Sousa
Joseph Mbaiwa
Amândio Gomes
Gagoitseope Mmopelwa
Filomena Livramento
Belda Mosepele
Paulo Emilio Mendes
Keta Mosepele
Gabriel Luis Miguel
Piotr Wolski
Miguel Morais
Mario João Pereira
EFA Process Management
Rute Saraiva
Jackie King
Carmen Santos
Cate Brown
Hans Beuster
Namibia
Jon Barnes
Shirley Bethune (Team Leader)
Alison Joubert
Colin Christian
Mark Rountree
Barbara Curtis
Celeste Espach
Okavango Basin Steering
Aune-Lea Hatutale
Committee
Mathews Katjimune assisted by Penehafo
Tracy Molefi-Mbui
Shidute
Laura Namene
Andre Mostert
Shishani Nakanwe
Cynthia Ortmann
Mark Paxton
Kevin Roberts
Ben van de Waal
Dorothy Wamunyima assisted by
Ndinomwaameni Nashipili
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E-Flows Delineation Report
List of reports in report series
Report 01/2009:
Project Initiation Report
Report 02/2009:
Process Report
Report 03/2009:
Guidelines for data collection, analysis and scenario creation
Report 04/2009:
Delineation Report
Report 05/2009:
Hydrology Report: Data and models
Report 06/2009:
Scenario Report: Hydrology (2 Volumes)
Report 07/2009:
Scenario Report: Ecological and social predictions (4 Volumes)
Report 08/2009:
Final Project Report
Other deliverables:
DSS Software
Process Management Team PowerPoint Presentations
Citation
No part of this document may be reproduced in any manner
without full acknowledgement of its source
This document should be cited as:
Bethune, S., Mazvimavi, D. and Quintino, M. 2009. Delineation Report. Report 04-2009
EPSMO/BIOKAVANGO Okavango Basin Environmental Flows Assessment Project,
OKACOM, Maun, Botswana. 67 pp.
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E-Flows Delineation Report
Acknowledgements
Many thanks for logistical support to:
· Corinne Spadaro of FAO)
· Ros Townsend, Karl Reinecke and Rembu Magoba of Southern Waters
The Angolan team acknowledges the following institutions and individuals for their valuable
support on data collection for the Angolan portion of the Okavango River Basin:
· The Office of the Vice Minister for Planning, Dr. Pedro Luis da Fonseca, responsible
for all projects being implemented in Kuando Kubango province;
· The provincial government of Kuando Kubango for its hospitality during the field visits
made by the EFA team;
· The Management of the Faculty of Sciences of Agostinho Neto University, for making
available some of its staff members for joining the EFA exercise;
· The Water Resources Division of the National Directorate of Water;
· The National Directorate of Agrarian Hydraulics and Rural Engineering of the Ministry
of Agriculture;
· Mr. Francisco Manuel Mateus, Provincial Director of Agriculture and Rural
Development in Kuando Kubango;
· The EPSMO National Coordination Unit for accompanying field visits and facilitating
discussions with different EFA specialists;
· The EPSMO Project Management Unit for arranging and facilitating visits to the field.
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E-Flows Delineation Report
Executive Summary
The Okavango River Basin Commission, OKACOM, initiated a project titled the
Environmental Protection and Sustainable Management of the Okavango River Basin
(EPSMO). This was approved by the United Nations Development Program (UNDP),
to be executed by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). The
standard UNDP process is a Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis followed by a
Strategic Action Programme of joint management to address threats to the basin's
linked land and water systems. Because of the pristine nature of the Okavango
River, this approach was modified to include an Environmental Flow Assessment
(EFA). To complete the EFA, EPSMO collaborated with the BIOKAVANGO Project
at the Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre of the University of Botswana,
in 2008 to conduct a basin-wide EFA for the Okavango River system.
This is report number 4 in the report series for the EFA. It outlines the location and
main characteristics of the Okavango River Basin, the river and delta zones
recognised by hydrologists, geomorphologists, aquatic chemists, biologists,
sociologists and resource economists, and how these were harmonised to produce
Integrated Units of Analysis (IUAs). The process of selection of IUAs and sites to
represent the whole basin during the EFlows work is then described.
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E-Flows Delineation Report
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DOCUMENT DETAILS ............................................................................................... 2
List of reports in report series ...................................................................................... 3
Acknowledgements ..................................................................................................... 4
Executive Summary .................................................................................................... 5
TABLE OF CONTENTS .............................................................................................. 6
LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................ 8
LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................... 9
ABBREVIATIONS ..................................................................................................... 10
1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................... 11
1.1. Background ................................................................................................. 11
1.2. Okavango River Basin Flow Assessment Objectives and Workplan .......... 11
1.2.1.
Project objectives ................................................................................ 11
1.2.2.
Work plan ............................................................................................ 12
1.2.3.
The Delineation Workshop .................................................................. 12
1.2.4.
The need for delineation ...................................................................... 13
1.2.5.
Approach taken to delineation ............................................................. 13
2. BASIN LOCATION AND CHARACTERISTICS ................................................. 14
2.1. Definition of the Okavango River Basin ...................................................... 14
2.2. Location in relation to political divisions and administrative boundaries ..... 15
2.3. Topography ................................................................................................. 17
2.4. Climate ........................................................................................................ 18
2.5. Rivers and wetlands ................................................................................... 19
2.5.1.
Incised valleys ..................................................................................... 19
2.5.2.
Valley marshlands ............................................................................... 19
2.5.3.
Floodplain valleys ................................................................................ 19
2.5.4.
Panhandle ........................................................................................... 20
2.5.5.
Permanent swamps ............................................................................. 20
2.5.6.
Seasonal Swamps ............................................................................... 20
2.6. Vegetation ................................................................................................... 20
3. ZONATION OF THE RIVER .............................................................................. 22
3.1. Introduction ................................................................................................. 22
3.2. Hydrological and geohydrological zonation ................................................ 22
3.3. Geomorphological zonation ........................................................................ 24
3.3.1.
Introduction .......................................................................................... 24
3.3.2.
Approach used .................................................................................... 24
3.3.3.
Geology and dominant substratum ...................................................... 24
3.3.4.
Channel planform, valley form and the presence of floodplains .......... 25
3.4. Chemical and thermal zonation .................................................................. 29
3.4.1.
Introduction .......................................................................................... 29
3.4.2.
Approach used .................................................................................... 29
3.5. Biological zonation ...................................................................................... 31
3.5.1.
Introduction .......................................................................................... 31
3.5.2.
Approach used .................................................................................... 32
3.5.3.
Findings ............................................................................................... 37
3.6. Harmonised biophysical river zonation ....................................................... 38
3.6.1.
Biophysical harmonisation exercise .................................................... 38
4. DELTA ZONATION ............................................................................................ 39
4.1. Delineation of upstream, downstream and lateral boundaries .................... 39
4.2. Zonation ...................................................................................................... 39
5. SOCIO-ECONOMIC ZONATION ....................................................................... 41
5.1. Population ................................................................................................... 41
5.2. Land use ..................................................................................................... 41
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E-Flows Delineation Report
5.3. Use of water ................................................................................................ 42
5.4. Household use of aquatic resources .......................................................... 43
5.5. Delineation of the basin into socio-economic zones ................................... 44
6. INTEGRATED UNITS OF ANALYSIS ............................................................... 48
7. STUDY ZONES AND SITES ............................................................................. 53
7.1. Biophysical sites ......................................................................................... 53
7.2. Social sites .................................................................................................. 53
8. CONCLUSIONS ................................................................................................. 55
9. REFERENCES .................................................................................................. 56
10.
APPENDIX 1.1: LIST OF PARTICIPANTS AT THE BASIN DELINEATION
WORKSESSION ....................................................................................................... 57
11.
APPENDIX 1.2: AGENDA FOR BASIN DELINEATION WORKSHOP; MAUN,
BOTSWANA .............................................................................................................. 59
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E-Flows Delineation Report
LIST OF TABLES
Table 3-1
Activities and tasks for the Okavango Basin Flow Assessment .......... 12
Table 2-1
Area of countries and districts occurring within the Okavango River
Basin based on GIS data (Appendix C). .............................................. 16
Table 2-2
Types of vegetation occurring within the Okavango River basin
(Mendelsohn and el Obeid, 2004) ....................................................... 20
Table 3-1
Delineation of hydrological sub-catchments within the Angolan part of
the Okavango Basin ............................................................................ 23
Table 3-2
The reports and maps that provided the bulk of the information used in
the geomorphological delineation ........................................................ 24
Table 3-3
Main rivers within the Okavango River Basin considered in the
geomorphological zone analysis. ......................................................... 24
Table 3-4
Geomorphological delineation of the Okavango Basin river system ... 26
Table 3-5
Geomorphological zonation of South African river channels (Rowntree
and Wadeson 1999). ........................................................................... 28
Table 3-6
Chemical zonation of the Okavango River system .............................. 31
Table 3-7
Ecological zones within the Okavango River Basin identified and
agreed by biologists ............................................................................. 34
Table 3-8
Literature searched for data on biological zonation of the Okavango
River Basin .......................................................................................... 35
Table 3-9
Biological zonation of the Okavango River system all 18 zones. ..... 37
Table 5-1
Population figures in the Okavango River Basin taken from Mendlesohn
and el Obied (2004) ............................................................................. 41
Table 5-2
Water use/abstraction in the Okavango Delta Ramsar Site in 2004.
Based on the ODMP report (DEA, 2008) ............................................. 43
Table 5-3
Direct uses of delta resources ............................................................. 43
Table 7-1
EF sites within the Okavango River Basin selected for the TDA ......... 53
Table 7-2
Additional biophysical study sites within the Okavango River Basin
selected for BIOKAVANGO studies ..................................................... 53
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E-Flows Delineation Report
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2-1 Upper Okavango River Basin .............................................................. 14
Figure 2-2 The Okavango River Basin. ................................................................. 15
Figure 2-3 The Okavango River Basin in relation to political divisions and
administrative boundaries of southern Africa ....................................... 16
Figure 2-4 Topography of the Okavango River Basin derived from a digital
elevation model (SADC HYCOS Phase II Network Design Report,
2007). ................................................................................................... 17
Figure 2-5 Rainfall map of the Okavango River Basin (Source: Mendelsohn and el
Obeid, 2004). ....................................................................................... 18
Figure 2-6 Monthly evaporation at selected locations within the Okavango River
basin .................................................................................................... 19
Figure 2-7 Map of the Okavango River Basin showing major natural features,
vegetation types and land uses. Source: Mendelsohn and el Obeid,
2004. .................................................................................................... 21
Figure 3-1 Geomorphological zones along the Cubango, Cuito and Okavango
Rivers. .................................................................................................. 25
Figure 3-2 Longitudinal profiles of the Cubango-Okavango River and Cuito Rivers.
............................................................................................................. 29
Figure 3-3 Water quality zones ............................................................................. 31
Figure 3-4 The 14 biological zones which were eventually increased to 18 zones.
............................................................................................................. 33
Figure 4-1 Zonation of the Okavango Delta .......................................................... 40
Figure 4-2 Vegetation and land use map of the Okavango delta .......................... 40
Figure 5-1 Land use categories around the within the Okavango Delta region. ... 42
Figure 5-2 Preliminary delineation of socio-economic sub-zones within the
Okavango River Basin, in relation to rivers, major dams and lakes, and
villages and towns. .............................................................................. 45
Figure 6-1 Final delineation of IUAs in the Okavango River Basin. ...................... 52
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E-Flows Delineation Report
ABBREVIATIONS
ABBREVIATION
MEANING
DTM
Digital Terrain Model
OKACOM
Permanent Okavango River Basin Water Commission
OBSC
Okavango Basin Steering Committee
SADC
Southern African Development Community
EPSMO
Environmental Protection and Sustainable Management of
the Okavango River Basin
TDA
Transboundary Diagnostic Assessment
IUA
Integrated Unit of Analysis
ODMP
Okavango Delta Management Plan
WMA
Wildlife Management Area
IUCN
The World Conservation Union
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E-Flows Delineation Report
1.
INTRODUCTION
1.1.
Background
The riparian countries of the Okavango River Basin, Angola, Botswana and Namibia, formed
the Permanent Okavango River Basin Water Commission (OKACOM) in 1994. OKACOM was
required to develop criteria for conservation, equitable allocation and sustainable utilisation of
water within this basin. The environment is now regarded as a legitimate water user and
therefore OKACOM needs information on the water needs for maintenance of the river
ecosystems when preparing criteria for conservation, equitable allocation and sustainable
utilization of water. The Southern African Development Community (SADC), of which the three
riparian countries are members, adopted a SADC Water Policy that calls upon member
countries to allocate adequate water for maintaining ecosystem integrity. The Revised SADC
Protocol on Shared Watercourse Systems requires that member countries should aim to
achieve a balance between water development and protection of the environment. Future
developments within the Okavango River Basin have the potential to affect the integrity of the
river ecosystem as well as human livelihoods and wellbeing that are supported by this river.
Therefore, the three riparian countries require information about the links between basin
development and river ecosystem health to aid their discussions on acceptable future
development pathways.
An Environmental Protection and Sustainable Management of the Okavango River Basin
(EPSMO) Project is being implemented, with one of the activities being to carry out a
transboundary diagnostic assessment (TDA) for the purpose of developing a Strategic Action
Programme (SAP). The TDA is an analysis of current and future possible causes of
transboundary problems. The Okavango Basic Steering Committee (OBSC) of OKACOM
noted during the March 2008 meeting in Windhoek, Namibia, that future transboundary
problems within the Okavango River basin are likely to occur due to developments that would
modify flow regimes. The OBSC also noted that there was inadequate information about the
physico-chemical, ecological and socioeconomic effects of possible future developments. This
meeting recommended that an Environmental Flow Assessment (EFA) be carried out to
provide information about the effects of possible future developments on the flow regime of the
Okavango River and on the related physico-chemical, ecological and socioeconomic attributes
of the system.
The Biokavango Project, whose goal is to mainstream biodiversity management into the three
main production sectors of water management, tourism and fishery, is being implemented on
the Okavango Delta. An EFA will improve an understanding of hydro-ecological relationships in
the Delta, which is necessary for biodiversity management. The EPSMO and Biokavango
Projects are therefore cooperating in carrying out an EFA for the Okavango River basin.
A planning meeting for the joint project was held in Pretoria, South Africa on 15 and 16 July
2008 (Report 01/2009: Project Initiation Report).
1.2.
Okavango River Basin Flow Assessment Objectives and Workplan
1.2.1.
Project objectives
The overall goal of the Environmental Flow Assessment was to provide information that would
enable decision-makers to select sustainable water-resource development pathways within the
Okavango River Basin.
The specific objectives were:
· To ascertain the relationships between river flow regimes and the various ecological
processes and ecosystem components along the Okavango River system.
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E-Flows Delineation Report
· To ascertain the relationships between the natural flow regime and the natural
resources of the Okavango River, and peoples' livelihoods.
· To ascertain the effects of possible future developments on the river's physico-chemical
and ecological attributes and on people's related livelihoods.
· To increase understanding of the hydro-ecological relationships within the Okavango
Delta in order to enhance biodiversity management by the main production sectors.
· To develop skills for conducting environmental flow assessments in Angola, Botswana,
and Namibia.
1.2.2.
Work plan
The main tasks to be carried out are presented in Table 1-1. This report covers the first two
tasks plus part of the third.
