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183
Chapter 6
Persistent Organic Pollutants
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Contents
6.6. Regional and circumpolar levels and trends
in abiotic and biotic media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
6.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
6.6.1. Air and precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
6.1.1. Physical and chemical characteristics of persistent organic
6.6.1.1. Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
pollutants (POPs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
6.6.1.2. Precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
6.1.1.1. Industrial products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
6.6.1.3. Summary and conclusions ญ air and precipitation 222
6.1.1.1.1. Chlorinated industrial chemicals and by-
6.6.2. Terrestrial environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
products. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
6.6.2.1. Soils and plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Hexachlorobenzene (HCB) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
6.6.2.2. Terrestrial herbivores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) . . . . . . . . . . 187
6.6.2.2.1. Caribou and reindeer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Polychlorinated-dibenzo-p-dioxins and furans
6.6.2.2.2. Waterfowl and other terrestrial birds . . . . 227
(PCDD/Fs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
6.6.2.3. Birds of prey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
6.1.1.1.2. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) . . 188
6.6.2.3.1. North American peregrine falcon . . . . . . . 228
6.1.1.2. Chlorinated pesticides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
6.6.2.3.2. Eurasian peregrine falcon . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
6.1.1.2.1. Persistent pesticides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
6.6.2.3.3. White-tailed sea eagle in Norway and Sweden 229
Polychlorobornanes and camphenes (Toxaphene) 188
6.6.2.3.4. Gyrfalcon in Iceland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Chlordanes (CHL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
6.6.2.3.5. Fennoscandian merlin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCH) . . . . . . . . . . . 188
6.6.2.4. Other carnivores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Mirex. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
6.6.2.4.1. Mustelids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Dieldrin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
6.6.2.4.2. Red fox and wolf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) . . . . . 189
6.6.2.5. An example of food chain transfer.
6.1.1.2.2. Less persistent chlorinated pesticides . . . . 189
The lichen caribou wolf food chain (Canada) 231
6.1.1.3. Other pesticides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
6.6.2.6. Summary and conclusions ญ terrestrial environment 232
6.1.1.3.1. Tributyltin (TBT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
6.6.3. Freshwater environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
6.2. Sources of persistent organic pollutants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
6.6.3.1. Levels in water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
6.2.1. Pathways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
6.6.3.1.1. Organochlorines in river water. . . . . . . . . 233
6.2.1.1. Particle/gas partitioning and atmospheric
6.6.3.1.2. Organochlorines in lake water . . . . . . . . . 234
deposition processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
6.6.3.2. Freshwater surface sediments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
6.2.2. Global sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
6.6.3.2.1. Spatial trends of organochlorines . . . . . . . 236
6.2.2.1. HCH case study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
6.6.3.2.1.1. Latitudinal trends of PCB fluxes
6.2.3. Sources in circumpolar countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
in lake sediments . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
6.2.4. Local/regional sources within the Arctic . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
6.6.3.2.1.2. Concentrations and patterns of
6.2.4.1. PCBs at military sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
PCDD/F congeners in lake and
6.2.4.2. Other PCB sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
river sediments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
6.2.4.3. Specific PCDD/F sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
6.6.3.2.1.3. PCDD/Fs in the Severnaya-Dvina
6.2.4.3.1. PCDD/F contamination from smelters . . . 195
River near Arkhangelsk, Russia . . 238
6.2.4.3.2. PCDD/F contamination from chlorine-
6.6.3.2.2. Modeling OCs in Arctic lakes. . . . . . . . . . 238
bleached kraft pulp and paper mills . . . . . 196
6.6.3.3. Freshwater fish and invertebrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
6.2.4.4. Pesticides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
6.6.3.3.1. Circumpolar trends in Salvelinus species,
6.3. Characteristics of Arctic ecosystems related to
Arctic char and lake trout. . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
POP accumulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
6.6.3.3.2. Burbot (Lota lota) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
6.3.1. The relationship between food webs and POP accumulation 197
6.6.3.3.3. Lake whitefish (Coregonus clupeaformis) . 241
6.3.1.1. Role of lipids in Arctic food webs . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
6.6.3.3.4. Invertebrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
6.3.1.2. Terrestrial food webs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
6.6.3.4. Examples of food web transfer ญ freshwater envi-
6.3.1.3. Freshwater food webs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
ronment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
6.3.1.4. Marine food webs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
6.6.3.4.1. Biomagnification in Lake Laberge, Canada 242
6.6.3.4.2. Great Slave Lake and Slave River studies,
6.4. Bioaccumulation and biomagnification in terrestrial,
Canada. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
freshwater, and marine environments ญ
6.6.3.5. Summary and conclusions ญ freshwater environment 244
definitions and general principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
6.6.3.5.1. Abiotic environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
6.4.1. Terrestrial ecosystem bioaccumulation/biomagnification . 201
6.6.3.5.2. Biota . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
6.4.2. Freshwater ecosystem bioaccumulation/biomagnification 201
6.6.4. Marine environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
6.4.3. Marine ecosystem bioaccumulation/biomagnification . . . 201
6.6.4.1. Seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
6.5. Toxicology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
6.6.4.1.1. Sea ice, suspended particulates, surface
6.5.1. Toxicokinetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
microlayers and fog waters. . . . . . . . . . . . 250
6.5.2. Types of effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
6.6.4.2. Marine sediments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
6.5.2.1. Reproduction and development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
6.6.4.2.1. PCBs and organochlorine pesticides . . . . . 250
6.5.2.2. Cytochrome P450 system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
6.6.4.2.2. PCDD/Fs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
6.5.2.3. Porphyria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
6.6.4.2.3. Tributyltin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
6.5.2.4. Immune system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
6.6.4.3. Mass balance modeling of organochlorines in the
6.5.2.5. Adrenal effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Arctic Ocean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
6.5.2.6. Thyroid and retinol effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
6.6.4.3.1. Hexachlorocyclohexane mass balance in the
6.5.2.7. Mutagenic and carcinogenic effects . . . . . . . . . . . 206
Arctic Ocean and regional seas. . . . . . . . . 254
6.5.2.8. Effects of mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
6.6.4.3.1.1. Budgets for water and dissolved
6.5.3. Effects of specific POPs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
HCHs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
6.5.3.1. Halogenated industrial chemicals and by-products 207
6.6.4.3.1.2. The atmospheric HCH budget . . . 256
6.5.3.1.1. PCDDs, PCDFs, and PCBs . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
6.6.4.3.1.3. Overall HCH budget for the Arctic
6.5.3.1.2. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) . 210
Ocean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
6.5.3.2. Persistent organic pesticides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
6.6.4.3.2. Toxaphene mass balance in the Arctic Ocean
6.5.3.2.1. Aldrin and dieldrin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
and regional seas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
6.5.3.2.2. Chlordane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
6.6.4.3.3. PCB mass balance in the Arctic Ocean and
6.5.3.2.3. DDT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
regional seas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
6.5.3.2.4. Hexachlorobenzene (HCB) . . . . . . . . . . . 213
6.6.4.4. Marine invertebrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
6.5.3.2.5. -, -, and -hexachlorocyclohexanes
6.6.4.4.1. Tributyltin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
(HCHs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
6.6.4.5. Marine and anadromous fish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
6.5.3.2.6. Mirex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
6.6.4.5.1. OC levels in anadromous fish . . . . . . . . . . 259
6.5.3.2.7. Toxaphene (campheclor, polychlorinated
6.6.4.5.2. OC levels in marine fish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
camphenes, polychlorinated bornanes) . . 214
6.6.4.5.3. PCDD/Fs and planar PCBs in fish and
6.5.3.3. Less persistent organochlorine pesticides . . . . . . . 215
invertebrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
6.5.3.3.1. Endosulfan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
6.6.4.6. Seabirds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
6.5.3.4. Other pesticides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
6.6.4.7. Pinnipeds and cetaceans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
6.5.3.4.1. Tributyltin (TBT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
6.6.4.7.1. Pinnipeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265

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AMAP Assessment Report
6.6.4.7.2. Cetaceans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
6.6.4.7.3. Persistent OCs in other marine mammal
6.1. Introduction
tissues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
6.6.4.7.4. Effects of age and sex on organochlorine
Interest in the presence of persistent organic pollutants (POPs)
levels in marine mammals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
in Arctic aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems arises mainly from
6.6.4.7.5. Spatial trends in non-ortho PCBs and
PCDD/Fs in marine mammals . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
concerns that northern and indigenous peoples depending
6.6.4.8. Polar bear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
upon traditional food for most of their diet may be adverse-
6.6.4.9. Arctic fox (Svalbard) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
ly affected by chronic exposure to these pollutants (Dewailly
6.6.4.10. Specific examples of food web transfer ญ
marine environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
et al. 1989, Kinloch et al. 1992, chapter 12). This chapter
6.6.4.11. Summary and conclusions ญ marine environment 275
deals mainly with persistent organochlorine (OC) pollutants
6.6.4.11.1. Abiotic environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
6.6.4.11.2. Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
as well as organotins. Methylmercury is dealt with in chap-
6.6.4.11.3. Biota . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
ter 7 and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), another
6.7. Temporal variation in POP levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
important group of POPs, are discussed in chapter 10. The
6.7.1. Air and precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
6.7.1.1. Temporal trends of OCs in air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
persistent organochlorine contaminants are of special con-
6.7.1 2. Long-term trends in OCs in precipitation ญ
cern because 1) they biomagnify and persist in the environ-
the Agassiz Ice Cap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
ment for long periods of time, 2) indigenous people in the
6.7.2. Terrestrial environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
6.7.2.1. Temporal trends of PCBs in moss across Norway 280
Arctic depend on a high fat diet which is a source of these
6.7.2.2. Temporal trends of OCs in reindeer in Sweden . . 281
contaminants, and 3) most northern residents have not used
6.7.2.3. Temporal trends of OCs in birds of prey . . . . . . . 281
6.7.2.3.1. The North American peregrine falcon . . . 281
or directly benefited from the activities associated with the
6.7.2.3.2. Eurasian birds of prey. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
production and use of these chemicals. There are also con-
6.7.2.3.3. Gyrfalcon in Iceland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
cerns that the health of top predators such as small-toothed
6.7.2.4. Temporal trends of OCs in mustelids in Sweden . 281
6.7.3. Freshwater environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
whales, seals, predatory birds, and polar bears may be af-
6.7.3.1. Lake sediments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
fected because of chronic exposure to organochlorines and
6.7.3.1.1. Historical profiles of PCBs in lake
sediments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
other persistent organic pollutants in their diet.
6.7.3.1.2. Historical profiles and fluxes of
Information on the presence of persistent organochlorines
PCDD/Fs in lake sediments . . . . . . . . . . . 283
6.7.3.2. Temporal trends of OCs in fish in northern
in Arctic ecosystems is not new. Their presence in Arctic eco-
Scandinavia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
systems was well known among scientists interested in the
6.7.3.3. Temporal trends of OCs in freshwater fish in the
global distribution of these chemicals, but information on
North American Arctic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
6.7.4. Marine environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
spatial trends in these contaminants was very limited. Most
6.7.4.1. Sediments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
studies regarded the Arctic as a relatively pristine site for
6.7.4.2. Temporal trends of OCs in seabirds . . . . . . . . . . . 286
6.7.4.3. Temporal trends of OCs in pinnipeds and cetaceans 287
comparison with more contaminated southern locations.
6.7.4.3.1. Pinnipeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
The first report of chlorinated organic chemical contamina-
6.7.4.3.2. Cetaceans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
tion of marine mammals in the Arctic was by Holden (1970)
6.7.4.4. Temporal trends of OCs in polar bear . . . . . . . . . 288
6.7.4.5. Temporal trends of OCs in Arctic fox (Svalbard) 288
who detected the pesticides dieldrin and DDT as well as PCBs
6.7.5. Summary and conclusions ญ temporal trends . . . . . . . . . . 288
in blubber of ringed seals (Phoca hispida) from the Canadian
6.8. Biological effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
and Norwegian Arctic. More detailed reports on DDT-re-
6.8.1. Terrestrial environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
6.8.1.1. Caribou and reindeer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
lated compounds and PCBs in ringed seal and beluga (Delphi-
6.8.1.2. Waterfowl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
napterus leucas) from Canada and Greenland were published
6.8.1.3. Birds of prey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
6.8.1.3.1. Peregrine falcon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
in the early 1970s (Addison and Brodie 1973, Addison and
6.8.1.3.2. Merlin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Smith 1974, Clausen et al. 1974). Bowes and Jonkel (1975)
6.8.1.3.3. White-tailed sea eagle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
were the first to report OCs in polar bears (Ursus maritimus).
6.8.1.3.4. Gyrfalcon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
6.8.1.4. Wolf and red fox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
OC contaminants were also determined in freshwater and
6.8.1.5. Mustelids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
anadromous fish in the early 1970s (Reinke et al. 1972, Bowes
6.8.1.5.1. Mink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
6.8.1.5.2. Otter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
and Jonkel 1975).
6.8.2. Freshwater environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
The biological effects of the organochlorines in Arctic eco-
6.8.2.1. Fish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
systems were not investigated in earlier work with the excep-
6.8.3. Marine environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
6.8.3.1. Invertebrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
tion of effects on birds of prey. The decline of populations of
6.8.3.2. Fish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
birds of prey in Arctic and temperate areas of the northern
6.8.3.3. Seabirds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
6.8.3.4. Cetaceans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
hemisphere since the introduction of OC pesticides has been
6.8.3.4.1. Beluga . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
well documented (Ratcliffe 1967, Peakall 1976a, Newton
6.8.3.4.2. Narwhal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
6.8.3.4.3. Minke whale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
1979, Peakall et al. 1990). The human health aspects of conta-
6.8.3.4.4. Harbour porpoise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
mination in the Arctic were brought to the world's attention
6.8.3.5. Pinnipeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
in the late 1980s when it was discovered that mother's milk
6.8.3.5.1. Seals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
6.8.3.5.2. Walrus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
from northern Quebec contained unacceptably high levels of
6.8.3.6. Polar bear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
PCBs (Dewailly et al. 1989) (chapter 12). The results of stud-
6.8.3.7. Arctic fox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
6.8.4. Summary and conclusions ญ biological effects . . . . . . . . 304
ies on these contaminants in the human diet (Kinloch et al.
6.8.4.1. Observed effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
1992), and in mother's milk, demonstrated the transfer of bio-
6.8.4.2. Assessment of current levels in biota . . . . . . . . . . 304
accumulating contaminants to humans and created a demand
6.9. Conclusions and recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
6.9.1. Levels and effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
for more information on contaminants in `traditional foods'.
6.9.1.1. Air and precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Several developments in the late 1980s helped to accele-
6.9.1.2. Seawater and freshwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
rate the assessment of contaminants in Arctic food webs.
6.9.1.3. Sediments and suspended solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
6.9.1.4. Biota . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Improvements in analytical chemistry techniques in the 1980s
6.9.2. Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
permitted a more comprehensive search for individual or-
6.9.3. Budget modeling results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
6.9.4. Spatial trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
ganochlorine and hydrocarbon contaminants. Development
6.9.5. Temporal trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
of biochemical effects tests, such as cytochrome P450 mixed
6.9.6. General monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
function oxidase (MFO) enzyme activity, DNA oxidative
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
damage, and immunosuppression, also provided tools for
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Annex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
assessing biological effects of the contaminants in wildlife.

