4.4. Local pollution sources in the vicinities of indigenous communities
Chapter 4
condensate; four of gas condensate; one of gas; and
one of gas and oil. The city of Nar'yan-Mar and the set-
tlement of Harjaga could both be considered as region-
al pollution sources.
Growth of activities associated with the development of
oil and gas deposits has been followed by an increase in
anthropogenic pollution impacts on the environment,
including:
·
air pollution due to emissions of hazardous sub-
1993
2000
stances (including that from associated gas flaring);
­ Heat and power plants (HPP)
­ Industry that the
·
pollution of surface and ground waters through dis-
­ Municipal
­ Domestic
­ Transport
charges of polluting substances;
·
extraction, together with oil, of associated highly
Figure 4.67. Contribution of different types of activities in the Lovozero area
mineralized production water;
to dioxin emissions through the combustion of organic fuel.
·
changes in the landscape (excavations, extraction
contribution from the municipal sector, particularly
of materials for construction of the oil and gas pro-
from local boilers used for non-centralized heating, has
duction infrastructure, building, cargo transporta-
significantly increased in recent years. Although still
tion, construction of roads, etc.), deforestation, soil
much less than emissions from industrial enterprises,
pollution by petroleum products, etc.;
the three-fold growth in dioxin emissions from munici-
·
landfill disposal of drilling waste;
pal sources within seven years (from 42.23 mg TEQ in
·
oil spill emergencies.
1993 to 122 mg TEQ in 2000) is a matter of concern.
In 2002, air emissions from stationary and mobile pol-
4.4.3. Nenets Autonomous Okrug (NAO)
lution sources amounted to 35.1 kt (in 2001 the total
amount of emissions was 36.6 kt), including 1.47 kt of
4.4.3.1. General description
dust and 36.6 kt of gaseous and liquid pollutants. Gas
The main focus of the PTS source inventory within the
emissions associated with oil extraction are very high,
NAO is data acquired from the city of Nar'yan-Mar,
and methods of utilising the gas have not yet been
which is the most significant pollution source in the
developed in NAO.
vicinity of the indigenous settlement of Nelmin-Nos.
In 2002, 24.5 kt of pollutants were emitted to the
Construction of various industrial facilities, and roads,
atmosphere by stationary pollution sources. The basic
as well as extraction and transportation of minerals
components of these air emissions were: ashes (720 t);
(primarily oil and gas), have had a considerable impact
soot (720 t); SO2 (3750 t); CO (12200 t); NO2 (4600 t)
on the environment in the NAO. A total of eighty-one
and hydrocarbons (2400 t). Although these pollutants
deposits of petroleum hydrocarbons have been found
cannot be considered as PTS, their emissions are a
in the territory of the NAO, of which seventy-eight are
measure of total environmental stress in the region.
on land and three on the Barents Sea shelf. Among the
The major polluters of the atmosphere are the energy
terrestrial deposits, sixty-six are of oil; six of oil and gas
producing companies: `Total RRR', JSC `Varandeygaz';
Table 4.25.
Industrial emissions from
major enterprises in the NAO
in 2002, tonnes.

66

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Chapter 4
4.4. Local pollution sources in the vicinities of indigenous communities
ment facilities, and work to increase the capacity of
older sites, the volume of household wastewater enter-
ing landfills is decreasing every year. In other NAO set-
tlements, solid and liquid household waste is removed
not only to authorized sites, but also, to a large extent,
to illegal landfills.
The system of solid household waste collection does
not allow the separation of hazardous wastes (e.g.,
those containing mercury batteries, plastics, etc.) and
dumping of such wastes at landfill sites results in envi-
ronmental contamination by dangerous toxic sub-
stances, including dioxins, especially if fires occur.
Communal solid waste, together with hazardous waste
in landfills is also subjected to the effect of precipita-
tion which washes pollutants down into the soil profile,
Figure 4.68. Air emissions in major NAO
settlements in 1999, tonnes.
and subsequently leads to their transport with ground
waters. The situation is aggravated by a lack of landfill
JSC `Arcticneft'; `Kompaniya Polyarnoye Siyanie' Ltd;
sites equipped with environmental facilities, and the
JSC `Pechoraneft'; and `Lukoil-Komi' Ltd. (Table
low capacity of waste treatment facilities in Nar'yan-
4.25). Air emissions from the largest NAO settlements
Mar and other NAO settlements. Existing landfills do
are shown in Figure 4.68.
not meet environmental or sanitary requirements as:
­ they lack sanitary protection zones,
Official statistics do not document any significant pol-
­ they lack rainwater filtrate removal
lution sources in the lower part of the Pechora basin,
and treatment systems;
although wastewater discharges have increased 1.7-fold
­ they lack waterproof screens.
since 1998, mostly due to water use in oil and gas pro-
duction and by municipal services.
The most hazardous and widespread waste products are
luminescent lamps containing mercury (2.49 t in 2000),
Nar'yan-Mar port is one of pollution sources and is
obsolete accumulators (4.1 t), used motor oil (119.3 t),
located on the right bank of a narrow channel, the
drilling sludge (7908 t) and oil-slime (329.2 t).
Gorodetsky Shar, which joins the Great Pechora river
1.5 km upstream of its mouth and 110 km from the
There are no facilities specifically designed for the pro-
Bolvansky cape. The port has no storage tanks and,
cessing or incineration of solid communal waste in
therefore, wastewater is discharged directly into the
NAO, and only a small amount of solid communal
Pechora river without treatment.
waste is incinerated at industrial sites, generally those
involved in oil and gas development activities.
Levels of pollutants in the Pechora delta tend to be ele-
vated. Contamination is connected, not only with the
Processing of medical waste, rubber waste products,
local activities, but also, to a large extent, with pollu-
and ash-and-slag wastes from boiler-houses, has also
tion due to wastewater discharges from enterprises
not been developed in NAO. The medical institutions
located in the Pechora basin involved in gas and oil
of the city of Nar'yan-Mar generated 16.8 t of waste
production (i.e, polluting substances transported with
products that were transported to the municipal land-
the Pechora flow). However, based on the data and
fill site in 2001.
information obtained from project activities con-
cerned with the assessment of riverine pollution fluxes,
4.4.3.2. Inventory of PTS pollution sources
it may be possible that there are also considerable
sources of PTS located between the settlements of
Pesticides
Oksino and Andeg (an area which includes Nar'yan-
According to information obtained from the
Mar and its suburbs) which contribute to PTS fluxes in
Department of Agriculture and Foodstuffs of the NAO
the river flow.
Administration, no chlorinated pesticides, insecti-
cides, disinfectants, etc., have been used in the last ten
The current system of handling solid household wastes
years in the Pechora river flood-plain by any agro-
in Nar'yan-Mar consists of the collection of waste in
industrial enterprises or related organizations.
containers, cesspools, and auto-dumpers, followed by
Hexachlorobenzene (HCB) has not been used as a dis-
their transportation to landfill using specialized and
infectant.
other motor transport. In addition, household waste-
water is also transported to landfills, since most exist-
Industrial chemical compounds
ing housing is not connected to sewer systems, and the
According to information received, no enterprises
capacity of older treatment facilities is insufficient.
exist in Nar'yan-Mar or in territories adjoining the set-
However, due to the recently commissioned new treat-
tlement of Nelmin-Nos that could represent a potential
67