Table 1-1
Activities and tasks for the Okavango Basin Flow Assessment
Task Explanatory
Notes
Basin delineation
Delineation of the basin into homogenous zones with regards
to (a) hydrology and groundwater, (b) geomorphology, (c)
water quality, (d) biology, and (e) socio-economy
Site selection
Harmonization of homogeneous river zones and social areas
to create Integrated Units of Analysis. Initial identification of
sites, with final selection in the field.
Scenario identification
Identification of country issues. Preliminary discussions on
selection of four basin-wide water-use scenarios, including
the Present Day situation.
Hydrological data collation and Inventory of modelling work already done. Selection of
synthesis
hydrological models. Data collection and description of
catchment hydrology. Setting up of hydrological models.
Simulation of hydrological responses to different scenarios.
Identification of flow-related
Identification of indicators specific to each discipline. Linkage
ecological and social indicators of indicators from different disciplines to provide framework of
data flow through the project.
Environmental flow modelling
Creation of response curves that capture flow-indicator
relationships. Setting up of the Decision Support System
(DSS)
Scenario analysis
Use of the DSS to predict ecological and social impacts of
water-use scenarios.
A Gantt chart for the Okavango Basin Flow Assessment is given in Report 01/2009: The
Project Initiation Report.
1.2.3.
The Delineation Workshop
A Basin Delineation Workshop was held from 22 to 26 September 2008 in Maun, Botswana.
The objectives of this workshop were:
· To divide the Okavango River into homogenous zones with regards to hydrology,
groundwater, geomorphology, water quality, biology, and socioeconomics.
· To harmonize the different homogenous zones into Integrated Units of Analysis (IUAs).
· To choose eight IUAs to represent the river and its people in the Flow Assessment: three in
Angola, two in Namibia, and three in Botswana (Report 01/2009: Project Initiation Report)
· To select a study site within each of the eight IUAs.
· To undertake a preliminary identification of indicators for use by the various disciplines.
· To plan for the field visits to the selected sites.
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E-Flows Delineation Report
The list of participants is given as Appendix 1.1, while the agenda for the workshop is provided
as Appendix 1.2.
1.2.4.
The need for delineation
Before a study begins, its limits need to be defined. Some of these limits will be connected with
time and some with finances. At a technical level, any study area of a river system needs to
define the geographical area to be addressed. In this project, the study area was delineated as
the whole Okavango River Basin.
Within the Okavango River Basin, no study can address every kilometre stretch of the river, or
every person living within the area. Thus, it is usual practice to search for representative areas
that can together represent the whole study area. These representative areas should be
reasonably homogeneous in character, at least in terms of the studies that will be done. Thus,
a delineation exercise of a river would search for stretches of river that differ from each other
but are internally similar, whilst a social delineation might search for areas that differ in
livelihoods, wealth and the way the river is used.
Once these homogeneous areas have been identified, one or more representative sites can be
chosen in each. These will become the focus of data-collection activities, and the results from
each will be extrapolated over the respective area.
In this study, time and financial limitations dictated a maximum of eight sites, i.e.,
representative sites in eight of the homogenous zones. These were allocated as follows:
· Angola:
three
sites.
· Namibia:
two
sites.
· Botswana: three
sites.
1.2.5.
Approach taken to delineation
At the workshop, an overview of the Environmental Flow Concept, and the linkages between a
TDA and an EFA within the Okavango Basin, were given (Appendix 1.2). An introduction to
basin delineation as part of an EFA was presented. Participants were then divided into groups
according to their disciplines: hydrology, groundwater, geomorphology, aquatic chemistry,
ecology, and socio-economy. Each group was requested to use information they had brought
to divide the basin into homogenous zones.
Participants considered all the zones identified by the different disciplines, and then combined
them for the purpose of selecting study sites.
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E-Flows Delineation Report
2.
BASIN LOCATION AND CHARACTERISTICS
2.1.
Definition of the Okavango River Basin
The Okavango River Basin consists of the areas drained by the Cubango, Cutato, Cuchi,
Cuelei, Cuebe, and Cuito Rivers in Angola, the Okavango River in Namibia and Botswana, and
the Okavango Delta. This basin topographically includes the area that was drained by the now
fossil Omatako River in Namibia. Outflows from the Okavango Delta are drained through the
Boteti River which eventually joins the Makgadikgadi Pans. The Nata River, which drains the
western part of Zimbabwe, joins the Makgadikgadi Pans. On the basis of topography, the
Okavango River basin thus includes the Makgadikgadi Pans and Nata River basin (Figure 2-1;
Figure 2-2). This study is however focusing on the parts of the basin situated in Angola,
Namibia and Botswana, including the delta and the Boteti River. The Makgadikgadi Pans and
Nata River are not included.
Upper Okavango River Basin
N
W
E
S
C
u
ta
Cu
#
to
c
h
i
#
C
C
u
u
#
it
a
o
nava
#
le
Cu
#
C
e
M nongue
ba
u
n
c
#
Major settlement
g
h
o
i
# Cuito Cuanavale
River
C
#
ue
Fossil river
be
C
Panhandle
ANGOLA
uiri
Permanent swamps
ri
#
Seasonal swamps
Cubango
Cuito
NAMIBIA
Okavango
#
Rundu
#
#
#
0
300 Kilometers
#
Figure 2-1
Upper Okavango River Basin
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E-Flows Delineation Report
Okavango River Basin
N
W
E
S
C
u
ta
Cu
#
to
c
h
i#
C
C
ui
ua
#
t
o
nava
#
l
e
C
# Menongue
ub
C
a
u
n
c
g
h
o
i
#
i
Cu to Cuanavale
# Cuebe
C
ANGOLA
uirir
#
i
Cubango
Cuito
NAMIBIA
Okavango
#
Rundu
#
# #
#
##
#
#
#
Maun
#
Makgadikgadi Pans
# Ghanzi
#
Major settlement
River
Fossil river
Panhandle
0
600 Kilometers
Permanent swamps
Seasonal swamps
Figure 2-2
The Okavango River Basin.
2.2.
Location in relation to political divisions and administrative boundaries
The Okavango River basin covers parts of the following six provinces of Angola; Bie, Cuando
Cubango, Huambo, Huila, and Moxico, with Cuando Cubango covering the largest part of the
basin (Figure 2-3 and Table 2-1). Menongue and Cuito Cuanavale are the only urban centres
in the Angolan part of the basin. In Namibia, the basin covers parts of the Kavango Region,
with Rundu located along the Okavango River being the regional centre. Within Botswana, the
Okavango Basin is located within the Ngamiland District.
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E-Flows Delineation Report
#
#
N
#
W
E
S
# Luanda
#
ANGOLA
Benguela #
#
#
ZAMBIA Lusaka
#
#
#
ZIMBABWE
E
U
#
#
B
IQ Be
ulawayo
ira
B
ZAM
# Windhoek
BOTSWANA
O
#
M
NAMIBIA
# Gaborone
#
#
# Jo
#
hannesburg Maputo
#
#
# Maseru #
SOUTH AFRICA
0
1000 Kilometers
Figure 2-3
The Okavango River Basin in relation to political divisions and administrative boundaries of southern Africa
Table 2-1
Area of countries and districts occurring within the Okavango River Basin based on GIS data (Appendix C).
%
% contribution
contribution
Area within Okavango
Country District
of each district
of each
R. Basin (km2)
to basin area
country to
basin area
Bie 13456 5.2
Cuando Cubango
122144
46.9
Cunene 2210
0.8
Angola
62.8
Huambo 3295
1.3
Huila 8429
3.2
Moxico 13971
5.4
Namibia Kavango
41500
15.9 15.9
Botswana Ngamiland
55374
21.3 21.3
Total Area
260379
100 100
Note:
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E-Flows Delineation Report
· The inactive part of the basin drained by the fossil Omatako River has been included in
estimating the area of the basin within the Kavango Region of Namibia.
· The area of the basin in Botswana was taken as the area of the Okavango Delta Ramsar
Site (DEA, 2005)
2.3.
Topography
The headwaters of the Okavango River are located between Huambo and Kuito at an altitude
of 1700-1800 metres above sea level on the central Highlands of Angola. Steep gradients of
about 1:1000 occur on the upper part of the Cubango, and then gradually decrease after the
confluence of major tributaries such as Cuchi and Cuebe Rivers (1208 m) where the rivers exit
from the Angolan Highlands. The Cuito River exits out of the highlands around Cuito
Cuanavale. Once the rivers exit from the highlands region, they flow through an area with no
significant topographic features on Kalahari sands.
The Okavango Delta is the most significant feature of the basin. The delta is in reality a conical
alluvial fan on Kalahari sands with a gradient of 1:3300. Altitude decreases by 60 m along the
250 km from the upper to lower end of the delta. The delta is made up of active and inactive
distributary channels, islands and floodplains.
The Okavango Delta drains into an internal depression, the Makgadikgadi Pans which is
thought to be part of the paleo Makgadikgadi-Okavango-Zambezi basin (Figure 2-4). The
south-western part of the basin has fossil rivers, such as the Omatako, which currently do not
contribute flow.
Figure 2-4
Topography of the Okavango River Basin derived from a digital elevation model (SADC HYCOS Phase II
Network Design Report, 2007).
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E-Flows Delineation Report
2.4.
Climate
The Okavango Basin lies within the 12 to 21 degrees south latitude zone, which is
characterised by rainfall in one distinct season, October to May, while the rest of the year is dry.
The northern parts of the basin receive the highest rainfall during the December to January
period, while the southern parts such as Maun have peak rainfall during January and February.
Mean annual rainfall varies from about 1300 mm y-1 in the Huambo and Kuito areas in the
headwaters of the basin, to 560 mm y-1 at Rundu, 550 mm y-1 at Mohembo, and 450 mm y-1 at
Maun (Figure 2-5). Rainfall has a high inter-annual variability, with the coefficient of variation
being 20% on the well-watered headwaters and 50% in the dry southern parts. There is a
tendency for years to group, with above average rainfall for a while followed by generally years
with below average rainfall. Due to the high inter-annual variability, years with extremely low
rainfall occur frequently, particularly on the southern parts of the basin.
Average daily maximum temperatures range between 30-35°C from August to March in the
Namibian and Botswana parts of the basin. Average minimum daily temperatures are in the 7-
10°C range during the cool season, June to July. The average daily temperatures are greater
than 20°C throughout the basin.
A-pan evaporation increases from the north to south in line with increasing temperatures. The
mean annual A-pan evaporation increases from about 1900 mm y-1 at Menongue, to about
2010 mm y-1 for Maun. Highest evaporation rates occur during the August to November period,
e.g. 300 mm m-1 in October at Maun (Figure 2-6). The average monthly evaporation rate is
greater than monthly rainfall for all months in the middle to southern parts of the basin. Thus
most of the Okavango River basin lies within a semi-arid zone.
Figure 2-5
Rainfall map of the Okavango River Basin (Source: Mendelsohn and el Obeid, 2004).
18
E-Flows Delineation Report
350
Menongue
CuitoCuanavale
Rundu
Maun
300
250
) 200
t
h
n
o
/
m
m 150
(m
n
i
o
r
at 100
v
apo
y
e
hl 50
nt
o
M
0
July
Aug
Sept
Oct
Nov
Dec
Jan
Feb
March
April
May
June
Figure 2-6
Monthly evaporation at selected locations within the Okavango River basin
2.5.
Rivers and wetlands
The following river formations occur along the Okavango River,
· incised
valleys
· valley
marshlands
· floodplain
valley
· panhandle
· permanent
swamps
· seasonal swamps (Mendelsohn and el Obeid, 2004).
2.5.1.
Incised valleys
Incised valleys occur along almost all of the tributaries located on the north-western upper
basin, such as Cubango, Cutato, Cuchi, Cacuchi, Cuelei and Cuebe Rivers. This part of the
basin has exposed granitic and gneissic bedrock or shallow Kalahari sands. River channels
tend to run in parallel. The valley bottoms have mostly permanent wet grasslands.
2.5.2.
Valley marshlands
Valley marshlands are found along the main channels of the Cutato, Cuchi and Cacuchi Rivers.
These are characterised by dense Phragmites reed beds and several ox-bow lakes and
meanders.
2.5.3.
Floodplain valleys
Floodplain valleys that are shallow and several kilometres wide occur along north-eastern rivers
such as the Cuiriri, Cuito, and Cuanavale. The channel meanders within the floodplain valley.
19
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There are no trees within the floodplain valley but short grass, with sedges and grass along the
margins of the channel.
2.5.4.
Panhandle
The panhandle is formed by two parallel faults within which the Okavango River meanders
through a flat bottomed valley that is 10-15 km wide and 150 km long, and which terminates at
the beginning of the broad alluvial deltaic fan. Papyrus and reeds dominate the valley. The
main channel splits and rejoins at some locations. The panhandle drains into the delta, which
is made up of meandering channels, floodplains and islands. The delta comprises several
active and inactive distributary channels.
2.5.5.
Permanent swamps
Permanent swamps cover an area of 2000-3000 km2 and are mostly located on the central part
of the Okavango Delta, and along the Maunchari, Mboroga, Jao-Boro, Nqogha, and Thaoga
distributaries. Water flows through channels and also leaks through surrounding Papyrus and
reedbeds onto the floodplain. Typical plant species are Cyperus papyrus, Vossia cuspidata,
Phragmites communis L., Typha capensis (Mendelsohn and el Obeid, 2004).
2.5.6.
Seasonal Swamps
The area under seasonal swamps varies annually from 4000-8000 km2 depending on the
magnitude of the inflow into the delta. Inflow into these swamps originates as water flowing
onto the floodplains from the channels within the permanent swamps. The water is generally
shallow and the vegetation highly variable, depending on the frequency and duration of
flooding.
2.6.
Vegetation
Eight vegetation types have been recognised for the Okavango River basin (Table 2-2 and
Figure 2-7).
Table 2-2
Types of vegetation occurring within the Okavango River basin (Mendelsohn and el Obeid, 2004)
Vegetation Type
Characteristics
Planalto grasslands
Extensive grasslands dominated by Loudetia simplex occurring on the
headwaters of the Cubango, Cutato and Cuchi rivers
Open Brachystegia
Woody Brachystegia plants occurring in open grasslands. These occur on
woodland
the upper parts of the Cubango, Cutato, Cuchi and Cacuchi Rivers.
Dense Brachystegia
Occurs on upper parts of Cuelei, Cuebe, Cuito and Cuanavale. Species
woodland
occurring are Brachystegia species, Julbernadia paniculata, Pteleopsis
anisoptera and Cryptosepalum pseudotaxus.
Burkea-Brachystegia
Found south of the dense Brachystegia woodland and a transition to
woodlands
Burkea woodlands
Burkea woodland
Covers the basin from the middle part in Angola to the northern limits of
the Okavango Delta. Common species are Burkea africana, Pterocarpus
20
E-Flows Delineation Report
angolensis, Burkea plurijuga, Schinziophyton rautanenii, and Guibourtia
coleosperma.
Valley woodlands and
Mixture of woodlands, grasslands and floodplain grasses. Found along
grasslands
the Cubango River
Floodplain valleys
Seasonally flooded grasslands. Occur along the Cuito, Cuanavale, and
Cuirri Rivers.
Permanent swamps
Dominated by Papyrus and Phragmites in the delta.
N
Okavango River Basin Vegetation
W
E
S
River
Acacia woodlands
Burkea woodlands
Burkea- Brachystegia woodlands
Dense Brachystegia woodlands
Open Brachystegia savanna
Fossil drainage valleys
Mopane woodlands
Valley woodlands and grasslands
Permanent swamps
Planalto grasslands
Seasonal swamps
Floodplain valleys
0
300
600 Kilometers
Figure 2-7
Map of the Okavango River Basin showing major natural features, vegetation types and land uses. Source:
Mendelsohn and el Obeid, 2004.