Chapter 6 ท Persistent Organic Pollutants
185
Also discussed briefly in this chapter are other pesticide-
in Annex Tables 6ทA1 and 6ทA2. The properties of organic chem-
related compounds that have been shown to be present in
icals that are critical to understanding their movement through
the Arctic, especially air and seawater. Less-persistent pesti-
the abiotic and biotic environment include water solubility,
cides including atrazine, endosulfan, chlorpyrifos, chloro-
vapor pressure (VP), Henry's Law constant (H), partition
thalonil, tetra- and pentachlorophenol (as the anisole), tri-
coefficients including octanol/air {Koa}, octanol/water {Kow},
fluralin, and methoxychlor have been detected in Arctic air,
and sediment or soil (organic carbon)/water sorption {Koc}.
fog, and seawater, and in some cases in plants and aquatic
The subcooled liquid vapor pressure (VPL; see section 6.2.1.1),
biota. These chemicals are still registered for use as pesti-
together with the surface area of atmospheric aerosols, de-
cides in most circumpolar countries and elsewhere in the
termines particle/gas partitioning. H is defined as the ratio of
world. The organotins, particularly tributyltin (TBT), a
the VP of a substance to its solubility in water and describes
broad-spectrum algicide, miticide, fungicide, and insecti-
the equilibrium airญwater partitioning. Kow is used to describe
cide, are a concern in the marine environment in general,
the equilibrium distribution of organic contaminants between
and have been found in Arctic waters. Another group of
lipid phases and water and is widely applied as a correlation
POPs, the brominated aromatic compounds, which are
parameter for bioaccumulation. The relationship of these
used primarily as fire retardants, have been detected in Arc-
properties to accumulation and metabolism is discussed in
tic biota and may be of concern in the future.
section 6.4. Koa describes the distribution of organic conta-
minants between air and lipid-like phases such as plant waxes
6.1.1. Physical and chemical characteristics of
(Harner and Mackay 1995) and organic films on aerosols.
persistent organic pollutants (POPs)
For additional information on physical properties and path-
ways, readers should consult reference texts of Howard (1991)
The POPs dealt with in this chapter belong to several
and Mackay et al. (1992b, 1992c).
groups depending on their use or origin. Except for the or-
The importance of physical and chemical characteristics
ganotins, they are all halogenated, the majority with chlo-
in the movement of OCs in the Arctic food web is demon-
rine. Although they have diverse chemical structures, the
strated in Figure 6ท1, taken from Norstrom and Muir (1994).
common characteristics for most of them are low water
solubilities, high lipophilicity (accumulation in fat), and
%
HCHs
100
resistance to biodegradation (recalcitrance). These com-
80
60
bined characteristics lead to uptake and accumulation in
40
the fatty tissues of living organisms. Those that are or have
20
0
been used as pesticides are designed to be toxic, particu-
larly to invertebrates or fungi, but may also be toxic to fish,
%
HCB
birds, and mammals. These include DDT, hexachlorocyclo-
25
20
hexanes (HCH), chlordanes, aldrin, dieldrin, mirex, toxa-
15
phene, endosulfan, and hexachlorobenzene (HCB).
10
5
Commercial PCB (polychlorinated biphenyl), chloroben-
0
zenes, and PBDE (polybrominated diphenyl ether) mixtures
are technical products with widespread uses. Although open
%
Toxaphene
50
use of PCBs was banned in many countries during the 1970s,
40
they are still used in some closed systems (e.g., until recent-
30
20
ly in fluorescent light ballasts) and are present in the envi-
10
ronment as a result of past disposal practices. PCDD/Fs
0
(polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans) are
%
Chlordanes
by-products formed in the production of chlorinated sub-
30
stances, in high temperature thermal reactions such as in-
25
20
cineration, metallurgical processes, and in direct chlorina-
15
tion reactions such as chlorine bleaching of wood pulp.
10
5
All of the POPs mentioned have been detected in Arctic
0
abiotic or biotic samples and most of them are on lists of
priority pollutants established by circumpolar and other
%
PCBs
governments for regulation of environmental contaminants.
80
60
Many of these contaminants are associated with biological
40
effects observed in more polluted environments such as the
20
0
Baltic Sea, the North Sea, and the Great Lakes. They have
been selected for the AMAP assessment because they would
%
DDTs
be expected to have effects on Arctic biota if exposures were
25
similar to those in areas farther south.
20
15
The toxicological characteristics of POPs are discussed
10
in more detail in section 6.5. In general terms, studies with
5
0
laboratory animals and an increasing number of environ-
Air
mentally exposed organisms, have shown that exposure to
Snow
Beluga
Polar bear
organochlorine pollutants leads to immunosuppression, re-
ZooplanktonAmphipodsArctic cod
Ringed seal
Seawater (10 m)
duced reproduction rates, and induction of liver detoxifica-
Seawater (225 m)
Figure 6ท1. Distribution of organochlorine contaminants (OCs) in Arctic
tion enzymes, for example, cytochrome P450 mixed func-
air, snow, seawater, and the marine mammals food chain (Norstrom and
tion oxidases. Some organochlorines act as promoters, in-
Muir 1994). Data for the six major classes of OCs are plotted for each
creasing the tumorigenic response to a carcinogen.
compartment or species as the percent of OCs in that compartment or
species to demonstrate the changing importance of residue classes in the
Selected chemical and physical properties, and chemical
process of transfer between compartments and bioaccumulation in the
structures of most POPs considered in this chapter are given
marine mammals food chain.

186
AMAP Assessment Report
Table 6ท1. Current legal status within the eight circumpolar countries of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) covered in this chapter.
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
USA (Alaska)
Canada
Russia
Iceland
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Aldrin
Banned 1987
Voluntarily
n.i. a
Never registered as a pesticide.
withdrawn 1990
Banned 1996
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Dieldrin
Banned 1971
Restricted 1987
n.i.
Never registered as a pesticide
Banned 1996
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Chlordanes
Restricted use 1988
Registration
Use prohibited
Banned 1996
discontinued 1990
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
DDT
Banned 1972. Products
Voluntarily
Banned 1970;
Never registered as a pesticide.
with more than 0.1%
withdrawn 1985
unofficial use may continue
Banned 1996
banned 1986 (Dicofol)
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
HCB
Registration cancelled
Registration not
n.i.
Never registered as a pesticide.
1984
renewed 1976
Banned 1996
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
-HCH
Mixed isomers
Mixed isomers
Technical product
Never registered as a pesticide
cancelled 1977
discontinued 1976
probably still in use
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
-HCH
See -HCH
See -HCH
n.i.
See -HCH
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
-HCH (lindane)
Cancelled for
Restricted use
Still in use
Restricted use
most uses 1983
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Mirex
Use cancelled 1988
Never registered as
n.i.
Never registered as a pesticide
a pesticide
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Toxaphene
Banned 1982, use
Withdrawn 1982
Severely
Never registered as a pesticide.
ceased 1986
restricted 1992
Banned 1996
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Endosulfan
Still in use
Restricted use for
n.i.
Restricted use in greenhouses
commercial pest
control
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
TBT
Restricted use 1988
Restricted use ญ
n.i.
Banned on vessels <25 m,
aluminum hulled
docks and fishing gear
boats in salt water
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
PCBs
New use cancelled 1970;
Severely restricted
Limited use and
>0.2% banned 1988;
closed use still allowed
1985; open and
manufacturing continues
>0.005% banned 1996
new uses banned,
closed use allowed
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
a. n.i. = no information.
This shows the relative burden of six major OCs in air, snow,
is given in Figure 6ท12 (section 6.6.2.5), which shows levels
seawater, and the marine mammal food chain. In air, the
of different PCB congeners in the lichen caribou wolf
principal medium of transport, the most volatile OCs, HCB
food chain.
and HCHs, predominate. The OCs which are most signifi-
cant toxicologically, PCBs and DDT, are barely detectable.
6.1.1.1. Industrial products
The HCHs take an even more dominant role in snow and
6.1.1.1.1. Chlorinated industrial chemicals and by-products
seawater. Toxaphene (polychlorinated bornanes) behaves in
a similar fashion to HCHs in the abiotic environment, while
Persistent organochlorine contaminants, such as HCB and
HCB decreases in importance. The reason for the changed
PCDD/F, are often produced as unwanted by-products of
distribution has to do with relative volatility and water sol-
chemical processes. Others, such as PCBs and brominated
ubility. The Henry's Law constant of HCHs and toxaphene
diphenyl ethers, have been manufactured and used in large
are similar, and over 100 times lower than that for HCB.
quantities because of their stability and flame-retardant
Thus, HCB partitions into water far less readily than HCHs
properties.
and toxaphene. PCBs, chlordane, and DDT-related com-
pounds have H values intermediate to HCHs and HCB. In-
Hexachlorobenzene (HCB)
corporation into particulates and invertebrates at the bot-
HCB is produced as a by-product in the production of a
tom of the food chain can be predicted from Kow. HCH has
large number of chlorinated compounds, particularly lower
a Kow of about 104, while Kow's of HCB, chlordanes, and
chlorinated benzenes, and in the production of several pesti-
PCBs are in the range of 105-108. In the higher trophic lev-
cides. It had limited use in the 1960s as a fungicide. HCB is
els of the food web, OCs with higher Kow's generally pre-
emitted to the atmosphere in flue gases generated by waste in-
dominate, however, the extent of metabolism of individual
cineration facilities and metallurgical industries. HCB has an
components becomes important in determining actual levels
estimated `field half-life' of 2.7-5.7 years (Howard 1991).
of biomagnification. Thus, DDT does not biomagnify from
HCB has a relatively high bioaccumulation potential be-
seals to polar bears because of the capability of the bears to
cause of high lipophilicity (log Kow = 5.5) and long half-life
metabolize p,p'-DDE, a persistent OC in seals and whales.
in biota (Niimi 1987). Other chlorobenzenes, tetra- and
Similarly, different PCB congeners are dominant at dif-
penta-substituted, are also relatively lipophilic, semi-volatile,
ferent levels of the food web, their concentrations depend-
and persistent, especially in the abiotic environment
ing on physical characteristics and metabolism. An example
(Mackay et al. 1992b, 1992c).

Chapter 6 ท Persistent Organic Pollutants
187
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Denmark
Norway
Sweden
Finland
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Aldrin
Prohibited for
Not marketed
Banned 1970
Banned 1972
plant protection use
since 1970
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Dieldrin
Prohibited for plant
Not marketed
Banned 1970
Banned 1969
protection use
since 1970
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Chlordanes
Prohibited for
Not marketed
Banned 1971
Banned 1969
plant protection use
since 1967
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
DDT
Prohibited for
Restricted 1969.
Banned 1975.
Banned 1976
plant protection use
Banned 1988
Dicofol banned 1991
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
HCB
Banned
Withdrawn 1987
Withdrawn 1980
Ceased use on
voluntary basis 1977
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
-HCH
Mixed isomers prohibited
n.i.
See -HCH
Mixed isomers cancelled 1977
for plant protection use
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
-HCH
See -HCH
n.i.
See -HCH
Mixed isomers cancelled 1977
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
-HCH (lindane)
n.i.
Banned 1991
Banned 1989
Banned 1987
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Mirex
n.i.
Never used
Never used
Never used
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Toxaphene
Banned 1987
Never used
Slight use in 1950s;
Banned 1969
never used since
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Endosulfan
n.i.
Still in use
Withdrawn 1995
Still in use
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
TBT
n.i.
Restricted use ญ
Use banned in freshwater,
Banned on vessels <25 m
aluminum-hulled
the Baltic Sea and on ocean-
boats >25 m.
going vessels <25 m
All other use banned
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
PCBs
Prohibited
New use banned 1980.
Open use banned 1972;
Import and use banned 1990;
All use banned 1995
new use banned 1978;
all machines with PCB
closed use banned 1995
banned 1995
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
ortho substituted congeners, for example, CBs 118 and 105)
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
are the most biologically active (Ahlborg et al. 1992, 1994).
PCBs were introduced in 1929 by the Monsanto Chemical
The lack of chlorine substituents in the 2 and 6 (or ortho) po-
Corporation and were manufactured in the USA, Japan, the
sitions permits nPCBs to assume a planar configuration simi-
former Soviet Union, and eastern and western Europe under
lar to that of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzo-
various trade names (e.g., Aroclor, Clophen, Phenoclor).
furans. The nPCBs and mono-ortho CBs (CBs 105 and 118)
They are chemically stable and heat resistant, and were used
are collectively referred to as `planar' PCBs in this chapter.
worldwide as transformer and capacitor oils, hydraulic and
Most PCB congeners, particularly those lacking adjacent
heat exchange fluids, and lubricating and cutting oils (Ver-
unsubstituted positions on the biphenyl rings (e.g., 2,4,5-,
schueren 1983). Information about the legal status of their
2,3,5- or 2,3,6-substituted on both rings) are extremely per-
use and production is given in Table 6ท1. Open use is cur-
sistent in the environment. They are estimated to have half-
rently banned in all circumpolar countries, but there are
lives ranging from three weeks to two years in air and, with
still large amounts in permitted use in large capacitors and
the exception of mono- and di-chlorobiphenyls, are essen-
transformers. Current uses and disposal practices in the de-
tially non-biodegradable in aerobic soils or sediments (Mac-
veloping world are not well documented.
kay et al. 1992a). Highly chlorinated PCBs have been shown
There are 209 chlorinated biphenyl congeners, with dif-
to be dechlorinated in anaerobic sediments, but only where
ferent chlorine substitutions on the biphenyl ring (Mackay
present at relatively high concentrations (>10 g/g dw)
et al. 1992c). The number of chlorines, as well as position-
(Brown et al. 1987, Rhee et al. 1993). PCBs also have ex-
ing on the rings, influences the physical properties and bio-
tremely long half-lives in adult fish, for example, an eight-
logical activity of PCB congeners. The physical and chemi-
year study of eels found that the half-life of CB153 was
cal properties of selected congeners and homologues are
more than ten years (de Boer et al. 1994).
given in Annex Table 6ทA1. As with other POPs, the mole-
cular weights and Kow of PCB congeners are correlated with
Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and furans (PCDD/Fs)
their Henry's Law constant, vapor pressure, water solubility,
Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and furans (PCDD/Fs)
and tendency to adsorb to plant and soil surfaces. PCB con-
enter the environment as by-products of industrial processes.
geners with 3,3',4,4' chlorine substitutions, CBs 77, 126,
The most significant sources are low-temperature, incom-
and 169 (co-planar or non-ortho PCBs; abbreviated nPCB),
plete incineration of chlorine-containing materials such as
as well as some 2,3,3',4,4' -substituted congeners (mono-
plastics. It has been reported that, in Russia, some portion

188
AMAP Assessment Report
of the 30 million tons of halogenated sludge produced an-
(Howard 1991). Losses from soil are mainly via volatiliza-
nually is incinerated, thus creating a potential source of
tion and runoff (Goltfelty et al. 1989). The lack of degrada-
PCDD/Fs (Federov 1993). Other major sources include ther-
tion, combined with relatively high vapor pressure (VPL =
mal processes, such as motor vehicle fuel combustion in
1.9
10ญ3 Pa at 25ฐC), have resulted in the global dispersion
countries where leaded fuel containing chlorine scavengers
of toxaphene via atmospheric transport, as for several other
is still used, and metallurgical industries. Pulp and paper
chlorinated pesticides.
mills using chlorine in the bleaching process have been im-
Toxaphene is produced by the chlorination of technical
portant sources to the aquatic environment of 2,3,7,8-tetra-
camphene or -pinene and can consist of over 300 congen-
chlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (2,3,7,8-TCDD) and 2,3,7,8-tetra-
ers, mainly bornanes and camphenes substituted with 6-10
chlorodibenzofuran (2,3,7,8-TCDF). Emissions of 2,3,7,8-
chlorines, with an average composition of C10H10Cl8. Analy-
TCDD/TCDF by the pulp and paper industry in circumpo-
sis has been difficult because of the mixture's complexity, be-
lar countries, particularly in Sweden and Canada, have
cause it occurs in the presence of other OCs (PCBs, DDTs,
been significantly reduced in recent years because of the
HCHs), and because of lack of standards for individual com-
substitution of molecular chlorine by other bleaching agents.
ponents. Analytical standards for some chlorinated bornanes
PCDD/Fs are also trace contaminants in chlorophenoxy
have recently become available (Xu et al. 1994). Neverthe-
herbicides, PCB formulations, and chlorophenol wood
less, the levels and effects of toxaphene in the Arctic are not
preservatives.
well studied even though it is a significant contaminant.
Most PCDD/F congeners, like PCBs, are extremely hy-
drophobic and resistant to biodegradation in soils and se-
Chlordanes (CHL)
diments. Historical profiles of PCDD/Fs in sediment cores
Technical grade chlordane is a mixture of at least 120 com-
from large lakes show no evidence of transformation of
pounds, with the major constituents being cis (or )- and
congeners (such as anaerobic dechlorination) over time
trans (or )-chlordane, heptachlor, cis- and trans-nonachlor,
(Hites 1990). The tetra- to octa-chlorinated PCDD/Fs have
-, -, and -chlordene, and others (National Research Coun-
lower vapor pressures and Henry's Law constants than
cil of Canada 1974, Dearth and Hites 1991, Howard 1991).
PCBs and are therefore not expected to undergo long-range
In the past, chlordane was released into the environment pri-
transport to the same extent (Mackay et al. 1992c). PCDD/Fs
marily from its application as an insecticide and for seed
are rapidly photodegraded in air, water, and on surfaces
dressings and coatings (CCREM 1987). In the USA, it was
(Buser 1988). The 2,3,7,8-substituted PCDD/F congeners
used extensively prior to 1983, and from 1983 to 1988 it
are known to bioaccumulate in fish and invertebrates, how-
was registered for termite control. It was cancelled for this
ever non-2,3,7,8-substituted congeners (which predominate
use in 1988. Heptachlor is of particular interest since its oxi-
in combustion sources) are readily degraded by vertebrates
dation product, heptachlor epoxide, is carcinogenic, and has
(Opperhuizen and Sijm 1990).
been found in the Arctic abiotic and biotic environments.
Oxychlordane is another toxic metabolite of chlordane.
Chlordane is very persistent in the environment, with an
6.1.1.1.2. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs)
estimated half-life in soil of 1-4 years (Augustijn-Beckers et
PBDEs (polybrominated diphenyl ethers) are aromatic com-
al. 1994). Cis- and trans-chlordane have high Henry's Law
pounds that are structurally related to the PCBs, but with
constants (87 and 132 Pa m3/mol, respectively) compared to
bromine substitution instead of chlorine. Several bromi-
most other chlorinated pesticides, and are therefore readily
nated organic compounds are used as flame retardants in
volatilized from water and wet soils.
polymeric materials (Bergman 1989). There are two groups
of chemicals, those that are covalently bound to a polymer
Hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCH)
and those that are mixed into materials. Additives may mi-
Technical HCH consists of a number of isomers: -HCH, -
grate out of the products and cause a diffuse contamination
HCH, and -HCH (also called lindane). The approximate
of the environment during the entire lifetime of the flame-
composition of technical HCH is 55-70% -HCH, 5-14%
retardant product. Some products that are flame-retarded
-HCH, 10-18% -HCH, and -HCH and impurities. Lin-
are textiles, plastics, electrical equipment, building materi-
dane ( -HCH), the most biologically active insecticidal iso-
als, and linings of vehicles. The increasing use of flame re-
mer, is the only form of HCH currently used in its pure form
tardants in modern societies has led to increases of PBDEs
in North America, Japan and Europe, where it is used main-
in the environment (Sellstr๖m 1996), and may lead to in-
ly in seed treatment (Bidleman et al. 1989). Other isomers
creases in the Arctic as well. Concerns about the effects of
have been banned for use in the USA and most other circum-
polybrominated diphenyl ethers are similar to those for
polar countries since the late 1970s. Technical HCH is still
PCBs. Very little is known about their environmental con-
used in China as an insecticide on hardwood logs and lumber,
centrations and sources.
seeds, vegetables and fruits, and on existing buildings and
structures. Lindane and other HCH isomers are relatively per-
sistent in soils, with half-lives generally greater than one year
6.1.1.2. Chlorinated pesticides
(Wauchope et al. 1992). HCH is much less bioaccumulative
6.1.1.2.1. Persistent pesticides
than other organochlorines because of its relatively low lipo-
Polychlorobornanes and camphenes (Toxaphene)
philicity (log Kow = 3.8) and short half-life in biota (Niimi
The complex mixtures of polychlorobornanes and cam-
1987). Relatively high H's and VPL's characterize the HCH
phenes known as toxaphene were widely used in the USA
isomers as volatile compounds capable of long-range trans-
on cotton crops. Use peaked between 1972 and 1975. Man-
port in the atmosphere. The -HCH isomer is more volatile
ufacture was banned in the USA in 1982 and uses ceased in
and has a higher Henry's Law constant than the other isomers.
1986 (Voldner and Li 1993). Similar products have been,
and may continue to be used in Mexico, Central America,
Mirex
eastern Europe, and the former Soviet Union. Toxaphene is
Mirex is of interest because of its high Kow and its persis-
extremely persistent in soils following pest control applica-
tence. It was used as an insecticide and fire retardant, mainly
tion, with reported half-lives ranging from one to 14 years
in the USA and Canada. Its presence in the Lake Ontario