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4.4. Local pollution sources in the vicinities of indigenous communities
Chapter 4
Mercury
­ Leaded
Mercury mobilization from the combustion of fossil fuels
gasoline
in the Nelmin-Nos area is rather small. For example, in
­ Coal
1997 it did not exceed 1 kg. Such low levels of mobiliza-
­ Firewood
tion can be explained by the widespread use of natural
gas by major consumers, in particular the Nar'yan-Mar
heat and power plant and municipal boilers.
Polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)
Data on PAH emissions from the combustion of vari-
Figure 4.69. Lead emissions from organic fuel combustion
in the Nelmin Nos area.
ous kinds of hydrocarbon fuels in the Nelmin-Nos area,
including Nar'yan-Mar, are presented in Figure 4.72. A
major contribution to total PAH emissions is made by
­ Cars
the gasoline-fueled motor vehicles. It is notable that
­ Trucks
the role of gasoline in total PAH emissions has
­ Busses
increased drastically in recent years, due to a signifi-
­ Snowmobiles
cant growth in the number of cars in the area, particu-
larly in Nar'yan-Mar. Before that, diesel fuel had played
a dominant role (Figure 4.73).
Figure 4.70. Lead emissions resulting from different means
of transportation in the Nelmin Nos area.
Figure 4.71.
Lead emissions from
the combustion of leaded
gasoline in the Nelmin Nos
area, kg.
Figure 4.72. PAH (benzo[a]pyrene, benzo[b]fluoranthene, benzo[k]flouranthene,
and indeno[1,2,3 c,d]pyrene) emissions from the combustion of hydrocarbon fuel
types in the Nelmin Nos area in 2001, kg.
­ Firewood
­ Diesel fuel
source of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), originat-
­ Natural gas
ing from equipment containing PCBs, or brominated
­ Coal
flame retardants.
­ Gasoline
4.4.3.3. PTS mobilization from combustion of fossil fuels
Official statistical data on fossil fuel consumption in
the NAO was used to calculate PTS emissions. The fuel
amount consumed in the NAO within the Nelmin-Nos
area was estimated based on the assumption that the
Figure 4.73. Contribution of different types of organic fuel
population of this area (including Naryan-Mar, the set-
to benzo[a]pyrene emissions in the NAO in 1995.
tlement of Krasny, and Nelmin-Nos itself), comprises
65% of the total NAO population. Account was also
taken of the fact that that most of the population in the
­ Diesel fuel
area (27000 out of 29300) live in Nar'yan-Mar.
­ Coal
­ Firewood
Lead
In the Nelmin-Nos area, lead emissions from organic
fuel combustion arise mainly from leaded gasoline
(Figure 4.69) used by vehicles with internal combustion
engines (Figure 4.70). However, the total annual emis-
sions of lead from fossil fuel combustion are very low.
Figure 4.74. Contributions to total dioxin emissions from combustion
It should be noted that, due to a significant growth in
of major organic fuel types in the NAO in 1997.
the number of motor vehicles in the area in recent
years, an increase in lead emissions has been docu-
The contribution of coal to PAH emissions in this area
mented, despite the introduction of unleaded gasoline
is much lower than in other project pilot study areas,
(Figure 4.71).
since petroleum hydrocarbon fuel types dominate in
68

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Chapter 4
4.4. Local pollution sources in the vicinities of indigenous communities
this oil and gas producing region. However, the largest
The Norilsk Industrial Area, the largest copper and
contribution to PAHs comes from firewood. As fire-
nickel producer in the Arctic and the Russian
wood is mainly used for domestic heating, this fact is of
Federation, is located about 60 km from Dudinka, to
particularly concern in relation to possible impacts on
the east of the river Yenisey, covering an area of
human health.
about 60 thousand km2 in the northwestern part of
mid-Siberian plateau between longitudes 86­92°E,
Dioxins
and latitudes 68-70°N. It is acknowledged as the
According to expert estimates, total dioxin emissions
largest single source of environmental pollutants,
in the inventory area in 1997 were 687.15 mg TEQ.
not only in the region, but in the whole circumpolar
Contributions of different types of organic fuel to total
Arctic.
dioxin emissions are shown in Figure 4.74. Fuels such
as natural gas, gasoline, and kerosine contribute con-
4.4.4.2. Geographical areas of concern
siderably less than 1% of total emissions.
Norilsk Industrial Area (NIA)
Attention should be paid to the fact that a major con-
The former Norilsk Mining and Metallurgical
tribution to total dioxin emissions arises from the use
Combined Plant, now called `Norilsky Nickel' JSC, is
of firewood for heating and other domestic needs. As
the main polluter in the territory.
these emissions arise from the burning of organic fuels
in the home, and particularly from open fires com-
In the 1980s, it began operating a number of plants
monly used by indigenous peoples in their traditional
producing elemental sulphur, which through recovery
dwellings, this fact is a matter of particular concern in
of sulphur (at a maximum recovery of 20%) substan-
the context of possible exposures to humans and relat-
tially decreased SO2 emissions and significantly
ed health implications.
improved the environment of the region. However,
SO2 is still the main contaminant emitted in the NIA,
4.4.4. Taimyr Autonomous Okrug (TAO)
accounting for 96.7% of total emissions. In addition to
SO2, `Norilsky Nickel' JSC emits a wide range of con-
4.4.4.1. General description
taminants, among which are heavy metals, including
In the TAO, the inventory of local sources covered
those addressed in the project.
the vast territory around the city of Norilsk, which
forms the main basis for the economy of the entire
Automobiles are acknowledged as an important source
TAO. Norilsk has a dominating influence on the
of some PTS emissions. In this respect, the NIA is sin-
environment of adjacent territories, including the
gular because it does not have any extensive railway
areas of the settlements Dudinka and Khatanga,
network for passenger or cargo transport. To compen-
which are the centers of residence for the indige-
sate for this drawback use of road vehicles is wide-
nous population.
spread, with associated negative impacts on air quality
in residential areas. In winter, when temperature inver-
The TAO population, including the Norilsk Industrial
sions are common, pollution of the lowermost atmos-
Area (NIA), is 288600 (based on 1996 data). The pop-
pheric layer from vehicle exhausts often exceeds pollu-
ulation of the NIA itself is 44100. The population of
tion from stationary emission sources.
the town of Khatanga is about 5000, and that of the
town of Dudinka and settlement Dikson more than
High levels of sulphur dioxide in air are recorded in
31300. Most of the urban population resides in the city
the city on about 350 days a year, including 120 to 150
of Norilsk, however, this city is formally outside of the
days with levels from 5 to 10 times the Maximum
TAO jurisdiction, and administered as a subsidiary of
Acceptable Concentration (MAC), and 40 to 60 days
the Krasnoyarsk Krai.
with a level exceeding 10 times the MAC.
Annual industrial air emissions from enterprises locat-
The total duration of air pollution amounts to around
ed in the TAO territory amount to more than 50% of the year, 80% of this time with a level of under
2 million tonnes of pollutants. Thirty-nine different
5 MAC, 15 to 17% of the time with a level from 5 to 10
pollutants are monitored in these emissions. The bulk
MAC, and 2 to 4% of the time with levels of 10 MAC or
of the emissions comprise sulphur dioxide, followed by
more Due to the prevailing wind directions, the main
sulphuric acid, inorganic dust, carbon monoxide, and
pollution sources for the city's atmosphere are the cop-
nitrogen dioxide. Emissions from stationary sources
per plant, the nickel plant, and the sinter plant. In
are dominant and amount to about 99% of total indus-
spite of protection measures in place, the atmospheric
trial emissions in the region. This equates to two-thirds
air pollution level in the city is gradually increasing
of emissions in the Krasnoyarsk Krai, and 14% of all
(Table 4.26).
industrial emissions in the Russian Federation. 2309
stationary industrial emission sources have been regis-
About 20 million tonnes of solid waste are produced
tered in the TAO territory, of which only 318 are
annually in the NIA (23.4 million tonnes in 2000). Over
equipped with gas treatment facilities to reduce emis-
the entire period of industrial activities in the area,
sions.
more than 400 million tonnes of mining and industrial
69