21
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3.
ZONATION OF THE RIVER
3.1.
Introduction
Rivers change from source to end in fairly predictable ways. They have steeper and often
steep-sided valleys in mountainous areas, and low-gradient channels in wider valleys in flatter
terrain. This affects the hydraulics of the system, the water quality and temperature, the
riverbed bed and bank material, the in-channel and bankside habitats available for riverine life
and thus the plants and animals that can exist in different sections of the river. All of this in turn
influences where people can live along the river and how they use its resources. We cannot
describe every section of a river and its biota, and every human user of the river. Instead,
homogeneous river zones and social areas are delineated and representative sites chosen for
each.
The length of the river can be zoned using a range of criteria: its hydrological, chemical,
geomorphological or biological nature. In this project, river zones were delineated se
perspectives and then harmonised into one summary set of zones. The details of this are
described in Sections 3.2-3.6.
3.2.
Hydrological and geohydrological zonation
The main objective of the hydrological and geohydrological zonation was to divide the river
basin into areas with similar hydrological and hydrogeological characteristics.
Composition of the Hydrology team was as follows:
Angola
· Mr. Manuel Quintino (National Coordinator of the GEF EPSMO project/Water
Engineer)
· Dr. Gabriel Luis Miguel ( Faculty of Sciences of Agostinho Neto
University/Hydrogeologist)
· Mr. Paulo Emilio Mendes (DNA/Hydrologist)
Botswana
· Ms. Kobamelo Dikgola (DWA/Assistant Water Engineering)
· Mr. France Tibe (DWA/ ssistant Water Engineering)
· Dr. Piotr Wolski (HOORC/Hydrogeologist)
Namibia
· Dr. Andre Mastert (NAMWATER/Manager/Hydrology)
· Ms. Aune-Lea Hatutale (NAMWATER/Hydrologist)
· Mr. Mathews Kajimune (DWAF/Hydrogeologist)
Process management
· Mr. Hans Beuster (Southern Waters/Hydrologist)
The river basin was divided into two major zones namely, (i) the Cubango sub-catchment with
granitic soils and with most of the flows originating from surface runoff, and (ii) the Cuito sub-
22
E-Flows Delineation Report
catchment dominated by Kalahari sands and fed by both groundwater and surface runoff. The
Cubango and Cuito sub-catchments were further subdivided into 13 sub-catchments. This
division was a result of a larger group discussion involving biologists, socio-economists,
hydrologists, geohydrologists and geomorphologists.
Table (Table 3-1) below shows the hydrological / geohydrological zones within the two Angolan
catchments.
Table 3-1
Delineation of hydrological sub-catchments within the Angolan part of the Okavango Basin
Tally Country River
Description
/
Location Hydrology subcatchment Geohydrology
zone
1
Angola
Cubango
Source
GeoH 1
2
Angola
Cubango
Source to Chinhama
Hydro 1
GeoH 1
3
Angola
Cubango
Chinhama to Kubango
Hydro 2
GeoH 1
4
Angola
Cutato
Source to Chinhama
No hydro
GeoH1
Chinhama to
5 Angola Cutato confluence with
Hydro 3
GeoH1
Cubango
6
Angola
Cubango
Kubango to Caiundo
GeoH 1
7
Angola
Cubango
Caiundo to Mucundi
Hydro 8
GeoH 2
8
Angola
Cuebe
Source to Menongue
Hydro 6
GeoH1
Menongue confluence
9 Angola Cuebe
Hydro 6
GeoH2
with Cubango
10
Angola
Cubango
Mucundi to Catambue
Hydro 9
GeoH 2
11
Angola
Cuito
Source to Cangoa
No hydro
GeoH2
Cangoa to 14 Degrees
12 Angola Cuito
Hydro 15
GeoH2
Lat
14 Degrees Lat to Cuito
13 Angola Cuito
Hydro 17
GeoH2
Cuanavale
Cuito Cuanavale to
14 Angola Cuito
Hydro 19
GeoH2
Nankova
23
E-Flows Delineation Report
3.3.
Geomorphological zonation
3.3.1.
Introduction
The main objective of the geomorphological delineation was to divide the main rivers within the
Okavango River Basin into zones with similar channel characteristics. Channel patterns mainly
depend on lithology, the existence of structural features such as faults, slope, and climate.
Zones can be defined as stretches of river within which channel form is essentially
homogeneous. Nested within zones can be a variety of channel types.
3.3.2.
Approach used
The classification of the basins into geomorphological zones was done using lithology, drainage
density, drainage pattern, existence of erosional or depositional features, and channel gradient.
The basin was divided into lithological units and classification was then based on
characteristics of the drainage network and channel slope.
The sources of information used for the geomorphological classification are given in Table 3-2.
The main rivers considered in the classification are given in Table 3-3.
Table 3-2
The reports and maps that provided the bulk of the information used in the geomorphological delineation
Sources of Information for geomorphological classification
· Mendelsohn, J. and el Obeid, S. 2004. Okavango River: The flow of lifeline. Struik
Publications, Cape Town.
· Sharing water. Towards a transboundary consensus on the management of the
Okavango River basin. 2005 Report prepared for the USAID
· Classification of the Angolan part of the basin done by Angolan geomorphologist.
· Google
Maps
Table 3-3
Main rivers within the Okavango River Basin considered in the geomorphological zone analysis.
Country Main
River
Angola
Cubango, Cutato, Cuchi, Cacuchi, Cuelei, Cuebe, Cuiriri,
Cuito, Cuanavale
Namibia Okavango
Botswana
Panhandle, Maunachira, Khwai, Jao-Boro, Thaoga,
Thamalakane,Boteti
3.3.3.
Geology and dominant substratum
The upper part of the Cubango River in Angola has granites and gneiss. The rest of the basin is
covered with Kalahari sands deposited over the basement complex during the last 63 million
years.
24
E-Flows Delineation Report
3.3.4.
Channel planform, valley form and the presence of floodplains
The upper part of the Okavango Basin occurring in Angola is characterised by rivers that run
parallel to each other. The upper Cubango basin from the source to about Kubango is steep
with incised valleys and high drainage density. The rivers can be classified as steep mountain
streams (Table 3-4 and Figure 3-1). As the Cubango River descends from the highlands its
valley becomes flat bottomed and wide and thus its is classified as a lower foothill river (Table
3-5). From Mucundi to Nzinze on the Angolan/Namibia border the channel is contained within
a low-gradient, wide valley with depositional features. A lowland type of river with a low
gradient dominated by depositional features occurs between Nzinze and Popa Rapids.
12
1
N
W
E
13
S
2
ZoneLower foothills
3
Lowland river
14
Mountain headwater
Mountain stream
Panhandle
Transitional, Mountain-Foothill
Delta wetland
4
River
15
5
6 7 8
9
10
Figure 3-1
Geomorphological zones along the Cubango, Cuito and Okavango Rivers.
25
E-Flows Delineation Report
Table 3-4
Geomorphological delineation of the Okavango Basin river system
Coordinates demarcating the
Zone #
end of a reach
Length
Reach from
River
Length
Channel
Depositional Geomorphological
of
Altitude
Slope
Geology
No.
Angolan name
from
description
zone
zone
Location X
Y
reach
data
source
(km)
0
Cubango
Source
0
1772
Steep, incised.
Source to
High drainage
1 A
Cubango
16.4
13.4
117 117 1605
0.0014 Erosional
Mountain
headwater
Granites
Chinhama
density. No
floodplain.
Steep, incised.
Narrow stream
Chinhama
bed. High
2 A
Cubango
16.5
14.6
360 243 1488
0.0010 Erosional
Mountain
stream
Granites
to Kubango
drainage
density. No
floodplain.
Kubango to
Flat bottomed,
Kalahari
3 C Cubango
17.65
16.29
500 140 1331
0.0013
Erosional
Transitional (mtn foothill)
Mucundi
wide streams.
Sands
Flat bottomed,
Mucundi to
wide streams.
Kalahari
4 E
Cubango
18.95
17.8
732 232 1201
0.0011 Depositional
Lower
foothill
Nzinze
Low drainage
sands
density.
Nzinze to
Low gradient
Kalahari
5 E
Cubango
confluence
19.12 17.82 1074
342
1093
alluvial fine
0.0009 Depositional
Lowland
Sands
with Cuito
bed channel
Confluence
Low gradient
Kalahari
6 E
Okavango
with Cuito
20.8 18.03
1261
187
1045
alluvial fine
0.0004 Depositional
Lowland
Sands
to Andara
bed channel
Low gradient
Andara -
Kalahari
7 E
Okavango
21.35 17.99 1364
103
1020
alluvial fine
0.0002 Depositional
Lowland
Popa
Sands
bed channel
26
E-Flows Delineation Report
Coordinates demarcating the
Zone #
end of a reach
Length
Reach from
River
Length
Channel
Depositional Geomorphological
of
Altitude
Slope
Geology
No.
Angolan name
from
description
zone
zone
Location X
Y
reach
data
source
(km)
Popa
Low gradient
Kalahari
8 E
Okavango
Rapids to
21.6 18.1 1402
38
1007
alluvial fine
0.0001 Depositional
Lowland
Sands
Mohembo
bed channel
Mohembo
Kalahari
9 E
Okavango
to
21.73 18.17 1419
17
1000
Swamp
0.0001 Depositional
Lowland
Sands
Panhandle
Meandering
Kalahari
10
E
Okavango Panhandle 22.4 19.04 1559
140
988
channel;
0.0001 Depositional
Panhandle
Sands
floodplain
Delta
Kalahari
11 E
Delta
23.51 19.91 1734
175
952
Delta System
0.0003
Depositional
Lower land
System
Sands
Low alluvial
Kalahari
12 E
Cuito
Cangoa
18.38
12.87
30 30 1453
.0006 Depositional Lowland
fine bed
sands
Lower gradient
Cuito
mixed bed
Kalahari
13 E
Cuito
19.19
15.14
477 447 1160
.0025 Depositional Lower
foothills
Cuanavale
alluvial
sands
channel
Low gradient
Kalahari
14 E
Cuito Nankova
19.0
16.38
609 132 1129 alluvial fine
.0002 Depositional Lowland
sands
bed
Low gradient
Kalahari
15 E
Cuito Dirico 20.77
18.00
921 312 1026 alluvial fine
0.0009 Depositional
Lowland
sands
bed
27
E-Flows Delineation Report
Table 3-5
Geomorphological zonation of South African river channels (Rowntree and Wadeson 1999).
Longitudinal Zone
Characteristic Channel Features
Gradient Description
Low gradient, upland plateau or upland basin able to store
Source zone
not specified
water. Spongy or peat hydromorphic soils.
A very steep gradient stream dominated by vertical flows
Mountain headwater
over bedrock with waterfalls and plunge pools. Normally
stream
>0.1
first or second order. Zone types include bedrock fall and
(Mountain torrent)
cascades.
Steep gradient stream dominated by bedrock and boulders,
locally cobble or coarse gravels in pools. Zone types
Mountain stream
0.04 - 0.09
include cascades, bedrock fall, and step-pool. Approximate
equal distribution of 'vertical' and 'horizontal' flow
components.
Moderately steep stream dominated by bedrock or boulder.
Mountain stream
Zone types include plane-bed, pool-rapid or pool-riffle.
0.02 - 0.039
(transitional)
Confined or semi-confined valley floor with limited floodplain
development.
Moderately steep, cobble-bed or mixed bedrock-cobble bed
channel, with plane-bed, pool-riffle, or pool-rapid reach
Upper Foothills
0.005 0.019
types. Length of pools and riffles/rapids similar. Narrow
floodplain of sand, gravel or cobble often present.
Lower gradient mixed bed alluvial channel with sand and
gravel dominating the bed, locally may be bedrock
controlled. Reach types typically include pool-riffle or pool-
Lower Foothills
0.001 - 0.005
rapid, sand bars common in pools. Pools of significantly
greater extent than rapids or riffles. Floodplains often
present.
Low gradient alluvial fine bed channel, typically regime
reach type. May be confined, but fully developed
Lowland river
0.0001 0.001
meandering pattern within a distinct floodplain develops in
unconfined reaches where there is an increased silt content
in bed or banks.
Moderate to steep gradient, confined channel (gorge)
Rejuvenated bedrock
resulting from uplift in the middle to lower reaches of the
>0.02
fall / cascades
long profile, limited lateral development of alluvial features,
reach types include bedrock fall, cascades and pool-rapid.
Steepened section within middle reaches of the river caused
by uplift, often within or downstream of gorge;
characteristics similar to foothills (gravel/cobble bed rivers
with pool-riffle/ pool-rapid morphology) but of a higher order.
Rejuvenated foothills
0.001 0.02
A compound channel is often present with an active channel
contained within a macro-channel activated only during
infrequent flood events. A limited flood- plain may be
present between the active and macro-channel.
An upland low gradient channel, often associated with
Upland flood plain
<0.005
uplifted plateau areas, as occur beneath the eastern
escarpment.
28
E-Flows Delineation Report
The longitudinal profiles of the Cubango-Okavango River and Cuito River are given in Figure
3-2.
Cubango-Kavango-Okavango Profile
2000
N
C
Mohem
Maun
am
uito C
1800
i
bian B
el)
1600
onf
bo
luence
1400
or
sea lev
der
e
1200
abov
1000
es
800
etr
(
m
600
ude
400
l
tit
A
200
0
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Distance from source near Huambo to Maun
Cuito River Profile
1800
1600
)
1400
l
evel
C
1200
sea
u
i
t
o
C
1000
bove
uan
s a
800
aval
r
e
et
e
600
(
m
de
400
l
ti
tu
A
200
0
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
Distance from source (km)
Figure 3-2
Longitudinal profiles of the Cubango-Okavango River and Cuito Rivers.
3.4.
Chemical and thermal zonation
3.4.1.
Introduction
The main objective of chemical and thermal delineation was to divide the main rivers within the
Okavango River Basin into zones with similar water-quality characteristics. Zones were defined
as stretches of the river within which water quality is essentially homogeneous. Urban centres
were considered to be zones as it was felt that there would be significant localised effects of
urban activities on the water quality. It was felt that within each chemical zone, the thermal
characteristics would be similar.
3.4.2.
Approach used
The water-quality team consisted of C. Ortmann and L. Namene (both from Department of
Water Affairs,Namibia); Dr. C.N. Kurungudla (Department of Water Affairs, Botswana), Dr W.
R.L. Masamba (Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre, University of Botswana,
Botswana) and Carlos Andrade from Angola. The approach taken was to consider channel
flow and human activities as the main basis for choosing chemical zonations. Three
characteristics were used, and everywhere that one of these changes a new zone was
assigned. The three characteristics were:
29
E-Flows Delineation Report
· zones characterised by:
a. dominant instream flows
b. low bank spills
c. significant land use
· zones characterised by:
a. several distributaries e.g. in Angola, Okavango Delta
b. swamps and flood plains e.g. Namibia, Okavango Delta
c. low to medium land use
· Towns and villages
The water quality zones were agreed on as follows (Table 3-6):
Angola
Zone 1:
· Headwaters of Cubango to Cubango- Cuebe confluence.