Chapter 6 ท Persistent Organic Pollutants
189
food web has been well documented. Mirex is extremely
metolachlor, and the dinitroaniline herbicide trifluralin
persistent in soils and sediment with an estimated `field
(Chernyak et al. 1996).
half-life' of five to ten years (Augustijn-Beckers et al. 1994).
Atrazine (1-chloro-3-(ethylamino)-5-(isopropylamino)-s-
Although mirex has a very high molecular weight, it has
triazine) is a widely used herbicide, especially on maize (corn).
the physical properties of a relatively volatile compound
It is currently banned in Norway, Sweden, and Germany, but
(VPL = 4.76 Pa; H = 52 Pa m3/mol) capable of undergoing
heavily used in the USA (29 000 000 kg in 1988; Aspelin
long-range transport. High levels of mirex are found in
1994) and Canada. Atrazine has a relatively low subcooled
Lake Ontario and St. Lawrence River biota as a result of
liquid vapor pressure (VPL = 1.4
10ญ3 Pa) and a very low
past industrial releases into the Niagara and Oswega Rivers
Henry's Law constant (2.9
10ญ4 Pa m3/mol) compared with
during its manufacture. Its presence in the Arctic at low lev-
many insecticides such as endosulfan and lindane. Neverthe-
els is consistent with its volatility and persistence.
less, based on air and precipitation measurements, it has been
shown to undergo regional long-range transport from major
Dieldrin
use areas in the USA and Europe (Richards et al. 1987, Buser
Dieldrin was mainly used as a soil insecticide. It is no longer
1988, Muir and Grift 1995). Atrazine was detected at low
manufactured in Canada and the USA, and its use is now
levels in ice and air in the Bering Sea by Chernyak et al. (1996).
restricted for termite control. Manufacture in Europe, espe-
Endosulfan is a very toxic insecticide, still widely used
cially for export to developing countries, continued until
against a variety of insects especially on high value crops.
the late 1980s. It is also a degradation product of aldrin,
Isomers of endosulfan are contaminants in air, water, sedi-
also no longer in use in circumpolar countries. It is extreme-
ments, soil, fish, other aquatic organisms, and food. The
ly persistent in soil (half-life greater than seven years) and
physical properties of endosulfan are characteristic of a com-
has a long half-life in biota (Howard 1991). It is the most
pound capable of long-range transport (H = 2.98 Pa m3/mol;
potent carcinogen of the major organochlorine pesticides.
VPL = 5
10ญ3 Pa) (Suntio et al. 1988). It has a higher H than
-HCH, but lower VPL. It has been measured and detected
Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT)
in the Arctic in a few studies, including recent reports in
DDT was introduced in 1945 as an insecticide. The techni-
Bering/Chukchi Sea water and Arctic air by Chernyak et al.
cal product consists of 4,4'-DDT (or p, p'-substituted) and
(1996) and Bidleman et al. (1995b), respectively. An esti-
its o,p'-DDT isomer as well as their dechlorinated analogs
mated 57 000 tonnes have been used globally since the mid-
(p,p'- and o,p'-DDD). Its use has been restricted in Canada,
1950s (Barrie et al. 1992).
the USA, and western Europe for nearly two decades, how-
Pentachlorophenol (PCP) is a widely used fungicide, espe-
ever, it is used in pest control programs in southern Asia,
cially for wood preservation. It is banned in Canada and
Africa, and Central and South America (Voldner and El-
Scandinavia, and registered only for restricted use in the USA
lenton 1988) and may be used in China and Russia. DDT,
and western Europe. Some pentachlorophenol products also
especially its metabolite p,p'-DDE, is extremely persistent in
contain tetrachlorophenols. PCDD/Fs, particularly hepta- and
soils and sediments and has a long half-life in biota. DDT-
octa-chlorinated dioxins, are trace contaminants in PCP. It is
related compounds have lower H's (1-10 Pa m3/mol) and
very persistent in water and sediments under aerobic condi-
VPL's (1.5
10ญ4 - 5
10ญ3 Pa) compared to other more per-
tions, but degrades rapidly under anaerobic conditions such
sistent, semi-volatile OCs such as chlordane and PCBs. Lev-
as occur in flooded soils (Augustijn-Beckers et al. 1994). PCP
els of DDT and its principal metabolite, DDE, have de-
has limited capability to volatilize from water (H = 0.044 Pa
creased in fish and wildlife of western Europe, North Ame-
m3/mol; VPL = 0.11 Pa), especially near neutral pH where it
rica, and Japan in the past 15 years due to bans on use.
exists in anionic form (Suntio et al. 1988, USEPA 1991). PCP
is slowly dechlorinated in anaerobic sediments and is also
converted to pentachloroanisole (PCA) by biomethylation.
6.1.1.2.2. Less persistent chlorinated pesticides
PCA is quite volatile (estimated VPL = 1 Pa; USEPA 1991b)
A large number of chlorinated organic chemicals are still
relative to many other organochlorines. PCA is detectable in
registered for use as pesticides in circumpolar countries
Arctic air, water, plants, and lower food web organisms.
and elsewhere in the world. Many of these pesticides are
Chlorothalonil (2,4,5,6-tetrachloro-1,3-benzenedicarbo-
nitrogen- and phosphorus-based, while others are analogs
nitrile) is a fungicide widely used against moulds in cereal
of the persistent OCs but with oxygen and sulfur substi-
crops. Approximately 1 800 000 kg were used annually in
tuents. These compounds are characterized by low bio-
the USA in the late 1980s (Aspelin 1994). Chlorothalonil is
magnification in food webs (due to degradation and elimi-
thought to have low bioaccumulation potential in aquatic
nation by biota), and in most cases relatively short half-
environments (log Kow = 2.9; Tomlin 1994) and has an (av-
lives in water, soil, and sediment. Nevertheless, these less
erage) field half-life of 30 days (Wauchope et al. 1992). De-
persistent organochlorines have been shown to be present
tection of chlorothalonil in Arctic air (Barrie and Muir un-
in the Arctic, especially in air and seawater. Their presence
publ. data 1996, Chernyak et al. 1996) and seawater indi-
reflects large-scale use (in some cases greater than 1 000 000
cates its potential for long-range transport. Chlorothalonil
kg per year), combined with semi-volatile characteristics
has a lower H (0.023 Pa m3/mol) than other semi-volatile
similar to the persistent organochlorines. It is likely that
OCs such as lindane, but similar VPL (0.015 Pa).
these current use pesticides are more persistent in most
Chlorpyrifos (O,O-diethyl-O-(3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridi-
Arctic abiotic matrices than in temperate zones due to low
nyl)phosphorothioate) is a widely used organophosphorus in-
temperatures and limited sunlight, although little is known
secticide, first registered for use in the mid-1960s. Accurate
about this. Examples of currently used chlorinated pesti-
global production figures are lacking, but 5 000 000 kg were
cides detected in Arctic environments are atrazine, endo-
used annually in the USA in the late 1980s (Aspelin 1994).
sulfan, chlorpyrifos, chlorothalonil, tetra- and pentachlo-
Chlorpyrifos has a relatively high Henry's Law constant (1.75
rophenol (as the anisole), and methoxychlor. A number of
Pa m3/mol), similar to endosulfan, indicative of a compound
other current use, but non-chlorinated, pesticides have also
capable of partitioning from water to air. It is considered
been detected in Arctic air, seawater, and snow, including
moderately persistent in agricultural environments with field
the organophosphate terbufos, the phenylamide herbicide
half-lives ranging from 12-90 days (Wauchope et al. 1992).

190
AMAP Assessment Report
Methoxychlor (1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis(4-methoxyphe-
Persistent OCs of concern in the Arctic mainly originate
nyl)ethane) is a widely used chlorinated insecticide, used for
in temperate and warmer areas of the world. The pathways
control of a variety of insect pests. It has a similar structure
followed by individual molecules to the Arctic and ultimate-
to DDT, but has much lower biomagnification potential be-
ly to Arctic organisms, can be complex. For example, a com-
cause it can be metabolized by most higher organisms. Me-
mon pathway is: volatilization from soil or plant surfaces
thoxychlor is relatively persistent in soils (estimated half-life
atmospheric transport deposition to the terrestrial environ-
120 days; Wauchope et al. 1992). Methoxychlor has a Hen-
ment on snowpack snowmelt river transport to lakes
ry's Law constant of 0.6 Pa m3/mol, similar to many other
or estuaries transport to the ocean ocean current trans-
semi-volatile organochlorines such as lindane, but a much
port in ice or water within the Arctic. Repetitive revolatiliza-
lower VPL (estimated 8.3 10ญ4; USEPA 1991).
tion is also a major factor increasing the complexity of path-
ways. The vast majority of these contaminants remain in the
abiotic environment. However, a small fraction can be trans-
6.1.1.3. Other pesticides
ferred to biota by direct exposure through water and/or bio-
6.1.1.3.1. Tributyltin (TBT)
magnified in complex food webs or by maternal transfer. Al-
Tributyltin (TBT) is a broad-spectrum algicide, miticide,
though the total quantities of OCs in biota are very small
fungicide, and insecticide (Aboul Dahab et al. 1990). TBT
compared to the quantities in the abiotic environment, signi-
and other organotin compounds were first used in agricul-
ficant bioaccumulation occurs in some parts of the food web
ture; subsequently TBT has had wide application as a ma-
resulting in elevated levels in top predators, including humans.
rine antifoulant starting in the 1960s. Its most important
In general, as discussed in chapter 3, air in the northern
entry route to the sea is directly from boats, aquaculture
hemisphere flows parallel to isobars in a counterclockwise
pens, moorings, and industrial cooling pipes to which prod-
direction around low-pressure systems (cyclones) and clock-
ucts containing TBT have been applied, but it may also
wise around high-pressure systems (anticyclones). The lower
enter the sea in runoff from agricultural areas, from boat
tropospheric circulation of the northern polar region is en-
repair yards, and through municipal waste water and
hanced during winter (January-May) by semi-stationary high-
sewage sludge. TBT is found to provide effective protection
pressure systems over continents and low-pressure systems
for boat hulls at release rates less than 4 g/cm2/day and
over the northern Pacific and Atlantic Oceans. In particular,
has been a popular antifoulant because it maintains its effi-
the intense continental Siberian high-pressure cell tends to
cacy for up to five years compared to about three years for
force air on its western side northward into the Arctic. Air-
other conventional applications.
borne pollution from Siberian and European sources is in-
Once released to water, TBT is degraded by sequential
jected into the far north by this mechanism. The high-pres-
debutylation to dibutyltin (DBT), monobutyltin (MBT), and
sure ridge over central portions of northern Canada tends to
eventually to relatively non-toxic inorganic tin compounds,
drive Arctic air southward. The mean flow in winter is out
primarily by organisms. Sunlight irradiation may also con-
of Eurasia into the Arctic and out of the Arctic into North
tribute to TBT degradation. The degradation time in water
America. Transport times of pollutants via air currents can
is short, with half-lives reported from days to a few weeks
be fairly rapid, and complete mixing in the troposphere of
(Stewart and de Mora 1990, Dowson et al. 1993). TBT may
the northern hemisphere can occur within one month
be concentrated in the sea surface microlayer (Dobson and
(Ballschmiter and Wittlinger 1990).
Cabrindenc 1990) and is strongly particle-reactive with par-
Measurements of Arctic airborne particulate matter de-
tition coefficients reported to be as high as 103-104 (Lang-
scribed by Rahn (1981), and others (Leaitch et al. 1984,
ston and Pope 1995). The breakdown of TBT in anaerobic
Maenhaut et al. 1989, Barrie et al. 1992), identified metals
sediments is much slower than in water (half-life of two or
in ratios characteristic of emissions from specific industrial
more years; Clark et al. 1988). Therefore, contaminated se-
areas in Europe and Asia. This is consistent with the generic
diments are potentially an important environmental reser-
meteorological pathways described above and suggests that
voir for TBT, which can continue to provide a source long
transport of particulate matter into the Arctic is primarily
after the industrial use of TBT has been curtailed.
from Eurasian sources.
Many of the developed countries now partially regulate
Significant quantities of organochlorine contaminants are pre-
the use of TBT (France in 1982; USA, 1986; UK, 1987;
sent in the atmosphere, the surface oceans, and the terrestrial
Canada and New Zealand, 1989; Europe, 1991). Regula-
environment. The volume of the accessible terrestrial environ-
tions vary, but generally, only controlled release formula-
ment of soils and vegetation is relatively small (effective depth
tions are permitted and TBT-based antifoulants are prohib-
of 5-30 cm) compared to that of the atmosphere (10 000 m
ited for boats smaller than 25 m (Table 6ท1).
deep) and the oceans (effective depth of accumulation 200-500
m). However, the hydrophobic nature of most POPs results in
their preferential partitioning into soil and plant surfaces from
water or air. Although fish, marine and terrestrial mammals,
6.2. Sources of persistent organic pollutants
and birds are critical from the viewpoint of human exposure
The distribution of POPs in the Arctic is determined by the
and ecological effects, the biota probably play a minor role in
spatial distribution of the sources (this section), and physical
the overall mass balance on global, hemispheric, and regional
and chemical properties of the compounds (section 6.1.1),
scales. The possible exceptions are microbial conversion in soils
combined with global atmospheric circulation patterns, re-
and partitioning to planktonic organisms in fresh and marine
moval by precipitation, interactions with the Earth's surface
waters. Vegetation may also play a key role in atmosphere-sur-
(see chapter 3), and biological pathways (section 6.3).
face transport, especially in forested systems (Simonich and
Hites 1995). Snow and ice are significant components of the
Arctic ecosystem, but the present ability to describe exchange
6.2.1. Pathways
between falling snow, snowpack and the atmosphere and ter-
POPs can be transported to and within the Arctic via several
restrial environments is primitive. Recent measurements of air-
pathways and in different media. These pathways are described
ice surface partitioning (Hoff et al. 1995) suggest that snow may
in detail in chapters 3 and 4 and are briefly reviewed here.
be significant both as a medium of transport and as a reservoir.

