Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis of the Botswana
Portion of the Okavango River Basin
Output 5: Assess Existing Social Services and
Projected Growth through National and Regional
Development Plans
Cornelis Vanderpost
Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre
July 2009
TDA Botswana Social Services and Project Growth
TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS OF THE BOTSWANA
PORTION OF THE OKAVANGO RIVER BASIN.
Output 5: Assess Existing Social Services and Projected Growth through National and
Regional Development Plans.
Final Report
ASSESSMENT OF EXISTING SOCIAL SERVICES AND PROJECTED
GROWTH IN THE CONTEXT OF THE TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC
ANALYSIS OF THE BOTSWANA PORTION OF THE OKAVANGO RIVER
BASIN.
2
TDA Botswana Social Services and Project Growth
TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS OF THE BOTSWANA
PORTION OF THE OKAVANGO RIVER BASIN.
Output 5: Assess Existing Social Services and Projected Growth through National
and Regional Development Plans.
Final Report
ASSESSMENT OF EXISTING SOCIAL SERVICES AND PROJECTED GROWTH IN THE
CONTEXT OF THE TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS OF THE BOTSWANA
PORTION OF THE OKAVANGO RIVER BASIN.
Consultant:
Dr. Cornelis Vanderpost,
Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre,
University of Botswana.
Contract: UNTS/RAF/010/GEF
July 2009
3
TDA Botswana Social Services and Project Growth
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY: Major Transboundary issues arising
from this report.
The Trans-boundary Diagnostic Assessment (TDA) component of the EPSMO project aims to
identify the principal threats to the water resources of the Okavango basin. This component of
the TDA aims to assess social services in the Botswana portion of the basin and the role they
play in trans-boundary water resources conservation and utilisation. Many social services have
environmental implications. For example, the provision of a centralized water supply or waste
removal facility may prevent otherwise uncontrolled and potentially environmentally damaging
practices. To have such services delivered efficiently thus helps to minimize local human
environmental impacts. Moreover, by having one's own environmental affairs `in order',
Botswana may improve its bargaining position relative to its neighbours. Botswana therefore
needs to aim to have its own environmental affairs `in order'.
Rapid population growth in past decades and continued high current growth in Ngamiland (now
2% per year) remains of concern because of the implications for increasing demands for water
abstraction and the challenges it poses to the universal provision of social services and their
quality improvement. More attention therefore needs to be given in Ngamiland to programmes
aimed at reducing the population growth rate. In view of the young age structure, more efforts
are also required to combat youth employment. The young age structure (39% of the population
under 15 years of age) and declining household size add to the challenges, especially in terms
of employment provision for the youth and rapidly increasing demands for social services. These
issues, in turn, have implications for upstream and local conservation of shared water resources.
The concentration of people in larger settlements, with currently 40% of the district population in
Maun alone and an additional 28% in other large villages, leads to accelerated local demand for
services while increasing the potential for environmental impacts as 70% of the population of
Ngamiland lives within 10 kilometers of a river channel. A simultaneous increase in the number
of small settlements (507 in 2001) provides a major challenge to service provision and has the
potential to generate more widespread environmental impacts. Therefore, the proliferation of
ungazetted settlements needs to be addressed either by `closing down' those in sensitive
ecological areas such as elephant migration routes or, preferably, by recognising them and
providing them with appropriate services. Most human environmental impacts (as measured by
the human footprint) are concentrated along the western and southern Okavango wetland
margins. This is where innovative solutions are needed.
Universal education of good quality is important to achieve the goal of a well-informed nation
able to understand international trans-boundary river issues. In Ngamiland, major expansion has
occurred in the provision of government education facilities, but further improvements are
possible. Issues of concern remain the high rate of illiteracy, the shortage of government primary
school classrooms, the lack of qualified teachers for government secondary schools, the
existence of only one public senior secondary school in the region and the very limited tertiary
and higher education options. These problems are recognized and attended to in the context of
District Development plans, demonstrating that the government is serious about addressing
them.
Water related health problems can turn into trans-boundary issues. This is frequently the case
with the spread of cholera, for example. Existing medical facilities should thus be equipped to
deal with water related disease outbreaks even when these are of a trans-boundary nature.
Major expansion has occurred in Ngamiland in the provision of government health facilities, but
4
TDA Botswana Social Services and Project Growth
further progress is possible to improve trans-boundary health issues. The current issues of
concern about health facilities in the region include the limited availability of hospital services (at
Maun and Gumare only) and problems of access for people in remote areas, the limited services
and staff available at clinics and health posts and problems with drug availability. These
problems are recognized and attended to in the context of District Development plans,
demonstrating that the government is serious about addressing health issues.
The provision of drinking water is an essential service for all people. The abstraction of water
from the Okavango Delta, which is a protected Ramsar site, requires environmentally sound
practices and appropriate waste management aimed at avoiding contamination and pollution.
The current issues of concern about water and waste management in Ngamiland include the
increasing demands for water abstraction and the need to do this in environmentally acceptable
ways, the unregulated water abstraction and waste disposal at ungazetted settlements, conflicts
between water abstraction for people, livestock and wildlife and problems with the enforcement
of waste management regulations. Most of these issues are mentioned in the Delta
Management Plan and may therefore receive attention within the next few years.
Transport, communication and information dissemination are important in providing inhabitants
with the possibility to establish contacts with neighbouring countries and to distribute relevant
information about developments in the river basin, including those in other countries. Social
welfare services and services provided by community-based organizations may be important
because they influence people's environmental behaviour and attitudes. Over past decades
major improvements have been achieved by the government and the private sector, but issues
of concern remain the lack of good roads, ferry connections and public transport east of the
Okavango river and in western Ngamiland, the incomplete telephone coverage and limited
number of telephone connections, the poor postal services and limited tv and radio(FM)
reception and internet connectivity. Also there are limited police services and law enforcement in
remote areas and limited access to government support programmes and shops and banking
facilities outside major settlements. The government is aware of the problems and various
programmes are ongoing or planned to make improvements.
Availability of government support services such as old-age pensions are important because of
their potential to influence people's environmental behaviour and thus local conservation.
Community based organizations also play a potentially important role not only in re-directing
benefits from natural resource exploitation to local communities but also in the improvement of
nature conservation practices. More government support is therefore recommended.
Provision of accessible social services of good quality, especially in education and health, are
important for promoting people's understanding about trans-boundary river issues and problems
and may contribute toward sustainable solutions. A good communication infrastructure can
support this. Government initiated Development Plans at national and regional level are
important platforms for raising awareness about shortcomings and for generating activities to
address these. In the Botswana portion of the Okavango river basin, the Okavango Delta
Management Plan provides a comprehensive framework for both conservation efforts and
development plans in the region that will ensure its long-term conservation and that will provide
benefits for the present and future well being of the people. It requires full implementation.
5
TDA Botswana Social Services and Project Growth
Assessment of Existing Social Services and Projected Growth in the context of the
Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis of the Botswana portion of the Okavango river Basin.
6
TDA Botswana Social Services and Project Growth
Contents
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY: Major Trans-boundary issues arising from this report. .................... 4
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................... 9
1.1 Population growth ............................................................................................................... 11
1.2 Migration ............................................................................................................................. 11
1.3 Age structure ....................................................................................................................... 12
1.4 Projected population to 2011 ............................................................................................... 14
1.5 Changing household size ..................................................................................................... 14
1.6 Population distribution ........................................................................................................ 15
1.7 Human environmental impacts ............................................................................................ 17
1.8 Demographic issues of concern ........................................................................................... 18
2. EDUCATION ............................................................................................................................ 20
2.1 Primary and secondary education ........................................................................................ 20
2.2 Technical and Tertiary education ........................................................................................ 21
2.3. Education: current issues of concern .................................................................................. 22
3. HEALTH ................................................................................................................................... 23
3.1 Health facilities .................................................................................................................... 23
3.2 Health: current issues of concern......................................................................................... 23
4. WATER PROVISION AND WASTE MANAGEMENT SERVICES .................................... 25
4.1 Water provision ................................................................................................................... 25
4.2 Waste management .............................................................................................................. 26
4.3 Water and waste: issues of concern ..................................................................................... 26
5. OTHER SERVICES .................................................................................................................. 27
5.1 Transportation ...................................................................................................................... 27
5.2 Communication services...................................................................................................... 29
5.3 Social welfare services ........................................................................................................ 30
5.4 Community Trusts and NGO's ............................................................................................ 30
5.5 Other general services ......................................................................................................... 31
5.6. Other services: issues of concern........................................................................................ 32
6. CONCLUSIONS ....................................................................................................................... 33
7.RECOMMENDATIONS ........................................................................................................... 36
REFERENCES .............................................................................................................................. 37
ADDITIONAL LITERATURE: ................................................................................................... 38
7
TDA Botswana Social Services and Project Growth
LIST OF FIGURES.
Figure 1: Population age structure Ngamiland, 1991 (A, top) and 2001 (B, bottom), showing
large size of young age groups ...................................................................................................... 13
Figure 2: Distribution of settlements by size, Ngamiland, 2001. ................................................. 16
Figure 3: Human Footprint scores Ngamiland: measure for Human Environmental Impacts (from
0=minimal impacts to 46=highest impacts). ................................................................................. 18
Figure 4: Distribution of schools in Ngamiland. .......................................................................... 21
Figure 5: Health facilities Ngamiland, 2008. (NB not all mobile stops shown). ......................... 24
Figure 6: Main tarred roads in Okavango Delta region (red). ...................................................... 28
LIST OF TABLES.