· Headwaters of Cuito River to Longa
Zone 2:
· From Cubango-Cuebe confluence to Caiundo
· From Longa to Cuito Cunavale
Zone 3:
· From Caiundo to Katwitwi on the Angola/Namibia border
· From Cuito Cunavale to Dirico
Angola and Namibia
Zone 4: along the Okavango River from Katwitwi to Kasivi/Bunya
Zone 5: along the Okavango River from Kasivi/Bunya to Mbambi
Zone 6: along the Okavango River from Mbambi to Popa Rapids
Namibia
Zone 7:along the Okavango River from Popa Rapids to Mohembo
Botswana
Zone 8: Mohembo to Seronga (Panhandle)
Zone 9: middle part of the Okavango Delta
Zone 10: lower part of the Delta
Zones 11 -15: urban areas at Rundu, Maun, Cuito Cuinavale, Menongue, Cuchi
These zones are plotted on Figure 3-3 and were later harmonised with other disciplines.
30
E-Flows Delineation Report
Table 3-6
Chemical zonation of the Okavango River system
Reach No. River name Description
WQ 1
Cubango
Source to Kubango
WQ 2
Cubango
Kubango to Mucundi
WQ 3
Cubango
Mucundi to Catambue
WQ 4
Okavango
Catambue to Rundu
WQ 5
Okavango
Rundu to Dirico
WQ 6
Okavango
Dirico to Mukwe
WQ 7
Okavango
Mukwe to Popa
WQ 8
Okavango
Popa to end of Panhandle
WQ 9
Okavango
Upper Delta
WQ 10
Okavango
Lower Delta
WQ 11
Cuito
Source to 14 degree Lat
WQ 12
Cuito
14 degree Lat to Cuito Cuanavale
WQ 13
Cuito
Cuito Cuanavale to confluence with the Okavango
WQ 2
Cutato
Whole river
WQ 2
Cuebe
Source to Mucundi
WQ 3
Cuebe
Mucundi to confluence with Cubango
WQ 14
Okavango
Maun (Urban)
WQ 15
Cuito
Cuito Cuanavale (Urban)
WQ 16
Cuebe
Menongue (Urban)
WQ 17
Cubango
(Cuchi (Urban)
Figure 3-3
Water quality zones
3.5.
Biological zonation
3.5.1.
Introduction
Rivers are longitudinal ecosystems, with changing conditions from source to sea. Headwaters,
if originating in highland areas, tend to have cooler, purer water, steeper channels, larger bed
particles and more turbulent flow. The downstream ends of the systems are usually flatter, with
warmer, less pure water, and finer bed particles because of the slower flow. In addition to
these changes in altitude, rainfall across the Okavango River Basin steadily decreases from its
31
E-Flows Delineation Report
source to the Delta. These aspects of rivers have been covered in the three preceding physical
and chemical zonation analyses.
Distribution of the living components of the ecosystem reflects these changes: the communities
of plants and animals, in the channel, the floodplains and on the banks, differ along the length
of the system. Usually there is no sudden transition from one community to another. Rather,
species replace species along the river resulting in several overall changes from one
recognisable community to another. Thus, for instance, a community of miombo woodland
trees may occur along the upper catchment area of a river, to be gradually replaced by a more
open tree community further downstream and then reeds, sedges and grasses along its lowest,
slowest-flowing reaches. In the case of the Okavango River these vegetation zones reflect
decreasing rainfall too. These recognisably different sections of a river may be seen as
biological river zones. Such zones will also be apparent in the distribution of riverine fish,
aquatic macro-invertebrates, amphibians, aquatic reptiles and river-dependent birds and
mammals.
The objective of the exercise reported in this section was to delineate river zones based on
biological information in other words to allow the river species to indicate by their distribution
patterns which parts of the river are perceived by them as being different.
3.5.2.
Approach used
On the first day, the biologists from the three countries formed a team to consider ecological
delineation of the Okavango River Basin. The team included:
Angola: Luis Verissimo (Large mammals), Miguel Morais (General Biology), Carlos Andrade
(General Biology/ Ecology)
Namibia: Kevin Roberts (Aquatic Ecology and Wildlife), Barbara Curtis (Vegetation Ecology),
Shirley Bethune (Aquatic/Vegetation Ecology), Shishani Nakanwe (Aquatic Ecology),
Christopher Munwela (Fisheries)
Botswana: Casper Bonyongo (Wildlife ecology), Keta Mosepele (Fisheries ecology), Belda
Mosepele (Aquatic Invertebrates), Kelebogile Mfundisi (Aquatic Vegetation) and Sekgowa
Motsumi (General Ecology)
The team shared an overview of the basin as not all were familiar with parts of the basin in
other countries. To start the more detailed discussions, the group listed the different habitats
within the basin aquatic, wetland and terrestrial, and agreed that the level of zonation would
be broad habitats/vegetation zones, as determined by rainfall, altitude and soils, and within
which they would distinguish distinct sub-basins. It was agreed that fauna should to some
extent follow the vegetation zones and that they would test this concept within the group.
Using such intuitive biological zones based on rainfall and vegetation, each zone was then
discussed per discipline, that is, by the specialists in aquatic invertebrates, fish, riverine
reptiles, water dependent birds and mammals. Too little information was available to discuss
the amphibians and it was agreed to group the reptiles with the mammals as wildlife for
purposes of the discussions.
Starting in the north, the group distinguished 11 vegetation zones for the Cubango/Okavango
and five for the Cuito basin, and recognised bands across the basins linked by rainfall and
altitude. Within Angola, the same number was used for zones in the same band and within
these the basins were designated as a) Cubango and b) Cuito the two major sub-basins. For
each of the 16 ecological zones thus identified within the Okavango River Basin (Table 3-7),
the group listed the dominant species, gave the geographic location and a general ecological
description. It was agreed to tabulate these vegetation zones and then link the main faunal
zones across these.
32
E-Flows Delineation Report
Each country's specialists contributed information on broader characteristics and the
occurrence of endemics of each faunal group for each identified zone. All discussed similarities
with other zones. The team made use of maps, reference books such as Mendelsohn, Griffin,
Ellery, as well as the ODMP, AquaRap and the Namibian pipeline preliminary environmental
assessment reports (Table 3-8). It was agreed that Botswana's aquatic invertebrate, fish and
bird specialists would give input during the next day as they were absent from the afternoon
discussions.
On the second day, the team leader recapped on the previous day's work by discussing each
zone as tabulated. All used the opportunity to add new information: on birds and vegetation
species from Angola, fish, vegetation, and invertebrates in Botswana and fish zones as
designated by fishery biologists in Namibia. The zones were reassessed based on the new
information, mainly based on the Botswana AquaRap study results. The team agreed to divide
(a) the Botswana panhandle zone into the upper and lower zones; (b) the permanent swamp
into the Santantadibe/Maunachira arm and the Boro/Jao arm; and (c) that the `seasonal
swamp' should constitute the outflow channels, Thamalakane and Boteti, (d) that Lake Ngami
should be a separate zone, thereby increasing the number of ecological zones to 13. The team
was later instructed not to divide the zones in Angola into a) and b) but to give each identified
ecological zone its own number, thus the four zones identified for the Cuito River Basin were
added and moved to the end of the table as zones 1418 (Figure 3-4).
The ecologists identified and agreed on eighteen zones, thirteen stretching from the source of
the Cubango River to the outflow channels of the Delta and Lake Ngami, and four in the Cuito
Basin parallel to rather similar zones in the adjacent Cubango River Basin.
Table 3-7 shows these 18 ecological zones and their vegetation characteristics.
1
3
2
4
11
12
10
9
7
5
6
8 13
14 0
Figure 3-4
The 14 biological zones which were eventually increased to 18 zones.
33
E-Flows Delineation Report
Table 3-7
Ecological zones within the Okavango River Basin identified and agreed by biologists
Zone Veg zone and
no
river
Location Description
Dominant
vegetation
permanently wet grasslands at
Waterlogged
From Vila Nova / Liuema source, in small channels.
Protea; Parinari; Syzygium;
1 grassland
to Sambo / Cachingues Cubango, Cutato, Cuchi,
Helichrysum; Ctenium;
Cubango
in the south
Cacuchi tributaries; high human Fimbristylis
pressure
Miombo
From Sambo /
Brachystegia spp, Brachystegia
2 woodland
Cachingues to Caiundo / Cubango, Cuchi, Cuelei.
spiciformis, Julbernardia
Cubango
Mumbue
paniculata
Miombo/Dry
woodland
From Caiundo to
Brachystegia spp, Burkea
3
transition area Mumbue
africana, Pterocarpus angolensis
Cubango
Dry woodland/
Burkea africana, Pterocarpus
4 savannah
From Caiundo to Katuitui
angolensis, Terminalia sericea,
mosaic
Cubango
Acacia spp
River flowing eastwards, heavily
impacted by humans, Shallow
water, sandy & rocky
Mainstream
Katwitwi to Mukwe
substrates; after Bunya well
developed floodplains, large
River
Few floodplains east of oxbow lakes & backwater
Ziziphus mucronata, Acacia spp,
5 Reedbeds and Bunya
Dichrostachys cinerea, Terminalia
Floodplains
More marked floodplains habitats; below Cuito junction
sericea
Okavango
section Bunya to Mukwe more:gentle gradient,
meanders, wider, reedbeds,
sedges & sandbanks
Includes two distinct fisheries
zones
Rocky river
section with
Riparian woodland; rocky,
well developed
braided with islands, rare fish:
6 riparian and
Mukwe - Popa rapids
rapids, substratum sand and
Diospyros mespiliformis, Rhus
island
gravel, large boulders.
quartiniana, Philenoptera violacea
woodlands
Distinct fisheries zone
Okavango
Riparian
: start of Panhandle - large
T: Acacia nigrescens, Kigelia
woodlands with Below Popa Falls to
africana, Combretum imberbe,
7
floodplains, reedbeds, papyrus,
floodplains
Diospyros mespiliformis. S:
Mohembo
protected area
Okavango
Croton megalobotrys, Combretum
Distinct Fisheries zone
mossambicense
Panhandle,
77 plant species-Meandering
riparian
channel; floodplain, papyrus,
8 woodlands,
Mohembo to Sepopa
reedbeds, Diospyros
Cyperus papyrus, Vossia
permanent
"upper panhandle"
mespiliformis (different fish
cuspidata, Phragmites australis
swamp
species and aquatic
Okavango
invertebrate fauna)
131 plant species-Meandering
Sepopa/ Gumare to
Permanent
channel; floodplain, papyrus,
9 swamps
Serongo area
reedbeds, Diospyros
Cyperus papyrus, Vossia
"lower panhandle" with
Okavango
mespiliformis
cuspidata, Phragmites australis
lagoons
Distinct aquatic invertebrate and
fish communities
34
E-Flows Delineation Report
Zone Veg zone and
Location Description
Dominant
vegetation
no
river
Seasonal
108 plant species-f aquatic
permanent swamp
swamps -
Central swamp and
vegetation emergent and
10 central
south east of Chief's
submerged species
C. papyrus, Vossia cuspidate
Jao/Boro
distinct aquatic invertebrate and
channels
island
fish communities
Seasonal
swamps
Seasonal swamp
Papyrus, hippo grass,
Phragmites australis, Mischantus
11
Santantadiibe
North western Moremi
phragmites, lagoons,
junceus, C. papyrus
Maunachira.
and Xakananaxa lagoon
channels
occasionally
Biologists distinguish three sub-
Seasonal to occasionally
Nymphae sp., Nymphoides,
flooded
zones here dependant on
12
flooded outflow channels
Marselia
Thamalakane
flooding duration. Primary
south-west of Delta
Floodplain grasses
/Boteti outflows
secondary and tertiary
Ephemeral
Usually dry, floodplain grasses and
Rarely flooded
13
floodplain lakes Lake Ngami
Acacia trees, when wet Ludwigia
(low fish species diversity)
Lake Ngami
sp.
High rainfall, gentler gradient,
Headwaters
14
Source
more meanders, wider valley.
Brachystegia spp,
Cuito
Few people
Miombo &
From Cango
floodplains
15
to 14 degrees Lat. Cuebe, Cueio, Cuatir, tributaries and
Brachystegia spp,
Cuito
floodplains
Miombo/Dry
woodland
Brachystegia spp, Burkea africana,
16
From 14 degrees Lat to Cuito Cuanalae
transition
Pterocarpus angolensis
Cuito
Dry
Burkea africana, Pterocarpus
woodland/sava
17
From Cuito Cuanavale to Lumeta
angolensis, Terminalia sericea,
nnah mosaic
Acacia spp
Cuito
Permanent
swamp at
18
From Lumeta to Mukwe
Cuito/Cubango
confluence
Table 3-8
Literature searched for data on biological zonation of the Okavango River Basin
Country Literature
Angola
Curtis, B. A and C.A. Mannheimer. 2007. Field guide to select trees of Kunado Kubango. The
Okavango Integrated River Basin Management Project (IRBM), Windhoek.
Mendelsohn, J. and S el Obied. 2004. Okavango River: the flow of a lifeline. Struik, Cape Town.
Skelton, P. H. 1993. A complete quide to the freshwater fishes of Southern Africa. Southern Book
Publishers, Halfway House.
Verissimo, M.N. 2008. Guide to the larger mammals of Kuando Kubango. Okavango River Basin
Management Project (IRBM), Windhoek.
Botswana Alonso, L.E. and L-A Nordin (editors), 2003. A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems
of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: High Water Survey. RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment 27.
Conservation International, Washington, D.C.
Butchart, D. 2000. Wildlife of the Okavango. Common Animals and Plants, Struik, Cape Town.
Department of Environmental Affairs, 2008. Okavango Delta Management Plan, Gaborone.
Ellery, K. and Ellery W. 1997. Plants of the Okavango Delta. Tsaro Publishers, Durban.225 pp.
Mendelsohn, J. and S el Obied. 2004. Okavango River: the flow of a lifeline. Struik, Cape Town.
35
E-Flows Delineation Report
Country Literature
Namibia
Bethune, S. 1991. Kavango River wetlands. Madoqua. 17 (2) : 77 112.
Bethune, S. and K. S. Roberts. 1991. Checklist of the fishes of Namibia for each wetland region.
Madoqua. 17 (2) : 193 199.
Bethune, S.1992. An updated review of the limnological baseline survey of the Okavango River in
Namibia 1984 1986. Research Division report RR/92/3. Department of Water Affairs, Windhoek.
Bethune, S., D, Shaw, K.S. Roberts and the Wetland Working Group of Namibia. 2007. Wetlands of
Namibia. Wetlands Working Group of Namibia, Windhoek.
Chutter, F.M. 1997. A report on the application for the SASS4 method for the assessment of river
water quality to the Zambezi, Okavango and Kwando/Linyanti/Chobe rivers in northern Namibia.
Afridev consultants, Menlo Park.
Curtis, B.A. 1991. Freshwater macro-invertebrates of Namibia. Madoqua. 17 (2):163 187.
Curtis, B.A. and C.A. Mannheimer. 2005. Tree Atlas of Namibia. National Botanical Research
Institute, Windhoek.
Curtis, B.A., K.S. Roberts, M. Griffin, S. Bethune, C.J. Hay and H. Kolberg. 1998. Species richness
and conservation of Namibian freshwater macro-invertebrates, fish and amphibians. Biodiversity and
Conservation. 7: 447-466.
Griffin M. and C.G. Coetzee. 2005. Annotated checklist and provisional national conservation status of
Namibian mammals. Technical report 4 of Scientific Services, Ministry of Environment and Tourism,
Windhoek.
Hatutale, A. 1994. Investigation into the surface water resources of the Okavango Region with special
reference to the Okavango River. Hydrology Division report 2500/3/1/H1 Department of Water Affairs,
Windhoek.