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4.4. Local pollution sources in the vicinities of indigenous communities
Chapter 4
Table 4.26.
Average concentrations of air
pollutants in the city of
Norilsk (mg/m3), and their
trend (mean annual change
based on linear regression)
over the period 1996 2000;
and total emissions (thou
sand tonnes) from the com
bined smelter, 'Norilsky
Nickel' JSC during the same
period.
wastes have been accumulated, whilst no more than 5%
Dudinka port works practically all year round and spe-
of the existing waste have been recycled. The waste
cializes in the offloading of imported cargo (petroleum
composition is 99% mining and industrial waste (of
products, food stuffs, and construction materials for
which 94% are bearing strata and overburden), and
the Norilsk plant and for the town of Dudinka), and
1% waste from domestic consumption.
the export of copper-nickel concentrate for the various
mining and smelting companies and enterprises. The
About 2400 hectares are occupied by rock dumps. In
port is equipped with its own transport infrastructure,
addition, 1500 hectares have been damaged by strip-
a large oil depot, and the facilities necessary for han-
ping. Tailing dumps occupy a further 1500 hectares.
dling of contaminated bilge waters and household
About 10 million tonnes of toxic waste containing
wastewater. In total, the port (based on data for the
more than 50 different components, and more than a
early-1990s) receives about 7600 t of waste products
million tonnes of slag are stockpiled in the territory
from vessels, including about 300 t of oil-containing
each year. Almost no waste-storage sites conform fully
waste.
to current legal and regulatory requirements.
Pollution of water around the port occurs a result of
The NIA drainage system falls mainly within the basin
wastewater discharges from both the port, and from
of lake Piasino. The bulk of `Norilsky Nickel' JSC's
entities located nearby. More than two million m3 of
wastewater is discharged into this hydrological system.
wastewater is discharged to the waters around the port
The biggest water course in the region is the river
each year. A proportion of bilge and domestic waste-
Norilskaya, which connects the lakes Melkoye and
water from shipping is released directly into the waters
Piasino. Secondary rivers, namely the Shchuchya,
of the port. Some of the polluting heavy metals (cop-
Kupets, Yergalakh, Ambarnaya, Daldykan, and others,
per, nickel, cobalt, etc.) enter the water as a result of
are tributaries of the Norilskaya or flow directly into
the wash-out from bulk copper-nickel concentrates.
the lake Piasino, which is the biggest lake in the region
(Figure 4.75).
Air operations are located in the Dudinsky area, and
construction and geological prospecting organizations
Dudinka area
also operate from the city. The town infrastructure is
The town of Dudinka is located on the right bank of
maintained by the bodies responsible for municipal
the river Yenisey at its confluence with the Dudinka
housing and communal services. These, the road
river, 433 km upstream from the mouth of the Yenisey.
department, trade organizations, and a smoke-house
Figure 4.75.
The drainage network
of the Norilsk Industrial Area.
70

---

Chapter 4
4.4. Local pollution sources in the vicinities of indigenous communities
are not formally considered as PTS sources under the
8 million m3 per year. The port has the technical capa-
inventory of local sources, but as a whole exert a very
bility to collect wastewater from sea-going vessels. After
insignificant influence on the environmental state of
fuel and oil separation, remaining oil and slag are
the adjoining territories, when compared to the neigh-
incinerated in boiler-houses and operational waste is
boring Norilsk smelter.
transferred to landfill.
Khatanga area
The main air pollution sources in the settlement are
The Khatanga settlement is located on the left bank of
the eleven departmental boiler-houses utilizing local
the river Khatanga, 110 km from its mouth. The popu-
coal, and the airport facilities, which use diesel fuel. In
lation of the settlement numbers 5000. There are rela-
total, heating the settlement of Khatanga requires
tively few large enterprises based in the settlement.
about 45­50000 t of coal per year. About 3000 t of sus-
Those present include an aviation enterprise connect-
pended substances, more than 500 t of sulphur diox-
ed with the local airport, a sea cargo port, a fish-pro-
ide, more than 750 t of carbon monoxide and approx-
cessing factory, housing and municipal services, three
imately 180 t of nitrogen oxides are emitted into the
oil depots, a base for polar expeditions, and a number
atmosphere. About 85% of emissions deposit directly
of state agricultural producers and co-operative enter-
onto the area occupied by the settlement, over a radius
prises, etc.
of 3­3.5 km.
The settlement municipal services share a water supply
4.4.4.3. Inventory results
and sewage network with the industrial enterprises,
and water is taken from the river Khatanga upstream of
Pesticides
the settlement. Wastewater enters a main settlement
According to the TAO Veterinary Medicine Admi-
collector, and after mechanical treatment, is dis-
nistration (pers. comm., letter no. 144 of 10.04.2003),
charged back into the river Khatanga 1.5 km down-
the district veterinary service regularly used the
stream of the settlement. Water consumption by the
insecticide dichlorodivinylphosphate (DDVP)
settlement and industrial enterprises has reduced over
against mosquitoes and gadflies in the summer, dur-
the last few years. According to figures from the Sea
ing the period 1980 to 1991. In total, up to 1270
Inspectorate of the Krasnoyarsk Krai, wastewater dis-
litres of the insecticide were used on farms in
charge into the river Khatanga from the settlement col-
Khatanga, Ust-Yenisey and Dudinka Districts.
lector in 1994 was about 1 million m3. There are no
Currently, no pesticides are used in the TAO for
data available, however, on the chemical composition
agricultural purposes.
of wastewaters.
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
Khatanga port, which is located at the left bank of the
The PCB inventory carried out in 1999 in the NIA
river Khatanga 112 km upstream from its mouth, oper-
revealed the presence of electric equipment, name-
ates for three to three-and-a-half months during the
ly, transformers and capacitors, filled with the
summer navigation period. There are 5 berths in the
dielectric fluids, Sovtol-10, Askarel, and Pyralene.
port adapted to serve sea vessels up to 5000 tonnes.
The quantity of these synthetic PCB-containing flu-
Handling operations are carried out along the port
ids amounts to 451.5, 145.0, and 10.38 t, respective-
road, and also along the road in Kozhevnikova bay. The
ly (Table 4.27). These figures have not changed
port has no oil depot of its own, however, there are
since 1999.
three depots near the harbour area, belonging to other
departments.
Most pieces of equipment containing the above flu-
ids are operative. Among 226 transformers, 222 are
The port itself consumes up to 400000 m3 of water,
in service, three have been decommissioned, and
including 140000 m3 for industrial needs, and
one is held in reserve. Among 643 capacitors, 368
260000 m3 for economic and household needs.
are in service, 246 have been decommissioned, and
Wastewater is discharged into the main settlement col-
29 are held as a reserve stock. Decommissioned
lector. The total discharge of untreated waters is 6-
equipment contains 5.64 t of Askarel and 0.89 t of
Table 4.27.
Inventory of PCB containing
electric equipment located
at 'Norilsky Nickel' JSC
(data for 1999).
71