Table 1: Population growth Ngamiland, 1971 2006................................................................... 11
Table 2: Communal land per person Ngamiland, 1964 2006. .................................................... 13
Table 3: Projected population Ngamiland, 2006 2011 at 2% growth per year. ......................... 14
Table 4: Household access to water sources, Ngamiland 1991 and 2001. .................................... 15
Table 5: Primary and Secondary Education details Ngamiland, 2002 and 2009. ......................... 20
Table 6: Landline telephone connections Ngamiland, 2008. ........................................................ 29
Table 7: Community Trusts Okavango region. Ngamiland, 2006. ............................................... 31
8
TDA Botswana Social Services and Project Growth
Assessment of Existing Social Services and Projected Growth in the
context of the Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis of the Botswana
portion of the Okavango river Basin.
INTRODUCTION
Background
The Permanent Okavango River Basin Water Commission (OKACOM) acts as technical advisor
to the governments of the three basin states on matters relating to the conservation,
development and utilisation of the resources of common interest. OKACOM initiated the
EPSMO project to support efforts at integrated management of the basin. The Trans-boundary
Diagnostic Assessment (TDA) component of that project aims to identify the principal threats to
the water resources of the Okavango basin. This component of the TDA aims to assess social
services in the Botswana portion of the basin and the role they play in trans-boundary water
resources conservation and utilisation.
A variety of social services is, directly or indirectly, of relevance with respect to trans-boundary
issues in the Okavango river basin. Communication and information dissemination, for example,
are important in providing inhabitants with relevant information about developments in the river
basin, including those in other countries. Lack of or wrong information may lead to mistrust and
misunderstandings, such as for example when people in Maun blamed reduced river flow on
dam-building in Angola while no such activity was happening. Information dissemination needs
to be supported by education, which is equally important. An educated and well-informed nation
as envisaged under Botswana's vision 2016 is better able to comprehend issues and problems
that arise out of the sharing of an important regional water resource.
Another important service of relevance is health, especially where this relates to cross-border
water-related health issues. Problems with bilharzia, malaria, cholera, sleeping sickness can be
better tackled when local health facilities are in good shape and good cooperation exists
between neighbouring countries. International cross-border traffic is also an important factor in
the spreading of HIV/AIDS which tends to follow transport routes.
Many social services have environmental implications. For example, the provision of a
centralized water supply or waste removal facility may prevent people from `doing their own
thing' , using possibly uncontrolled and potentially environmentally damaging methods. To have
such services delivered efficiently thus helps to minimize local human environmental impacts.
Moreover, by having one's own environmental affairs `in order', Botswana may improve its
bargaining position relative to neighbours in the Okavango river-basin.
The level of social services, in terms of availability and quality depends on a number of
variables, including the number of facilities relative to the growing population, the geographic
spacing of the facilities, the quality of facilities and equipment and the number and level of
competency of the staff. In the following paragraphs we discuss some of the relevant issues for
the area covered by the Okavango Ramsar site or the Ngamiland district in which it is situated
(whichever is more applicable). Firstly the relevant demographic details of Ngamilands
population will be addressed. Next the characteristics of educational and health services will be
discussed. Further, some information will be provided on communication services and general
9
TDA Botswana Social Services and Project Growth
government services. The remainder of this introduction contains one paragraph on the 1997
TDA report and another on major issues of trans-boundary concern arising from this report.
The 1997 TDA report
The 1997 TDA report entitled `The Human Environment' (Cassidy 1997) is a comprehensive
document describing social and economic services and conditions in the Botswana section of
the Okavango river Basin and remains an important background document for future river basin
planning. Major changes in the region since 1997 that are relevant in the context of the current
report include:
-continued rapid population growth
-major advances in government infrastructure in education and health
-major advances in transport and communication infrastructure (roads, telecommunications) and
government services in general
-major developments in the private sector, particularly in the tourism, hospitality and
wholesale/retail industries.
It also needs to be mentioned that since 1997 a new population census in 2001 and a
demographic survey in 2006 have provided updated population information, while new
government plans did become operational during the intervening period, particularly National
Development Plan 9 and the Ngamiland District development Plan 6. Most importantly, the
Okavango Delta Management Plan was formulated and has now entered its implementation
phase. For the first time in history, therefore, both conservation efforts and development plans
are guided by the comprehensive framework set out in the Okavango Delta Management Plan,
which has as its overall goal:
"to integrate resource management for the Okavango Delta that will ensure its long-term
conservation and that will provide benefits for the present and future well being of the people,
through sustainable use of its natural resources" (Dept. of Environmental Affairs 2008).
This is an exciting national development. The next step to which this report aims to contribute is
to achieve similar objectives for the entire Okavango Basin in cooperation with Angola and
Namibia.
10
TDA Botswana Social Services and Project Growth
1. DEMOGRAPHIC SITUATION NGAMILAND
1.1 Population growth
The Botswana Demographic Survey of 2006 estimates the natural rate of increase for the
population of the country at 1.9% per year (CSO 2009). This is a slightly above the 2001 figure
due to a higher crude birth rate (29.7 per thousand) and a lower crude death rate (11.2 per
thousand). The 2006 population of Ngamiland was estimated at 138,654 compared to 124,712
in 2001, an increase with 13,942 people or 11.2% over this five-year period. This is considerably
more than the increase of the national population over the same period, which was only 5.5%
and implies that Ngamiland's population growth remains fairly high.
Over past decades, the Ngamiland population has indeed increased rapidly (Table 1) and this
growth has to some extent hindered the maintenance or improvement of the general level of
social service provision in the region. This is understandable because between 1971 and 2006,
the population of Ngamiland more than doubled from 68,000 to 138,654, requiring therefore
minimally a doubling of various social services such as for example health facilities. Such rapid
physical expansion of facilities almost invariably leaves little room for quality improvement.
Table 1 shows the population increase for the relevant census periods.
Table 1: Population growth Ngamiland, 1971 2006.
Intercensal period
% Growth
Added population
New Population Total
1971-1981
26.3 %
14,000
68,000
1981-1991
38.9 %
27,000 95,000
1991-2001
31.9
%
30,000
125,000
2001-2006
11.2 %
13,942
138,654 .
Source: CSO 2003, 2009.
1.2 Migration
The recorded migration rate for both Ngamiland south and north was negative, i.e. more people
left the district than entered (CSO 2009). The high population growth is thus mostly the result of
high fertility and not in-migration. However, informal information indicates that unofficial in-
migration occurs from Namibia (especially San people) and from Angola (HamBukushu people).
This may have cross-border security and health/disease implications.
In the past, migration was more significant (Tlou 1985) and has over time resulted in a tribally
and linguistically mixed society (Bock and Johnson 2002). Different San groups are living in the
area, with the BaQanikhwe group to the north of the Delta, the BaGumahii scattered throughout
and the BuGakhwe mainly in the Khwai area. Then there are the WaYeii and HaMbukushu
settled respectively along the south-eastern edge of the Delta and (mostly) north of Sepopa.
11
TDA Botswana Social Services and Project Growth
The Tawana, the politically dominant group, settled during the early 1800s and at the beginning
of the 20th century, the OvaHerero immigrated to Ngamiland from Namibia in response to
German land expropriation. They settled mostly to the south-west of the Delta.
Several tribal groups, particularly the San and HaMbukushu are related to similar
tribal/language groups in Namibia and Angola (for some personal histories of San people see:
Vanderpost 2003). This, potentially, allows for opportunities for cross-border cultural and
language interactions and cooperation on issues of river-basin knowledge sharing, possibly
facilitated by NGOs working with these groups. This issue may need further exploration.
1.3 Age structure
As a consequence of high fertility, the population currently has a very young age structure
(Figure 1B) with a large proportion (39%) of the population under 15 years of age (CSO 2003).
The effects of a young age structure and a high population growth are experienced in the socio-
economic sphere as it becomes progressively more expensive for the government to provide
social services such as education and health. Other effects are felt in the labour market.
Currently, the population of school-leavers looking for employment is growing at about 5% per
year due to the previously high birth rate (CSO 2003).
Ngamiland1991
A
65+
60=64
55=59
50=54
45=49
40=44
35=39
30=34
25=29
20=24
15=19
10=14
5=9
0=4
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
20
male%
female%
12
TDA Botswana Social Services and Project Growth
Ngamiland2001
B
65+
60=64
55=59
50=54
45=49
40=44
35=39
30=34
25=29
20=24
15=19
10=14
5=9
0=4
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
20
male%
female%
Figure 1: Population age structure Ngamiland, 1991 (A, top) and 2001 (B, bottom), showing large size of
young age groups
Population growth also plays a role in decreased access levels to land for housing, cultivation
and grazing. In fact, together with land-use designation changes, population growth has been
responsible for a five-fold reduction in the per-person availability of communal land for
subsistence farming (Table 2), resulting in increased environmental pressure on the remaining
land (Vanderpost 2006).
Comparison of the age structure in 1991 (Figure 1A) and in 2001 (Figure 1B) shows that the
age groups between 15 and 30 years have increased substantially due to the previously high
birth rate, while the youngest age group (0-4 years) shows a relatively decline in 2001 as a
result of the decreasing birth rate.
Table 2: Communal land per person Ngamiland, 1964 2006.
Year Population Ngamiland
Communal Land Available per person (km2)
1964
42,500
2.6
1981
68,000
1.5
2001
124,700 0.6
2006
138,500
0.4 .