Hay, C.J., T.F. Naesje, J. Breistein, K. Harsaker, J. Kolding, O.T. Sandlund and B. van Zyl. 2000. Fish
populations, gill net selectivity, and artisinal fisheries in the Okavango River, Namibia.
Recommendations for a sustainable fishery. NINA-NIKU Project Report 010: 1- 105.
Windhoek/Trondheim.
Hines, C.J.H. 1986. The Birds of eastern Kavango, SWA/Namibia. Journal of the SWA Scientific
Society 1985/86, 1986/87. 40/41 : 115 147
Mendelsohn, J. and S el Obied. 2003. Sand and Water. A profile of the Kavango Region. Struik, Cape
Town.
Mendelsohn, J. and S el Obied. 2004. Okavango River: the flow of a lifeline. Struik, Cape Town.
Paxton, M. (Editor) 2008. Bwabwata National Park, Special Edition. Sandpaper 10. SPAN project
newsletter, Ministry of Environment and Tourism.
Skelton, P.H. 1987. South African Red Data Book Fishes. South African national scientific
programmes report 137, Pretoria.
Skelton, P. H. 1993. A complete quide to the freshwater fishes of Southern Africa. Southern Book
Publishers, Halfway House
Skelton, P.H. and G. S. Merron. 1984. The fishes of the Okavango River in South West Africa with
reference to the possible impact of the ENWC on fish distribution. J L B Smith Institute of Ichthyology,
investigation report 9.
Skelton, P.H. and G. S. Merron. 1985. A second survey of the fishes of the Okavango River in South
West Africa with reference to the possible impact of the ENWC on fish distribution. J L B Smith
Institute of Ichthyology, investigation report 14.
Skelton, P.H. and G. S. Merron. 1987. A third survey of the fishes of the Okavango River in South
West Africa with reference to the possible impact of the ENWC on fish distribution. J L B Smith
Institute of Ichthyology, investigation report 24.
Water Transfer Consultants. 1997. Feasibility Study on the Okavango River to Grootfontein link of the
Eastern National Water Carrier. Volume 1 Summary report, Department of Water Affairs,
Windhoek.
Water Transfer Consultants. 1997. Feasibility Study on the Okavango River to Grootfontein link of the
Eastern National Water Carrier. Executive summary, Department of Water Affairs, Windhoek.
Water Transfer Consultants. 1997. Feasibility Study on the Okavango River to Grootfontein link of the
Eastern National Water Carrier. Volume 4 Part 1: Main report Initial Environmental Evaluation of the
sociological and ecological impacts, Department of Water Affairs, Windhoek.
Water Transfer Consultants. 1997. Feasibility Study on the Okavango River to Grootfontein link of the
Eastern National Water Carrier. Volume 4 Part 3 Downstream Environmental Impacts: Specialist
Reports (Appendices A-J), Department of Water Affairs, Windhoek.
36
E-Flows Delineation Report
Country Literature
Water Transfer Consultants. 1997. Feasibility Study on the Okavango River to Grootfontein link of the
Eastern National Water Carrier. Volume 4 Part 4 Downstream Environmental Impacts: Specialist
Reports (Appendices I-O), Department of Water Affairs, Windhoek
Ward V. and J Mendelsohn. No date. Okavango River and Basin. One river, three countries: African
tapestry of people and wildlife. Explore map 1st edition, Cape Town.
3.5.3.
Findings
Table 3-9 lists the 18 biological zones recognised and gives a general description of each.
Table 3-9
Biological zonation of the Okavango River system
Zone
no
Biological zone
Location
General Description
Waterlogged
From Vila Nova / Liuema Permanently wet grasslands at river source, small channels. Parallel
1
grassland
to Sambo / Cachingues in Cubango, Cutato, Cuchi, Cacuchi 68 wetland bird species
Cubango
the south
Possibly sitatunga, eland, lechwe, reedbuck
High human pressure
Miombo woodland From Sambo /
Cubango, Cuchi, Cuelei tributaries.
Cubango
Cachingues to Caiundo / Miombo woodland
2
Mumbue
85 wetland bird species
few mammals, roan, eland , wildebeest
Miombo/Dry
From Caiundo to Mumbue Transition vegetation between miombo woodland and dry woodland
3
woodland transition
85 wetland bird species
area
Transition for mammals of zones 2 and 4
Cubango
Dry
Caiundo to Katuitui
Mosaic of dry woodland and savannah.
woodland/savannah
82 wetland bird species
4
mosaic
Historically the highest diversity and density of Mammals elephant,
Cubango
buffalo, zebra, roan, sable.
Mainstream River
Katwitwi to Mukwe
River flowing eastwards, heavily impacted by humans. Shallow water,
Reedbeds and
Few floodplains east of
sandy and rocky substrates. After Bunya well developed floodplains,
Floodplains
Bunya
large oxbow lakes and backwater habitats.Below Cuito junction
Okavango River
5
More marked floodplains more:gentle gradient, meanders, wider mainstream, reedbeds, sedges,
forming border of
section Bunya to Mukwe and sandbanks Includes 3 distinct fishery zones: (i)Katwitwi Kasivi;
Namibia and Angola
(ii) Kasivi Mbambi; (iii) Mbambi- Popa
High livestock numbers, little wildlife but high bird diversity in some
sections
Rocky river section Mukwe - Popa rapids
Riparian woodland; rocky, braided with islands, rapids. Rare fish
with well developed
species in rapids.
riparian and island
Rare bird species rocks and sandbanks.
6
woodlands
Substratum sand and gravel, large boulders.
Okavango
Distinct fisheries zone and endemic fish.
Simulium , sponges and snails on rocks.
Otters and rare rock pratincole
Riparian woodlands Below Popa Falls to
Start of Panhandle large floodplains, reedbeds, papyrus fringe.
with floodplains
Mohembo
Protected area. Distinct Fisheries zone, greater diversity, numbers and
7
Okavango
larger fish than elsewhere in Namibia.
Highest wildlife and bird diversity and mumbers
Situtunga, waterbuck, hippo, elephants, reedbuck
Rare birds : Pels fishing owl and African skimmers
Panhandle, riparian Mohembo to Sepopa
77 plant species-Meandering channel; floodplain, papyrus, reedbeds,
woodlands,
"upper panhandle"
Diospyros mespiliformis.
8
permanent swamp
Different fish species and aquatic invertebrate fauna.
Okavango
Ramsar site , human and livestock pressure
37
E-Flows Delineation Report
Zone
Biological zone
Location
General Description
no
Permanent swamps Sepopa/ Gumare to
131 plant species-Meandering channel; floodplain, papyrus, reedbeds,
Okavango
Serongo area
Diospyros mespiliformis.
9
"lower panhandle" with
Distinct aquatic invertebrate and fish communities.
lagoons
Heavy human and livestock pressure.
Ramsar Site
Seasonal swamps - permanent swamp
108 plant species- aquatic vegetation; emergent and submerged
central
Central swamp and south species.
10 Jao/Boro channels east of Chief's island
Distinct aquatic invertebrate and fish communities.
Protected area, high wildlife diversity and numbers Sitatunga,
waterbuck, hippo, elephants, impala
Seasonal swamps Seasonal swamp
Papyrus, hippo grass, phragmites, lagoons,
11 Santantadiibe
North western Moremi
Maunachira.
and Xakananaxa lagoon
channels
occasionally flooded Seasonal to occasionally Biologists distinguish three sub-zones dependant on flooding duration.
Thamalakane
flooded outflow channels Primary, secondary and tertiary
12 /Boteti outflows
south-west of Delta
No tigerfish. Ramsar site
Tsessebe other floodplain grazers
Livestock and human settlement
Ephemeral
Lake Ngami
Rarely flooded. Low fish species diversity.
13 floodplain lakes
Ramsar site, wetland bird diversity. Livestock and human pressure
Lake Ngami
molapo farming.
Headwaters
Source
High rainfall, gentler gradient, more meanders, wider valley. Few
Cuito
people
14
68 wetland bird species
Possibly sitatunga, eland, lechwe, reedbuck
Miombo &
Cango to 14 ° Lat
Cuebe, Cueio, Cuatir, tributaries and floodplains.
15 floodplains
Miombo woodland 85 wetland bird species
Cuito
Few mammals, roan, eland , wildebeest
Miombo/Dry
14 °degrees Lat to Cuito Transition vegetation between miombo woodland and dry woodland 85
16 woodland transition Cuanavale
wetland bird species transition for mammals of zones 15 and 17
Cuito
Dry
Cuito Cuanavale to
Meandering river, oxbows, islands, sandbanks
woodland/savannah Lumeta
Little human activity
17 mosaic
Mosaic of dry woodland and savannah
Cuito
82 wetland bird species
Historically the highest diversity and density of mammals elephant,
buffalo, zebra, roan, sable.
Permanent swamp Lumeta to Dirico
Reduced flow, little gradient, islands and sandbanks
at Cuito/Cubango
Cuito/Cubango meanders, oxbows,
18 confluence
High biodiversity value
Papyrus, permanent swamp, submerged vegetation, elephants, otters,
crocodiles, possibly sitatunga
3.6.
Harmonised biophysical river zonation
3.6.1.
Biophysical harmonisation exercise
Harmonization of river zones was done as part of a greater exercise of harmonising biophysical
and socio-economic zones and is reported on in Section 7.
38
E-Flows Delineation Report
4.
DELTA ZONATION
4.1.
Delineation of upstream, downstream and lateral boundaries
The Okavango Delta was delineated on the basis of the duration and frequency of inundation,
and the responses of the parts of the delta to inflow from upstream and local rainfall. Thus the
delta can be divided into areas that are permanently flooded, seasonally flooded, occasionally
flooded, and drylands. In addition, the presence of channels and floodplains was also used for
delineating the delta.
4.2.
Zonation
The Okavango Delta was divided into the following five zones (Figure 4-1 and Figure 4-2):
i.
Panhandle, which stretches from Mohembo to the northern limits of the alluvial fan
ii.
Eastern zone, fed by flows of the Nqoga River into the Maunchira, which the splits into
the Mboroga and Khwai Rivers
iii.
Central zone, mainly fed by flows of the Jao-Boro including the Boro and Xudum
distributaries
iv.
Western zone, with the Thaoge River
v.
Outflow zone, with the Thamalakane-Boteti River to Chanoga.
The eastern zone, central zone, and western zone each have perennial channels, seasonal
floodplains, occasionally flooded areas and drylands. These zones are differentiated by their
responses to local rainfall and upstream inflows. Water levels in the eastern zone usually
increase during the rainy season as a response to local rainfall, and then decline slightly at the
end of the rainy season. This is followed by a subdued increase in flow as a response to
inflows. The central and western zones have weak responses to local rainfall or minor
increases in water levels during the rainy season, but a strong response or significant increase
in water levels due to increase of inflows.
The outflow zone has distributaries draining the delta, such as the Gomoti, Santantadibe, Boro,
Shashe, Kunyere. The Gomoti, Santantadibe, Boro and Shashe drain into the Thamalakane,
which splits to form the Nhabe River flowing into Lake Ngami, and the Boteti River flowing into
the Makgadikgadi Pans. The Gomoti, Santantadibe and Shashe have been dry since the
1990s. The Thamalakane-Boteti and Kunyere Rivers are characterised by the occurrence of
high flows during the dry season, July to September. Almost all the flow of these rivers is
derived from outflows from the delta. Another distinctive feature of the rivers draining the delta
is the long-term variation of flows. The Thamalakane-Boteti River had very little to no flow
during the mid-1990s, while high flows occurred during the 1970s and part of the 1980s.
39
E-Flows Delineation Report
N
Pa
W
E
nha
S
ndle
Eastern
W
C
e
e
s
n
te
tra
rn
l
w
utflo
O
Delta rivers
Panhandle
Permanent swamps
0
100
200 Kilometers
Seasonal swamps
Figure 4-1
Zonation of the Okavango Delta
Figure 4-2
Vegetation and land use map of the Okavango delta
40
E-Flows Delineation Report
5.
SOCIO-ECONOMIC ZONATION
5.1.
Population
Mendlesohn and el Obied (2004) estimate that approximately 600 000 people live close to the
Okavango River in the three countries. They used a distance of 20 km from the river for the
Namibian estimates and a similar distance from the edge of the Delta for the estimates in
Ngamiland. Both are based on the 2001 national population census counts in each country.
No census has yet been conducted in Angola and the true figures may be very different there.
Trends show that over the last 90 years annual growth has been about 3% in both the
Namibian and Botswana sections of the Okavango Basin but that in the last 30 years this
increased to 5% per year in Namibia due to the influx of immigrants from Angola.
The ODMP report (2008), however, gave a population figure for the entire Ngamiland as 124
712 according to the 2001 census and a similar growth rate of 2.8 % for the period 1991 to
2001. Many of the people included live more than 20 km from the Delta and were thus less
likely to benefit directly from its wetland resources.
Table 5-1 shows the original population figures as given by Mendlesohn and el Obied (2004),
and as used in the delineation process.
Table 5-1
Population figures in the Okavango River Basin taken from Mendlesohn and el Obied (2004)
Rural
Urban
Total
Urban
percentage
ANGOLA
300 000
50 000
350 000
14%
KAVANGO
121 000
42 000
163 000
26%
NGAMILAND
44 000
44 000
88 000
50%
TOTAL
465 000
136 000
601 000
23%
5.2.
Land use
The only recent information on land use within the Okavango Basin was from the ODMP study
for the Okavango Delta in Botswana. The ODMP map distinguished eight types of land use:
ranch; national park/game reserve/commercial photographic area; commercial wildlife
utilisation (leasehold); community managed wildlife utilisation in livestock area; community
photographic area; community wildlife utilisation (leasehold) WMA; and a final catch-all
category Pastoral/Arable/Residential. On closer inspection of the map (Figure 5-1) the area
under discussion in this report does not include any ranches or community-managed wildlife
utilisation in livestock area categories and shows clearly that the panhandle and edges of the
delta fall within the pastoral/arable/residential land use category.
41
E-Flows Delineation Report
N
$
W
E
##
#
Sh
S
#
akaw ## #
e
$
$
#$$# #
#
$
#
#
#
$
$
$$
#
ama
Nx
sere
#
$
$
$
#
#
$
#
#
#
#
$
$
# #
Sepo
#
pa
#
$
$
Etsh
#
a 13
$
$ $ $
$
#
$
$
$
#
$ $ $
Etsha 6
$ $
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
#
$
$
$$$
#
$
$
$
Gumar # #
e
$
$
$
$
$
$ $
#
$
$
$$
#
$
$
$ $
$
#
$$
$
$
$
$$ $
$ $
#
Nokaneng
$$
$
$ $
#
#
#
$
# #
# Maun
#
Tsau
#
#
#
##
#
#
#
Sehitwa ##
#
#
Settlement
# Road
$
Camp/Lodge
River
Game Reserve
National Park
Pastoral/Arable/Residential
0
200 Kilometers
TGLP/BLDC Ranches
Wildlife Management Area
Figure 5-1
Land use categories around the within the Okavango Delta region.
Four broad, existing, land use categories were identified by the ODMP integrated land use plan
for the Okavango Basin in Botswana. They were: communal areas (settlements, arable and
pastoral agriculture), game reserves and national parks, wildlife management areas and
wetlands (outside the protected areas) e.g. in the Panhandle (Department of Environment
Affairs, 2008).