Chapter 6 ท Persistent Organic Pollutants
191
Atmospheric transport pathways for semi-volatile organ-
take into account the partitioning of the compound between
ics are often divided into two types: `one-hop' and `multi-
the particle and gas phases in air (Cotham and Bidleman
hop' pathways, although this is a simplification of events.
1991). Estimates of the atmospheric phase distribution are
For compounds emitted to the atmosphere, transported,
frequently made with the Junge-Pankow adsorption model
and deposited to the surface never to return to the atmos-
(Pankow 1987):
phere (`one-hop' compounds), the dispersion of the conta-
= c / (VP
minant would be simply defined by its initial source distrib-
L + c )
ution, its lifetime in the atmosphere, and atmospheric circu-
where is the fraction of the compound adsorbed to aero-
lation. This type may apply for the relatively non-volatile
sols, VPL is the sub-cooled liquid-vapor pressure (that is, the
POPs, such as the higher chlorinated PCB congeners, which
vapor pressure of the chemical in a hypothetical liquid state
tend to be particle-associated at low temperatures. The
below its melting point) at the ambient temperature, is the
pathways of these constituents follow that of Arctic haze
aerosol surface area in cm2 per cm3 air, and the parameter c,
from mid-latitudinal sources into the Arctic (Barrie 1986,
often taken as 17.2 Pa-cm, depends on the thermodynamics
1994, 1996). This type is also distinguished by longer at-
of adsorption and the surface area occupied by a sorbate
mospheric residence times in winter ( 20-30 days) com-
molecule. Values of that are representative of urban, rural,
pared to summer ( 3-7 days) and stronger north-south
and clean air regimes are given by Bidleman (1988).
transport into the Arctic, particularly from Eurasia, in win-
The Junge-Pankow model has been applied to Arctic aero-
ter than in summer (Barrie et al. 1997).
sols by Cotham and Bidleman (1991) and Patton et al. (1991),
A compound that has a tendency to re-enter the atmos-
using values of measured in the atmospheric monitoring
phere after initial deposition to the Earth's surface, can move
program at Alert on Ellesmere Island, Canada. The adsorp-
through the environment in a series of `hops'. Processes that
tion of vapor-phase substances to Arctic aerosols is most im-
facilitate this type of transport include volatilization from
portant during the winter haze season, when the air temper-
the surface under warmer temperatures than existed at the
ature is low (approximately ญ 30 to ญ 40ฐC) and the aerosol
time of initial deposition, rapid exposure of ocean or fresh-
concentration is relatively high. Generally, substances that
water to the atmosphere after prolonged periods of ice cover,
have VPL 10ญ3 Pa at Arctic winter temperatures will be 50%
resuspension of dust by wind, and re-distribution and mor-
or more in aerosol form under typical haze conditions. Dur-
phological changes to fresh snow by wind. Most organo-
ing winter, the expected percentages of -HCH, p,p'-DDE,
chlorines fall into this group (Barrie et al. 1997). The polar
and benz[a]anthracene on haze aerosols are 2, 50, and 90%,
regions are potentially cold traps for these compounds. Wa-
respectively. In summer, when the Arctic air temperature
nia and Mackay (1993) and Strand and Hov (1996) have
warms to 0ฐC and above and the aerosol concentration is
developed models to simulate this process and have been
less than one-tenth that of winter values, these percentages
able to qualitatively reproduce observed patterns and con-
fall to < 0.001, 0.5, and 4%, respectively, for the three com-
centrations of contaminants in the different compartments
pounds. Thus, many of the organic contaminants of interest
of the Arctic. Primarily due to their cold temperatures, the
are transported in the gas phase during summer, but become
near surface waters of the oceans serve as sinks for some
sorbed to some extent to haze aerosols in winter.
OCs in these models.
Rivers can be an important pathway of contaminants.
6.2.2. Global sources
North-flowing rivers drain an area of 10 000 000 km2 of
northern Eurasia and North America from as far south as
A database of historical, present, and predicted global usage
50ฐ latitude (Barrie et al. 1992, Macdonald and Bewers
or sale of selected persistent pesticides including aldrin, diel-
1996) (section 6.6.3.1). In draining vast areas of land, they
drin, endrin, technical HCH, lindane, DDT, chlordane, en-
may also carry significant quantities of contaminants, often
dosulfan, heptachlor, and toxaphene was prepared by Vold-
from industries, to the ocean surface layer. Marine areas af-
ner and Li (1993, 1995), Li et al. (1996, 1997), and Barrie
fected by rivers are highly productive and tend to have more
et al. (1997). This information was linked with the global
detrital food chains.
distribution of agricultural activities to determine usage dis-
Contaminants are also transported by ocean currents.
tribution. The reported global cumulative usage for selected
Ocean circulation is driven by a combination of various
pesticides is presented in Table 6ท2. When usage was esti-
forces (e.g., tides, wind stress, mixing of water masses) and a
mated by interpolating to non-reporting times and areas, the
particular force may dominate in a particular area. Within
Table 6ท2. Global cumulative usage of selected pesticides for various
the Arctic Ocean, the main surface circulation features are
periods of time (Barrie et al. 1997).
the clockwise circulation of the Beaufort Gyre, and the Trans-
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Usage,
polar Drift, which flows from Siberia, across the pole, and
Pesticide
tonnes
Period
Source
then southward to exit as the East Greenland Current (chap-
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
ter 3). The major currents whereby water is exchanged be-
Reported
DDT
1500000
1948-1993
Voldner and Li 1995
tween the Arctic Ocean and other oceans are found in Fram
Technical HCH
550000
1948-1993
Voldner and Li 1995
Strait. The West Spitsbergen Current flows northward off
Technical lindane
720000
1948-1993
Voldner and Li 1995
the west coast of Spitsbergen, transporting Atlantic water
Toxaphene
450000
1948-1993
Voldner and Li 1993
Technical HCH
40000
1980
Li et al. 1996
from the Norwegian Sea into the Arctic Ocean (chapter 3).
29000
1990
Technical lindane
5900
1980
Li et al. 1996
4000
1990
6.2.1.1. Particle /gas partitioning and atmospheric
-HCH
28000
1980
Li et al. 1996
deposition processes
20400
1990
-HCH
11900
1980
Li et al. 1996
8400
1990
Exchange of organic compounds between the atmosphere
Interpolated
and the Earth's surface takes place by rain and snow scav-
DDT
2600000
1950-1993
Voldner and Li 1995
enging of gaseous and particulate species and transfer of
990000
1970-1993
gaseous compounds across airญwater interfaces (chapter 3).
Toxaphene
1330000
1950-1993
Voldner and Li 1993
670000
1970-1993
Flux equations used to describe these processes necessarily
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ

192
AMAP Assessment Report
expected usage was considerably larger (1.7 and 3 times
Table 6ท3. Estimated annual usage of -HCH and -HCH in 1980 and
more for DDT and toxaphene, respectively) (Voldner and
1990 for the top-consuming countries (Li 1996, Li et al. 1997, modified
Li 1993, 1995).
from Barrie et al. 1997).
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
A number of countries have made attempts to identify
Usage, tonnes/year
sources of PCDD/Fs and to estimate the amounts emitted
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
-HCH
1980
1990
annually to air, and in some cases even to water and in
China
200521
0
wastes. The Netherlands has estimated its PCDD/F emis-
India
15100
32900
sions to air to be 484 g TCDD equivalents (TEQ) for 1990
Former Soviet Union
11718
17528
(de Koning et al. 1994). The United Kingdom estimated its
Former East Germany
2626
84
Argentina
1470
0
PCDD/F emissions to air to be 560-1100 g TEQ/y (HMIP
Sri Lanka
770
n.a.
1995). The Federal Republic of Germany has estimated its
Turkey
628
n.a.
PCDD/F emissions to air to be 1166-1646 g TEQ/y for
Nigeria
358
n.a.
1985-1990 and 452-656 g TEQ/y for 1993-1995 (Lahl and
Mexico
105
1218
South Korea
84
0
Zeschmar-Lahl 1995). Austria estimated its emissions to be
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
50-320 g TEQ/y in 1987/88 and Japan estimated its emis-
-HCH
1980
1990
sions to be 4000-8400 g TEQ/y for 1990 (Liem and van
China
42969
100
India
3376
7050
Zorge 1995). For all surveys, the major PCDD/F sources to
Former Soviet Union
2511
3756
air are combustion-related, including municipal waste inci-
Italy
1580
600
nerators, hospital incinerators, metallurgical processes (sin-
France
1172
1863
tering, smelting, die-casting, etc.), automobiles, and wood-
Former East Germany
563
18
Argentina
315
n.a.
burning. A major source to water is bleached kraft pulp
United States
268
114
and paper mills using elemental chlorine. All countries
Canada
200
284
with these types of industries have emissions of PCDD/Fs to
Sri Lanka
165
n.a.
Turkey
135
n.a.
air and water, but it is not possible to quantify the global
Nigeria
77
397
amounts released.
Mexico
23
261
Several surveys indicate declines in emissions for some
South Korea
18
n.a.
countries, which is primarily due to improved technologies
Former Yugoslavia
n.a.
151
Spain
n.a.
96
for flue gas cleaning, optimized combustion technology for
Pakistan
n.a.
3
complete combustion in incinerators, and other measures
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
n.a.: not available.
that have been taken to reduce PCDD/F formation in high
temperature processes. Continued implementation of these
In the USA, lindane is no longer produced, but use is al-
technologies will lead to continued declines. PCDD/F levels
lowed for structural treatment, hardwood logs and lumber,
have probably also declined due to bans on PCBs, chlorophe-
moth sprays, seed treatment, dog shampoos, homeowner or-
nols, and phenoxy acid herbicides that contained PCDD/Fs.
namentals, and other household uses. Chlordanes are only
Some international agreements exist where countries aim to
allowed for fire ant control in power plants. DDT was ban-
reduce PCDD/F emissions. One such agreement, made with-
ned in 1972, however, due to a loophole in the pesticide law,
in the North Sea Conference, instructed parties to reduce
it was allowed as an inert ingredient in another pesticide,
dioxin inputs to the North Sea by 70% or more between
Dicofol, which could contain up to 12% DDT. As of 1986,
1985 and 1995 (North Sea Conference 1995).
all products containing more than 0.1% DDT were can-
celled in the USA (Sherman 1994). Dicofol was also banned
in Sweden in 1991. Lindane use is restricted in Canada,
6.2.2.1. HCH case study
where its major use is as a seed dressing for cereal crops.
The most extensive database for a persistent organic pollu-
Mirex was never registered as a pesticide in Canada, but
tant in the abiotic environment exists for technical HCH
was used as a flame retardant between 1960 and 1970.
and its isomer -HCH (lindane). The HCH mass balance in
In Iceland, dieldrin, HCB, - and -HCH, mirex, and
the Arctic Ocean is described in section 6.6.4.3.1.
toxaphene use has not been allowed since 1975 and avail-
The leading HCH-utilizing countries are listed in Table
able documentation suggests that these were never used (S.
6ท3. In 1980, the annual utilization of -HCH in India,
Gisladottํr, Hollustuvernd Rํkisins, pers. comm.). Chlor-
China, and the former Soviet Union accounted for more than
dane was used from the 1940s up until 1975, when use was
95% of the total global -HCH consumption. By 1990, al-
prohibited. DDT was used as a pesticide up until 1975.
though -HCH usage continued to increase in India, the for-
After 1975, it has been used as a drug for scabies in horses.
mer Soviet Union, and Mexico, usage decreased dramatically
Although one lindane product is still registered, it has not
among other countries. -HCH consumption in India, China,
been used for several years. Lindane is also used to treat
and the former Soviet Union in 1980 accounted for approxi-
head lice. In Norway, lindane was used before it was banned
mately 90% of the global usage. This dropped considerably
in 1991, but no information is available for - and -HCH.
by 1990 due to China's ban on technical HCH usage (Li 1996,
DDT was used fairly extensively until 1969. Limited use was
Barrie et al. 1997, Li et al. 1997).
allowed until 1988 for trees in plant nurseries. Chlordane
was marketed and used until 1967 and dieldrin and aldrin
were marketed and used up to 1970.
6.2.3. Sources in circumpolar countries
In Russia, household and institutional insecticides con-
The majority of circumpolar countries have taken action to
taining concentrated solutions of DDT and HCH are still
reduce the inputs to the environment of the POPs discussed
being used (Valery Klopov, pers. comm.).
in this chapter. This information has been summarized in
Although PCB formulations have been banned for open
Table 6ท1. In some cases, certain POPs were never used, in
use in most circumpolar countries, they were used in several
other cases, they were used until bans were put in place.
countries until recently in closed systems. A few circumpolar
Certain POPs are still allowed for restricted use, for exam-
countries still allow PCB use in closed systems that existed
ple the use of TBT on ocean-going ships longer than 25 m.
prior to bans.

Chapter 6 ท Persistent Organic Pollutants
193
In Norway, approximately 1500 tonnes of technical PCB
Canada is currently undertaking a re-evaluation of PCDD/F
have been used. About 650 tonnes of PCB are still con-
sources, but current information shows that paper and pulp
tained in products that are still in use. These include 350-
mills have reduced their annual emissions from 350 g TEQ
410 tonnes in sealing compound in windows, 70 tonnes in
in 1989 to 9 g TEQ in 1994 (J. Van Oostdam, Health Can-
joint sealants between concrete elements, 200 tonnes in low
ada, pers. comm.). Other sources are hospital incinerators
voltage condensers in lighting, and 10 tonnes in high volt-
and, to a lesser extent, municipal waste incinerators.
age condensers/transformers. Approximately 850-880 ton-
Although most circumpolar countries have banned HCB
nes have been disposed of, stored, or destroyed. It is be-
as a pesticide, it is also produced as a by-product during
lieved that PCB-containing products corresponding to 400-
thermal processes. Two known large point sources of HCB
600 tonnes of technical PCB have been disposed of in such
in Norway are a magnesium factory in Telemark in the
a way that it may represent a threat due to eventual/possi-
southeast and a nickel smelter on the south coast. These re-
ble leakage to the environment. However, plans are being
leased 126 tonnes HCB to air and 5 tonnes to water as late
made to minimize this threat (SFT 1996).
as 1994, but extensive measures reduced these releases con-
In Sweden, approximately 8000-10 000 tonnes of PCB
siderably by 1995 (B. Kvๆven, Norwegian State Pollution
were imported between 1957-1980 (Reutergๅrdh 1988) and
Control Authority, pers. comm.).
probably more than half of this amount was re-exported in
Besides the pesticides listed in Table 6ท1, Sweden has
goods. The major use was in condensers and transformers.
banned the following current-use pesticides that have been
Open use of PCBs was banned in 1972, and new use can-
detected in the Arctic: atrazine (1989), chlorothalonil
celled in 1978, however, PCBs were allowed in existing
(1994), pentachlorophenol (1978), methoxychlor (1990),
closed condensers and transformers until 31 December
and trifluralin (1990). Use of chlorpyrifos is severely re-
1994, after which they were banned completely. PCB was
stricted (KEMI 1996b). Terbufos and metolachlor have
also used widely in many building products such as paints,
never been registered as pesticides in Sweden. Atrazine,
plastics, window putties, window sealing compounds, and
chlorpyrifos, metolachlor, trifluralin, chlorothalonil, me-
sealants that are still in use. PCB-containing joint sealants
thoxychlor and terbufos are currently in use in the USA
were the main product used, but floor paint and window
Pentachlorophenol use is severely restricted in the USA.
sealing compounds were also used extensively. The joint
In Canada, atrazine, chlorpyrifos, chlorothalonil, methoxy-
sealants were used between prefabricated building elements
chlor, terbufos, metalochlor, and trifluralin are all currently
in apartment buildings erected from 1950-1972 in Sweden.
in use, but pentachlorophenol use was banned in the early
The polysulfide Thiokol-rubber joint sealants have been
1990s.
found to contain up to 20% PCB, which was used as a
In Finland, terbufos, metolachlor, and tetra/pentachlo-
plasticizer. It is estimated that this is equivalent to 100-500
rophenol as anisoles have never been used. Use of atrazine
tonnes of PCB in unintended open use in Sweden (Hammar
and methoxychlor has ceased voluntarily. Use of chlorpyri-
1992). Current studies show that the PCBs are leaking from
fos and chlorothalonil is restricted. Trifluralin is currently
the joint sealants to outside air (Jansson et al. 1997). The
in use in Finland (J. Malm, Finnish Environment Institute,
emission rate is estimated to be 0.1-0.2% or 0.1-1 tonnes/y
pers. comm.). Norway has banned atrazine (1988) and tri-
to air. The sealant itself is also eroding, leading to elevated
fluralin (1992) and the following are not approved: chlor-
PCB levels in soil near the buildings.
pyrifos, tetra/pentachlorophenol, methoxychlor, terbufos,
Some sealant has ended up in landfills when buildings
and metolachlor. Chlorothalonil is currently in use and en-
were renovated before it was recognized that the sealant
dosulfan is allowed only in integrated pest management (B.
contained PCB, making the wastes an added source to the
Kvๆven, Norwegian State Pollution Control Authority,
environment. As the sealant was imported to Sweden, it is
pers. comm.).
not unlikely that other countries, including the circumpo-
In Iceland, atrazine was used between 1976 and 1992.
lar countries, also have buildings with PCB-containing
Chlorpyrifos is not a registered pesticide, but some exemp-
sealants. It is estimated that a further 50-100 tonnes of
tions for use have been made in 1995 and two applications
PCB are still in use in existing insulated window-glass
for registration are currently being handled. Chlorothalonil
and 20-30 tonnes in floor paints in buildings in Sweden
is not registered, but exemption for use was given in 1995.
(KEMI 1996a).
Terbufos and metolachlor have never been registered or used
In the USA and in Canada, new use and open use of PCBs
in Iceland. Trifluralin is registered and used. Pentachloro-
are forbidden, but they are still used in closed systems that
phenol was banned from Iceland in 1996 (S. Gisladottํr,
existed before the ban took effect. Canada is currently phas-
Hollustuvernd Rํkisins, pers. comm.).
ing out these PCBs. Landfills and dumps are also probably
sources of PCB, due to previous disposal of PCB-containing
6.2.4. Local/regional sources within the Arctic
products. After banning PCB in 1988, Iceland decommis-
sioned all equipment and products containing PCB and sent
Sources of POPs in the Arctic are not well documented in
them abroad for destruction.
most cases, but could be important especially in terms of ex-
Three circumpolar countries have carried out surveys to
posure of humans and wildlife living near a use site. In most
estimate PCDD/F emissions ญ Sweden, the USA, and Nor-
cases, Arctic sources are the result of accidental spills or de-
way. For Sweden, PCDD/F emissions to air for 1990 were
liberate and inappropriate disposal of contaminants. Com-
estimated to be 32-115 g TEQ, and for 1993, 22-88 g TEQ
bustion, especially of municipal garbage, is a common sight
(C. de Wit unpubl. data). Estimated PCDD/F emissions to
in the Arctic and could be a source of PCDD/Fs and HCB as
air for the USA are 3774-34 278 g TEQ/y (Schaum et al.
well as PAHs. The topic of combustion sources for PAHs
1994). For Norway, PCDD/F emissions to air are estimated
within the Arctic is dealt with in chapter 10. Combustion or
to be 63 g TEQ for 1994 (B. Kvๆven, Norwegian State Pol-
deliberately disposed chemicals are often distributed over a
lution Control Authority, pers. comm.). Emissions to water
wider area than the initial disposal areas through the inter-
in Norway have declined from 504 g TEQ in 1985 to 3 g
action of different dispersal processes. In other cases, pesti-
TEQ in 1994. Sweden, Norway, and Denmark are parties
cides have deliberately been used for insect control (section
to the North Sea Conference.
6.2.4.4).