Source: CSO 2003, 2009, Vanderpost, 2006.
The population growth rate was highest in the 1981-91 period and has since gradually declined.
However, the current rate of just over 2% per year is still high as it implies a doubling of the
population in 35 years. This is difficult to manage in terms of social service provision over the
long term. The reason for the slowly declining growth rate is two-fold. On the one hand, fertility
levels are slowly declining throughout the country. On the other hand, mortality levels, which
had increased substantially nationwide as the HIV/AIDS pandemic took hold, have now leveled
13
TDA Botswana Social Services and Project Growth
off and are slowly declining, partly due to the increased use and effectiveness of ARV treatment
(CSO 2009).
It is expected that fertility in Ngamiland will continue to decline slowly in line with trends
elsewhere in the country. Mortality is also expected to decline slowly as the HIV/AIDS pandemic
is brought under control. The combination of declining fertility and mortality implies, however,
that overall population growth will remain relatively high in the near future at about 2% per year
or just below that, providing a continued challenge to the provision of government social
services such as education and health.
1.4 Projected population to 2011
It is important to recognize the high population growth of the recent past and the expected future
high growth rate when considering the provision of social services. Although the expectation is
that the growth rate for Ngamiland will slowly decline from just over 2% to somewhat below 2%
per year, it would be prudent to assume an average growth rate for the period up to 2011, which
is the year of the next population census, of 2% throughout. On that assumption, the Ngamiland
population is expected to increase with approximately 3,000 persons per year as shown in
Table 3 and will reach 156,148 by the end of 2011.
Table 3: Projected population Ngamiland, 2006 2011 at 2% growth per year.
Year Population 2%
Increase Projected Population after 1 Yr
2006
138654 2773
141427
2007
141427 2829
144256
2008
144256 2885
147141
2009
147141 2943
150084
2010
150084 3002
153086
2011 153086
3062
156148 .
1.5 Changing household size
Against this demographic background, some specifics of social services in Ngamiland are
discussed in later sections of this report. But it is important to note that demographic variables
other than population growth also affect the requirements for service provision. The age
structure was mentioned above in connection with the need for employment for the rapidly
growing number of young school leavers. Another variable of relevance is the changing average
household size. In line with developments elsewhere, the average household size in Ngamiland
has been decreasing, which among other things- tends to push up per person water
consumption. For example in Maun the average household size decreased from 5.5 in 1991 to
14
TDA Botswana Social Services and Project Growth
4.4 in 2001 (CSO 2003). Liu (et al. 2003) have shown that smaller households consume more
resources per person because of their lower efficiency of resource use per capita compared to
larger households where goods and services are shared by more people. More water may for
example be used per person in smaller households for house cleaning as there is a larger per
person floor space in smaller households. Per person water consumption is also likely to
increase as more households are provided with access to communal or individual standpipes,
continuing the trend evident for the 1991-2001 period as shown in Table 4.
In 2001, 23% of households had access to piped water (in house or yard) against 15% in 1991
with an additional 54% (1991: 37%) of households with access to communal standpipes. This
trend has since continued with more village water supply schemes coming on line. Thus,
demand for water is growing on account not only of population growth but also in relation to
increasing per capita water use that is related to improved access of households to piped water
and generally declining household size.
Table 4: Household access to water sources, Ngamiland 1991 and 2001.
Type of Water Supply % Households 2001
% Households 1991
Piped water in house or yard
23
15
Communal
pipe 54
37
River
9
17
Borehole
7
8
Other
7
23
Total
100
100 .
Source: CSO, 2003.
Current domestic water demand in Ngamiland is thus increasing on account of population
growth and rising per capita water use, which is related to decreasing household size and
improved access to drinking water. The total quantity of water currently abstracted in the Delta
is about 3.84 million cubic meters (MCM) per annum, which represent 0.04% of mean annual
inflow. This is predicted to rise by 188% to 11.04 MCM per annum or 0.1% of mean annual
inflow by 2020-25 (Dept. of Environmental Affairs, 2008). This is generally not regarded as a
problematic quantity. However, it needs to be realised that additional abstraction takes place for
people living in un-gazetted settlements, for livestock watering and for irrigation.
1.6 Population distribution
The way in which people are distributed in the region is relevant to the manner in which access
to water is negotiated, but also has an effect on conservation of water resources. Before the
introduction of boreholes, human habitation in the Okavango region was limited to places near
surface water, although there were restrictions imposed by the presence of disease vectors
15
TDA Botswana Social Services and Project Growth
such as tsetse fly and mosquitoes. Although dispersal of rural settlement has recently been
facilitated through the expansion of borehole construction to tap groundwater resources and by
the tsetse fly eradication campaigns of the early 2000s, the majority (about 70%) of the
population of Ngamiland still lives within 10 kilometers of a river channel (Vanderpost 2004).
Figure 2 displays the population distribution pattern.
Figure 2: Distribution of settlements by size, Ngamiland, 2001.
Over recent decades, the major trends in population distribution relate, firstly, to rural sprawl, i.e.
an increasing number of small settlements in areas formerly sparsely inhabited, and, secondly,
to urban concentration. The latter has been mostly centred on Maun, the regional capital, which
has grown from a small village with less than 10,000 people (18% of the district population) in
1971 to a town that had about 50,000 inhabitants (40% of the district population) in 2001. The
continuation of this trend will result in Maun housing up to 50% of the regional population by
2011. This concentration has both potential disadvantages in terms of increased environmental
16
TDA Botswana Social Services and Project Growth
pressure along river banks in Maun and advantages such as a potential for centralised and
efficient waste management.
This population concentration trend is also reflected at the level of major villages. In 1991, 14%
of Ngamiland's population was residing in recognised villages other than Maun. In 2001 this was
28% (CSO 2003). This concentration of people has facilitated the provision of social services for
the government and is therefore recommended under the Ngamiland District settlement strategy
(MLH 2003). Nevertheless, there has also been an increase in small rural settlements between
1991 and 2001, some of them unofficial or unrecognized. In 2001, there were 507 `other'
settlements (mostly cattle-posts and small farm hamlets with less than 500 inhabitants), while
there were only 433 such settlements in 1991 (Vanderpost 2004). To provide inhabitants of
these hamlets with basic social services remains a major challenge (Swatuk and Kgomotso
2007), especially because the needs of larger settlements with more people may have higher
priority and are more easily provided for.
1.7 Human environmental impacts
A growing population with a changing distribution, coupled with major regional economic
development and infrastructure improvements if not adequately managed- inevitably results in
increased environmental impacts in and around the Okavango region. The overall human
impacts on the environment can be monitored by mapping the `human footprint'. Using
methodology similar to that used for the global `human footprint' project -a world-scale attempt
to produce a world map of human influence on the land surface (Sanderson et al. 2002)- the
human footprint was reformulated more precisely for the Okavango Ramsar site by Vanderpost
(2007), applying locally available data.
Measurement of the human footprint involves the allocation of scores to land areas on the basis
of population density, land transformation characteristics, human accessibility and power
infrastructure (Sanderson et al. 2002). This was adapted to local conditions for example by
including cattle-grazing (mostly on communal lands) and borehole construction as additional
elements of land transformation (Vanderpost 2007). GIS buffering and overlay techniques were
used to allocate scores to land units and create a compounded scores map for the region.
Scores for individual land units vary between 0 and 46. The resulting footprint map is
reproduced in Figure 3.
The map shows a `light' human footprint for the Moremi game reserve and its buffer zone of
wildlife management areas because few people live there permanently, although there are
many activities, including tourism, hunting and fishing that potentially impact on natural waters.
A substantial population is resident just outside the Moremi buffer zone with the human footprint
particularly strong along the western and southern margins of the Okavango wetlands
(Vanderpost 2007). This is where innovative solutions are needed in the context of the
Okavango Delta Management Plan.
17
TDA Botswana Social Services and Project Growth
Figure 3: Human Footprint scores Ngamiland: measure for Human Environmental Impacts (from
0=minimal impacts to 46=highest impacts).
1.8 Demographic issues of concern
In summary, the current demographic issues of concern therefore are:
1.continued high population growth that challenges provision of social services and their quality
improvement
2.continued young age structure and declining household size: these are challenges in terms of
employment provision and increased demand for social services and domestic water provision
3.concentration of people in larger settlements where demand for services accelerates while
increasing the potential for environmental impacts
4.simultaneous increase in small settlements which is a challenge to service provision and has
potential for more widespread environmental impacts.
5.human environmental impacts (human footprint) concentrated along Okavango wetland
margins.
18
TDA Botswana Social Services and Project Growth
These issues come with the following implications:
1.more attention needs to be given to high population growth and by implication issues of
fertility, mortality and health;
2.more programmes for youth employment may be required;
3.population distribution issues may need re-examination from an environmental and water
resource conservation perspective.
19
TDA Botswana Social Services and Project Growth
2. EDUCATION
Universal education of good quality is important to achieve the goal of a well-informed nation (as
intended under Botswana's Vision-2016) able to understand international trans-boundary river
issues. Ngamiland has long been the district in the country with lowest education levels. For
Ngamiland as a whole, in 2001 only 60.5% of the population was literate (MLH 2003). Informal
education programmes are, however, in place to improve the literacy situation. Several efforts
are also ongoing to document indigenous (traditional) knowledge (Vanderpost 2003) and to
apply it to natural resource management and conservation issues. The main formal education
channels are through government provided infrastructure for primary, secondary and tertiary
education.