---

4.4. Local pollution sources in the vicinities of indigenous communities
Chapter 4
Table 4.28.
Nomenclature
and characteristics of PCB
containing waste at 'Norilsky
Nickel' JSC (data for 1999).
Wastes were generated for
1996 1999 as a result
of the decommissioning
of 3 transformers
and 246 capacitors.
Pyralene (Table 4.28), and is still located at the plant
The presence of Cl2 in the air of Norilsk in previous
sites. There have been no documented discharges or
years (see Table 4.26) could be an indicater of possible
incidents of site pollution from transformer oils.
dioxin formation in the area, as there is no pulp and
paper industry in the TAO territory and no community
The inventory of PCB discharges has shown that,
solid waste incineration plants or production of chlori-
during the operation and maintenance of trans-
nated organic products.
formers, about 10 litres of PCB per annum on aver-
age are spilled from each transformer (AMAP, 2000).
Mercury
According to these estimates, transformers used by
As stated above, non-ferrous metal production is a sig-
the Norilsk Mining Plant discharge 3.33 t of PCB per
nificant source in the mobilization of mercury. In 2001,
annum. Over the whole operating period (the serv-
the NIA produced 120000 t of primary nickel and
ice life of transformers is assumed to be 25 years),
357000 t of primary copper. According to expert esti-
83.25 t of PCB will have been discharged to the envi-
mates, production of these amounts of non-ferrous
ronment.
metals would be accompanied by the mobilization of
1.7­2.02 t of mercury, emitted to the atmosphere. In
Dioxins and furans
addition, 0.65­0.99 t of mercury would have accumu-
Within the TAO, unintentional formation of dioxins
lated in captured dust (COWI, 2004).
and furans is related to industrial production and may
occur during thermal processes carried out at the met-
Lead
allurgical plants of `Norilsky Nickel' JSC, which
According to official statistics, annual emissions of lead
reprocess sulphurous ores in the production of non-
in the inventory area vary from 26.5 to 32.8 t.
ferrous metals. It is very likely that, regardless of the
lack of studies to date on the presence of dioxins and
4.4.4.4. PTS mobilization from combustion of fossil fuels
furans in environmental emissions from its production
As in the other pilot areas, estimates of PTS emissions were
lines, the plant may be a source of pollution in connec-
based on the consumption of different types of organic
tion with these substances.
fuel. It is important to note, that the inventory areas of the
TAO, and the NIA in particular, are characterized by high
Other possible sources of these contaminants may
levels of coal consumption, and this essentially determines
include:
PTS mobilization associated with fossil fuel combustion.
·
incineration of fossil fuels in the boilers of public
utilities in the studied localities;
Lead
·
vehicles, mainly those running on leaded gasoline;
Due to high coal consumption, and a decrease in the
·
sources related to fossil fuel burning for house-
use of leaded gasoline, lead mobilization from coal
hold heating;
dominates, particularly in the NIA (Figure 4.76).
·
open uncontrolled burning of solid household
It should be noted that the annual amount of lead
waste at dumps.
mobilized through coal combustion in the NIA is high-
er than lead emissions by the `Norilsky Nickel' JSC in
the production of non-ferrous metals due to lead mobi-
lization from the ores (Figure 4.77). Total lead mobi-
lization through coal combustion in Dudinka and
Khatanga comprises about 0.5% of that in the NIA.
Figure 4.77.
Lead emissions in the NIA
from industrial production
and coal combustion.
Norilsk
Dudinka
­ Gasoline
­ Coal
Figure 4.76. Lead mobilization through the combustion of coal and gasoline
in the TAO in 1997.
72

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Chapter 4
4.4. Local pollution sources in the vicinities of indigenous communities
­ NIA
­ Industrial
production
­ Dudinka
­ Coal
­ Khatanga
combustion
Figure 4.78. Sources of atmospheric emissions of mercury
Figure 4.80. Contributions of different source regions to benzo[a]pyrene
in the Norilsk Industrial Production in 2000.
emissions from the combustion of hydrocarbon fuels in the TAO.
Mercury
Use of natural gas and other types of petroleum hydro-
carbon fuels for energy production produces a rela-
tively minor contribution to mercury mobilization. For
example, use of natural gas in the NIA, contributes
annually about 10g of mercury. A more significant con-
tribution to mercury emissions is made by coal used for
heat and power production. As almost 99% of total coal
Figure 4.81. Contribution of different types of fossil fuel combustion
combustion in the TAO occurs in the NIA, and (in
to benzo[a]pyrene emissions in the NIA, kg.
addition to the even more substantial emissions from
production of non-ferrous metals) coal contributes
Dioxins
10% of the NAI emissions of mercury to the atmos-
The use of coal for heat and energy production is a
phere (Figure 4.78), the NIA is clearly responsible for
dominant source of dioxin emissions when compared
the greater part of the mercury contamination from
to other types of organic fuel in the TAO. As expected,
the TAO.
the NIA is responsible for almost 99.5% of dioxin emis-
sions from coal combustion in the TAO. However, the
Polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)
TAO dioxin emissions from petroleum hydrocarbon
Total PAH emissions to the atmosphere due to the con-
fuel combustion (including those from the NIA), are
sumption of hydrocarbon fuels in the TAO, including
comparable to the dioxin emissions from coal combus-
the NIA, are presented in Figure 4.79. For all PAHs, as
tion in the TAO when the NIA is excluded.
in the case of benzo[a]pyrene (Figure 4.80), the main
contribution is made by the NIA. It should be noted
4.4.5. The Chukchi Autonomous Okrug (CAO)
that contributions from defense-related activities have
not been included in the inventory estimates, since this
4.4.5.1. General description
information was not available to the assessment.
The CAO, which is located in the extreme far north-
Because of this, contributions from areas outside of the
east of continental Russia, consists of eight districts.
NIA, for example Khatanga, may be higher. However,
These are: Anadyrsky (settlement Ugolnye Kopi);
the pre-eminent role of NIA will not change.
Beringovsky (settlement Beringovsky); Bilibinsky (set-
tlement Bilibino); Iultinsky (settlement Egvekinot);
Provedensky region (settlement Provedeniya);
Chaunsky (town of Pevek); Chukotsky (settlement
Lavrentiya); and Shmidtovsky (settlement Mys
Schmidta). The CAO capital, Anadyr, is located in the
Anadyrsky District.
According to the census, the population of the CAO
was 164783 persons in 1989. In recent years its popu-
lation has decreased and, by the beginning of 2000, the
Figure 4.79. PAH (benzo[a]pyrene, benzo[b]fluoranthene, benzo[k]flouranthene,
and indeno[1,2,3 c,d]pyrene) emissions from combustion of hydrocarbon fuels
figure was 72180 persons of whom 49106 are in urban
in the TAO (including the NIA), kg.
areas and 23074 classed as rural.
As a rule, specific PAH emissions occurring through
The settlements involved in the inventory of local
coal combustion are higher than those associated with
sources are located in three rayons: the city of Anadyr
combustion of petroleum hydrocarbon fuels. As coal
and settlement of Kanchalan in Anadyrsky District, the
consumption in the TAO is higher than, for example,
settlement of Provideniya in Providensky District, and
in Murmansk Oblast, and the NAO even more so, coal
the settlement of Uelen in Chukotsky District.
combustion sources dominate PAH emissions from the
Population characteristics of the inventory areas are
TAO (Figure 4.81).
presented in Table 4.29.
73