194
AMAP Assessment Report
A study of the use, transportation, and disposal of PCBs
6.2.4.1. PCBs at military sites
in the Yukon (Canada) concluded that the major use of
PCBs were in use in electrical equipment at the Arctic radar
PCBs in the Yukon was limited to the wartime construction
stations in North America, Greenland, and Scandinavia,
era in the period from 1941 to 1946 (Nordin et al. 1993).
and presumably also in Russian facilities. In North Ameri-
ca, disposal practices resulted in PCBs entering the local ter-
USA
restrial and aquatic environments either through disposal at
Over 600 formerly used defense sites (FUDS), including 49
landfills, down-the-drain disposal, and accidental or inten-
DEW Line sites, have been identified in the state of Alaska
tional spills. There were few concerns about the disposal of
for possible environmental assessment and remediation (US
the PCB fluids during much of the time of operation of the
Department of Defense 1992). Most of the sites are located
stations. Similar problems may have occurred in Russian
within the broad context of the USA Arctic as defined under
facilities, but they are currently undocumented.
the Arctic Research and Policy Act. Contaminated sites in-
clude those used for military training exercises, those used
Canada
for major industrial operations and production facilities,
The DEW (Distant Early Warning) Line, started in 1955,
and those where only minimal impact occurred. Based on
consisted of 63 radar stations across Alaska, Canada, and
preliminary contamination and site inspection, a vast major-
Greenland along the 66th parallel. Over the life of the DEW
ity of FUDS may no longer have any significant contamina-
Line, which was replaced in the early 1990s by another
tion. However, some of the existing military sites, such as
radar system with fewer stations (the North Warning Sys-
Eielson Air Force Base, Fort Wainwright, and Adak Naval
tem, NWS), stations were closed and added, so they were
Air Station, are heavily contaminated (petroleum and lubri-
used to varying degrees (Fletcher 1990). The largest change
cants, heavy metals, chlorinated solvents, transformer oils
occurred in 1963 when all 31 gap-filler or `I' (Intermediate)
containing PCBs, pesticides, etc.) and listed in the National
sites, 20 of which were in Canada, were closed. A large, but
Priority List for long-term clean-up and remedial action.
as yet unquantified portion of the estimated 30 tonnes of
PCBs imported to the radar sites, may be fugitive in the en-
Denmark (Greenland)
vironment.
Contamination associated with military activities was also
An extensive effort to assess the potential for site conta-
investigated during the 1980s near the Thule Air Base in
mination was undertaken (Holtz et al. 1987), which ad-
northwest Greenland. PCBs were monitored in sediments in
dressed primarily drums of contaminated oils, discarded
the Wolstenholme Fjord in Greenland to investigate the in-
electronic equipment, and contaminated soils and other
fluence of the Thule Air Base, which was the suspected source
material. However, ongoing environmental assessment and
of these contaminants (Kj๘lholt and Hansen 1986). PCB lev-
impact studies at the northern radar stations and at Arctic
els in sediments were highest in surface samples (0-1 cm),
reference sites have also resulted in sampling and analysis
ranging from 10 to 65 ng/g (dw), and showed a decreasing
of over 3500 soil, 1600 plant, and various small mammals
concentration with distance from the pier at the air base.
and marine invertebrate and fish samples, from abandoned
These levels were much higher than in most Arctic marine
and soon-to-be abandoned DEW Line and NWS sites across
sediments where PCB levels are generally below 1 ng/g dw
Canada (Reimer et al. 1991, 1993a, 1993b, 1993c, 1994,
(section 6.6.4.2.1).
Dodd and Reimer 1992, Dushenko and Reimer 1994, Bright
et al. 1995a, 1995b, 1995c). In general, levels in soils and
Iceland
plants are 1-3 orders of magnitude higher than at remote
Iceland has ten abandoned military sites, which were used
sampling sites. Results from the soil/plant studies are dis-
for radar surveillance and communication. Some were built
cussed elsewhere (section 6.6.2.1).
in the 1940s and a few of these were closed after World War
Concentrations in samples taken from remote locations
II, but others were built later. The last site was closed down
(more than 20 km distant), when compared to local back-
in 1994. The level of possible local contamination has not
ground locations, provided evidence for short-range redis-
been extensively studied, however, the information available
tribution of PCBs (Bright et al. 1995a). In addition, the
indicates only minor pollution (PAME 1996). It is not clear
PCB congener signatures for background samples corre-
if studies of POPs, particularly PCBs have been performed.
lated well with PCB signatures from actual contaminated
locations at radar sites. At more remote sites, the congener
Russia
signature changed, and could be attributed to atmospheric
Military-industrial complexes exist in Murmansk, Arkh-
transport, which contains a relatively higher proportion of
angelsk, and the Taimyr Autonomous Territory. No studies
more volatile congeners.
have been carried out pertaining to possible POP contamina-
Comparison of PCB levels and congener profiles in con-
tion, but such contamination, particularly for PCB is consid-
taminated soil from selected DEW Line sites and in back-
ered likely.
ground soils (Bright et al. 1995a), with levels in fresh snow,
snowpack, glacial snow, and background soils and sedi-
6.2.4.2. Other PCB sources
ments from across the Canadian Arctic (Gregor 1995), sug-
gests that the impact of the DEW Line sites is limited to the
Electrical capacitors and fluorescent light ballasts, manufac-
immediate vicinity of the site. At Cambridge Bay, Bright et
tured prior to 1979, contained small quantities of PCBs.
al. (1995a) concluded that PCBs were found only at a dis-
These may have been disposed of at military and industrial
tance of 5 km or less from the site. The studies suggest that
sites, including the DEW Line sites within the Yukon, and
there is a `halo' of impacted soils around each contaminated
municipal landfills, as equipment was replaced at least until
site, which gradually blends into the background soil PCB
1977. Contaminated soils exist at a number of sites in the
signature determined by atmospheric deposition. Gregor
Yukon while equipment burial or contamination is expected
(1995) estimates that while approximately 300 km2 may be
at other sites. Another possible source has been the use of
affected at each site, this represents less than 0.2% of the
waste oil, contaminated with PCB, to control dust on White-
total surface area of the Yukon and Northwest Territories.
horse streets. It has not been possible to estimate the volume

Chapter 6 ท Persistent Organic Pollutants
195
of PCB lost to the Yukon environment (Nordin et al. 1993).
among others, Norway. Onshore wells are currently in use
Similar local sources could be present in other large north-
in the USA (Alaska), Canada, and Russia. Russia and Nor-
ern communities in Canada.
way may be considering offshore oil development in the
As stated above, some buildings in Sweden have PCB-
Arctic in the near future. PCB use on new platforms is un-
containing joint sealants that are leaking PCB to the envi-
likely because of use restrictions, however, older oil plat-
ronment. There are several small cities in the Swedish Arc-
forms and equipment could be potential sources if PCB-con-
tic, and it is not unlikely that they also have buildings with
taining transformers or other equipment are still in use. This
PCB-containing joint sealants. This may also be true for the
has not been studied. Ships and submarines, either those
other circumpolar countries. However, currently no esti-
trafficking or those that have been dumped in the Arctic are
mate can be made of the amounts of PCBs in sealants in
also potential sources if they have or had transformers con-
buildings located specifically in the Swedish Arctic.
taining PCBs.
Larger urban settlements, particularly those along the
Arctic coasts and major Arctic rivers discharge waste water
6.2.4.3. Specific PCDD/F sources
containing domestic sewage and industrial effluents that
end up in the limnic and marine environments. In some
As stated in section 6.2.2, the major sources of PCDD/Fs to
cases, solid waste is placed in landfills or is incinerated.
air are waste incineration, most particularly where incom-
Landfills may be rudimentary and due to the slow decom-
plete combustion occurs, wood burning and other combus-
position rate, there is a risk of long-term leaching of conta-
tion, and metallurgical industries. Such activities located in
minants. The scale of local pollution from large Arctic
or near the Arctic are thus suspected as local sources of
towns and cities is not known, but it may be most acute in
PCDD/Fs. In some cases, such local sources have been iden-
Russia, in harbors and ports such as Murmansk, Severo-
tified and studied.
morsk, Arkhangelsk, Severodvinsk, Amderma, Dikson, and
Salekhard (PAME 1996).
6.2.4.3.1. PCDD/F contamination from smelters
Leakage from solid waste disposal sites at the coal-min-
ing settlements of Barentsburg and Longyearbyen on Sval-
Known local PCDD/F sources in Arctic Sweden are iron ore
bard is known to occur. The landfills probably contain in-
pelletizing plants at Malmberget, Kiruna, and Svappavaara
dustrial wastes as well as general garbage. Bottom sedi-
(C. de Wit unpubl. results). A source of air-bound PCDD/Fs
ments collected on the coast near these landfills have shown
to the Arctic, although not located within the Arctic itself, is
among other things, HCB contamination, and at Barents-
the primary smelter of R๖nnskไrsverken in Skellefteๅ on
burg, PCB contamination as well (Holte et al. 1996, PAME
Bothnian Bay.
1996). PCB has also been found in soil samples from the
The smelters and metallurgical plants on the Kola Penin-
landfill at Ny-ลlesund on Svalbard.
sula, the Vorkuta area in the north Komi Republic, and the
Several circumpolar countries produce hydroelectricity
Norilsk area are suspected local PCDD/F sources in Arctic
from rivers in the Arctic, including Norway, Sweden, Fin-
Russia. Suspected sources in Arctic Norway are a secondary
land, Iceland, the USA (Alaska), and Canada. A number of
iron and steel industry, an aluminum industry, and a ferroal-
the power plants were built during the 1960s and early
loy industry. Suspected PCDD/F sources in Finland, Canada,
1970s. No studies of PCB levels near hydroelectric plants
and Alaska are waste incineration and wood burning for
have been done, although transformers at the plants most
heating, and for Greenland, waste incineration.
probably contained PCB at one time. Based on the experi-
Local and regional contamination by PCDD/Fs from the
ence from DEW line sites, it is probable that there have
Syd-Varanger smelter works in Kirkenes, in Arctic Norway,
been leaks or spillage that have caused local contamination,
was studied by Schlabach and Skotvold (1996a, 1996b).
but the extent of this can only be guessed. Trains running
This smelter sinters iron ore, a process that is known to pro-
on electricity also had PCB-containing transformers, and
duce PCDD/F emissions. Marine sediments and biota were
leakage along rail lines in the Swedish Arctic has probably
sampled at increasing distances from inner B๘kfjord, where
occurred, although no studies have been performed to check
the smelter works is located, as well as throughout the fjord
this. This may also have been a problem in other circumpo-
system. Freshwater sediments were sampled at increasing
lar countries with such trains.
distances from the emissions of the smelter works. Soil was
PCBs may have also been used historically as hydraulic
sampled at several locations in the town of Kirkenes. The
and drilling fluids in mines and at oil wells. A number of
results of this study are described in more detail in sections
metal ore and coal mines have been, or are currently, active
6.6.3.2.1.2, 6.6.3.3.3 and 6.6.4.2.2.
in the Arctic. These are found in Canada, Norway including
In brief, the top layer of sediment, as well as whitefish
Svalbard, Russia, Sweden, the USA, and Greenland. Tail-
(Coregonus) from the lake nearest to the smelter works,
ings effluent has been discharged into the marine environ-
were found to be markedly contaminated with PCDD/Fs.
ment from several of these. Although they are known to be
All the samples of marine sediments, including those
sources of heavy metals in the Arctic, the possible contami-
taken in the vicinity of the plant, contained diffuse back-
nation by POPs from these sources has not been studied.
ground levels of PCDD/Fs. Slightly elevated levels of
Used drilling fluids have also been released in Alaska, Can-
PCDD/Fs were detected in the horse mussel (Modiolus
ada, and Russia (chapter 3), however, no information is
modiolus) sampled in the vicinity of the plant, while those
available on possible POP contamination from these sources.
from the reference stations contained only background
Investigations of oil products delivered to Norwegian state-
levels. The results of the study by Schlabach and Skotvold
owned mining companies on Svalbard have shown that
(1996a, 1996b) illustrate that combustion-related sources
none of these contained PCB (SFT 1996).
such as metal smelting are significant locally. The smelters
Another potential source of PCB is transformers on oil
on the Kola Peninsula and at Norilsk are probably also
drilling platforms. The oil well platform Piper Alpha re-
local PCDD/F sources in Russia. Overall, metal smelting
leased 5 tonnes of PCB into the North Sea when a fire de-
and other combustion-related processes within the Arctic
stroyed it in 1988 (Wells et al. 1989). Oil exploration and
could be important contributors to the background level
exploitation is ongoing in the northern North Sea by,
of contamination.

196
AMAP Assessment Report
was DDT and it was first applied directly into the Yukon
6.2.4.3.2. PCDD/F contamination from chlorine-bleached
River in July 1948. Aerial spraying of DDT, and later ground
kraft pulp and paper mills
fogging, to control mosquitoes was also conducted. There
Pulp and paper mills employing elemental chlorine for
does not seem to be a complete, cumulative record of the to-
bleaching wood pulp are located within the Arctic Ocean
tal quantity of DDT applied over this period of time, although
drainage area. The pulp mills located in closest proximity
Nordin et al. (1993) estimated a total application of over
to the Arctic Ocean are found in western Russia. Pulp mills
15.8 tonnes. Spraying of DDT continued until 1969 when
in northern Alberta, on the Wapiti, Peace, and Athabasca
DDT was replaced by other insecticides (Nordin et al. 1993).
Rivers also discharge into waters which reach the Arctic
Similar pest control activities occurred within the Arctic
Ocean (over 2000 km north) via the Mackenzie River; pulp
Ocean watershed in Canada, for example, treatment of the
mills in northwestern Ontario and Manitoba are also with-
Athabasca and Saskatchewan Rivers with DDT, and later
in the Hudson Bay drainage area.
with methoxychlor, for control of blackflies (Fredeen 1972).
Studies in the Arkhangelsk area indicate local PCDD/F
As far as can be determined, no OC pesticides were used
contamination along the Severnaya Dvina River and its
in Arctic Norway or Sweden. Unofficial use of DDT may
tributaries where at least two chlorine-bleached kraft pulp
still be continuing in remote areas of Siberia, Russia, primar-
and paper mills are located (Yufit and Khotuleva 1994).
ily for insect control (McConnell et al. 1996). Just as in Can-
The PCDD/F concentrations appear to be low in the river
ada, DDT was probably used for insect control around DEW
sediments and water samples analyzed, indicating that these
Line sites in Alaska.
are not major PCDD/F sources to the Barents Sea via the
White Sea. This study is described in more detail in section
6.6.3.2.1.3.
6.3. Characteristics of Arctic ecosystems
Studies of the emissions and ultimate fate of PCDD/Fs in
related to POP accumulation
the Peace-Athabasca River system were conducted from
1992-1996 (Pastershank and Muir 1995, 1996). PCDD/Fs
A number of generalizations can be made about POP accu-
were first detected in the effluent of three mills in the region
mulation in Arctic climates compared to temperate climates.
in the late 1980s. Highest levels of PCDD/Fs were found in
Several characteristics of Arctic ecosystems influence the ex-
environmental samples within 50 km downstream from the
tent and manner in which POPs bioaccumulate and/or cause
mills on the Athabasca and Wapiti Rivers (Swanson et al.
stresses in biota that may make them more vulnerable to the
1995, Pastershank and Muir 1996). PCDD/F levels returned
effects of POPs (section 6.8.4). The details of the relationship
to upstream (control site) levels in fish sampled more than
between the tendency of organisms to accumulate POPs and
100 km downstream from the bleached kraft mill effluent
the characteristics of their environments are discussed in sec-
source. All three mills upgraded their bleaching processes in
tion 6.6. The most important characteristics of the Arctic
the early 1990s and converted to the use of chlorine dioxide
that relate to POP bioaccumulation in biota are the following.
as a substitute for molecular chlorine by 1993. Following
the introduction of these process changes, emissions of
1. Cold
2,3,7,8-TCDD and TCDF declined substantially (Swanson
Cold conditions influence physical characteristics of the abio-
et al. 1995). Nevertheless, low concentrations of PCDD/Fs
tic environment, the chemical and physical characteristics of
and other organochlorines (e.g., chloroveratroles), indica-
contaminants, the rates of biological processes, and a large
tive of a chlorine-bleach pulp source, were found in the west-
number of physiological and behavioral adaptations of biota
ern basin of Great Slave Lake (Evans et al. 1996). Concentra-
to cold. The most important of these adaptations is the
tions of PCDD/Fs in the lake sediments are discussed in more
metabolic use of lipids as an energy source and as stored en-
detail in section 6.6.3.2.1.2. The results from Great Slave
ergy. As a result, large amounts of lipids are transferred in
Lake demonstrate that PCDD/Fs could be transported long
Arctic food webs. This is the most important factor relating
distances in the Mackenzie River system. PCDD/Fs are also
to OC accumulation and biomagnification in Arctic biota
detectable in estuarine sediments in the Mackenzie Delta area
(section 6.3.1.1. below).
(section 6.6.4.2.2; Macdonald unpubl. data 1996), although
the sources of the contaminants at this site, which are more
2. Conspicuous species and humans at high trophic levels
than 2000 km from the pulp mills, are likely to be diffuse.
Arctic food chains, in general, are neither longer nor shorter
than natural food chains in temperate regions. There are
many species of first-level carnivores in both climates, but
6.2.4.4. Pesticides
there are few third-level carnivores.
Persistent chlorinated pesticides have been used in the past
Nevertheless, many southern environments have simpler
in the Arctic in a variety of ways, especially for the control
food webs than Arctic ecosystems for a variety of reasons,
of insects such as biting flies and mosquitoes in or near po-
including the dominance of agriculture and livestock farm-
pulated areas. Other uses within urban areas may be impor-
ing, past and present exploitation (e.g., logging, hunting),
tant, such as use as rodenticides, treatment of stored grains
and contamination (e.g., fertilizers, pesticides). At southern
and other foods, and medical uses. With the exception of
and temperate latitudes, many of the large higher level carni-
agricultural areas at the southern extremes of the water-
vores (e.g., seals, other marine mammals, birds of prey, wolves,
sheds of the Mackenzie, Nelson, Ob, Yenisey, and other
wild cats), particularly the ones that competed with humans
major north-flowing rivers in Russia, there has not been
for food, are relatively rare or have become extinct. While
widespread use of pesticides for agricultural purposes in
contaminant levels in these species may be a concern, the
these watersheds.
species are seldom eaten by humans. Thus, the opportunity
In Canada, knowledge of pesticide usage in the North-
for biomagnification of contaminants to humans is consider-
west Territories has been limited largely to anecdotal infor-
ably reduced (section 6.4). In the Arctic, on the other hand,
mation, although there is evidence of DDT at DEW Line
these third-level predators are more likely to be consumed
sites (Bright et al. 1995a). The main insecticide used in the
by humans, and thus, transfer of contaminants to humans is
Yukon for mosquito and black fly control in the late 1940s
more likely to occur.