2.1 Primary and secondary education
The quality of basic primary and secondary education is of prime importance to the general
educational level in a country or region. Data on government primary school facilities in 2002
are given by the Ngamiland District development Plan 6 report (Ministry of Local Government
(n.d)) and are summarized in Table 5 below, which compares them with 2009 data from the
Maun regional education office.
In 2002 there was a shortage of 276 primary school classrooms (Ministry of Local Government
(n.d)). This shortfall is a major issue of concern for the quality of education offered. Many
schools currently work in double shifts. For children who have to attend school in the -usually
hot- afternoon, learning conditions are definitely disadvantaged. Another noted problem was the
prevalence of unqualified teachers, which affects the quality of education.
Table 5: Primary and Secondary Education details Ngamiland, 2002 and 2009.
Schools
Pupils
Classrooms
Teachers
Pupils/Teacher
2002 2009 2002 2009 2002 2009 2002 2009 2002 2009
.
Primary
38
64 28175 37288 731 907
991 1090 28 34
Secondary,
Junior
10
12 6998 9445 134 232 405 563 17 17
Secondary,
Senior
1 1 1678 2224 42
60 95 137 18 16 .
Source: Ministry of Local Government (n.d), Maun regional education office, 2009.
Table 5 shows that there has been considerable expansion in secondary education over the
2002-2009 period. Junior secondary school enrolment increased with 35%, the number of
classrooms with 73% (thereby improving the classroom/pupil ratio) and the number of teachers
with 37% (thus maintaining the pupil/teacher ratio). These are very positive achievements.
There is however only one public senior secondary school in the district and this limits the
options for further study especially for children from remote areas.
20
TDA Botswana Social Services and Project Growth
Figure 4: Distribution of schools in Ngamiland.
2.2 Technical and Tertiary education
Facilities for technical and tertiary education are extremely limited in Ngamiland. Most young
people have to travel to Gaborone for such training. The following training options exist locally:
1.Maun Technical college
2.Brigades development trusts: 3
3.Rehabilitative training centre
4.Botswana Wildlife Training institute
5.University of Botswana satellite campus (with limited part-time course offering)
21
TDA Botswana Social Services and Project Growth
So very limited options exist for higher education and most students have to leave the district for
further studies.
2.3. Education: current issues of concern
In summary, the current issues of concern about education therefore are:
1. the high rate of illiteracy
2. lack of government primary school facilities, especially classrooms
3. lack of qualified teachers, especially for government secondary schools
4. the existence of only one public senior secondary school
5. limited tertiary and higher education options
However, these problems are recognized and attended to in the context of District Development
plans. This demonstrates that the government is serious about addressing these issues.
Currently, District Development Plan 7 is under formulation. Some delay has been caused by
the world financial crisis and the need to reduce district budgets in Botswana. Nevertheless, the
draft re-prioritised education activities for Ngamiland include the following for the period 2009-
2013.
1.construction of 6 new primary schools at Eretsha, Kajaja, Tobera, Senonnori, Khwai &
Gumare
2. Construction of 35 primary school libraries
3. construction of 3 new Senior Secondary Schools at Gumare, Sedie & Sehithwa
4. construction of College of education for primary school at Seronga
5.construction of 2 new Junior Secondary schools at Matshwane & Shorobe
6. construction of a Regional Vocational Training College at Sehitwa
7. construction of Technical Colleges at Sepopa & Tsau
8. construction of Non Formal Education Centers at Sehithwa, Etsha 6 & Shakawe
These plans, if implemented, will go a long way toward improving many of the shortcomings in
educational facilities in the district. It may also be useful to explore further the usefulness of
local traditional knowledge about the river basin and apply this to improve trans-boundary
understanding between related groups in neighbouring countries. An additional suggestion
might be the development of teaching modules at different levels and in different languages,
including local languages, in order to address river-basin and conservation issues (see the
`Factsheets' of the Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre for examples
(http://www.orc.ub.bw/publications.html#fact_sheet ).
22
TDA Botswana Social Services and Project Growth
3. HEALTH
3.1 Health facilities
Water related health problems can often turn into trans-boundary issues. This is frequently the
case with the spread of cholera, for example. Existing medical facilities should thus be equipped
to deal with water related disease outbreaks even when these are of a trans-boundary nature.
Data on government health facilities are provided in the Ngamiland District development Plan 6
(Ministry of Local Government (n.d)). The Ngamiland district has three hospitals, the General
Hospital in Maun, the Primary Hospital in Gumare and an additional private (small) hospital in
Maun. Throughout the district there are now 21 clinics, most with maternity wards. Thirty-one
Health Posts, mostly in relatively remote areas, complement the health facilities and serve
smaller villages, while very small localities are served by Mobile Stops (104 in all). This provides
for a good geographic coverage of basic health services. Figure 5 shows the geographical
distribution of health facilities, but note that not all mobile stops are shown. While this portrays a
fair distribution (Figure 5), it must be noted that some facilities are understaffed. In addition,
problems with drug availability and attitudes towards patients among health personnel have
featured prominently in national newspapers in recent months.
3.2 Health: current issues of concern
The current issues of concern about health facilities are:
1.limited availability of hospital services (at Maun and Gumare only) and problems of access for
people in remote areas
2.limited services and staff available at clinics and health posts
3.general problems with qualified staff availability, even in Maun
4. problems with drug availability
As with education, these problems are recognized and attended to in the context of District
Development plans, demonstrating that the government is serious about addressing health
issues. Currently, District Development Plan 7 is under formulation. Some delay has been
caused by the world financial crisis and the need to reduce district budgets in Botswana.
Nevertheless, the draft re-prioritised health activities for Ngamiland include the following for the
period 2009-2013.
1.construction of 5 new clinics
2.upgrading of 4 clinics/health posts
3. construction of staff housing and other facilities
These plans, if implemented, will go a long way toward improving many of the shortcomings in
physical health facilities in the district, but may not necessarily directly address staff
shortcomings.
23
TDA Botswana Social Services and Project Growth
Figure 5: Health facilities Ngamiland, 2008. (NB not all mobile stops shown).
24
TDA Botswana Social Services and Project Growth
4. WATER PROVISION AND WASTE MANAGEMENT SERVICES
4.1 Water provision
The provision of drinking water is an essential service for all people. The abstraction of water
from the Okavango Delta, which is a protected Ramsar site, requires environmentally sound
practices and appropriate waste management aimed at avoiding contamination and pollution.
For Botswana to request neighbouring countries to keep the Okavango waters clean and
unpolluted, it is imperative that it keeps its own house in order by maintaining the strictest local
standards.
All gazetted settlements in Ngamiland are entitled to a supply of drinking water by the District
Council water unit. Villages along the Panhandle are supplied with treated surface water from
treatment plants at Mohembo-east, Shakawe and Sepopa. In other areas, groundwater from
individual boreholes or well-fields is the main source of household water. The total quantity of
water currently abstracted in the Delta is about 3.84 million cubic meters (MCM) per annum
which represent 0.04% of mean annual inflow. This is predicted to rise to 11.04 MCM per
annum or 0.1% of mean annual inflow by 2020-25 (Dept. of Environmental Affairs 2008).
To sustain current per capita water availability, water abstraction levels need to increase at least
in line with overall population growth in the region. Per person water consumption is, however,
likely to increase as more households are provided with access to communal or individual
standpipes (Table 4) and because of declining household size. This presents a considerable
financial challenge to government. Programmes to save water and to make consumers pay for
what they use have therefore been initiated and the provision of `free' water from communal
standpipes is coming to an end.
The other challenge is presented by unrecognized settlement. The thousands of people living in
small, scattered, ungazetted settlements are responsible for their own water supply, usually
sourced from privately owned boreholes, from rivers and hand-dug open wells or by hauling
water from major villages or towns (Kgomotso & Swatuk, 2006). This situation potentially may
give rise not only to health problems due to the consumption of untreated water, but also may
result in environmental problems as a result of pollution caused by inappropriate water
abstraction. In consultative traditional village community meetings (known as `kgotla'), lack of a
reticulated water supply was raised as one of the main problems people face (Bendsen, 2005).
For example, in small settlements where there are no standpipes children are exposed to
crocodiles when they fetch water from the river. Pollution of drinking water was in some cases
blamed on elephants since drinking water sources were shared between people and wildlife.
Another recurring issue is that water abstraction also takes place for the purpose of livestock
watering, sometimes (illegally) using drinking water supplies intended for people. In 2001,
11,447 out of 30,673 households (37%) in Ngamiland owned cattle, while 13,328 households
owned goats (43%) (CSO 2003). During village meetings many communities specifically raised
concerns about access to water for livestock watering in areas away from the river (Bendsen,
2005). Subsequent to having been asked to move their livestock from the river to the drylands in
order to prevent environmental damage and to minimise conflict with wildlife at the riverfront,
communities raised concerns over lack of water in drylands. Rich farmers have constructed
25
TDA Botswana Social Services and Project Growth
boreholes, but most small farmers continue to rely on publicly accessible surface waters that are
part of the Okavango wetlands in competition, sometimes, with local wildlife.