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4.4. Local pollution sources in the vicinities of indigenous communities
Chapter 4
Table 4.29. Population characteristics of areas in the CAO included
Table 4.30. Discharges of contaminants with wastewater in the CAO,
in the inventory of local sources.
thousands of tonnes.
on air emissions from non-private motor vehicles are
presented in Figure 4.83. Official statistics also exclude
data on emissions of, for example, lead from the use of
leaded gasoline by motor vehicles. This information,
based on expert estimates, is provided below.
Official statistical data on pollutants in wastewater dis-
charges in the CAO are presented in Table 4.30.
Figure 4.82. Atmospheric emissions of major pollutants from stationary sources
Polluted wastewater is discharged from treatment facil-
in the CAO, t/y.
ities belonging to the various utilities in the cities of
Anadyr and Pevek and the settlements of Bilibino and
Main local pollution sources are related to the develop-
Iultin. Main areas of pollution were found around the
ment of mineral resources such as gold, tin, tungsten,
city of Anadyr (affecting 185 km2) and the settlement
mercury, coal, and lignite. Together, in 1995, industrial
of Nagorny (affecting 60 km2). Within the inventory
entities emitted 72500 t of pollutants into the atmos-
area, wastewaters are discharged into natural water
phere, and discharged 39.3 million m3 of sewage into
bodies without any form of treatment, with the excep-
surface water bodies (including 8 million m3 of pollut-
tion of Kanchalan settlement, where effluents are col-
ed wastewater). In 2000, these figures were, respectively,
lected from cesspits and transported to the settle-
35500 t, and 20.0 and 5.3 million m3. The main pollu-
ment's dump for further partial treatment.
tion sources are the Pevek Mining and Concentration
Plant, the Iultin Mining and Concentration Plant, and
4.4.5.2. Main settlements in the inventory areas
also numerous boiler houses.
Anadyr
Provideniya is the biggest settlement inhabited by
Anadyr is the capital of CAO, and has the most devel-
indigenous peoples in the CAO. The settlement has a
oped infrastructure in the CAO. Emissions for the city
seaport, a shipyard terminal, a tannery, and a meat-and-
of Anadyr, based on State statistical data, are presented
dairy plant. The indigenous population is involved in
in Table 4.31. The city has no wastewater treatment
reindeer-breeding, fishing, the fur trade, and hunting.
facilities. There are no enterprises registered as poten-
There are practically no industrial facilities in the set-
tial sources of PCB contamination in the area of
tlements of Uelen and Kanchalan where the indige-
Anadyr, and no information on users of PCB-contain-
nous population is engaged in reindeer-breeding,
ing equipment. Similarly, there are no industrial wastes
hunting, and the fur trade. There are no major pollu-
in Anadyr which are likely to contain PCB, or hexa-
tion sources except for solid household waste and pol-
chlorobenzene (HCB), as there are no activities con-
lution of coastal waters by petroleum products.
nected with either their production, or use.
Data on air emissions from stationary sources in the
A potential source of brominated flame-retardant com-
CAO are presented in Figure 4.82. Although official
pounds (BFRs) is land occupied by municipal landfills,
statistics do not include data on PTS emissions, there is
but there are no data currently available on their con-
a well-defined general trend of decreasing emissions. It
tent due to a lack of information on types of solid
may be assumed that PTS emissions in this region are
household waste dumped at the landfill. In the opinion
also decreasing, in accordance with this general trend.
of experts from the municipal services, household and
Official statistics on air emissions in the CAO from
electronic apparatus that could represent a source of
motor vehicles do not include private vehicles. Based
BFRs are seldom found among debris located at the
on expert estimates, vehicles used for personal trans-
landfills. The Anadyr municipal landfill and is located
port exceed the number of vehicles belonging to the
two kilometers from city. The amount of waste dumped
state and to the various enterprises by about 50%. Data
annually in the landfill is 28000 m3. It is important to
74