Chapter 6 ท Persistent Organic Pollutants
197
Also, in the Arctic, some of the higher level carnivores
5. Cyclic annual productivity
that are consumed by humans, such as whales, are older
Arctic ecosystems are highly pulsed due to fluctuations in light
than animals used for meat at southern latitudes. Such ani-
levels, nutrient input, and temperature. OCs and nutrients
mals may have high contaminant levels due to many years
deposited on snow, ice, soil, and plants during the Arctic
of accumulation.
winter can be mobilized and assimilated very quickly in the
spring when light and warmer temperatures occur. In fresh-
3. Low species diversity
water systems, the spring melt carries nutrients and some
The low species diversity in the Arctic is the result of recent
OCs into streams, ponds, and lakes. In the Arctic marine
repeated glaciations, and consequently, a short evolutionary
and freshwater environments, a burst of primary productiv-
history of ecosystems, and also often due to low absolute
ity occurs under the ice when light levels become high in the
productivity. Polar areas that have not experienced such
spring. At this time, nutrients, lipids, and associated contam-
glaciations, such as the Antarctic marine environment, have
inants can move into and through the food web very rapidly.
considerably higher biological diversity and an accompany-
The cyclic productivity is related to many physiological
ing higher degree of specialization (Dunbar 1968). Although
and behavioral adaptations of plants and animals to their
listings of Arctic species may appear substantial, the num-
environment. The first major adaptation important to POP
ber of species in any particular area is usually very limited.
bioaccumulation is the ability to consume food, grow and
The complexity of food webs increases as Arctic ecosystems
store energy when food is available, and to metabolize
grade into temperate ecosystems.
stored energy when no food is available The importance of
Because of the low species diversity, some food chains may
lipids in this process is further discussed in sections 6.3.1.1
be very simple, for example, the lichen caribou wolf
and 6.4. The second adaptation is migration and/or disper-
chain in Arctic Canada. This chain is of particular interest be-
sal to superior overwintering or feeding habitats, in most
cause of the importance of caribou as a food source to many
cases outside of the Arctic.
northerners. Food webs are more complex in most freshwa-
To interpret contaminant levels in many species, it must al-
ter habitats, and even more complex in marine habitats.
so be recognized that many Arctic animals disperse or migrate
The low diversity in the Arctic is associated with oppor-
at some points in life, hence they are exposed to different lev-
tunistic and invading species that are adapted to survive
els of contaminants at different life stages or at different times
successfully under a range of conditions. Individuals in
of the year. A large variety of dispersal and migration patterns
many Arctic species adjust their feeding habits, growth
exist in Arctic animals, and the patterns for any species may
rates, migration patterns, and reproductive characteristics
differ between years. Thus, contaminants in some species and
in response to climatic factors or the availability of food.
also in the predators that consume them may not directly re-
Individuals or species in any given environment may be op-
late to contaminant deposition in their summering ranges.
portunistic feeders and, thus, may not have a well-defined
Some details about the dispersal and migration patterns
position in the food web. For example, the freshwater am-
of individual species are described in the discussion of spe-
phipod Gammarus can be entirely herbivorous, but is car-
cies in section 6.6.
nivorous if possible; a few individuals in a population of
freshwater fish may be cannibals; and walrus, which feed
6. Physical stressors in the Arctic
mainly on mollusks, may eat seals if desperate or if the op-
There are numerous stressors, not directly related to chemi-
portunity is provided. Feeding strategies may also depend
cal contamination, which do and will continue to affect the
on the age and experience of an animal, and may also dif-
Arctic. Any of these could influence the effects of OCs on
fer between years. Many species are adapted to withstand
species or ecosystems since the stressors may affect their
periods of starvation. Few population ecologists consider
health in a variety of ways. Among these stressors are habi-
Arctic species to be `sensitive', since the environmental tol-
tat destruction due to, e.g., hydroelectric development, in-
erances of most species are broad.
creased human settlement and activity, resource extraction,
climate change, and over-harvesting (Welch 1995). The Arc-
4. Low productivity
tic environment is very sensitive to physical disturbance, re-
Many areas of the Arctic are low in productivity primarily
covering slowly due to the cold climate and low biological
due to low levels of nutrient input and low levels of light,
productivity. The terrestrial environment is particularly sus-
not necessarily due to the cold or short growing season
ceptible, with evidence of minor human activity often obvi-
(Dunbar 1968, 1986). Low productivity is most common
ous after hundreds of years. The marine environment is also
in terrestrial and freshwater environments.
vulnerable. Ecotourism has already led to habitat destruc-
The levels of productivity in an area may be dependent
tion and harassment of animals in some cases. Seabirds are
on aerial deposition of nutrients and organic matter, and in
particularly susceptible to oil fouling.
aquatic systems, inputs from streams and rivers, and up-
welling of nutrient-rich water from southern water masses.
6.3.1. The relationship between food webs and
All inputs tend to carry organic matter, and associated con-
POP accumulation
taminants.
In lakes, productivity level is correlated with food web
Studies in both temperate and Arctic ecosystems have shown
complexity. Such relationships may partly account for dif-
that the accumulation and metabolism of organic contami-
ferent rates of bioaccumulation for a species when compar-
nants in fauna is dependent on the length of the food chain.
ing systems.
For example, Rasmussen et al. (1990) reported that in lakes
Low productivity in the Arctic may result in slower-
in Ontario, Canada, each trophic level contributed a 3.5-fold
growing and longer-lived poikilotherms than in temperate
biomagnification factor to PCB concentrations in lake trout
climates (Dunbar 1968). Fish and invertebrates may be ex-
(Salvelinus nanaycush); the lipid content of trout also in-
posed to OCs for a long period of time before being con-
creased 1.5-fold for each additional trophic level. Also, food
sumed in the next level of the food web. Within popula-
web characteristics relate to the type of OCs accumulated
tions, OC levels in individual fish have been shown to relate
since some OCs are metabolized or excreted more efficiently
to age in both temperate and Arctic species.
than others.

198
AMAP Assessment Report
Similar processes occur in Arctic systems. As an exam-
first egg and lower levels in subsequent eggs (Bignert et al.
ple, Figure 6ท41 (see section 6.6.4.10) demonstrates the
1994). In migratory species, these lipids and OCs often
biomagnification of PCBs and chlordane-related compounds
originate from winter feeding areas at southern latitudes. In
at different trophic levels in the marine food web. The log-
mammals, lipid reserves are also converted to lipid-rich
arithmic plot for PCBs has a slope of approximately 1,
milk, which may result in unusually high OC concentra-
hence the increase at each level of the food web is approxi-
tions in young animals. For example, harp and hooded seal
mately 10-fold.
pups attain the PCB level in their mothers within two weeks
Some Arctic food webs are not well defined due to the
after birth (Espeland et al. 1996).
opportunistic feeding habits of Arctic species and a lack
Due to a lifetime of feeding on lipid-rich foods, older
of knowledge of the food webs. One recent approach to
individuals usually have higher OC concentrations than
quantifying the trophic status of individuals or species has
younger animals. For example, in seals, older males often
been to measure ratios of stable carbon (13C/12C) or nitro-
have the highest OC levels since females are able to excrete
gen (15N/14N) isotopes (Peterson and Fry 1987) (for an ex-
OCs in milk (Espeland et al. 1996).
ample, see Figure 6ท20 in section 6.6.3.4.1). Carbon iso-
Nutritional status can have dramatic effects on OC lev-
tope ratios do not change much from prey to predator, en-
els. When animals are starved or lose weight due to other
abling the original carbon source to be traced through the
stresses, the lipid content in their tissues necessarily de-
food web. The heavier isotope of nitrogen 15N is usually en-
creases. However, the total amount of many contaminants
riched approximately 3.7 parts per thousand in an organ-
in body tissues does not decrease, hence contaminant con-
ism compared to its diet since the lighter isotope is prefer-
centrations in the lipids or in vital organs increase. This has
entially metabolized. Stable isotopes integrate information
been observed in several species. Polar bears undergo a long
from an organism's diet over the time period of tissue
period of fasting during which the adipose fat reserves are
turnover.
depleted. The lipid weight levels of PCB, chlordane, and
chlorinated benzenes increase in the remaining fat and in
the milk, thus increasing the amounts ingested by cubs
6.3.1.1. Role of lipids in Arctic food webs
(Polischuk et al. 1994, 1995). Harp seals from the Barents
Due to the hydrophobic nature of organic contaminants,
Sea showed seasonal changes in POPs levels related to
their dynamics in Arctic food webs is closely related to the
changes in blubber thickness, with the highest levels found
dynamics of lipids in Arctic organisms. OC levels in Arctic
when the animals were leanest (Kleivane et al. 1995). PCB
organisms are mostly determined by the OC levels in lipids
levels increase in female kittiwakes during the egg-laying
that they consume or are in contact with, and the efficiency
period, partly as a result of mobilization of lipid reserves
of lipid absorption (section 6.4). As discussed earlier, high
with consequent decreases in body mass (Henriksen et al.
lipid levels are adaptations to the cold and the cyclic an-
1996). Also, in both freshwater and marine fish species,
nual productivity in many Arctic organisms. Also as dis-
rapid decreases in lipid levels during the spawning season
cussed, long lipid-based food chains and complex food
have been shown to be accompanied by sudden increases in
webs also contribute to high levels of OCs in the Arctic.
PCB and DDT (Edgren et al. 1981, Bignert et al. 1993, Ja-
The transfer of lipids is particularly evident in the ma-
cobsen et al. 1993).
rine food web. The lipid content of primary producers,
The higher lipid weight levels of OCs caused by reduced
mainly diatoms, is high (Sargent and Henderson 1986).
amounts of body fats may have toxicological implications.
Pelagic marine organisms that feed on the phytoplankton
Geyer et al. (1993a, 1993b) have found significant correla-
have a strong propensity for converting phytoplankton
tions between LC50/LD50 values and total body fat contents
into lipid stores (Falk-Petersen et al. 1981, Sargent and
for dieldrin in mosquito larvae, lindane ( -HCH) in fish,
Falk-Petersen 1981). The lipids produced by phytoplank-
and 2,3,7,8-TCDD in mammals. The higher the percent of
ton during the spring bloom in March and April are evi-
total body fat in different species, the less toxic the OCs
dent as high lipid levels in the zooplankton species Calanus
were. They concluded that storage of OCs in fat serves as a
finmarchicus and Thysanoessa spp. (krill) (up to 70% and
detoxification mechanism, removing them from sites of ac-
50% of dry weight, respectively) in June to August, and
tion. In light of this, increased lipid weight OC levels due to
then as high lipid levels (up to 50%) in a fish species, Mal-
seasonal reductions in the amount of total body fats would
lotus villosus (capelin), which feeds on these zooplankton
imply increased risk of toxic effects in the organism.
in September and October. Transfer to higher levels of the
When body fat is reduced, OCs may be redistributed
food web occurs over many years, since most species at the
from the adipose tissue to vital organs such as the central
top of the food web, particularly marine mammals, are
nervous system (Henriksen et al. 1996). Diseased and
long-lived.
starved female Baltic grey seals have been shown to have
A large proportion of the body mass of marine mam-
higher lipid weight concentrations of polybrominated di-
mals is fat. This is consolidated as a blubber layer that
phenyl ethers, polychlorinated camphenes (toxaphene),
serves as both body insulation and energy storage. Many
chlordanes, DDT, PCBs and methylsulfonated chlorobi-
species, particularly carnivores, have a preference for lipid-
phenyls than healthy females (Olsson et al. 1992a). Emaci-
rich tissues. For example, polar bears prefer to eat blubber
ated animals that have been found dead (e.g., Icelandic gyr-
and skin of seals (Stirling and McEwan 1975). This prefer-
falcon, section 6.6.2.3.4) often contain high levels of conta-
ence or necessity may exist for many Arctic species that
minants because of low lipid levels, and in many cases it is
survive at colder temperatures and/or accumulate energy
believed that the contaminants may have contributed to the
reserves before an Arctic winter or for reproduction.
death of the animals.
Lipids and associated OCs can be passed on from par-
There are no latitudinal patterns in the lipid content of
ent to offspring during several stages of development and
dominant fish (cod, herring, and mackerel) in northern wa-
during lactation in mammals. OC levels in bird eggs are
ters or in the lipid content of marine mammals (Wania
usually 60% of the levels in the adults on a wet weight
1995). However, latitudinal differences in the types of lipids
basis (Braune and Norstrom 1989). In birds that lay more
in organisms could influence the bioaccumulation of OCs.
than one egg, highest OC levels are usually found in the
Numerous latitudinal differences in lipid metabolism have