4.2 Waste management
Resource limitations and capacity constraints in the Ngamiland district make it difficult to
adequately provide waste disposal services to all recognised villages in the Okavango region. In
addition, there are unrecognised settlements which do not qualify for government services but
are also generating waste, potentially with negative environmental implications. Although a
district Waste Management Plan was completed in 2002, it did not necessarily address the
unique and complex issues of waste management in the Delta wetlands. For example, with
respect to the presence of a relatively large number of camps and lodges that cater for tourists
visiting the Okavango Delta. In addition to obtaining a license, a lodge has to adopt
environmentally friendly management, including proper handling of solid waste, which has to be
taken out of the Delta, and safe discharge of liquid wastes. However, there are indications that
the authorities responsible for issuing licenses and monitoring adherence to the agreed
environmental practices suffer from lack of resources to carry out the required inspections.
Several initiatives to improve the overall waste management situation are, however, planned for
the coming years.
4.3 Water and waste: issues of concern
The current issues of concern about water and waste management are:
1. the increasing demands for water abstraction and the need to do this in environmentally
acceptable ways;
2. unregulated water abstraction and waste disposal at ungazetted settlements
3. conflicts between water abstraction for people, livestock and wildlife
4. problems with the enforcement of waste management regulations, e.g. at tourist camps.
Most of these issues are mentioned in the Delta Management Plan and may therefore receive
attention within the next few years (Department of Environmental Affairs 2008).
26
TDA Botswana Social Services and Project Growth
5. OTHER SERVICES
This section addresses some other pertinent services that have potential relevance to trans-
boundary issues. These include transportation and communication, social welfare services,
general economic services and community based organizations. Transport, communication and
information dissemination are important in providing inhabitants with the possibility to establish
contacts with neighbouring countries and to distribute relevant information about developments
in the river basin, including those in other countries. Social welfare services and services
provided by community based organizations may be important because they have a positive
influence on people's environmental behaviour and attitudes.
5.1 Transportation
Transport, communication and information are crucial elements in the provision of education
and health services and, in their own right, contribute to an informed population able to assess
issues related to trans-boundary river basins. Existing services that are important for
communication and information dissemination include networks of transportation,
telecommunications, broadcasting and the internet.
27
TDA Botswana Social Services and Project Growth
Figure 6: Main tarred roads in Okavango Delta region (red).
Transportation networks in Ngamiland have much improved in recent decades, especially with
respect to tarred roads. Main tarred roads now service the entire district (Figure 6) with the
exception of the Seronga area, western Ngamiland and the inner Delta. The people living in or
near Seronga regularly complain about the difficulties of accessing important government
services such as hospitals because these are mostly located in Gumare or Maun, due to lack of
good roads and an unreliable ferry connection across the river at Mohembo. Lack of bus
services on the eastern side of the Okavango compound the problem (MLH 2003). Otherwise,
long distance public bus transport is quite well developed, providing connections to Francistown,
Gaborone, Ghanzi, Serowe, etc.
While there are no railways in Ngamiland, good air transportation linkages exist. Maun has an
international airport (currently being upgraded to an even higher standard) and there are an
additional six government airstrips at Makalamabedi, Gumare, Tsodilo, Nokaneng, Tsau and
Shakawe. 32 additional airstrips are operated by safari companies, mostly in the tourist areas of
the Delta (MLH 2003).
28
TDA Botswana Social Services and Project Growth
5.2 Communication services
Postal services are generally poor and there is not a good geographic coverage with post-
offices only located in Maun, Sehitwa, Gumare, Etsha6 and Shakawe and postal agencies in
Seronga, Makalamabedi, Nokaneng, Sepopa and Gunutsoga.
Telecommunications, however, have undergone much improvement in recent years. Most
villages now have telephone connections, with the notable exception of Shorobe. The mobile
phone coverage extends from Maun all along the western margin of the Delta, but areas away
from the tarred road and Shorobe are not covered. While mobile phone use has increased
tremendously in recent years, fixed telephone connections in most villages are limited in number
due to the high connection costs (see Table 6 below).
Table 6: Landline telephone connections Ngamiland, 2008.
Village
Nr of Telephone Connections, 2008 .
Chanoga
3
Etsha
48
Gumare
450
Komana
4
Makalamabedi
31
Maun
4680
Nokaneng
63
Sehitwa
70
Sepopa
51
Seronga
82
Shakawe
96
Toteng
14
Tsau
53 .
Source: Botswana Telecommunications Corporation Phonebook 2008
In remote areas, government offices and private companies such as safari camp operators often
rely on two-way radio communications or satellite-phone connections for their communications.
Internet connectivity in the district is slow and quite expensive and still restricted to areas served
by, mostly low-capacity, telephone lines. However, Maun is now connected to the national fibre-
optic cable network so improvements are expected. Television reception is possible in most
areas only with an expensive satellite dish, while there are limitations also to the FM radio
coverage in the district. In short, recent improvements have been impressive but more remains
to be improved in tele-communications.
29
TDA Botswana Social Services and Project Growth
5.3 Social welfare services
The government of Botswana provides its citizens with a fair package of social welfare services.
These include a modest old-age pension and allowances for orphans and destitutes. The
government has also for a long time operated a `drought relief' programme that provided casual
employment to the unemployed. This programme has recently been reshaped into a permanent
programme for labour intensive works. As pointed out by Kgathi (et al 2007) these welfare
services are important income sources in rural areas and provide a safety net for local survival.
Government social protection programmes, according to his study, which covered 5 villages
representative for rural Ngamiland, are the second most important livelihood option for almost
10% of households.
In areas where these services are less easily accessed (for example because there is no social
worker nearby), people are more likely to (over)exploit communal environmental resources than
where those services are more easily accessed (Ngwenya, personal communication, April
2009). In that sense, the provision of these welfare services is highly environmentally relevant in
the context of transboundary river-basin conservation efforts.
5.4 Community Trusts and NGO's
A fairly recent development has been the organization of community trusts in many villages.
These typically deal with community development issues with an emphasis on community
based natural resource management. The latter category exist in places such as Sankuyo,
Seronga, Ikoga-Jao-Etsha's, Khwai and the Panhandle-villages. These trusts play a potentially
important role not only in re-directing benefits from natural resource exploitation to local
communities but also in the improvement of nature conservation. They are therefore important
instruments that can help keep Botswana's portion of the Okavango river-basin in good
environmental shape, thereby improving the region's bargaining position vis-à-vis neighbouring
countries.
The proceedings of the Fourth National CBNRM Conference of November 2006 mention the 13
community trusts in the Okavango Delta region listed in Table 7. People in over 40 villages in
different parts of the Okavango Delta region are involved with these organizations, many of
which are supported by local or international NGOs. This demonstrates the wide geographic
base for this type of organization and the great potential for influencing people's environmental
behaviour and attitudes.
Although community based organizations face many `teething' problems, they can potentially
play a very important role in mitigating some of the consequences of recent developments. This
includes for example the trend whereby economic assets tend to be concentrated in the hands
of increasingly fewer people, especially in the cattle and tourism industries. This issue is a
constant source of social tension in the region. Another problem emanates from the fact that
although people retain traditional resource use rights, they loose actual access to areas that
contain these resources (see again Table 2). Through community organisations and their
partnerships with private partners some degree of compensation (income or jobs) can be
achieved for these.
30
TDA Botswana Social Services and Project Growth
Table 7: Community Trusts Okavango region. Ngamiland, 2006.
Name of Community Trust
Villages involved
Bukhakwe Cultural Conservation Trust
Gudigwa, Seshora
Cgae Cgae Tlhabololo Trusts
XaiXai, Xaa, Qubi
Itekeng
Community
Trust
Mohembo, Kauxwi, Xakao,
Tovera, Sekondomboro,
Khwai
Development
Trust
Khwai
Mababe Zokotsama Community Development Trust
Mababe
Okavango Community Trust
Gudigwa, Beetsha, Eretsha,
Gunotsoga, Seronga
Okavango Jakotsha Community Trust
Jao, Ikoga, Etsha 1, Etsha 6,
Etsha 13
Okavango Kopano Mokoro Community Trust
Xaxaba, Xuoxau, Duonara,
Dibshiping, Boro, Xharaxao
Okavango Panhandle Community Trust
Mohembo, Shakawe,
Samuchima, Xhauga,Nxamasere
Okavango Polers Trust
Seronga,
Etsha
13,
Gunotsoga,
Mokgatsha
Sankuyo Tshwaragano Management Trust
Sankuyo
Teemacane Community Development Trust
Shakawe, Mohembo, Kaputura,
Xakao, Tobere, Sekondomboro,
Ngarange,
Mogotho
Tsodilo Community Development Trust
Tsodilo,
Upanda,
Xomkao
Source: Fourth National CBNRM Conference of November 2006
5.5 Other general services
Most small settlements have two `tribal' police officers attached to the village tribal authority.
These tribal police officers are currently being integrated into the regular police force. In most
small villages the chief is authorised to settle civil disputes. Police stations are found in most
larger villages. Maun has a customary court, a magistrate's court and 2 prisons. This implies
that law-enforcement is quite thinly spread across the Ngamiland district. This also affects the
level of enforcement of environmental regulations.
Settlements with more than 500 people usually have a co-operative general dealer and a
number of small shops and street-vendors. It is only in the main centres such as Maun, Gumare
and Shakawe that specialised shops (clothing, furniture, etc.) are found. Access to banking
facilities is another major concern of people not living in these major settlements as they need to
travel long distances to cash their monthly salaries.
31
TDA Botswana Social Services and Project Growth
Certain essential services are provided by para-statal bodies that are closely linked to the
government. This applies to electricity for which the Botswana Power Corporation is
responsible. Most larger villages are now connected to the national power grid, although there
are relatively few private connections due to the very high connection costs consumers have to
pay. Remote areas in western Ngamiland, east of the Delta and within the Delta are not
supplied with electricity. This is reflected in the fact that the use of firewood for cooking is high in
these areas with up to 90% of households in the north and west of the district relying on
firewood compared to about 50% of households in or near Maun (CSO 2003). This has local
environmental implications, for example, in terms of potential deforestation.