---

Chapter 4
4.4. Local pollution sources in the vicinities of indigenous communities
Table 4.31. Trend in air emissions of major pollutants in Anadyr,
thousands of tonnes.
Figure 4.83. Atmospheric emissions from motor vehicles (excluding private cars)
in the CAO, t/y.
ment and port is discharged into the bay of
note that landfills in Chukotka are in a permanently
Komsomolskaya. The enterprises listed above are the
frozen state and therefore among the safest landfills
main water pollution sources.
and, as certified by the communal services, has low
potential for spontaneous combustion. and percola-
The following contaminants enter the bay with waste-
tion from the landfill into groundwater.
water: suspended mineral substances (4.32 t), petrole-
um products (0.13 t), organic matter (24.84 t), chlo-
Although no special studies have been undertaken,
rides (14.06 t), sulphates (8.33 t), total nitrogen (23 t),
and there are no directly relevant data available, it is
surfactants (0.012 t), and phosphorus (0.04 t). Of
possible, on the basis of the information presented
these pollutants, housing and municipal services
above, to infer the possible presence of dioxins and
release the following: mineral suspensions (3.82 t),
furans in the city. Furhtermore, there has been no work
organic chemicals (22.31 t), chlorides (12.96 t), sul-
associated with organizing an inventory, collection,
phates (6.06 t), total nitrogen (2.13 t), and phospho-
storage and treatment of mercury-containing lumines-
rus (0.04 t).
cent lamps and such equipment.
Air pollution in the settlement of Provideniya and its
Kanchalan
nearest neighbours, originates from the burning of
The settlement of Kanchalan is located in Anadyrsky
solid fuel (Beringov coal). In the mid-1990s, about
District, on the bank of the river Kanchalan, part of the
47500 t/yr were burned in boiler installations. Major
Anadyr river system. At present the settlement has no
pollutant sources include: the thermal power station at
industry, and agriculture is represented only by rein-
the seaport (coal consumption of 9728 t/y), boilers
deer-breeding farms, which only use the settlement as
operated by housing and municipal service enterprises
a base. The settlement's housing and municipal servic-
(8685 t/y), boilers in the village of Ureliki (7000 t/y),
es operate a diesel electric power station and a coal-
and boiler-houses run by the military infrastructure
fired boiler-house, which uses coal from the Anadyr
(7000 t/y).
deposit.
More than 9600 t of black oil (Mazut) and diesel fuel
There is no sewage system in the settlement, and col-
are burned annually in the settlement. The major pol-
lection is in cesspools, which are periodically
lutant sources include boiler-houses belonging to the
cleaned, with the solid waste Being removed to the
seaport and the communal service and diesel-fired
settlement landfill. According to environmental pro-
power stations.
tection authorities, the level of air pollution in the
settlement has never been investigated, and there-
Annual emissions of pollutants to the atmosphere
fore available data is limited to potential sources of
around Providenya are: 1390 t of dust, 500 t of sulphur
PTS only.
dioxide, 750 t of carbon monoxide and 200 t of nitro-
gen oxides. Emissions from motor vehicles for the
Provideniya
whole of Providensky District include: carbon dioxide
The settlement of Provideniya is located to the north of
(256 t), nitrogen dioxide (11 t), and methane (53 t).
the Gulf of Anadyr, in the Emma Bay (Komso-
Mean atmospheric deposition of mineral salts in the
molskaya). Ureliki village directly adjoins the settle-
areas of settlement for the last few years have been
ment. Infrastructure in the settlement of Provideniya is
about 50 kg/ha/y, with wet deposition of sulphur at 4-
similar to that of Anadyr city. The main enterprises are
6 kg/ha/yr and nitrogen at about 2 kg/ha/y.
the sea trading port, the airport, a meat-and-milk com-
plex, the `Providensky kozhzavod' JSC, enterprises run
An additional pollution source is solid household and
by housing and municipal services, construction oper-
industrial non-toxic debris, which is stored in planned
ations, and military infrastructure. The port is respon-
landfills. In total, 33800 m3 of solid waste are exported
sible for the water supply for the settlement. Water is
to landfills each year from all the enterprises within
taken from lake Istihet and the river Krasivyi. Effluent
the settlements of Provideniya and Ureliki, and an
discharge amounts to 4.3 million m3. There are no
additional 858 t/y from neighboring villages. There
treatment facilities for industrial or domestic waste-
are no data currently available on PTS sources in the
water; and practically all waste water from the settle-
area.
75

---

4.4. Local pollution sources in the vicinities of indigenous communities
Chapter 4
Uelen
quate for contemporary requirements. That is, a
The settlement of Uelen is administered under
reporting system suitable for documenting the effi-
Chukotsky District Uelen's infrastructure only includes
ciency of actions taken by countries in connection
enterprises belonging to the housing and municipal
with international measures to reduce environ-
service departments: the Uelen workshop, farm, and
mental releases of PTS, and in particular the
social institutions (consisting of the school, medical
`Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic
station, and kindergarten).
Pollutants'.
·
The control and reporting systems of the environ-
Environmental pollution sources are as follows: the diesel-
mental protection authorities do not adequately
fired power station, coal-fired boiler, landfill for house-
cover environmental releases from defence-related
hold debris, coal and ash waste repository, and household
activities in the Arctic regions.
heating sources. Air emissions in the settlement in 2001
·
The existing environmental monitoring systems,
were: dust (939 t), carbon monoxide (1130 t), sulphur
in almost all cases, do not cover secondary pollu-
dioxide (668 t), and oxides of nitrogen (536 t).
tion sources; that is sources that are not directly
linked to environmental pollution by industrial
According to information provided by the local author-
enterprises, although these may strongly influ-
ities, chlorinated pesticides have not been used in the
ence the state of the environment, and ecosystems
areas of the above settlements.
and human health. For example, monitoring of
anthropogenic sources such as harbours and ports
4.4.5.3. PTS mobilization from combustion of fossil fuels
only covers petroleum hydrocarbons and few
As for other project pilot study areas, estimates of PTS
other contaminants, and not important PTS that
emissions from the combustion of organic fuel are
can originate from shipping activities and associ-
based on statistical data on fuel consumption and pop-
ated wastes, and particularly from scrapping of
ulation distribution. About 30% of the population of
ships.
the CAO reside in or around the city of Anadyr and the
settlements of Kanchalan, Provideniya and Uelen. Due
4.4.6.2. Murmansk Oblast
to a lack of data on fossil fuel consumption in the these
Despite the fact that full, representative figures for
areas, it was assumed that consumption therefore
releases to the environment are missing for some enter-
amounts to about 30% of the total fuel consumption in
prises and that figures for some of the controlled vari-
the CAO as a whole.
ables have been obtained by calculation; based on the
available information, it is possible to note the follow-
Estimates of total PTS emissions from the combustion
ing:
of fossil fuel in the inventory area are presented in
·
The main persistent pollutants emitted to the
Table 4.32.
atmosphere of this area are copper and nickel, with
emissions amounting to about 1000 tonnes per year.
Compared to the emission of copper and nickel
from industrial enterprises, fuel combustion makes
a relatively small contribution to the total emissions
of heavy metals in this region.
·
Industrial enterprises located in the vicinity of the
area where the Saami population is most dense,
emit a significant proportion of the total industrial
air emissions in Murmansk Oblast. Within the proj-
Table 4.32. Estimated emissions of selected PTS from the combustion
ect study area, the most significant pollution source
of fossil fuels in Anadyr, Kanchalan, Provideniya, and Uelen, kg.
is the `Severonikel' combined smelter in
Monchegorsk. There are a number of other impor-
Due to the high consumption of local coal, lead emis-
tant pollution sources in the area, mainly with
sions to air as a result of coal combustion are far greater
respect to heavy metals.
than emissions from the use of leaded gasoline, even in
·
Emissions of benzo[a]pyrene from industrial enter-
the years when leaded gasoline was more widely used.
prises are approximately equal to those from the
burning of organic fuels.
4.4.6. Conclusions
·
According to official data, chlorinated pesticides
have not been used and are not currently used in
4.4.6.1. General conclusions
Murmansk Oblast.
·
An assessment of official statistics on the environ-
·
PCB-containing transformer fluids are used in only
mental release of pollutants, as well as data
13 transformers at `Apatit' JSC. However, taking
obtained by environmental protection authorities
account of the high concentration of defence-relat-
of the various administrative territories of the
ed activities in Murmansk Oblast, it may be
Russian Federation under the scope of the project,
assumed that a considerable proportion of PCB-
clearly indicates that existing environmental
containing paints, varnishes, and lubricants pro-
release control and reporting systems are not ade-
duced in the former USSR have been used there.
76