Using these broad categories it was assumed that three of them occurred in the Namibian
section of the river, Communal Areas alongside most of the river, where the main activity is
livestock farming (cattle and goats) and millet growing with some "molapo' gardening. This
area stretched from Katwitwi in the west up to the Muhango and Buffalo Core areas of the
Bwabwata National Park. This protected area made up the second broad land use category
while the wetlands or river itself and its floodplains within both these areas could possibly be
seen as a third category. A fourth land use category in Namibia was then the commercial
irrigation farms set at intervals alongside the river. The area under commercial irrigation was
expected to expand. Currently there were irrigation schemes at Shitemo, Shadikongoro,
Vungu-Vungu, Musese and Bagani Tourism was a possible fifth category as the number of
lodges alongside the river was steadily increasing.
No detailed information was available for Angola, other than Mendlesohn and el Obied's
observation (2004) that agriculture is dominated by maize, cassava, millet and vegetable
growing and that cattle numbers are relatively low except for alongside the lower Cubango and
on the northern bank of the river section shared with Namibia.
5.3.
Use of water
Mendlesohn and el Obied (2004) pointed out that, other than for domestic use, little water was
used from the Okavango River in Angola. There were no large scale irrigation schemes,
42
E-Flows Delineation Report
although several are planned, and only one small dam on the tributary of the Cuebe River at
Menogue.
Accurate estimates of the amount of water abstracted from the Okavango River in Namibia
were available from the Department of Water Affairs (Hatutale,1994, Mendelsohn and el Obied
2003, 2004). The total amount of water abstracted annually in Namibia from this river was 22
Mm3, which was less than 0.25% of the volume of water reaching Mohembo. Irrigation of about
1,200 ha used about 74% of the water abstracted, while 15% was for livestock watering, and
11% for the Rundu urban area. The villages of Nkurenkuru and Divundu were soon to be
upgraded to towns, which would increase their water consumption. The area under irrigation
was also expected to expand by a further 7,400 hectares. This could increase the total amount
of water abstracted from the Okavango River in Namibia to 134 Mm3 per year amounting to
some 4% of the average annual volume that enters the Panhandle (Mendlesohn and el Obied,
2004).
According to the ODMP report (Department of Environmental Affairs, 2008) the Okavango
River annually delivered about 10,000 Mm3 of water to Botswana at Mohembo and this volume
can range from 7,000 to 15,000 Mm3 depending on rainfall in Angola. The report gives a table
of water abstraction within the Okavango Delta Ramsar Site (Table 5-2).
Table 5-2
Water use/abstraction in the Okavango Delta Ramsar Site in 2004. Based on the ODMP report (DEA, 2008)
Scheme
Villages supplied
Amount (Mm3 y-1)
Maun water supply
Maun
2.69
Private licensed abstraction
Within delta (lodges)
No data
Gumare water supply
Gumare, Etsha, Nokaneng, Habu, Tsau
0.62
Sepopa/Ikoga integrated rural
Sepopa, Mowana, Ikogo
0.12
village water supply
Kauxwi/Xakao integrated rural
Kauxwi, Xakao, Mohembo-east, Goa,
0.17
village water supply
Jejedoa, Sekondomboro, Sechenje
Shakawe water supply
Shakawe
0.24
Total
3.84
Thus the total amount of water abstracted based on the 2004 figures was 3.84 Mm3 a year.
This was however expected to increase to about 11.04 Mm3 by 2020-25 i.e. 1% of the total flow
received at Mohembo (DEA, 2008).
5.4.
Household use of aquatic resources
To better appreciate the value of wetlands it is useful to give monetary values to wetland
resources and services. This was done in 2005 for the Okavango Delta Ramsar site and some
of the interesting values found for wetland resources in the Okavango Delta are given in Table
5-3. Values are divided into direct use and indirect use values (J. Barnes in Bethune et al.
2007).
Table 5-3
Direct uses of delta resources
Estimated contribution to the Gross
Resource use
National Product in Botswana at 2005
(million Pula)
Tourism (wildlife viewing and hunting)
363
Natural resources harvesting (fish, wood, reeds etc.)
12
43
E-Flows Delineation Report
Natural resources processing (crafts, foods)
4
Livestock, mainly cattle
1
Crops (maize and millet)
1
TOTAL
381
Indirect use values were estimated for 2005 to be:
Wildlife refuge:
60 80 million Pula
Groundwater recharge:
12 20 million Pula
Water purification:
12 20 million Pula
Carbon storage:
50 - 250 million Pula
Scientific and educational value:
12 20 million Pula
The researchers also estimated the wages and other income earned by the households living in
and around the delta from the use of delta resources. In 2005, these households earned 19.8
million Pula from agricultural production and natural resource harvesting within the Ramsar site.
They also earned P107 million in the form of salaries and wages for working with tourism
operators in the wetland. Note that the Okavango Ramsar site extends beyond the Okavango
Basin in Botswana to include the Kwando/Linyanti/Chobe wetlands too.
No similar work has yet been undertaken in either Namibia or Angola.
5.5.
Delineation of the basin into socio-economic zones
The following account describes the process of basin delineation, as it emerged at the
workshop. The team agreed that socio-economically the first level for distinguishing different
zones was political, that is, by national boundaries as this has an overriding influence on social
as well as economic activities and values.
In Botswana, the team recognised that clear socio-economic zones had already been
determined as part of ODMP/Ramsar IUCN study within its "Economics of the Delta"
component. The same five zones were thus designated as homogenous zones for this
exercise. The five zones are:
1. Central Wildlife and Tourism core area (within buffalo fence): includes the Moremi National
Park as well as communal land leased to concessionaires/community trusts and
local/traditional authorities
2. Panhandle: Mohembo to Serongo
3. West of Delta: Etsha to Gumare and westwards to the edge of the Ramsar site
4. South west: Mainly cattle country south of Gumare; the Thaoge channel excluding its fossil
drainage and including Lake Ngami, which is included within the Ramsar site, up to the
buffalo fence in the east.
5. South east of Buffalo fence: Toteng to Xudum channel and the Thamalakane to Toteng.
From the buffalo fence to Shorobe in the east.
A possible sixth zone, Maun Urban, was suggested for inclusion given the very different water
use and supply, the much higher human population and the increased potential for water
pollution.
The team agreed on the following two zones in Namibia with Rundu Urban as a possible third
zone.
1. Conservation area: Mohembo to Popa/Bagani Bridge, including the Bwabwata National
Park with the Buffalo and Mahango Core Areas as well as the emerging Conservancies in
the vicinity, such as Kamatjonga
2. Rest of the river in Namibia: The heavily settled area alongside the river typified by linear
infrastructure, irrigation, degraded riverbank and floodplains. Essentially a zone shared by
Angola on the opposite bank, although the Angolan side is less degraded.
44
E-Flows Delineation Report
Rundu Urban.was considered for possible inclusion as a new zone given the very different
water use and supply, the much higher human population and increased potential for water
pollution.
Within Angola, the team distinguished two different river basins: the Cubango with distinctly
seasonal flows, a heavily settled catchment that is degraded in the north west, and the Cuito
with its less variable flow and more pristine environment. Mirroring the ecological analysis, the
social team identified three parallel sub-basins within each basin. These are from the south:
1. Thick Kalahari sand zone also classified as the inactive basin with low rainfall.
2. The Miombo woodland or active basin around Menongue, Cushi to Cuito Cavenale.
3. Upper bogs/sponges or the head waters of each basin. They recognised that the upper
Cuito supports different crops, manioc.
Thus the team identified six zones in Angola, three for the Cubango basin and three parallel
ones for the Cuito basin. Some of the team members consulted geohydrologists and
hydrologists to obtain more input on the situation in Angola to gain some local knowledge
inputs and to discuss the different hydrological zones.
On the second day, the group consulted more widely. They then adapted the table and zone
delineation slightly as suggested, especially for the Namibian and Angolan sections and took
the opportunity to add characterisation.
Using the Mendelsohn/Ward map of the basin, the social group marked out their delineated
basins indicating broad socio-economic zones. They identified 13 zones with the option of
adding zones to cover the main urban areas, Menongue, Cushi, Rundu and Maun. Of these,
six zones where in Angola, two in Namibia with one of them being shared with Angola, and five
in Botswana in keeping with the ODMP/IUCN sites (Figure 5-2).
N
0
10
W
E
S
1
2
11
3
12
13
4
5
6
7
9
8
Figure 5-2
Preliminary delineation of socio-economic sub-zones within the Okavango River Basin, in relation to rivers,
major dams and lakes, and villages and towns.
45
E-Flows Delineation Report
These zones were presented in a plenary session at the workshop where it was agreed to
exclude the three urban sites. In later discussion with the Namibian ecologists the social team
conceded that the resource use in river sections with floodplains was likely to differ from
resource use in the rocky, braided section of the river with numerous islands. Although broadly
similar activities are practiced, the detail is likely to differ, for example floodplain fishing is very
different to fishing in faster flowing mainstream areas and there is less habitat suitable for
"molapo" farming in the more rocky reaches of the river. It was therefore agreed to identify
three zones within Namibia, the first, longest reach from the border near Katwitwi to Mukwe
shared with Angola on the opposite bank, the second rocky reach from Mukwe to the boundary
of the Mahango National Park at Kamatjonga, and the final short protected stretch within the
Mahango National Park to the border with Botswana at Mohembo.
Table 5-4
describes 13 zones within the basin, identified as being homogeneous socio-
economically. A 14th zone, urban areas, was included but not as a spatial entity.
Table 5-4
Description and characteristics of original socio-economic zones
Zone Country River Description
Basic
characteristics
Additional features
Upper Cubango reaches from
1 Angola Cubango
source to line between Kubango
Dense population, dryland maize dominated
-
and Mumbué
subsistence production few livestock
Central Cubango from Kubango to
Several urban zones,
2 Angola Cubango line between Mucundi and
Moderate population maize and millet few livestock.
irrigation potential,
Machai
Some fish use, charcoal production.
direct water use
Lower Cubango from Mucundi to
3 Angola Cubango riverine zone below Catamoué
Inactive basin low population millet some livestock
-
Upper Cuito from source to 140
4 Angola Cuito
latitude
Low population, mandioca production no livestock.
Some timber potential
Some urban
5 Angola Cuito Central Cuito from 140 latitude to
Low population, millet and few livestock.
development, timber
160 latitude
potential.
Lower Cuito from160 latitude to
Low population millet few livestock some timber
6 Angola Cuito
confluence with Cubango
potential. Flood attenuation. Some timber production
Some tourism potential
One large urban centre
Immediate terraces of river in
110,000 people. Dense population in riparian strip.
(Rundu) and
7
Angola/
Cubango/O
Angola and Botswana from
Millet production with livestock fishing (53% of people)
associated tourism.
Namibia
kavango
Catamoué to Divundu
and some plant use. Irrigation development.
Trans border
Aquaculture.
movement.
Protected areas, Mahango Game
8 Namibia
Okavango
reserve, Bwabwata National Park
Tourism, biodiversity protection, Some use of upland
Tourism potential
and conservancies
and wetland plant resources.
25,000 people. Wetland plants use (20%) and fish use
River- based tourism
Panhandle from Mohembo to
(11%) important in natural resource use. Dryland millet
(mainly angling) fairly
9 Botswana
Okavango Seronga. Permanently flooded
production (9%), livestock (45%) and upland plants
important. Potential for
wetlands
use (15%) also important.
wildlife based tourism.
17,000 people. Wetland plants use (9%), Molapo crop
Okavango
Western edge of Delta, west of
production (6%) fairly important in Natural resource
Some Delta-based
10 Botswana Delta
Buffalo fence, from Ikoga to 10km
use. Livestock (74%) and upland plant use (10%)
tourism.
south of Nokaneng.
important.
South western edge of Delta SW
9,200 people. Limited wetland resource use Wetland
Okavango from Buffalo fence, between 10km
plants (4%) Molapo crops (1%), mainly in Xudum,
11 Botswana
-
Delta
south of Nokaneng to 10 km west
Thamalakane channels. Livestock (81%) very
of Komana.
important, upland plants (11%) fairly important.
53,500 people (including Maun). Wetland plants (12%)
South eastern edge of Delta from
and fish (1%) and Molapo crops (2%) of natural
Includes urban centre
12 Botswana Okavango
10km west of Komana to the
resources use. Livestock important (64%) and upland
Delta
Buffalo fence in north west and
plants (17%) fairly important. Tourism directed at Delta
of Maun.
north.
very important.
46
E-Flows Delineation Report
1,500 people. Delta based tourism extremely
important. Small human population makes important
Community-based
13 Botswana Okavango Central Delta north and east of the use of wetland resources. Fish (26%), Wetland plants
natural resource use
Delta
Buffalo fence.
(20%), Molapo crops (5%). Use of upland wild
(CBNRM) important.
resources (38%) fairly important and livestock (8%)
unimportant.
47
E-Flows Delineation Report
6.
INTEGRATED UNITS OF ANALYSIS
The various homogeneous zones were then harmonised. Firstly the biophysical zones
(hydrology,geohydrology, water chemistry, and ecology/biology) were harmonised and these
were then harmonised with the socio-economic zones to produce Integrated Units of Analysis
(IUAs). Where there was doubt on boundaries, the IUA was defined primarily by the socio-
economic area rather than the biological zone, with the result that some IUAs contained more
than one biological zone. The IUAs were discussed in plenary session, some adjustments
were made and they were then used as the basis for selection of representative sites.
The general feedback from the teams was that they would have preferred more time and a
more inclusive process for this step in future.
Overnight the Namibian biologists conferred with the social economists to find out if the
resource use in floodplain sections of the river was likely to differ from resource use in the
rocky, braided section. They agreed that although broadly similar activities are practiced, the
detail is likely to differ, e.g. floodplain fishing is different to fishing in the rapids and there is no
"molapo" farming in the more rocky reaches of the river. They agreed that there should thus be
three integrated units of analysis within Namibia: one from Katwitwi to Mukwe shared with
Angola on the opposite bank, one from Mukwe to Kamatjonga and one for the protected area
within the Bwabwata National Park including the Mahango and Buffalo core conservation areas
and conservancies to Mohembo. This was agreed by the meeting the next morning.
The final result was a set of 12 IUAs that can be described primarily in socio economic terms.
Angolan IUAs 1 to 4 were delineated in the Cubango arm of the basin. Here, floodplains are
rare and river courses are relatively incised. The basement geology has mostly been exposed,
leaving little Kalahari sand cover. The IUAs here were delineated on the basis of topography,
ecology, population density, urbanisation and the future likely water use developments. Thus,
IUA 1 covered the high rainfall, high altitude upper reaches where parallel tributaries drain an
open upland savanna, the soils are medium textured, and there is a high density of people.
Rainfed crop production with maize is the most important land use. IUA 2, including the town of
Cuchi, was similar but lower, less incised, slightly drier, slightly less densely settled and it
contains small areas of Kalahari sand woodlands. It contained field study site 2, at Mucundi.
IUA 3 was specific to the Cuebe river catchment and included the city of Menongue. Here the
situation was similar to that of IUA 2 but there were some water quality issues surrounding the
city, and there was some irrigation of crops and plans for much more. The field study site 1 at
Capico was included here.
Angolan IUAs 5 to 7 were delineated for the Cuito arm of the basin. These were relatively
uninhabited, pristine, and occupied by Kalahari sand woodlands. Floodplains were more
significant here than in the Cubango arm, and water flow variation was much more seasonally
stable. The three IUAs here were separated on the grounds of rainfall (from humid to semi-
arid), on the basis of crops grown (cassava is the main crop grown in the upper part), the
presence of an urban area (Cuito Cuanavale) and on the basis of future water use
developments (likely to be in the lower reaches). Field study site 3 at Cuito, was situated in
IUA 6.