5.6. Other services: issues of concern
Issues of concern related to the (other) services discussed above, include:
1. lack of good roads and public transport east of Okavango river and in western
Ngamiland
2. poor ferry connection across Okavango river (but: bridge is planned)
3. incomplete telephone coverage of the district, including mobile phones
4. limited number of telephone connections in most villages due to high costs
5. poor coverage of postal services
6. limited tv and radio(FM) reception in parts of the district
7. limited internet connectivity (will improve once fibre-optic cable becomes operational)
8. limited police services and law enforcement in remote areas
9. limited access to government support programmes in remote areas
10. limited access to shops and banking facilities outside major settlements
Again, government is aware of the problems and various programmes are ongoing or planned
to make improvements. This includes road construction, road upgrading, a bridge across the
Okavango at Mohembo, connection of more villages to the telephone network, creating
additional postal agencies and the building of tv and radio transmitters. At the time of writing it
was not clear which specific projects were on the priority list for the new District Development
Plan. The government, assisted by NGOs, is also supporting community based organizations
that are important in influencing people's environmental behaviour and attitudes.
32
TDA Botswana Social Services and Project Growth
6. CONCLUSIONS
The Trans-boundary Diagnostic Assessment (TDA) component of the EPSMO project aims to
identify the principal threats to the water resources of the Okavango basin. This component of
the TDA aims to assess social services in the Botswana portion of the basin and the role they
play in supporting trans-boundary water resources conservation and utilisation. Many social
services have environmental implications. For example, the provision of a centralized water
supply or waste removal facility may prevent otherwise uncontrolled and potentially
environmentally damaging private practices. To have such services delivered efficiently thus
helps to minimize local environmental threats to Okavango water resources.
In the Botswana portion of the Okavango river basin, the Okavango Delta Management Plan is
intended to function as a comprehensive framework for both conservation efforts and
development plans in the region that will ensure long-term conservation and that will provide
benefits for the present and future well-being of the people. This is increasingly reflected in both
district and national development plans, which is important because if Botswana wishes to
request neighbouring countries to keep the Okavango waters clean and unpolluted, it is
imperative that it keeps its own house in order by maintaining the strictest local environmental
conservation standards.
From the perspective of the planned trans-boundary management and conservation of shared
Okavango resources, the provision of relevant social services can play an important role by
supporting local conservation efforts. Relevant in this respect are water-provision and waste
removal but also government support services as these may reduce the need for rural people to
overexploit environmental resources. The growth rate and the distribution of people are relevant
variables in this regard. Other social services play a role by supporting cross-boundary
understanding of shared water resources through communication and education and by
promoting healthy living conditions as a buffer against trans-boundary disease. This is why good
facilities and infrastructure for education, communication and health are important.
In Ngamiland, high population growth of the recent past and expected future high growth rate
(now 2% per year) remain of concern because of the implications for increasing demands for
water abstraction and the challenges it poses to the universal provision of social services and
their quality improvement. The young age structure (39% of the population under 15 years of
age) and declining household size add to the challenges, especially in terms of employment
provision for the youth and rapidly increasing demands for social services. These issues, in turn,
have implications for upstream and local conservation of shared water resources.
The concentration of people in larger settlements, with currently 40% of the district population in
Maun alone and an additional 28% in other large villages, leads to accelerated local demand for
services while increasing the potential for environmental impacts, especially because about
70% of the population of Ngamiland lives within 10 kilometers of a river channel. A simultaneous
increase in the number of small settlements (507 in 2001) provides a major challenge to service
provision and has the potential to generate more widespread environmental impacts. Most
human environmental impacts (as measured by the human footprint) are concentrated along the
western and southern Okavango wetland margins. This is where innovative solutions are
needed.
33
TDA Botswana Social Services and Project Growth
Universal education of good quality is important to achieve the goal of a well-informed nation
able to understand international trans-boundary river issues. In Ngamiland, major expansion
has occurred in the provision of government education facilities, but further improvements are
possible. Issues of concern remain the high rate of illiteracy, the shortage of government
primary school classrooms, the lack of qualified teachers for government secondary schools,
the existence of only one public senior secondary school in the region and the very limited
tertiary and higher education options. These problems are recognized and attended to in the
context of District Development plans, demonstrating that the government is serious about
addressing them.
Water related health problems can turn into trans-boundary issues. Existing medical facilities
should thus be equipped to deal with water related disease outbreaks even when these are of a
trans-boundary nature. Major expansion has occurred in Ngamiland in the provision of
government health facilities, but further progress is possible to improve trans-boundary health
issues. The current issues of concern about health facilities in the region include the limited
availability of hospital services (at Maun and Gumare only) and problems of access for people in
remote areas, the limited services and staff available at clinics and health posts and problems
with drug availability. These problems are recognized and attended to in the context of District
Development plans, demonstrating that the government is serious about addressing health
issues.
The provision of drinking water is an essential service for all people. The abstraction of water
from the Okavango Delta, which is a protected Ramsar site, requires environmentally sound
practices and appropriate waste management aimed at avoiding contamination and pollution.
The current issues of concern about water and waste management in Ngamiland include the
increasing demands for water abstraction and the need to do this in environmentally acceptable
ways, the unregulated water abstraction and waste disposal at ungazetted settlements, conflicts
between water abstraction for people, livestock and wildlife and problems with the enforcement
of waste management regulations. Most of these issues are mentioned in the Delta
Management Plan and should therefore receive attention within the next few years.
Transport, communication and information dissemination are important in providing inhabitants
with the possibility to establish contacts with neighbouring countries and to distribute relevant
information about developments in the river basin, including those in other countries. Social
welfare services and services provided by community based organizations are important
because they influence people's environmental behaviour and attitudes. Over past decades
major improvements were achieved by the government and the private sector, but issues of
concern remain the lack of good roads, ferry connections and public transport east of the
Okavango river and western Ngamiland, the incomplete telephone coverage and the limited
number of telephone connections, the poor postal services and limited tv and radio(FM)
reception and internet connectivity. Also there are limited police services and law enforcement
in remote areas and limited access to government support programmes and shops and banking
facilities outside major settlements. The government is aware of these problems and various
programmes are ongoing or planned to make improvements.
Availability of government support services such as old-age pensions are important because of
their potential to positively influence people's environmental behaviour and thus local
conservation. Community based organizations also play a potentially important role not only in
re-directing benefits from natural resource exploitation to local communities but also in the
improvement of nature conservation practices.
34
TDA Botswana Social Services and Project Growth
Provision of accessible social services of good quality, especially in education and health, are
important for promoting people's understanding about trans-boundary river issues and may
contribute toward sustainable solutions. A good communication infrastructure can support this.
Government initiated Development Plans at national and regional level are important platforms
for raising awareness about shortcomings and for activities to address these. In the Botswana
portion of the Okavango river basin, the Okavango Delta Management Plan provides a
comprehensive framework for both conservation efforts and development plans in the region
that has the potential to ensure its long-term conservation while providing benefits for the
present and future well being of the people.
However, many of the current socio-economic trends as described in this report, if continued
unchanged, are not beneficial and sometimes potentially detrimental to the future prospects for
environmental conservation of the ecological and water resources of the Okavango Delta.
These trenda include the continued rapid population growth, increasing water abstraction,
proliferation of un-gazetted settlements and the increase in overall human impacts on the
natural environment of the region. However, the effects of trends can be mitigated by projects
already contained in existing and proposed national and district development plans and
particularly in the Okavango Delta management plan. The catch is that such initiatives require
adequate and timely implementation to effectively mitigate or overcome existing negative
environmental trends.
35
TDA Botswana Social Services and Project Growth
7.RECOMMENDATIONS
Botswana should aim to have its own environmental affairs `in order' to improve its bargaining
position relative to its neighbours with respect to shared Okavango resources conservation, for
example by the provision of centralized water supply and waste removal facilities for Ngamiland
as this may prevent otherwise uncontrolled and potentially environmentally damaging practices.
More attention needs to be given in Ngamiland to programmes aimed at reducing the
population growth rate because of the implications for increasing demands for water abstraction
and the challenges it poses to the universal provision of social services and their quality
improvement. In view of the young age structure, more efforts are also required to combat youth
employment.
Because of their potential to generate more widespread environmental impacts, the proliferation
of ungazetted settlements needs to be addressed either by `closing down' those located in
sensitive ecological areas such as elephant migration routes or, preferably, by recognising them
and providing them with appropriate services.
In Ngamiland, more widely distributed facilities and improvement of quality are needed for
primary and secondary education to achieve the goal of a well-informed nation able to
understand international trans-boundary river issues. More facilities for tertiary education are
also needed. An additional suggestion is the development of teaching modules at different
levels in order to address shared river-basin and conservation issues in the curriculum.
It may be useful to explore further the usefulness of local traditional knowledge about the river
basin and apply this to improve trans-boundary natural resource management and conservation
of shared water resources and to promote understanding between related groups in
neighbouring countries such as the San and HaMbukushu in Ngamiland who are related to
similar tribal/language groups in Namibia and Angola.
While the geographic distribution of health facilities is quite good in Ngamiland, more work is
required to improve the quality of health service delivery in remote areas and to improve access
to specialized services for people living in remote areas.