---

Chapter 4
4.4. Local pollution sources in the vicinities of indigenous communities
·
In general, there are a number of dioxin sources
·
Gas emissions during oil extraction are very high in
that might be relevant to the survey area. Some
the NAO, and methods of utilising the associated
enterprises, such as the nickel combined smelter
gas have not yet been developed or applied.
`Severonickel' are considered potential dioxin pol-
·
The port at Nar'yan-Mar, located in a narrow chan-
lution sources, but no information is available to
nel connected to the Great Pechora river, is a source
confirm this assumption.
of pollution. The port has no treatment facility or
·
Intentional mercury use in industrial production in
storage tanks for liquid wastes and, therefore, waste-
Murmansk Oblast has not been documented.
water is discharged directly into the river without
However, mercury-containing devices, in particular
treatment.
luminescent lamps, contribute to environmental
·
The system of solid waste collection does not allow
contamination. The enterprise `Ecord Ltd.'
for separation of hazardous wastes, including those
involved in handling of used luminescent lamps
containing mercury. Disposal of such wastes at land-
and located in the area has outdated equipment
fill sites results in environmental contamination by
and itself contributes to mercury contamination of
dangerous substances, which can include dioxins in
the environment.
the event of uncontrolled burning at the landfill
·
The `Severonickel' combined smelter is considered
site. Methods for handling of medical waste, rubber
to be a significant source of mercury contamination
waste products, and ash and slag waste from boiler-
in the area due to mercury mobilisation during
houses has not been developed in the NAO
nickel and copper production. Annual mercury
·
Automotive vehicles are the main source of lead
emissions from this enterprise are estimated to be
emissions in the NAO. The total amount of lead
about 0.2 tonnes. In addition, about 0.1 tonnes is
mobilized through fossil fuel combustion is rela-
accumulated annually in captured dust.
tively low. However, due to a significant increase in
·
Coal combustion is considered to be the major con-
the number of motor vehicles in the area in recent
tributor to lead emissions that result from fossil fuel
years, an increase in lead emissions has been
combustion. Total lead emissions from the combus-
observed, despite greater use of unleaded gasoline.
tion of fossil fuels in the Lovozero area have
·
Coal consumption in the NAO is relatively low, since
decreased in recent years, mainly due to a reduction
use of petroleum hydrocarbon-based fuels predom-
in emissions from motor vehicles.
inates in this region. However, use of firewood as a
·
Mercury contamination from local sources as a
fuel is relatively common, particularly for domestic
result of fossil fuel combustion is significantly less
heating. As the result, this fuel contributes, for
than that due to mercury mobilization from nickel
example, about three quarters of the total emissions
and copper production at `Severonickel' JSC
of benzo[a]pyrene, and 80% of total dioxin emis-
However, given that domestic coal burning con-
sions from the combustion of organic fuel.
tributes to contamination of the indoor environ-
ment, the role of the latter in human intake may be
4.4.6.4. The Taimyr Autonomous Okrug (TAO)
much greater.
·
The Norilsk Industrial Area, the largest producer of
·
Releases of PAHs from organic fuel combustion
copper and nickel in the Arctic and in the Russian
have gradually decreased, possibly, due to changes
Federation, is acknowledged as the largest single
in the types of fuel used. However, after 1998, PAH
source of environmental pollutants, not only in its
emissions stabilized, presumably due to the recov-
immediate locality, but in the circumpolar Arctic. It
ery of the economy after the 1997 crisis.
emits a wide range of contaminants, including a
·
Industrial enterprises appear to be the main source
number of heavy metals that fall within the scope of
of dioxin pollution from fossil fuel combustion in
the project.
the Lovozero area. The role of municipal services,
·
Automotive vehicles are an important source of
particularly local boilers used for non-centralized
some PTS emissions. The Norilsk area in winter is
heating, in dioxin emissions has significantly
characterized by numerous temperature inversions,
increased in recent years. Although still much less
and during these periods, pollution of the lower
than from industrial enterprises, the three-fold
atmosphere by vehicle exhaust fumes often exceeds
growth in emissions from municipal sources within
pollution from stationary combustion sources.
7 years should be a matter of concern.
·
About 10 million tonnes of toxic wastes containing
over 50 different major pollutants, and more than 1
4.4.6.3. The Nenets Autonomous Okrug (NAO)
million tonnes of slag are stockpiled in the Norilsk
·
Main local pollution sources in the NAO are associ-
area each year. Almost none of the waste-storage
ated with oil and gas production and shipping.
sites conforms fully to current legal and regulatory
·
In spite of the fact that official statistical data do not
requirements.
document significant PTS pollution sources in the
·
According to the results of the PCB inventory for
lower part of the Pechora basin, the assessment of
the Russian Federation, significant amounts of
PTS fluxes in the river flow indicate a possible input
PCB-containing fluids are used in electric equip-
of some PTSs between Oksino and Andeg, i.e. in the
ment within the various enterprises of the Norilsk
vicinity of Naryan-Mar. Pollution levels in the
Industrial Area. According to estimates, the trans-
Pechora delta tend to be elevated.
formers used in this area discharge 3.33 tonnes of
77