Chapter 6 ท Persistent Organic Pollutants
199
been reported. For example, it has been known for more
both continents. Terrestrial carnivores such as birds of prey
than 20 years that poikilotherms increase the ratio of
and mustelids also feed on species in freshwater systems.
polyunsaturated to saturated fatty acids in membrane
The trophic level of some species may be higher at later
lipids in response to lowered ambient temperatures
life stages. Many fish feed on phytoplankton and zooplank-
(Greene and Selivonchick 1987). Also, the lipid content
ton at early life stages, then progress to feeding on inverte-
of organs involved in osmoregulation has been reported
brates and mollusks, and later become piscivores. In the
to be lower at marine salinities (Henderson and Tocher
North American Arctic, individual Arctic char or lake trout,
1987). However, such trends have not been related to
usually very large individuals, will eventually become can-
levels of OCs.
nibals, feeding on smaller individuals of their own species
(Welch 1991).
Arctic ponds that freeze to the bottom in winter do not
6.3.1.2. Terrestrial food webs
contain fish. However, the biological productivity in sum-
Arctic terrestrial food webs can be short, often consisting
mer months can be high and the productivity does feed into
of plants or lichens at the primary producer level, a few
several food chains. Numerous herbivorous and some car-
herbivores, and one or two main predators. The air
nivorous invertebrates live in such ponds. The third trophic
plant animal contaminant pathway is the major route
level usually consists of migratory birds.
of contamination into the food chain. Large Arctic herbi-
Riverine food webs are usually similar to lake food webs
vores include caribou and reindeer (Rangifer tarandus),
in habitats of the same dimensions, but detritivorous mi-
muskoxen (Ovibos moschatus), ptarmigan (Lagopus spp.),
croorganisms and invertebrate species are more common in
and Arctic hare (Lepus arcticus). Also, waterfowl such as
flowing water. In general, the same carnivorous fish species
geese and swans are entirely herbivorous in both their
inhabit rivers as lakes.
southern and northern ranges. Numerous small mammals
Rivers are the migration routes for many species of ana-
occur in the Arctic, including ground squirrels (Spermo-
dromous fish such as Arctic char and coregonids, which are
philus parryii), voles (Clethrionomys rutilus and Microtus
extensively fished during the fall migrations by local people.
spp.), lemmings, mustelids, and shrews (Sage 1986). These
Also, seals and whales will move into inland lakes, rivers,
animals are consumed by weasels, red fox (Vulpes vulpes),
and estuaries during the summer months.
Arctic fox (Alopex lagopus), wolves (Canis lupus), wolver-
ines (Gulo gulo), barren ground grizzly bears (Ursus arc-
6.3.1.4. Marine food webs
tos), and humans. The diversity and complexity of the
food webs increases in subarctic habitats.
The inter-relationships between water, land, and ice result
The lichen-to-caribou food chain is of interest because
in diverse habitats for marine Arctic flora and fauna. These
caribou are consumed by humans. Caribou's main winter
habitats include open seas, channels, estuaries, shallow bays,
food source, lichens, accumulate contaminants more read-
deep fjords, lakes, rivers, fast ice, pack ice, ice edges, poly-
ily than other plants because of their large surface area,
nyas, and shore leads (chapter 4).
longevity, and ability to bind heavy metals. They accumu-
A generalized marine Arctic food web, or more accurate-
late atmospheric contaminants in a non-selective manner,
ly, a diagram of the flow of energy, nutrients, and organic
resulting in a contaminant load similar to atmospheric
matter, and thus OCs, which includes major species and taxa
input (Thomas et al. 1992).
of interest, is shown in Figure 6ท2 (next page). Different
Many terrestrial shorebirds (Charadriidae and Scolopa-
parts of this chain are more dominant in different marine
cidae) can be considered first- or second-level carnivores in
areas and at different times of the year. The most commonly
terrestrial or freshwater food webs. They in turn are preyed
presented Arctic food chain, leading from primary producers
upon by the mammalian predators listed above and by
to top level carnivores such as seabirds, polar bears, and hu-
birds of prey, including owls, eagles, hawks, accipiters, and
mans, is most often discussed in relation to OCs.
falcons.
In ice-free offshore waters, the phytoplankton-supported
part of the food web dominates. The benthic component of
the food web is most important in nearshore areas beyond
6.3.1.3. Freshwater food webs
the intertidal and ice scour zone (Clarke 1993). Estuaries
Important freshwater systems include lakes, tundra ponds,
such as Hudson Bay and the Mackenzie River Delta are
and rivers. Arctic lake food webs usually have five trophic
moderately productive, and support coregonids and beluga.
levels, with plants at the base, herbivores that include zoo-
The marine subarctic consists of seas and basins in which
plankton, detrital feeders, such as benthic insect larvae and
Arctic waters mix with other Atlantic and Pacific waters or
crustacea, carnivores feeding on benthic organisms, and pis-
freshwaters. These areas are vertically unstable, and where
civores. In North American Arctic lakes, Arctic char (Sal-
nutrient upwelling from deep water occurs, these areas can
velinus alpinus), lake whitefish (Coregonus clupeaformis),
be very productive. Some important fisheries, including At-
and lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush) are the most com-
lantic cod, salmon, redfish, and capelin, occur in these
mon first-order carnivores. Several other species of white-
areas where water masses meet or upwelling occurs, such as
fish (Coregonus sp.), several species of salmon (Salmo spp.),
in Lancaster Sound in the Canadian Arctic. Also, marine
and grayling (Thymallus arcticus) replace char at lower
mammals and seabirds concentrate at polynyas, leads, and
latitudes or in more productive habitats. Many of the spe-
ice edges in these areas (Stirling and Cleator 1981, Brad-
cies that occur in the western Arctic of North America also
street and Cross 1982).
occur in eastern Russia. In Europe, the most common car-
Detrital food webs, which start with decomposing or-
nivorous species are brown trout (Salmo trutta), European
ganic matter and then produce nutrients for primary pro-
whitefish (Coregonus lavaretus), Arctic char, and Atlantic
duction, are not easily demonstrated in food web diagrams,
salmon (Salmo salar). Second-order carnivorous fish occur
but are nevertheless important in the transfer of contami-
in some systems. Higher-level carnivores include inconnu
nants. Two examples are the importance of epontic ice al-
(Coregonus leucichthys) in the western North American
gae in the marine food web and benthic food webs based
Arctic, and pike (Esox lucius) and burbot (Lota lota) on
on detritus.

200
AMAP Assessment Report
Nutrients and
Nutrients and
detritus in
detritus in water
snow and ice
Phytoplankton,
Benthic algae, kelp
Pelagic invertebrates
Epontic algae
Benthic invertebrates
Zooplankton
Bowhead
whale
Capelin, small
pelagic fish
Epontic fauna
Waterfowl,
Demersal
Arctic cod
Whitefish
fish
Nutrients and detritus in sediments
Greenland
Atlantic
Ringed
Walrus
Arctic char
halibut
cod
seal
White
Bearded
Hooded seal,
Seabirds,
Narwhal
whale
seal
harp seal
Gulls
Killer
Polar
Arctic
Glaucous
Humans
whale
bear
fox
gull
Figure 6ท2. Generalized marine food web.

Chapter 6 ท Persistent Organic Pollutants
201
6.4. Bioaccumulation and biomagnification
6.4.1. Terrestrial ecosystem bioaccumulation/
in terrestrial, freshwater,
biomagnification
and marine environments ญ
The presence of OCs in the terrestrial ecosystem is primarily
definitions and general principles
the result of long-range transport of these contaminants in
air. OCs bound to particles are deposited onto plants, snow,
The majority of the POPs, particularly the organochlori-
and soil, and OCs in the gas phase diffuse into the waxy lay-
nes (OCs) discussed in this chapter, are semi-volatile, have
ers of plants. Soil microorganisms and invertebrates accu-
low water solubilities and are highly lipophilic. These
mulate OCs that are bound to organic matter via direct con-
characteristics, combined with their chemical stability,
tact with the soil or from soil ingestion. Accumulation in
lead to the establishment of a steady state between con-
plants is from dry and wet deposition of particles onto plant
centrations in water and air and in organic phases such as
surfaces and diffusion from air into waxy layers. Plant up-
organic carbon and lipids (Mackay and Paterson 1981,
take of OCs via the roots is very limited.
1982). Many POPs are therefore found strongly associated
For animals, uptake from breathing air is considered to
with organic matter, such as particles with high organic
be negligible. Bioaccumulation is primarily from food inges-
contents (humus, soot), after emission. A small fraction of
tion. Herbivorous birds and mammals are exposed to OCs
the total is found dissolved in water or in the gas phase in
via ingestion of plants and soil while omnivores may ingest
air. Living organisms are exposed to POPs in these abiotic
terrestrial invertebrates as well as smaller birds and mam-
matrices, and the POPs enter the organisms by varying
mals. Animals that eat perennial vegetation, for example
routes and accumulate in the body lipids (see for example:
lichens and twigs, will be exposed to more OCs than those
Thomann and Connolly 1984, Connolly and Pedersen
eating annual herbs because of the accumulation of particles
1988, Oliver and Niimi 1988, Thomann 1989, Bierman
containing OCs on the plant surfaces. At the top of the food
1990, Opperhuizen and Sijm 1990, Thomann et al. 1992,
web are the predatory birds and mammals, which feed on
Fox et al. 1994). Bioaccumulation is the term used to de-
herbivores and omnivores.
fine the net accumulation of POPs from all exposure routes
(Thomann 1989). Bioaccumulation is usually expressed as
6.4.2. Freshwater ecosystem bioaccumulation/
the concentration of a POP in an organism on a lipid weight
biomagnification
basis divided by the concentration found in water (truly
dissolved) or air (gas phase).
There are a few cases where local sources of OCs have conta-
Biomagnification is the term used to define the increased
minated freshwater systems in the Arctic, but the presence of
accumulation of POPs with each trophic level in a food
OCs in the freshwater ecosystem is primarily the result of long-
web and is expressed as the concentrations in the organ-
range transport in air. OCs bound to particles are eventually
ism divided by the concentrations in its food, both on a
deposited onto snow, soil, ice, and water surfaces. Particles
lipid weight or organic carbon (sediments, soils) basis. In
on snow and soil particles are eventually washed into water-
aquatic ecosystems, uptake through ingestion of contami-
ways by snowmelt, rain, and flooding. When the ice melts,
nated food is the main route for bioaccumulation of POPs
the deposited particles enter the water. Particles deposited on
with log Kow > 5, with only a small fraction being accumu-
water surfaces are mixed into the water mass. In these cases,
lated from gill respiration (Thomann 1989, Thomann et
the particles become suspended in the water column.
al. 1992).
The suspended particles eventually sediment out in lake bot-
The patterns of POPs in abiotic samples will resemble
toms. OCs bound to the suspended particles diffuse between
those from emission sources, although they will have been
the particle's organic carbon fraction and the water, especi-
altered to some extent during long-range transport. Bio-
ally the dissolved carbon fraction. In sediments, OCs diffuse
availability refers to the extent to which pollutants associ-
between the organic carbon of the sediment, the pore water
ated with soils, plants, sediments, or suspended or dissolved
between sediment particles, and the overlying water layer.
organic carbon in the water column are available for up-
Aquatic microorganisms, plankton, algae, and plants are
take by biota (Dickson et al. 1994). Many factors such as
exposed to OCs via contact with the dissolved fraction in
organic carbon content of soils and sediments, pH, and ki-
water and possible direct contact with suspended particles.
netic limitations influence the amount of a contaminant
Uptake occurs by diffusion into the lipid-rich outer mem-
that can be released from food particles in the gut or dis-
branes and waxy layers and from food ingestion for micro-
solved into sediment pore-waters, and therefore reduce the
organisms and zooplankton.
environmental bioavailability. Despite being tightly bound
Invertebrates bioaccumulate OCs dissolved in the water
to particles, membranes, and fat globules, most organo-
phase when these come in contact with the gills as well as
chlorine contaminants of concern in the Arctic have been
from ingestion of microorganisms, plankton, suspended par-
shown in laboratory studies with invertebrates, fish, mam-
ticles, and sediment. For fish, bioaccumulation will mainly
mals, and birds, to be readily assimilated from the diet, and
be from food ingestion, whether this is sediment, plankton,
when present in the dissolved phase in water, to be rapidly
or other fish, but some accumulation will come from gill res-
accumulated from water.
piration, depending on how lipophilic the OCs are. The more
The POP patterns may change for each trophic level in a
lipophilic the OC, the less important gill uptake becomes.
food web as more easily metabolized POPs are eliminated
Accumulation in mammals and birds will be entirely from
and the more persistent POPs are biomagnified. Thus, pre-
food ingestion.
datory birds and mammals at high trophic levels will main-
ly be exposed to the most persistent POPs (e.g., in section
6.4.3. Marine ecosystem bioaccumulation/
6.1 and Figure 6ท1). This means that, for ecotoxicological
biomagnification
risk assessment purposes, it is also important to analyze the
levels of POPs at lower trophic levels, in order to estimate
The presence of OCs in the marine ecosystem is the result of
the intake and therefore exposure of organisms at higher
long-range transport in air, diffuse pollution from land-based
trophic levels.
and water-based sources in the Arctic, the riverine input of

202
AMAP Assessment Report
contaminated sediments via water flow or ice, as well as
in the gastrointestinal tract. POPs, particularly OCs, cross
from the mixing of oceanic waters. The input of OCs will
the gill/gut membrane and enter the blood where they are
mainly be in the form of particles that are deposited, washed,
quickly distributed to high lipid tissues such as the liver and
or transported in ice into the marine ecosystem. In the case
adipose tissue. Metabolism and elimination are often slow,
of the sea ice edge, the particles will be released to the wa-
leading to a net increase of these substances in the organism
ter as the ice melts. The presence of TBT in the marine eco-
over time.
system is the result of diffusion from ship bottoms, nets,
There are species differences in the tissue distribution of
and other devices in seawater that have been treated. TBT
OCs, partly due to differences in lipid distribution. For ex-
will also mainly be bound to particles.
ample, high concentrations of orally administered 2,3,3',4,4'-
In open waters, the suspended particles eventually sedi-
PeCB (CB105) were found in the liver and brain of cod,
ment out to the sea bottom. POPs bound to the suspended
while rainbow trout accumulation was in the extrahepatic
particles diffuse between the particle's organic carbon frac-
fat depots (Bernhoft et al. 1994). Lipid dynamics can also
tion and the water, especially the dissolved carbon fraction.
affect the distribution of OCs. Female kittiwakes (Rissa tri-
In sediments, POPs diffuse between the organic carbon of
dactyla) showed a redistribution of PCBs from the liver and
the sediment, the pore water between sediment particles,
body fat to the brain during the period of pre-breeding to
and the overlying water layer.
late chick rearing. This was in part due to the mobilization
Aquatic microorganisms, plankton, algae, and plants are
of lipids from the liver and body fat during reproduction
exposed to POPs via contact with the dissolved fraction in
and subsequent loss in body mass, which in turn led to high-
water and possible direct contact with suspended particles.
er lipid weight PCB concentrations in the remaining lipids
Uptake occurs to the lipid-rich outer membranes and waxy
(Henriksen et al. 1996). These examples imply that different
layers. Microorganisms and zooplankton are also exposed
tissues in different species will be the targets for possible ef-
via food uptake. Suspended particulate matter concentra-
fects from OCs, and this in turn is affected by lipid distribu-
tions in ice-covered regions of the Arctic Ocean are very
tion and dynamics.
low (Gordon and Cranford 1985), but increases occur dur-
Metabolism of xenobiotics occurs mainly in the liver via
ing late summer due to production by under-ice epontic
a two-phase process. In phase I, xenobiotics are converted
algae and phytoplankton in the upper water column (Har-
by oxidation reactions to metabolites that can undergo phase
grave et al. 1989b). Rates of inorganic and organic particu-
II reactions. In phase II, the product is conjugated with glu-
late matter sedimentation also increase by an order of mag-
curonic acid or glutathione, for example, to produce water-
nitude during August (Hargrave et al. 1989b, Hargrave
soluble compounds that can be excreted in urine or bile.
1994) and scavenging of particle-reactive POPs from the
These processes are catalyzed by liver enzymes such as the
water column should be greatest at this time of year. Par-
cytochrome P450 containing monooxygenases (Nebert and
ticle-adsorbed POPs are then available for uptake by graz-
Gonzalez 1987). Substances that are resistant to metabolism
ing organisms or sedimentation and subsequent incorpora-
will be selectively accumulated in living organisms. In addi-
tion in the benthic food web.
tion to detoxification, the enzymatic processes can also cre-
Invertebrates bioaccumulate OCs and TBT dissolved in
ate reactive intermediates that may be mutagenic and/or car-
the water phase when these come in contact with the gills,
cinogenic, or metabolites that are lipophilic and have re-
as well as from ingestion of microorganisms, plankton, sus-
tained toxicity, or that have the ability to bind selectively to
pended particles, and sediment. For fish, bioaccumulation
proteins and accumulate in the organism.
will mainly be from food ingestion, whether this is sedi-
Many OCs form metabolites that are biologically active.
ment, plankton, or other fish, but some accumulation will
DDT is metabolized in living organisms to DDD and further
be from gill respiration, depending on how lipophilic the
to DDE, both of which are lipophilic and toxic, and accu-
OCs are. The more lipophilic the OC, the less important
mulate in biota (WHO 1989a). In some cases, a methylsul-
gill uptake is. OC accumulation in birds and mammals oc-
fone (MeSO2) group is added during metabolism and a num-
curs entirely from food ingestion.
ber of MeSO2-DDE and MeSO2-PCB congeners have been
Particles as well as nutrients are also released at the ice
identified in animals (Jensen and Jansson 1976, Lund et al.
edge as the ice melts and retreats during the summer. The
1988, Haraguchi et al. 1990, 1992, Bergman et al. 1992b,
OCs bound to the particles diffuse between the particle's
1994b, Brandt et al. 1992, Letcher et al. 1994, 1995). Some
organic carbon fraction and the water layer they are trap-
congeners of PCB may also form hydroxylated metabolites
ped in, especially the dissolved carbon fraction. The stable
(Jansson et al. 1975). This type of metabolite has been found
layer of nutrient-rich, low salinity water that forms leads to
to selectively bind to transthyretin, one of the major trans-
a bloom of epontic (ice-edge) algae. These will be exposed
port proteins for retinol and thyroid hormones in the blood
to POPs via contact with the dissolved fraction of OCs in
(Brouwer et al. 1988, 1990, Bergman et al. 1994a). Aldrin
the water layer, and direct contact with suspended particles.
is metabolized in living organisms to dieldrin by the cyto-
Zooplankton will be exposed to OCs in a similar manner
chrome P450-dependent monooxygenase, aldrin epoxidase
although food intake will also play a role. Ice-associated
(WHO 1989c). -chlordane is metabolized to some extent to
amphipods will bioaccumulate OCs dissolved in the water
oxychlordane (WHO 1984a). Hexachlorobenzene is meta-
phase via the gills and from ingesting epontic plankton and
bolized to some extent, mainly by the liver, and may form,
particles. These amphipods in turn are important food for
among other metabolites, pentachlorophenol, tetrachlorohy-
fish, seabirds, and seals.
droquinone, pentachlorothiophenol and lower chlorinated
benzenes (Debets and Strik 1979, Renner 1988).
The major excretion route of OCs and their metabolites
is via the feces. Some of this is passive diffusion over the gut
6.5. Toxicology
membrane and some from bile excretion of metabolites. In
6.5.1. Toxicokinetics
invertebrates and fish, excretion also occurs by diffusion
The majority of the substances dealt with in this chapter are
over the gill membranes. Female fish and birds excrete lipo-
lipophilic, stable, and persistent. They are taken up by aqua-
philic OCs via their eggs, and female mammals via placental
tic living organisms via diffusion over the gills and from food
transfer to the fetus and in breast milk. A particular charac-