The general infrastructure (roads, telephone, etc) in remote parts of Ngamiland needs further
improvements to allow inhabitants to participate in sharing the benefits of the shared Okavango
river resources. Similarly, access to government support services such as old-age pensions
needs improvement because of their potential to influence people's environmental behaviour
and thus local conservation. Community based organisations can also play that role and are
therefore deserving of (more) government support.
In the Botswana portion of the Okavango river basin, the Okavango Delta Management Plan
needs to function as a comprehensive framework for both conservation efforts and development
plans in the region that will ensure long-term conservation and that will provide benefits for the
present and future well-being of the people. Adequate and timely implementation through
operational district and national development plans is essential toward the mitigation of
environmentally detrimental socio-economic trends. This is important because if Botswana
wishes to request neighbouring countries to keep the Okavango waters clean and unpolluted, it
is imperative that it keeps its own house in order by maintaining the strictest local standards.
36
TDA Botswana Social Services and Project Growth
REFERENCES
Bendsen, H., 2005. Results and Analysis of the Feedback Community Consultation Process on
the ODMP. Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre, Maun.
Bock, J. and Johnson, S.E. 2002. The Okavango Delta Peoples of Botswana. In R.K. Hitchcock
and A.J. Osborne, eds. Endangered Peoples of Africa and the Middle East. New York:
Greenwood Press. Pp. 151-169.
Cassidy, L. 1997. The Human Environment (Botswanan Sector). Specialist Report prepared by
Lin Cassidy for : PERMANENT OKAVANGO RIVER BASIN COMMISSION.
CSO. 2003. National Statistical Tables Report. 2001 Population and Housing Census.
Botswana Government, Gaborone.
CSO. 2009. Botswana Demographic Survey 2006. Botswana Government, Gaborone.
Dept. of Environmental Affairs. 2008. Okavango Delta Management Plan. Dept. of
Environmental Affairs, Gaborone, Botswana. xxiv, 190 p.
Kgathi, D., L., Ngwenya, B., N. and Wilk, J. 2007. Shocks and rural livelihoods in the Okavango
Delta, Botswana. Development Southern Africa, 24:2, 289 - 308.
Kgomotso, P.K. and Swatuk, L. A. 2006. Access to water and related resources in Ngamiland,
Botswana: Toward a more critical perspective and sustainable approach.
Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, 31, 659668.
Liu, J., Daily, G. C., Ehrlich, P. R., & Luck, G. W. 2003. Effects of household dynamics on
resource consumption and biodiversity. Nature, 421, 530533.
Ministry of Local Government (n.d). Ngamiland District Development Plan 6: 2003-2009. North
West District Council Ngamiland Development Committee, Ministry of Local Government.
Gaborone.
MLH, 2003. Ngamiland District Settlement Strategy (2003-2027). Report of Survey. Ministry of
Lands and Housing, Department of Town and Regional Planning, Northwest District Council,
Tawana Land Board. Gaborone.
Sanderson, E.W., Jaiteh, M., Levy, M.A., Redford, K.H., Wannebo, A.V. and Woolmer, G. 2002.
The human footprint and the last of the wild. BioScience, 52(10), 891904.
Swatuk, L.A. and Kgomotso, P.K. 2007. The challenges of supplying water to small, scattered
communities in the Lower Okavango Basin (LOB), Ngamiland, Botswana: An evaluation of
government policy and performance. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, parts A/B/C, Vol 32,
issue 15-18, p. 1264-1274
37
TDA Botswana Social Services and Project Growth
Tlou, T. 1985. A history of Ngamiland, 1750 to 1906. The formation of an African state.
Gaborone: MacMillan.
VanderPost, C. (Ed.). 2003. Community Natural Resources of Bugakhwe and //Anikhwe in the
Okavango Panhandle in Botswana. CBNRM Support Programme Occasional Paper No. 12
(ISBN 99912-986-4-9), SNV/IUCN, Gaborone. 74 pp.
Vanderpost, C. 2004. Human sprawl and the African wilderness of the Okavango. South African
Geographical Journal, 86(2), 6573.
Vanderpost, C. 2006, Pathways of Human Sprawl in Wilderness Buffer Zones. Population and
Environment. Vol 27, Nr 3, p. 285-306.
VanderPost, C. 2007. Protected areas in Ngamiland, Botswana: investigating options for
conservation-development through human footprint mapping. International Journal of
Environmental Studies, Vol. 64, No. 5, 555-570.
ADDITIONAL LITERATURE:
Arntzen, J. W., Molokomme, D. L., Terry, E. M., Moleele, N., Tshosa, O., & Mazambani, D.
(2003). Main findings of the review of CBNRM in Botswana. CBNRM Support Programme
Occasional Paper No. 14, SNV, IUCN, DFID, Gaborone.
Bock, J., 1998: Economic development and cultural change among the Okavango Delta peoples
of Botswana. Botswana Notes and Records, 30, 27-44.
Campbell, A., 1977: Traditional utilisation of the Okavango Delta. In: Botswana Society,
Proceedings of a Symposium on the Ecology andEconomy of the World's Major Wetlands: An
Essential Basis for Understanding Questions of Conservation and Development. Heinemann
Educational Books & Botswana Society, Gaborone.
Dando, B.C. 1977: Human Health Problems associated with the Okavango Delta.In: Botswana
Society, (1977), Okavango Delta. Proceedings of a symposium on the ecology and economy of
the world's major wetlands: an essential basis for understanding questions of conservation and
development, Heinemann Educational Books&Botswana
IUCN, 1993. The IUCN review of the Southern Okavango Integrated Water Development
Project, IUCN, Gland, Switzerland, 543 pp.
Kgathi, D.L., Kniveton, D., Ringrose, S., Turton, A., Vanderpost, C.H.M., Lundqvist, J., Seely,
M., The Okavango : a river supporting its people, environment and economic development.
Journal of Hydrology, 331, 2006,
Kgathi, D.L., Mmopelwa, G and Mosepele, K. 2005. Natural resource assessment in the
Okavango Delta, Botswana: Case studies of some key resources. Natural Resource Forum. 29:
70-80
38
TDA Botswana Social Services and Project Growth
Larson, T.J. 1969. The Hambukushu of Ngamiland Botswana. Notes and Records, Vol. 2, pp
29-44. The Botswana Society, Gaborone
Larson, T.J. 1989. The BaYeyi of Ngamiland Botswana. Notes and Records. Vol. 21, pp 23-42,
The Botswana Society, Gaborone
Masundire HM, Ringrose S, Sefe FTK and Vanderpost C (1998). Inventory of Wetlands of
Botswana. NCSA 173pp.
Mazvimavi, D., Mmopelwa, G. 2006. Access to water in gazetted and ungazetted rural
settlements in Ngamiland, Botswana. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, 31, 15-16, 713722.
Mbaiwa, J. E., 2003. The socio-economic and environmental impacts of tourism development
on the Okavango Delta, north-western Botswana. Journal of Arid Environments 54: 447-467.
Mendelsohn, J and S. el Obeid, 2004. Okavango River. The flow of a lifeline, Struik Publishers,
Cape Town, 176 pp.
MLHE (Ministry of Lands Housing and Environment) (2001). Okavango river panhandle
management plan. Draft final report, Vol. 2 and 3. Maun: Tawana Landboard.
Potten, D. H. (1975). Aspects of the recent history of Ngamiland. Investigation of the Okavango
as a primary water resource for Botswana, Technical Note No 5, FAO, UNDP, Govt of
Botswana, Bot/71/506.
Ramberg, L., 1993. African communities in conservation: A humanistic perspective. Journal of
African Zoology 107: 5-18.
Shamukuni, D.M. 1972 The BaSubiya. Botswana Notes & Records, Vol. 4, pp 161-183. The
Botswana Society, Gaborone
Silitshena, R. M. (1982). Migration and permanent settlement at the lands areas. In: Botswana
Society (1982), Proceedings of the symposium on Settlement in Botswana, Botswana Society,
the historical development of a human landscape, August 1980, Gaborone: Heinemann
Educational Books & Botswana Society.
Swatuk, L. A. 2005. From `Project' to `Context': Community Based Natural Resource
Management in Botswana. Global Environmental Politics, 5, 3, 95-124.
Taylor, M. (2000). Life, land and power. Contesting development in northern Botswana.
Unpublished PhD Thesis, Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh.
39
TDA Botswana Social Services and Project Growth
The Okavango River Basin Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis Technical Reports
In 1994, the three riparian countries of the Okavango
Diagnostic Analysis to establish a base of available
River Basin Angola, Botswana and Namibia
scientific evidence to guide future decision making.
agreed to plan for collaborative management of the
The study, created from inputs from multi-disciplinary
natural resources of the Okavango, forming the
teams in each country, with specialists in hydrology,
Permanent Okavango River Basin Water Commission
hydraulics, channel form, water quality, vegetation,
(OKACOM). In 2003, with funding from the Global
aquatic invertebrates, fish, birds, river-dependent
Environment Facility, OKACOM launched the
terrestrial wildlife, resource economics and socio-
Environmental Protection and Sustainable
cultural issues, was coordinated and managed by a
Management of the Okavango River Basin (EPSMO)
group of specialists from the southern African region
Project to coordinate development and to anticipate
in 2008 and 2009.
and address threats to the river and the associated
communities and environment. Implemented by the
The following specialist technical reports were
United Nations Development Program and executed
produced as part of this process and form substantive
by the United Nations Food and Agriculture
background content for the Okavango River Basin
Organization, the project produced the Transboundary
Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis.