---

4.5. Household and occupational sources of exposure
Chapter 4
PCB annually, and over the whole operating period
of the transformers, more than 83 tonnes of PCB
4.5. Household and occupational
will have been released to the environment. In addi-
sources of exposure
tion, an unknown amount of PCB may enter the
The knowledge accumulated over the last decade
environment as a result of releases from PCB-con-
about effects of persistent organic pollutants on health
taining paints and varnishes, and compounds used
indigenous people of the North has caused much pub-
in building construction, etc.
lic concern about their traditional food considered to
·
In 2001, the production of non-ferrous metals in
be the major pathway of human exposures to highly
the Norilsk area was accompanied by the mobi-
toxic chlorinated organic compounds and metals. In
lization of 1.7­2.02 tonnes of mercury, which was
the meantime other exposure sources and pathways of
emitted to the atmosphere. In addition, 0.65-0.99
PTS were generally ignored.
tons of mercury were accumulated in captured
dust.
To clarify potential indoor (household) and occupa-
·
Dudinka port operates practically all year round. In
tional sources and pathways of exposure, a targeted
spite of the fact that it is equipped with an adequate
survey including human blood sampling among select-
transport infrastructure and oil storage depots,
ed families and domestic and workplace matters were
large-scale loading activities, and washout of bulk
carried out. The targeted survey was designed as a case
copper-nickel concentrates causes contamination
study involving 28 families from 3 selected native set-
of the Yenisey river with a range of hazardous sub-
tlements. The selection of families was based on those
stances, in particular heavy metals.
measurements of cord blood concentrations of total
·
About 1 million m3 of waste waters are discharged
PCBs derived from the basic survey of the project.
annually into the Khatanga river from the collector
at the Khatanga settlement. There are no data avail-
The work programme included re-interviewing and
able regarding the chemical composition of the
blood re-sampling of those women shown higher cord
wastewater discharged. The total volume of untreat-
blood concentrations of total PCBs (over 500 ng/g
ed wastewater discharged in the Khatanga area
lipids) at time of birth as well as interviewing and blood
amounts to 6­8 million m3 annually.
sampling of adult family members living together with
·
The TAO, and the Norilsk Industrial Area in partic-
target women. The referent group has been represent-
ular, is characterized by high coal consumption lev-
ed by families of those women found to have lower
els. Coal burning therefore plays a predominant
cord blood concentrations of total PCBs (below 500
role in PTS emissions associated with fossil fuel
ng/g lipids) living either in the same native communi-
combustion, for example, mobilization of lead. It
ty or in the closest vicinity of it. It has been proven that
should be noted that the amount of lead mobilized
the sufficient number (at least 4) of families of
annually from the combustion of coal in the TAO is
"exposed" and "less exposed" newborns were available
greater than the amount emitted by the Norilsk
by the planning period only in:
combined smelter during the production of non-
­ the settlement of Lorino, Chukotka coastal study
ferrous metals.
area;
·
Mercury mobilized from coal combustion at heat
­ the district of Khatanga, Taimyr Peninsula;
and power plants contributes up to 10% of atmos-
­ and the settlement of Nelmin Nos, Pechora River
pheric emissions, the remainder being due to mer-
Basin;
cury mobilization from ores used in the production
of non-ferrous metals.
The invitation and interviewing procedures and blood
·
Dioxin emissions from the combustion of petrole-
sampling protocol were identical to the those applied for
um hydrocarbon-based fuels in the entire TAO,
the general indigenous population in the 2001 survey but
including the Norilsk Industrial Area, are compa-
supplemented with the extended questionnaire focused
rable to dioxin emissions from coal combustion in
on occupational and household sources of exposure to
the TAO when the Norilsk Industrial Area is
PTS since the treatment of animals against mosquito
excluded.
bites, protection of houses against rodents, bed-bugs and
cockroaches are widely occurred in the northern commu-
4.4.6.5. The Chukchi Autonomous Okrug (CAO)
nities The work programme thereof involved visiting the
·
Main local pollution sources in the CAO are related
houses of selected families as well as work places and,
to the development of mineral resources including
where possible, sampling wash-outs and scrapes in home
gold, tin, tungsten, mercury, and coal and lignite.
and occupational settings for further analyses for con-
Main pollution areas occur around the city of
taminants. Activities potentially associated with the
Anadyr (affecting 185 km2) and the settlement of
human exposure to PTS are summarized in Table 4.33.
Nagorny (affecting 60 km2).
·
Coal dominates organic fuel consumption within
The impression on to what extent the indigenous pop-
the CAO, and, correspondingly, coal burning is
ulation is at higher risk of exposure to PTS through the
responsible for emissions of a number of PTS.
sources other than local foods can be illustrated by fol-
·
Sea ports in Anadyr, Lavrentiya and Provedeniya are
lowing information obtained from the questionnaire
considered to be local pollution sources.
study :
78

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Chapter 4
4.5. Household and occupational sources of exposure
Table 4.33.
Activities associated with risk
of PTS exposure (according
to questionnaire).
·
Casting of shot (plummet) and other hunting and
HCB, DDT in considerable concentrations (Table
fishing appliances can hardly be accounted as a
4.34). The chemical named "Medifox super" produced
source of significant lead exposure in surveyed pop-
by "Fox Company" (Russia) is the exception.
ulations. Only 7% indigenous people and below
According to its certificate the main constituent is the
than 1% of pregnant indigenous women have
permitrin concentrate and "is used for pediculosis
reported activities potentially associated with con-
treatment and for disinfections of rooms against
tacting lead.
pediculosis and sarcoptoid ticks". "Medifox" has been
Smoking is likely to remain one of the most signifi-
found to be used widely in Chukotka kindergartens,
cant source of cadmium intake in indigenous peo-
schools, health institutions, residential buildings for
ple, since 54% of adults of general population and
scabies treatment since early 1990's.
35% pregnant women have reported tobacco smok-
ing habits.
"Mashen'ka" crayon imported from China and widely
·
Household use of toxicants is reported by 34-41% of
used in the North of Russia for cockroach combating
respondents. However, despite the fact that over
does not appear to contain the POPs in question.
30% of surveyed population grow vegetables in gar-
However composition of this crayon as well as of other
den plots or greenhouses, only few reported on the
protectors may differ significantly from those used 10-
use of insecticides to protect cultivated plants.
20 years ago. Information about the insecticide com-
·
70% respondents of general population and 58 %
position used in the past, is not available.
of pregnant women reported the frequent consum-
ing alcohol. The significant number of respondents
The wash-outs were taken indoor (mainly from kitchen
reported to consume homemade alcoholic drinks.
walls) whereas the scrapes were taken from surfaces of
A specific source of PTS contamination is that the
the kitchen furniture and appliances. Results of their
indigenous people frequently use, for economical
POPs measurements are summarized in the Table 4.35.
reasons, the wasted (second-hand) technical barrels
Judging by these results the indoor environment of
and plastic containers to produce and store liquids
indigenous residencies is likely to be one of the most
including homemade alcohols.
common source of exposure to POPs.
Chemical analysis of some insecticides sampled as
The highest levels of DDT, PCB and HCH were found in
result of targeted survey shows that the most common
the native communities of Chukotka. DDE/DDT ratios
household toxicants available in the market in Nenets,
in wash-outs and scrapes amount to 10-70 % allow to sug-
Taimyr and Chukchi AOs do not contain PCB, HCH,
gest relatively recent contamination of the residencies by
Table 4.34.
POPs concentrations in
insecticides and in skin
tanning fluids collected
in Nenetz, Taimyr, and
Chukotka regions in 2003,
ng/g
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4.5. Household and occupational sources of exposure
Chapter 4
deer skin by various insecticides to protect the animals
against mosquito bites. Blood-sucking insects, especial-
ly gadflies, can penetrate into animal's subcutaneous
tissues as well as through naso-pharynx, impose a seri-
ous problem for animal health, and during the long-
range running, the efficiency of insect combating may
be a determinant of the deer herd livestock. The cur-
rent variety of chemicals against mosquitoes and gad-
flies combating are different to those used in the past.
Nowadays the most common are the synthetic
Table 4.35. POPs concentrations in wash outs and scrapes collected inside the
piretroids which do not contain organo-chlorines, and
dwellings (geometric means)
they are not persistent and not capable of accumulating
in the body at detectable levels. In the early 1970's
DDT ­ containing chemicals. The intensive past use of
organophosphines (chlorophos) with ammonium car-
household insecticides seems to be the major contribu-
bonate or with sodium hydroxide, hexamide with spin-
tor to the persistent pesticide contamination of indoor
dle oil and emulsifier, DDVP (dimethyldichlorvinyl-
environment. However, lack of awareness shown by
phosphate), etacide, trichlorometaphos-3, sulphur
interviewed indigenous people does not permit to spec-
dioxide, smoke hexachlorane shells, cryoline-hexachlo-
ify the exact insecticide(s) which had been applied
rane liniment and other hexachlorane compounds
indoor. The chemical composition of retailed insecti-
were widely used in reindeer collective farms. Among
cides is generally unknown since these products had
the above-mentioned chemicals only "hexachlorane"
been supplied to the market mostly unlabelled.
has been found to contain HCH at significant levels.
Other currently used insecticides are generally free of
The potential occupational exposure to POPs was most
POPs containing an array of organo-chlorine com-
frequently reported as in form of the treatment of rein-
pounds, and are readily degradable in the nature.
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