Two IUAs, each with two subdivisions, were defined for Namibia, based on the presence or
absence of a floodplain, flooding regime, and whether or not there was a human population.
IUA 8 covered the river along the Angolan border, where human population density was high
and a moderate floodplain was present. It contained the urban area of Rundu, and field study
site 4 at Kapako. It was subdivided between the parts above and below the Cuito junction,
which differed slightly in terms of seasonal flow regime. IUA 9 covered the river below Mukwe,
where a floodplain was mostly absent and some rocky exposures occurred in the river bed.
48
E-Flows Delineation Report
IUA 9 was subdivided into that section with a resident human population and that which was
protected as Bwabwata National Park. It contained field study site 5 at Popa
Three IUAs were defined for the Botswana part of the basin, based primarily of flooding
patterns. IUA 10 formed the panhandle with a fairly wide, mostly permanently flooded plain and
a moderately dense, relatively ethnically distinct human population. It contained field study site
6 at Mohembo. Fishing, and non-floodplain crops were characteristic. IUA 11 covered most of
the Delta with a complex pattern of seasonal, permanent, frequent, and occasional flooding. It
contained two subdivisions; moderately dense human settlement in the west, and natural
protected areas used mostly for tourism in the north east. Field study site 7 at Xakanaka was
in the latter subdivision. IUA 12 covered the most distal part of the active basin and as such
contained ephemeral channels and more restricted, less commonly flooded floodplain. Fairly
dense human settlement was present here including the urban centre of Maun. It contained
field study site 8 at Boteti.
IUAs 13 to 17 were retained, to refer to larger urban areas, in case these could be of use in the
EFA process. These were embedded within the other IUAs and not delineated spatially. The
location of study sites, as described below, within the IUAs is also shown in Table 6-1. The
spatial layout the final 13 IUAs is shown in Figure 6-1.
49
E-Flows Delineation Report
Table 6-1
Final Integrated Units of Analysis, showing relationships between IUAs and corresponding zones for each discipline
Tally Country IUA
EFA
River Description/Location Hydrology
Geohydrology
Geomorphology
Chemistry zone
Biology zone
Social-zone
Site
subcatchment
zone
zone
1 Angola
Cubango
Source
GeoH 1
Geo 0
WQ 1
Bio 0
Socio 1
2 Angola
Cubango
Source to Chinhama
Hydro 1
GeoH 1
Geo 1
WQ 1
Bio 1
Socio 1
3 Angola
1
Cubango
Chinhama to Kubango
Hydro 2
GeoH 1
Geo 2
WQ 1
Bio 2
Socio 1
4 Angola
Cutato
Source to Chinhama
No hydro
GeoH1
To be done
WQ 2
Bio 1
Socio 1
5 Angola
Cutato
Chinhama to confluence with Cubango
Hydro 3
GeoH1
To be done
WQ 2
Bio 2
Socio 1
6 Angola
Cubango
Kubango to Caiundo
GeoH 1
Geo 3
WQ 2
Bio 2
Socio 2a
2
7 Angola
2
Cubango
Caiundo to Mucundi
Hydro 8
GeoH 2
Geo 3
WQ 2
Bio 3
Socio 2a
8 Angola
1
Cuebe
Source to Menongue
Hydro 6
GeoH1
To be done
WQ 2
Bio 3
Socio 2b
3
9 Angola
Cuebe
Menongue confluence with Cubango
Hydro 6
GeoH2
To be done
WQ 3
Bio 3
Socio 2b
10 Angola 4
Cubango
Mucundi to Catambue
Hydro 9
GeoH 2
Geo 4
WQ 3
Bio 4
Socio 3
11
Angola
Cuito
Source to Cangoa
No hydro
GeoH2
Geo 12
WQ 11
Bio 12
Socio 4
5
12 Angola
Cuito
Cangoa to 14 Degrees Lat
Hydro 15
GeoH2
Geo 13
WQ 11
Bio 13
Socio 4
13 Angola
3
Cuito
14 Degrees Lat to Cuito Cuanavale
Hydro 17
GeoH2
Geo 13
WQ 12
Bio 14
Socio 5
6
14 Angola
Cuito
Cuito Cuanavale to Nankova
Hydro 19
GeoH2
Geo 14
WQ 13
Bio 14
Socio 5
Swamp at confluence between Okavango and
Hydro 11, plus
15 Angola 7
Confluence
Cuito
Hydro 20
GeoH 2
Geo 12
WQ 13
Bio 5c/16
Socio 6
16 Angola
Cuito
Nankova to Lumeta
Hydro 20
GeoH2
Geo 15
WQ 13
Bio 15
Socio 6
17 Angola
Cuito
Lumeta to Dirico
Hydro 20
GeoH2
Geo 15
WQ 13
Bio 16 (see
Socio 6
above)
18
Angola/Namibia
Cubango
Catambue to Katwitwi
No hydro
GeoH 2
Geo 4
WQ 4
Bio 5a
Socio 7
8a
18
Namibia
Okavango
Katwitwi to start of floodplain at Bunya
No hydro
GeoH 2
Geo 4
WQ 4
Bio 5a
Socio 7
19 Namibia
4
Okavango
Bunya to confluence with Cuito
Hydro 11
GeoH 2
Geo 5
WQ 4
Bio 5b
Socio 7
20 Namibia 8b
Okavango
Cuito confluence to Mukwe
Hydro 12
GeoH 2
Geo 6
WQ 6
Bio 5c/16
Socio 7
21 Namibia 9a
5
Okavango
Mukwe to Popa Falls
Hydro 12
GeoH 2
Geo 7
WQ 7
Bio 6
Socio 7
22 Namibia 9b
Okavango
Popa Falls to Mohembo
Hydro 13
GeoH 2
Geo 8
WQ 8
Bio 7
Socio 8
50
E-Flows Delineation Report
23 Botswana 10
6
Okavango
Panhandle
Hydro 14
GeoH 3
Geo 10
WQ 8
Bio 8b
Socio 9
16 Botswana 11a
7
Okavango
Permanently inundated
Hydro 14
GeoH 3
Geo 11
WQ 9 - Upper delta
(different definition)
Bio 9
Socio 13
WQ 10 - Lower delta
Socio 13 and 10
17 Botswana
11b
Okavango
Occasional West
Hydro 14
GeoH 3
Geo 11
(different definition)
Bio 10 a
(from 11 b)
18 Botswana
Okavango
Occasional East
Hydro 14
GeoH 3
Geo 11
Bio 10 b
Socio 13
12
19 Botswana
8
Okavango
Outflows
Hydro 14
GeoH 3
Geo 11
Socio 11&12
30 Urban 13
Cuebe
Menongue (Urban)
WQ 16
Socio 14
(Urban)
31 Urban 14
Okavango
Rundu (Urban)
Hydro 10
GeoH 2
Geo 5
WQ 5
Bio 5b
Socio 15
(Urban)
Socio 16
32 Urban 15
Delta
Maun (Urban)
Hydro 14
GeoH 3
Geo 11
WQ 14
(Urban)
Socio 17
33 Urban 16
Cuito
Cuito Cuanavale (Urban)
Hydro 17
GeoH2
Geo 13
WQ 15
Bio 14
(Urban)
Socio 18
34 Urban 17
Cuchi
(Cuchi (Urban)
WQ 17
(Cuchi)
51
E-Flows Delineation Report
Figure 6-1
Final delineation of IUAs in the Okavango River Basin.
52
E-Flows Delineation Report
7.
STUDY ZONES AND SITES
7.1.
Biophysical sites
As described above, 17 IUAs were selected in total. Of the spatially defined ones in Figure 6.1,
seven were in Angola, two were in Namibia (both subdivided and one shared with Angola), and
three in Botswana. Then there were five urban IUAs (Table 6.1). The IUAs were used to select
representative study sites that would be used for hydrological modelling, field visits, data
analysis and the predictions produced in the scenarios (Table 7-1). Sites were chosen in
Angola with due consideration of landmines and safety concerns. Flood dynamics in the Delta
played an important role in selection of the Botswana sites. BIOKAVANGO chose additional
sites for their own research needs (Table 7-2).
Angola selected three sites, namely Capico within the Hydro Zone 6 (from Menongue to the
confluence with Cubango River), Mucundi within the Hydro Zone 9 (from Mucundi to Catambue
and Cuito Cuanavale within the Hydro Zone 19 (from Cuito Cuanavale to Nankova). Namibia
was divided into four hydrological and geohydrological zones. The selected zones were
located between Bunya to the confluence with Cuito River within the Hydro Zone 11, and Popa
Falls to Mohembo within the Hydro Zone 13. The Botswanan sites were in the eastern side of
the Delta and in its outflow. Table 7-1 also shows in which IUAs the chosen study sites were
located.
Table 7-1
EF sites within the Okavango River Basin selected for the TDA
EF Site
Country River
Location
Latitude,
longitude
Number
1
Angola
Cuebe
Capico
15° 33' 05" S
17° 34' 00" E
2
Angola
Cubango
Mucundi
16° 13' 05" S
17° 41' 00" E
3
Angola
Cutio
Cuanavale
15° 10' 11" S
19° 10' 06" E
4
Namibia
Okavango Kapako
17° 49' 07" S
19° 11' 44" E
5
Namibia
Okavango Popa Falls
18° 07' 02" S
21° 35' 03" E
6
Botswana
Okavango Panhandle, Shakawe
18° 21' 16" S
21° 50' 13" E
7
Botswana
Khwai
Xakanaka: mix of permanent,
19° 11' 09" S
seasonal and occasionally flooded
23° 24' 48" E
areas
8
Botswana
Boteti
Chanoga; delta outflow
20° 12' 51" S
24° 07' 37" E
Table 7-2
Additional biophysical study sites within the Okavango River Basin selected for BIOKAVANGO studies
EF Site Number
Country
River
Location
9 Botswana
Boro
Nxaraga
10 Botswana
Thaoga
Etsha
7.2.
Social sites
The social survey followed the same pattern as the biophysical visits, in that the same sites
were visited. With social survey, however, any uneven spatial patterns of natural resources
53
E-Flows Delineation Report
use were determined, and field and desk work was tailored to cover a wider area. Thus socio-
economic field sites were the same as those in Tables 7.1 and 7.2.
54
E-Flows Delineation Report
8.
CONCLUSIONS
The delineation exercise used a structures process to divide the basin into homogeneous units.
Each river site could now represent a greater length of river and a surrounding social are in the
data collection and scenario creation exercises to follow. These later activities are reported on
in Reports 05 to 08 in the EFlows Report series.
55
E-Flows Delineation Report
9. REFERENCES
Alonso, L.E. and L-A Nordin (editors), 2003. A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic
ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: High Water Survey. RAP Bulletin of
Biological Assessment 27. Conservation International, Washington, D.C.
Bethune, S., D, Shaw, K.S. Roberts and the Wetland Working Group of Namibia. 2007.
Wetlands of Namibia. Wetlands Working Group of Namibia, Windhoek
Department of Environmental Affairs, 2008. Okavango Delta Management Plan, Gaborone
Hatutale, A. 1994. Investigation into the surface water resources of the Okavango Region with
special reference to the Okavango River. Hydrology Division report 2500/3/1/H1
Department of Water Affairs, Windhoek
Mendelsohn, J. and S el Obied. 2003. Sand and Water. A profile of the Kavango Region.
Struik, Cape Town.
Mendelsohn, J. and S el Obied. 2004. Okavango River: the flow of a lifeline. Struik, Cape Town
Water Transfer Consultants. 1997. Feasibility Study on the Okavango River to Grootfontein
link of the Eastern National Water Carrier. Volume 4 Part 1: Main report Initial
Environmental Evaluation of the sociological and ecological impacts, Department of
Water Affairs, Windhoek.
Water Transfer Consultants. 1997. Feasibility Study on the Okavango River to Grootfontein
link of the Eastern National Water Carrier. Volume 4 Part 3 Downstream
Environmental Impacts: Specialist Reports (Appendices A-J), Department of Water
Affairs, Windhoek
Water Transfer Consultants. 1997. Feasibility Study on the Okavango River to Grootfontein
link of the Eastern National Water Carrier. Volume 4 Part 4 Downstream
Environmental Impacts: Specialist Reports (Appendices I-O), Department of Water
Affairs, Windhoek
Ward V. and J Mendelsohn. No date. Okavango River and Basin. One river, three countries:
African tapestry of people and wildlife. Explore map 1st edition, Cape Town
56
E-Flows Delineation Report
10.
APPENDIX 1.1: LIST OF PARTICIPANTS AT THE
BASIN DELINEATION WORKSESSION
ANGOLAN TEAM
Name
Institution
Area of expertise
Carlos Andrade
Ecology
Paulo Emilio Mendes
Hydrology
Gabriel Miguel
Hydrogeology
Helder de Andrade Sousa
Geomorphology
Miguel Morais
Biology
Manuel Quintino
Water Resources
Luis Verissimo
Ecologist
NAMIBIAN TEAM
Name
Institution
Area of expertise
Wetlands Working Group of
Shirley Bethune
Wetland ecologist
Namibia
Aune Hatutale
NamWater
Hydrologist
Hydrologist/ Hydraulic
Andre Mostert
NamWater
modeller
Mathews Katjimune
Geohydrology Div. DWAF
Geohydrologist
Cynthia Ortmann
Water Quality &
Water Environment Div. DWAF
Laura Namene
Pollution
Barbara Curtis
Polytechnic of Namibia
Vegetation ecologist
Shishani Nakanwe
Water Environment Div. DWAF Aquatic invertebrates
Freshwater Fisheries Div,
Christopher Munwela
Aquaculturist
MFMR
Kevin Roberts
Water Environment Div. DWAF Wetland biologist
Dorothy Wamunyima
Namibia Nature Foundation
Social scientist
57
E-Flows Delineation Report
BOTSWANA TEAM
Name
Institution
Area of expertise
Nkobi Moleele
Biokavango National
Biokavango National
Coordinator
Coordinator
Belda Mosepele
Biokavango Fishery
Biokavango Fishery
Coordinator
Coordinator
Dominic Mazvimavi
HOORC
Project Coordinator
Piotr Wolski
HOORC
Hydrology
Casper Bonyongo
HOORC
Wildlife & Terrestrial
Ecology
Kelebogile Mfundisi
HOORC
Aquatic ecology
Keta Mosepele
HOORC
Fish and Fisheries
Wellington Masamba
HOORC
Water Quality
Gagoitseope Mmopelwa
HOORC
Natural Resources
Economics Livelihoods
Joseph Mbaiwa
HOORC
Tourism
Cornelis Vanderpost
HOORC
Demographics
Lapo Magole
HOORC
Governance
Barbara Ngwenya
HOORC
Social anthropology
Masego Dhliwayo
HOORC
GIS
Tracy Molefi
Ministry of Minerals, Energy International Waters Unit
& Water Resources
C.N. Kurugundla
Dept of Water Affairs
Aquatic ecology
Kobamelo Dikgola
Dept of Water Affairs
Hydrology
Francis
Dept of Water Affairs
Hydrology
Sekgowa. Motsumi
Dept of Environmental
Ecology
Affairs
OTHER PARTICIPANTS
Name
Institution
Area of expertise
Chaminda Rajapakse
GEF/EPSMO Project
Manager
Jacob Burke
GEF/EPSMO
FAO Senior Water Policy
Officer
Eben Chonguica
OKACOM Secretariat
OKACOM Executive
Secretary
Jackie King
Water Matters
EFA Project leader
Cate Brown
Southern Waters
EFA Technical
co-ordinator
Hans Beuster
Beuster and Associates
EFA Basin hydrologist
Jon Barnes
Design and Development
EFA Natural resources
Services
economist
Gregory Thomas
Natural Heritage Institute,
President
USA
58
E-Flows Delineation Report
11.