Final Study
Reports integrating findings from all country and background reports, and covering the entire
Reports
basin.
Aylward, B.
Economic Valuation of Basin Resources: Final Report to
EPSMO Project of the UN Food & Agriculture Organization as
an Input to the Okavango River Basin Transboundary
Diagnostic Analysis
Barnes, J. et al.
Okavango River Basin Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis:
Socio-Economic Assessment Final Report
King, J.M. and Brown,
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment Project
C.A.
Initiation Report (Report No: 01/2009)
King, J.M. and Brown,
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment EFA
C.A.
Process Report (Report No: 02/2009)
King, J.M. and Brown,
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment
C.A.
Guidelines for Data Collection, Analysis and Scenario Creation
(Report No: 03/2009)
Bethune,
S.
Mazvimavi,
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment
D. and Quintino, M.
Delineation Report (Report No: 04/2009)
Beuster, H.
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment
Hydrology Report: Data And Models(Report No: 05/2009)
Beuster,
H. Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment
Scenario Report : Hydrology (Report No: 06/2009)
Jones, M.J.
The Groundwater Hydrology of The Okavango Basin (FAO
Internal Report, April 2010)
King, J.M. and Brown,
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment
C.A.
Scenario Report: Ecological and Social Predictions (Volume 1
of 4)(Report No. 07/2009)
King, J.M. and Brown,
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment
C.A.
Scenario Report: Ecological and Social Predictions (Volume 2
of 4: Indicator results) (Report No. 07/2009)
King, J.M. and Brown,
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment
C.A.
Scenario Report: Ecological and Social Predictions: Climate
Change Scenarios (Volume 3 of 4) (Report No. 07/2009)
King, J., Brown, C.A.,
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment
Joubert, A.R. and
Scenario Report: Biophysical Predictions (Volume 4 of 4:
Barnes, J.
Climate Change Indicator Results) (Report No: 07/2009)
King, J., Brown, C.A.
Okavango River Basin Environmental Flow Assessment Project
and Barnes, J.
Final Report (Report No: 08/2009)
Malzbender, D.
Environmental Protection And Sustainable Management Of The
Okavango River Basin (EPSMO): Governance Review
Vanderpost, C. and
Database and GIS design for an expanded Okavango Basin
Dhliwayo, M.
Information System (OBIS)
Veríssimo, Luis
GIS Database for the Environment Protection and Sustainable
40
TDA Botswana Social Services and Project Growth
Management of the Okavango River Basin Project
Wolski,
P.
Assessment of hydrological effects of climate change in the
Okavango Basin
Country Reports
Angola
Andrade e Sousa,
Análise Diagnóstica Transfronteiriça da Bacia do Rio
Biophysical Series
Helder André de
Okavango: Módulo do Caudal Ambiental: Relatório do
Especialista: País: Angola: Disciplina: Sedimentologia &
Geomorfologia
Gomes, Amândio
Análise Diagnóstica Transfronteiriça da Bacia do Rio
Okavango: Módulo do Caudal Ambiental: Relatório do
Especialista: País: Angola: Disciplina: Vegetação
Gomes,
Amândio
Análise Técnica, Biofísica e Socio-Económica do Lado
Angolano da Bacia Hidrográfica do Rio Cubango: Relatório
Final:Vegetação da Parte Angolana da Bacia Hidrográfica Do
Rio Cubango
Livramento, Filomena
Análise Diagnóstica Transfronteiriça da Bacia do Rio
Okavango: Módulo do Caudal Ambiental: Relatório do
Especialista: País: Angola: Disciplina:Macroinvertebrados
Miguel, Gabriel Luís
Análise Técnica, Biofísica E Sócio-Económica do Lado
Angolano da Bacia Hidrográfica do Rio Cubango:
Subsídio Para o Conhecimento Hidrogeológico
Relatório de Hidrogeologia
Morais, Miguel
Análise Diagnóstica Transfronteiriça da Bacia do Análise Rio
Cubango (Okavango): Módulo da Avaliação do Caudal
Ambiental: Relatório do Especialista País: Angola Disciplina:
Ictiofauna
Morais,
Miguel
Análise Técnica, Biófisica e Sócio-Económica do Lado
Angolano da Bacia Hidrográfica do Rio Cubango: Relatório
Final: Peixes e Pesca Fluvial da Bacia do Okavango em Angola
Pereira, Maria João
Qualidade da Água, no Lado Angolano da Bacia Hidrográfica
do Rio Cubango
Santos,
Carmen
Ivelize
Análise Diagnóstica Transfronteiriça da Bacia do Rio
Van-Dúnem S. N.
Okavango: Módulo do Caudal Ambiental: Relatório de
Especialidade: Angola: Vida Selvagem
Santos, Carmen Ivelize
Análise Diagnóstica Transfronteiriça da Bacia do Rio
Van-Dúnem S.N.
Okavango:Módulo Avaliação do Caudal Ambiental: Relatório de
Especialidade: Angola: Aves
Botswana Bonyongo, M.C.
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist Report: Country:
Botswana: Discipline: Wildlife
Hancock, P.
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module : Specialist Report: Country:
Botswana: Discipline: Birds
Mosepele,
K. Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist Report: Country:
Botswana: Discipline: Fish
Mosepele, B. and
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Dallas, Helen
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist Report: Country:
Botswana: Discipline: Aquatic Macro Invertebrates
Namibia
Collin Christian &
Okavango River Basin: Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Associates CC
Project: Environmental Flow Assessment Module:
Geomorphology
Curtis, B.A.
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist Report Country:
Namibia Discipline: Vegetation
Bethune, S.
Environmental Protection and Sustainable Management of the
Okavango River Basin (EPSMO): Transboundary Diagnostic
Analysis: Basin Ecosystems Report
Nakanwe, S.N.
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist Report: Country:
Namibia: Discipline: Aquatic Macro Invertebrates
Paxton,
M. Okavango River Basin Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist
Report:Country:Namibia: Discipline: Birds (Avifauna)
Roberts, K.
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist Report: Country:
Namibia: Discipline: Wildlife
41
TDA Botswana Social Services and Project Growth
Waal,
B.V. Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist Report: Country:
Namibia:Discipline: Fish Life
Country Reports
Angola
Gomes, Joaquim
Análise Técnica dos Aspectos Relacionados com o Potencial
Socioeconomic
Duarte
de Irrigação no Lado Angolano da Bacia Hidrográfica do Rio
Series
Cubango: Relatório Final
Mendelsohn,
.J.
Land use in Kavango: Past, Present and Future
Pereira, Maria João
Análise Diagnóstica Transfronteiriça da Bacia do Rio
Okavango: Módulo do Caudal Ambiental: Relatório do
Especialista: País: Angola: Disciplina: Qualidade da Água
Saraiva, Rute et al.
Diagnóstico Transfronteiriço Bacia do Okavango: Análise
Socioeconómica Angola
Botswana Chimbari, M. and
Okavango River Basin Trans-Boundary Diagnostic Assessment
Magole, Lapologang
(TDA): Botswana Component: Partial Report: Key Public Health
Issues in the Okavango Basin, Botswana
Magole,
Lapologang
Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis of the Botswana Portion of
the Okavango River Basin: Land Use Planning
Magole, Lapologang
Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis (TDA) of the Botswana p
Portion of the Okavango River Basin: Stakeholder Involvement
in the ODMP and its Relevance to the TDA Process
Masamba,
W.R.
Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis of the Botswana Portion of
the Okavango River Basin: Output 4: Water Supply and
Sanitation
Masamba,W.R.
Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis of the Botswana Portion of
the Okavango River Basin: Irrigation Development
Mbaiwa.J.E. Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis of the Okavango River
Basin: the Status of Tourism Development in the Okavango
Delta: Botswana
Mbaiwa.J.E. &
Assessing the Impact of Climate Change on Tourism Activities
Mmopelwa, G.
and their Economic Benefits in the Okavango Delta
Mmopelwa,
G.
Okavango River Basin Trans-boundary Diagnostic Assessment:
Botswana Component: Output 5: Socio-Economic Profile
Ngwenya, B.N.
Final Report: A Socio-Economic Profile of River Resources and
HIV and AIDS in the Okavango Basin: Botswana
Vanderpost,
C.
Assessment of Existing Social Services and Projected Growth
in the Context of the Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis of the
Botswana Portion of the Okavango River Basin
Namibia
Barnes, J and
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Wamunyima, D
Environmental Flow Module: Specialist Report:
Country: Namibia: Discipline: Socio-economics
Collin Christian &
Technical Report on Hydro-electric Power Development in the
Associates CC
Namibian Section of the Okavango River Basin
Liebenberg, J.P.
Technical Report on Irrigation Development in the Namibia
Section of the Okavango River Basin
Ortmann, Cynthia L.
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis:
Environmental Flow Module : Specialist Report Country:
Namibia: discipline: Water Quality
Nashipili,
Okavango River Basin Technical Diagnostic Analysis: Specialist
Ndinomwaameni
Report: Country: Namibia: Discipline: Water Supply and
Sanitation
Paxton,
C.
Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis: Specialist Report:
Discipline: Water Quality Requirements For Human Health in
the Okavango River Basin: Country: Namibia
42
1
Document Outline
- þÿ
- þÿ
- þÿ
- þÿ
- þÿ
- þÿ
- þÿ
- þÿ
- þÿ