APPENDIX 1.2: AGENDA FOR BASIN DELINEATION
WORKSHOP; MAUN, BOTSWANA
Monday: 22nd September 2008
Time
Activity
Responsible person
INTRODUCTORY SESSION
08h00 Welcome
Chaminda Rajapakse and
08h20
Introduction of delegates
Nkobi Moleele
08h30
Concept of Environmental Flows
Jackie King
09h30
Overview of the TDA: EF Process
Jackie King
10h15
Introduction to guidelines and templates
Cate Brown
10h30
TEA
BASIN DELINEATION
Steps
11h00 Introduction Example of outputs
Cate Brown
Template for report
Step 1: Basin location and
National Project
characteristics
Leaders
Step 2.1: Hydrological zones
Hydrologists
rmation to
Step 2.2: Groundwater zones
Geohydrologists
Discipline
Step 2.3: Geomorphological
11h30
Group
Geomorphologists
v
ide info
zones
Sessions
pro
Step 2.4: Chemical and thermal Aquatic chemists
zones
Step 2.5: Biological zones
Ecologists
Step 3.1: Socio-economic areas Socio-economists
GIS team to
all
13h00
LUNCH
14h00
Discipline Group Sessions continued
Same groups
15h00
TEA
Discipline Group
Same groups
Sessions continued
15h30 Parallel
sessions
Jackie King, Project Leaders,
Scenario discussion
National Team Leaders
17h00
SESSION CLOSES
59
E-Flows Delineation Report
Tuesday: 23rd September 2008
Hydrologists follow own agenda
Time
Activity
Responsible person
BASIN DELINEATION: CONTINUED
08h00
Feedback on progress
Jackie King
08h30
Discipline Group Sessions continued
Same groups
10h30
TEA
11h00
Discipline Group Sessions continued
Same groups
13h00
LUNCH
Step 2.6: Harmonisation of river zones Biophysical specialists
Discipline Group
14h00
Step 3.2: Adjusted socio-economic
Sessions
Socio-economists
areas
15h00
TEA
Cate Brown
15h30
Step 4: Identification of Integrated Units of Analysis
Report writing by National
Project Leaders
17h00
SESSION CLOSES
60
E-Flows Delineation Report
Wednesday: 24th September 2008
Hydrologists follow own agenda
Time
Activity
Responsible person
BASIN DELINEATION: SITE SELECTION
08h30
Feedback on progress
Jackie King
Angola Team
Country Group
09h00
Step 5: Select zones and sites
Namibia Team
Sessions
Botswana Team
10h30
TEA
11h00 Country
Sessions
continued
12h00
Angola feedback on site selection
Angola Project Leaders
12h20
Namibia feedback on site selection
Namibia Project Leaders
12h40
Botswana feedback on site selection
Botswana Project Leaders
13h00
LUNCH
INDICATORS
Steps
14h00 Introduction
Example of outputs
Jackie King
Reporting
Identification biophysical indicators by
Biophysical discipline groups
Discipline Group
discipline and by site
14h30
Sessions
Identification socio-economic indicators Socio-economic group
by Socio-economic area
15h00
TEA
Discipline Group Sessions continued
Same groups
15h30 Parallel
sessions
Jackie King, Project Leaders,
Scenario discussion
National Team Leaders
17h00
SESSION CLOSES
61
E-Flows Delineation Report
Thursday: 25th September 2008
Hydrologists follow own agenda
Time
Activity
Responsible person
LINKED INDICATORS
08h00
Feedback on progress
Jackie King
Discipline Group
Identification of links to driving
08h15
Discipline groups
Sessions
indicators
10h30
TEA
11h00
Discipline Group Sessions continued
Discipline groups
13h00
LUNCH
LINKS TO FLOW REGIME
14h00
Introduction to flow categories
Jackie King
Identification of links between
Biophysical discipline groups
Discipline Group
biophysical indicators and flow regime
14h15
Sessions
Identification of links between socio-
Socio-economic group
economic indicators and flow regime
15h00
TEA
DATA FLOW
15h30
Data flow session
Cate Brown
17h00
SESSION CLOSES
62
E-Flows Delineation Report
Friday: 26th September 2008
Time
Activity
Responsible person
08h00
Summary of workshop to date
Cate Brown
08h30
Hydrological and hydraulic model feedback
Dominic Mazvimavi
SCENARIO IDENTIFICATION
09h00
Introduction to the concept and use of scenarios
Jackie King
09h30
Presentation of Preliminary Long List of Scenarios
Chaminda Rajapakse
10h00
Discussion of Long List of Scenarios
Nkobi Moleele
10h30
TEA
11h00
Rationalisation of Long List of Scenarios
Hans Beuster
13h00
LUNCH
THE WAY FORWARD
Field Trip
Dominic Mazvimavi
Data collection and analysis
Purpose of Specialists Report and
Jackie King
Plenary session:
Deadlines
14h00
Next steps in the Hydrological Configuration Workshop
Hans Beuster
TDA: EF process Knowledge Capture Workshop
Cate Brown
Technical Scenario Analysis Workshop
Jackie King
Responsibilities
15h00
TEA
15h30
Next steps: continued
As above
Nkobi Moleele and
16h45 Workshop
closure
Chaminda Rajapakse
17h00
SESSION CLOSES
63
E-Flows Delineation Report
The Okavango River Basin Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis Technical Reports
In 1994, the three riparian countries of the Okavango
Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis to establish a
River Basin Angola, Botswana and Namibia
base of available scientific evidence to guide future
agreed to plan for collaborative management of the
decision making. The study, created from inputs from
natural resources of the Okavango, forming the
multi-disciplinary teams in each country, with
Permanent Okavango River Basin Water Commission
specialists in hydrology, hydraulics, channel form,
(OKACOM). In 2003, with funding from the Global
water quality, vegetation, aquatic invertebrates, fish,
Environment Facility, OKACOM launched the
birds, river-dependent terrestrial wildlife, resource
Environmental Protection and Sustainable
economics and socio-cultural issues, was coordinated
Management of the Okavango River Basin (EPSMO)
and managed by a group of specialists from the
Project to coordinate development and to anticipate
southern African region in 2008 and 2009.
and address threats to the river and the associated
communities and environment. Implemented by the
The following specialist technical reports were
United Nations Development Program and executed
produced as part of this process and form substantive
by the United Nations Food and Agriculture
background content for the Okavango River Basin
Organization, the project produced the
Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis.
Final Study
Reports integrating findings from all country and background reports, and covering the entire
Reports
basin.
Aylward, B.
Economic Valuation of Basin Resources: Final Report to
EPSMO Project of the UN Food & Agriculture Organization as
an Input to the Okavango River Basin Transboundary
Diagnostic Analysis
Barnes, J. et al.
Okavango River Basin Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis:
Socio-Economic Assessment Final Report
King, J.M. and Brown,
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment Project
C.A.
Initiation Report (Report No: 01/2009)
King, J.M. and Brown,
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment EFA
C.A.
Process Report (Report No: 02/2009)
King, J.M. and Brown,
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment
C.A.
Guidelines for Data Collection, Analysis and Scenario Creation
(Report No: 03/2009)
Bethune,
S.
Mazvimavi,
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment
D. and Quintino, M.
Delineation Report (Report No: 04/2009)
Beuster, H.
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment
Hydrology Report: Data And Models(Report No: 05/2009)
Beuster,
H. Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment
Scenario Report : Hydrology (Report No: 06/2009)
Jones, M.J.
The Groundwater Hydrology of The Okavango Basin (FAO
Internal Report, April 2010)
King, J.M. and Brown,
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment
C.A.
Scenario Report: Ecological and Social Predictions (Volume 1
of 4)(Report No. 07/2009)
King, J.M. and Brown,
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment
C.A.
Scenario Report: Ecological and Social Predictions (Volume 2
of 4: Indicator results) (Report No. 07/2009)
King, J.M. and Brown,
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment
C.A.
Scenario Report: Ecological and Social Predictions: Climate
Change Scenarios (Volume 3 of 4) (Report No. 07/2009)
King, J., Brown, C.A.,
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment
Joubert, A.R. and
Scenario Report: Biophysical Predictions (Volume 4 of 4:
Barnes, J.
Climate Change Indicator Results) (Report No: 07/2009)
King, J., Brown, C.A.
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment Project
and Barnes, J.
Final Report (Report No: 08/2009)
Malzbender, D.
Environmental Protection And Sustainable Management Of The
Okavango River Basin (EPSMO): Governance Review
Vanderpost, C. and
Database and GIS design for an expanded Okavango Basin
Dhliwayo, M.
Information System (OBIS)
Veríssimo, Luis
GIS Database for the Environment Protection and Sustainable
Management of the Okavango River Basin Project
Wolski,
P.
Assessment of hydrological effects of climate change in the
Okavango Basin
Country Reports
Angola
Andrade e Sousa,
Análise Diagnóstica Transfronteiriça da Bacia do Rio
Biophysical Series
Helder André de
Okavango: Módulo do Caudal Ambiental: Relatório do
Especialista: País: Angola: Disciplina: Sedimentologia &
Geomorfologia
64
E-Flows Delineation Report
Gomes, Amândio
Análise Diagnóstica Transfronteiriça da Bacia do Rio
Okavango: Módulo do Caudal Ambiental: Relatório do
Especialista: País: Angola: Disciplina: Vegetação
Gomes,
Amândio
Análise Técnica, Biofísica e Socio-Económica do Lado
Angolano da Bacia Hidrográfica do Rio Cubango: Relatório
Final:Vegetação da Parte Angolana da Bacia Hidrográfica Do
Rio Cubango
Livramento, Filomena
Análise Diagnóstica Transfronteiriça da Bacia do Rio
Okavango: Módulo do Caudal Ambiental: Relatório do
Especialista: País: Angola: Disciplina:Macroinvertebrados
Miguel, Gabriel Luís
Análise Técnica, Biofísica E Sócio-Económica do Lado
Angolano da Bacia Hidrográfica do Rio Cubango:
Subsídio Para o Conhecimento Hidrogeológico
Relatório de Hidrogeologia
Morais, Miguel
Análise Diagnóstica Transfronteiriça da Bacia do Análise Rio
Cubango (Okavango): Módulo da Avaliação do Caudal
Ambiental: Relatório do Especialista País: Angola Disciplina:
Ictiofauna
Morais,
Miguel
Análise Técnica, Biófisica e Sócio-Económica do Lado
Angolano da Bacia Hidrográfica do Rio Cubango: Relatório
Final: Peixes e Pesca Fluvial da Bacia do Okavango em Angola
Pereira, Maria João
Qualidade da Água, no Lado Angolano da Bacia Hidrográfica
do Rio Cubango
Santos,
Carmen
Ivelize
Análise Diagnóstica Transfronteiriça da Bacia do Rio
Van-Dúnem S. N.
Okavango: Módulo do Caudal Ambiental: Relatório de
Especialidade: Angola: Vida Selvagem
Santos, Carmen Ivelize
Análise Diagnóstica Transfronteiriça da Bacia do Rio
Van-Dúnem S.N.
Okavango:Módulo Avaliação do Caudal Ambiental: Relatório de
Especialidade: Angola: Aves
Botswana Bonyongo, M.C.
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist Report: Country:
Botswana: Discipline: Wildlife
Hancock, P.
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module : Specialist Report: Country:
Botswana: Discipline: Birds
Mosepele,
K. Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist Report: Country:
Botswana: Discipline: Fish
Mosepele, B. and
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Dallas, Helen
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist Report: Country:
Botswana: Discipline: Aquatic Macro Invertebrates
Namibia
Collin Christian &
Okavango River Basin: Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Associates CC
Project: Environmental Flow Assessment Module:
Geomorphology
Curtis, B.A.
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist Report Country:
Namibia Discipline: Vegetation
Bethune, S.
Environmental Protection and Sustainable Management of the
Okavango River Basin (EPSMO): Transboundary Diagnostic
Analysis: Basin Ecosystems Report
Nakanwe, S.N.
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist Report: Country:
Namibia: Discipline: Aquatic Macro Invertebrates
Paxton,
M. Okavango River Basin Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist
Report:Country:Namibia: Discipline: Birds (Avifauna)
Roberts, K.
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist Report: Country:
Namibia: Discipline: Wildlife
Waal,
B.V. Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist Report: Country:
Namibia:Discipline: Fish Life
Country Reports
Angola
Gomes, Joaquim
Análise Técnica dos Aspectos Relacionados com o Potencial
Socioeconomic
Duarte
de Irrigação no Lado Angolano da Bacia Hidrográfica do Rio
Series
Cubango: Relatório Final
Mendelsohn,
.J.
Land use in Kavango: Past, Present and Future
Pereira, Maria João
Análise Diagnóstica Transfronteiriça da Bacia do Rio
Okavango: Módulo do Caudal Ambiental: Relatório do
Especialista: País: Angola: Disciplina: Qualidade da Água
Saraiva, Rute et al.
Diagnóstico Transfronteiriço Bacia do Okavango: Análise
Socioeconómica Angola
Botswana Chimbari, M. and
Okavango River Basin Trans-Boundary Diagnostic Assessment
Magole, Lapologang
(TDA): Botswana Component: Partial Report: Key Public Health
Issues in the Okavango Basin, Botswana
65
E-Flows Delineation Report
Magole,
Lapologang
Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis of the Botswana Portion of
the Okavango River Basin: Land Use Planning
Magole, Lapologang
Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis (TDA) of the Botswana p
Portion of the Okavango River Basin: Stakeholder Involvement
in the ODMP and its Relevance to the TDA Process
Masamba,
W.R.
Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis of the Botswana Portion of
the Okavango River Basin: Output 4: Water Supply and
Sanitation
Masamba,W.R.
Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis of the Botswana Portion of
the Okavango River Basin: Irrigation Development
Mbaiwa.J.E. Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis of the Okavango River
Basin: the Status of Tourism Development in the Okavango
Delta: Botswana
Mbaiwa.J.E. &
Assessing the Impact of Climate Change on Tourism Activities
Mmopelwa, G.
and their Economic Benefits in the Okavango Delta
Mmopelwa,
G.
Okavango River Basin Trans-boundary Diagnostic Assessment:
Botswana Component: Output 5: Socio-Economic Profile
Ngwenya, B.N.
Final Report: A Socio-Economic Profile of River Resources and
HIV and AIDS in the Okavango Basin: Botswana
Vanderpost,
C.
Assessment of Existing Social Services and Projected Growth
in the Context of the Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis of the
Botswana Portion of the Okavango River Basin
Namibia
Barnes, J and
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Wamunyima, D
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist Report:
Country: Namibia: Discipline: Socio-economics
Collin Christian &
Technical Report on Hydro-electric Power Development in the
Associates CC
Namibian Section of the Okavango River Basin
Liebenberg, J.P.
Technical Report on Irrigation Development in the Namibia
Section of the Okavango River Basin
Ortmann, Cynthia L.
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module : Specialist Report Country:
Namibia: discipline: Water Quality
Nashipili,
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis: Specialist
Ndinomwaameni
Report: Country: Namibia: Discipline: Water Supply and
Sanitation
Paxton,
C.
Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis: Specialist Report:
Discipline: Water Quality Requirements For Human Health in
the Okavango River Basin: Country: Namibia
66
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67
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