Chapter 6 ท Persistent Organic Pollutants
203
teristic of the Arctic is that most marine mammals have
al. 1992). Significant differences were seen in EROD levels
very high fat contents in breast milk in order to facilitate
between males and females at sexual maturation, with fe-
fast growth in the young during the short growing season.
males having lower or non-detectable activity just prior to
For example, polar bear milk has a fat content of 20-46%
ovulation.
(Derocher et al. 1993, Oehme et al. 1995a, Polischuk et al.
Thus, it is very difficult to evaluate the toxicokinetics of
1995, Bernhoft et al. 1996) and different seal species have
environmental exposures to mixtures of OCs. The interac-
milk fat contents of 30-60% (Bacon et al. 1992, Pomeroy
tions that have been seen indicate that the relative amounts
and Green 1993, Addison and Brodie 1977, 1987) as com-
and the composition of various contaminants in animals
pared to fat contents of 1- 4% in human and cow's milk (Be-
may partly be the result of selective effects on the organism's
cher et al. 1995, Nor้n 1988, Rappe et al. 1987). Therefore,
uptake, metabolism, and excretion of OCs, and not solely a
excretion of OCs via milk is more important than via pla-
result of the specific pollution burdens of contaminants in
cental transfer for adult females in marine mammal species.
the area.
This in turn enhances OC exposure of young, particularly
for polar bears, Arctic foxes, whales, and seals. Young harp
6.5.2. Types of effects
and hooded seals, for example, have as high levels of some
OCs as their mothers at the end of the lactation period (Es-
In most laboratory experiments studying the toxicological
peland et al. 1996). Young polar bears (1-2 years) have sim-
effects of POPs, animals are exposed to single substances or
ilar PCB levels to adult females with high PCB levels (Bern-
to technical products, often at acutely toxic doses. In a few
hoft et al. 1996), and polar bear cubs-of-the-year have
studies, combinations of a few substances have been used. It
higher concentrations of many OCs than their mothers
should be remembered that wildlife are exposed to complex
(Polischuk et al. 1995). This is of concern as young animals
mixtures of POPs, most often at low doses. There are often
may be more sensitive to the effects of OCs than adults.
considerable species differences in sensitivity to specific POPs
The net result of uptake, distribution, metabolism, and
as well as differences in response. It is, therefore, often diffi-
excretion will determine the OC levels found in an organism.
cult to generalize results found in one species to other spe-
This is in turn affected by other factors. Studies carried out
cies. The following is a short, general summary of results
to determine the uptake, distribution, metabolism, and ex-
from laboratory studies as well as results from field studies
cretion of OCs are usually done with one substance at a time.
where POPs have been quantified and concentrations have
Wildlife and humans, however, are exposed to complex mix-
been correlated with biological and toxicological effects.
tures of OCs. Very little is known about how different OCs
A wide range of effects are seen after exposure to POPs.
affect each other's toxicokinetics. OCs that induce the hepa-
Some of these types of effects are currently being used as bi-
tic cytochrome P450 system will affect the metabolism of
ological markers for POP exposure. These include, among
other xenobiotics, for example. This may lead to an increase
other things, effects on reproduction, development, cyto-
in xenobiotic metabolism, thus increasing excretion. For ex-
chrome P450-dependent enzymes, porphyrins, the immune
ample, studies on Baltic seals show that high body burdens
system, the adrenals, the thyroid gland, thyroid hormone
of DDT and PCB are associated with lower relative amounts
levels, and vitamin A levels. Almost all POPs considered in
of the mono-ortho CB, 2,3',4,4',5-PeCB (CB 118). At PCB
this report also cause visible changes in the liver, including
concentrations (sum of CBs 28, 52, 101, 118, 138, 153, 181)
hypertrophy, lesions, and in some cases, tumors.
of 50 g/g lw or higher, CB 118 could not be found (Hara-
POPs can cause short-term acute effects when adminis-
guchi et al. 1992, Olsson et al. 1992b). PCB levels in Arctic
tered in high doses as well as long-term chronic effects at
ringed seal are much lower, xenobiotic metabolism does not
lower doses. In the Arctic, the major concern is long-term
seem to be induced, and concomitantly, CB 118 is present in
chronic exposures as organisms are exposed to low levels
higher relative amounts (Norstrom and Muir 1994).
over their entire lifetimes. In this context, the major effects
Lipid weight concentrations of PCBs, chlordanes, and
of concern are those that may affect reproduction and sur-
chlorobenzenes have been found to increase in female polar
vival at the individual and population level. However, effects
bears during their fasting period, but DDT and HCH do
at the individual, population, or ecosystem level come at a
not. This implies that DDT and HCH are metabolized dur-
late stage of exposure (Figure 6ท56, section 6.8). It would be
ing fasting (Polischuk et al. 1995) which could be a result
more useful to have earlier warning of exposure to POPs
of liver enzyme induction. It has also been shown that mink
and, therefore, biological marker systems based on subtle,
exposed to both DDT and PCB only biomagnify PCB where-
low dose effects are being developed. Most biological mark-
as mink exposed either to DDT compounds or PCBs bio-
ers measure effects at the molecular, cellular, or organismal
magnify the two groups of compounds at a similar rate
level, however, it is still not established what these changes
(Kihlstr๖m et al. 1976).
may mean at the individual or population level.
An increase in xenobiotic metabolism may also lead to
an increase in the formation of reactive intermediates, with
6.5.2.1. Reproduction and development
increased toxicity and tissue damage (Boon et al. 1992).
There are indications, for instance, that PCB exposure may
OCs have a number of effects on the ability of organisms to
influence the magnitude of carcinogenicity of PAHs in fish
reproduce and develop normally (for reviews see Peterson et
(Bailey et al. 1989) and that exposure to PCBs also increases
al. 1993, Bosveld and van den Berg 1994, Barron et al. 1995,
the uptake of PAHs in English sole (Stein et al. 1984).
Brouwer et al. 1995). Exposure to some OCs may cause em-
Xenobiotic metabolism is also subject to biological varia-
bryo- and fetotoxicity, decreased offspring survival, abnor-
tion. In a study of salmon (Salmo salar), the cytochrome
malities in the estrus cycle and sex hormone levels, reduced
P450 enzyme system was followed for a year and showed
sperm production, reduced litter sizes, and even total repro-
cyclical variations in enzyme activity. The basal enzyme ac-
ductive failure in mammals. In birds, some OCs cause de-
tivity measured as ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase (EROD)
creased egg production, retarded egg production, increased
levels was higher in both males and females during the win-
embryo mortality, eggshell thinning, embryonic deformities,
ter months and then dropped during the summer, most par-
growth retardation, and reduced egg hatchability, as well as
ticularly during the period of sexual maturation (Larsen et
detrimental effects on parental behavior. In fish, some OCs

204
AMAP Assessment Report
cause decreased egg and larval survival, reduced sexual
is often measured as increases in several enzymes includ-
maturation, and reduced gonad size. Other effects of OCs
ing ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase (EROD) and aryl hydro-
on organisms may include structural malformations, neuro-
carbon hydroxylase (AHH). Induction of cytochrome P450
toxic effects, and neurological and behavioral changes in
1A is mediated by the aryl hydrocarbon (Ah) receptor that
offspring. Behavioral changes also occur in adult animals,
has been found in the cell membranes of all vertebrates stud-
including changes in mating behavior.
ied so far.
Some POPs act as hormones or interfere with endocrine
Cytochrome P450 2B forms are induced by another class
systems and are therefore called endocrine or hormone dis-
of substances, typified by phenobarbital (PB) and measured
rupters. The reproductive effects of embryonic or fetal ex-
as aminopyrine N-demethylase (APND) activity, aldrin epox-
posure to these may only become obvious at later develop-
idase (AE), and pentoxyresorufin-O-dealkylase (PROD), for
mental stages or at sexual maturity. The estrogenic and anti-
example. Substances that induce cytochrome P450 2B are
estrogenic effects of POPs are the best studied. Endocrine
DDT, chlordane, and di- to tetra-ortho PCBs and 3-MeSO2-
disruption is also implicated in thyroid and immune system
PCB. Mono-ortho PCB congeners and technical PCBs are
effects, which are discussed below. Environmental estrogens
mixed type inducers inducing both cytochromes P450 1A
can mimic estrogen by binding to the estrogen receptor and
and 2B.
turning it on. Antiestrogens bind to the receptor and block
There are a number of critical species differences in the
the normal binding of estradiol, thus inhibiting estrogen ac-
cytochrome P450 system, particularly with reference to the
tivity. Normally, estradiol stimulates proliferation and growth
Arctic situation. The cytochrome P450 system of terrestrial
in the reproductive tract and mammary glands of mammals.
mammals, particularly laboratory rodents, has been studied
It is necessary for reproduction and maintaining a pregnan-
rather extensively (see for example Nebert et al. 1991).
cy. In female fish, estradiol normally stimulates the liver to
Mammals generally have two forms of cytochrome P450 1A
produce vitellogenin, a precursor to yolk. Vitellogenin is
known as 1A1 and 1A2 as well as functioning cytochrome
not present in males unless they have been treated with es-
P450 2B forms, and they thus have higher capacity for me-
trogens (Ng and Idler 1983). POPs may also function as an-
tabolizing both groups of OCs.
drogens or antiandrogens. p,p'-DDE is antiandrogenic,
The cytochrome P450 system has been studied very little
binding to the androgen receptor and blocking the binding
in wildlife, but some information is available for fish, birds,
of endogenous androgens (Kelce et al. 1995). Estrogens and
and a few mammals. Fish seem to lack cytochrome P450 2B
androgens are important in the normal sexual differentia-
and have only one version of cytochrome P450 1A (Nebert et
tion of developing organisms.
al. 1989, Stegeman 1989, Stegeman and Hahn 1994, Goks-
Biomarkers have been developed for testing the estrogen-
๘yr 1995b), and thus have a low OC metabolizing capacity.
icity of POPs. Estrogenic effects can be assayed by measur-
Cytochromes P450 1A1 and 1A2 are found in birds (Liv-
ing proliferation of the reproductive tract. This can be done
ingstone and Stegeman 1989) and although there is only
by measuring uterine weight in immature or ovariectomized
weak immunological cross-reactivity with mammalian cy-
rodents (Bulger and Kupfer 1983, Galey et al. 1993) or in-
tochrome P450 2B, studies imply that birds do have func-
creases in oviduct weight in birds (Eroschenko and Palmiter
tional cytochrome P450 2B (Ronis and Walker 1989). PCB
1980). One in vitro bioassay (E-screen) uses a human breast
metabolism in birds is both similar in activity and pattern to
tumor cell line (MCF7) that requires estrogen to proliferate
that in terrestrial mammals, and there is no evidence that
(Soto et al. 1992, Sonnenschein et al. 1995). Cultured rain-
this capability is substantially different in piscivorous or ter-
bow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) hepatocytes have been
restrial bird species.
used to measure vitellogenin production after estrogen and
The cytochrome P450 system has been characterized in
phytoestrogen exposure (Pelissero et al. 1993). The estro-
harbour (Phoca vitulina), grey (Halichoerus grypus), harp
gen receptor of the spotted seatrout (Cynoscion nebulosus)
(Phoca groenlandica), and hooded (Cystophora cristata) seal
has been used to measure the affinity of pesticides for the
(Engelhardt 1982, Addison and Brodie 1984, Addison et al.
estrogen receptor (Thomas and Smith 1993). The presence
1986, Goks๘yr et al. 1992, Goks๘yr 1995a) and in harbour
of vitellogenin in males and non-reproductive females in the
porpoise (Phocoena phocoena), bottlenose dolphin (Tursi-
wild is being used as a biomarker for environmental expo-
ops truncatus), white-sided dolphin (Lagenorhyncus acutus),
sure to estrogenic substances.
striped dolphin (Stenella coeruleoalba), beluga or white
whale (Delphinapterus leucas), short finned pilot whale,
(Globicephala macrorhynchus), killer whale (Orcinus orca),
6.5.2.2. Cytochrome P450 system
and minke whale (Balaenoptera acutorostrata) (Geraci and
The most well developed of the biological markers is the
St. Aubin 1982, Goks๘yr et al. 1985, 1986, 1988, 1989,
study of cytochrome P450-dependent liver enzymes (see,
Watanabe et al. 1989, White et al. 1994). Seals and ceta-
for example, F๖rlin et al. 1994). Exposure to OCs and
ceans, like other mammals, seem to have functional cyto-
some PAHs induces liver cytochrome P450-dependent en-
chromes P450 1A1 and 1A2 and thus a higher capacity to
zymes known as mixed function oxidases (MFO), which
metabolize planar compounds. They differ from terrestrial
metabolize xenobiotics and endogenous substances (Ne-
mammals in having weak cytochrome P450 2B activity and,
bert and Gonzalez 1987). Exposure to high concentrations
thus, a reduced ability to metabolize xenobiotics that are
of MFO-inducing OCs can affect the metabolism of en-
substrates for these particular MFOs (Boon et al. 1992,
dogenous substrates, such as steroid hormones, leading to
Goks๘yr et al. 1992, Goks๘yr 1995a). Seals seem to have
disturbances in critical biological functions (Kupfer and
more cytochrome P450 2B than whales (Goks๘yr 1995a).
Bulger 1976).
The cytochrome P450 enzyme system has also been char-
There are several gene families of cytochrome P450 in
acterized in the polar bear. Polar bear liver possesses several
vertebrates (Nelson et al. 1993) and those that are most
enzymes which immunochemically cross-react with those in
relevant for the metabolism of OCs are the cytochrome
rat, including cytochrome P450 1A1, cytochrome P450 2B1,
P450 1A and 2B gene families. Cytochrome P450 1A forms
cytochrome P450 3A1, and epoxide hydrolase (Bandiera et
are induced by planar aromatic hydrocarbons (such as 3-
al. 1995). Polar bear have a high metabolic capacity, parti-
methylcholanthrene), PCDD/Fs, and nPCBs. This induction
cularly for PCB and DDT (Norstrom and Muir 1994).

Chapter 6 ท Persistent Organic Pollutants
205
CB-66
CB-52
(Payne 1994). Accumulation of highly carboxylated por-
Harbour porpoise
phyrins is seen in herring gulls from the Great Lakes with
Cl
Cl
Cl
high levels of DDE and PCDD/F (Fox et al. 1988).
Cl
Cl
Minke whale
Cl
Cl
Cl
Ringed seal
Activity of
Activity of
CYP1A - type enzymes
CYP2B - type enzymes
6.5.2.4. Immune system
Harp seal
Many OCs are known to disrupt humoral- and cell-mediated
Polar bear
immunity as well as non-specific responses, leading to immuno-
suppression. Humoral-mediated immunity involves the body's
Humans
ability to recognize foreign substances (helper T-cells) and
mount a response by stimulating the production of antibodies
3
2
1
0
1
2
3
(B-cells). Cell-mediated immunity is involved in delayed hyper-
Metabolic Index, MI
sensitivity reactions (e.g., skin reactions to allergens) and the
[MICB-X = log(CCB-X/CCB-153) - log(CCB-180 /CCB-153)]
production of cytotoxic T-cells against tumors and viruses.
Natural killer cells are involved in the elimination of patho-
Figure 6ท3. Cytochrome P450 1A (CYP1A) and cytochrome P450 2B
gens. Most OCs cause multiple effects on the immune system.
(CYP2B) type enzyme activities in some Arctic marine mammals and
Some OCs (PCDD/Fs, some PCBs) as well as TBT have
humans using the metabolic index (MI) suggested by Tanabe et al. 1994a.
direct effects on the thymus, causing atrophy. The most in-
The indices are based on PCB data from the Norwegian College of Vet-
erinary Medicine/National Veterinary Institute (Skaare 1996).
sidious effect of OCs on the immune system is to decrease
an organism's resistance to infection or cancer. Immunosup-
Figure 6ท3 compares the metabolic index as a measure of
pressive effects of OCs can be measured as reduced antibody
cytochrome P450 1A and 2B enzyme activities for different
production when exposed to a foreign antigen, changes in T-
PCB structures in polar bear, harp seal, ringed seal, minke
cell populations, suppression of the anti-sheep red blood cell
whale, and harbour porpoise. The metabolic index for hu-
(SRBC) plaque-forming responses due to suppression of T-
mans is included for comparison. It can be seen that polar
cell responses, decreased delayed-type hypersensitivity, de-
bear have a very high capacity for metabolizing both PCB
creased resistance to virus infections, and decreased natural
structures, while harp seal, ringed seal, and minke whale
killer cell activity (Tryphonas 1994, Wong et al. 1992). All
have relatively low capacity for metabolizing non-planar
of these have been used as biomarkers for immunosuppres-
PCB structures. Harbour porpoise have low metabolizing
sive effects in laboratory as well as wild animals.
capacity for both types of structures.
Immunosuppressive effects may be one of the most sensi-
Organisms lacking functional cytochromes P450 1A or
tive and environmentally relevant effects of OCs (Vos and
2B will not be able to eliminate the OCs metabolized by
Luster 1989). Immunosuppression has been measured in har-
these, leading to their bioaccumulation. This is particularly
bour seals fed Baltic fish under semi-field experiments and
the case for fish, making them carriers of many OCs in food
was found to correlate with levels of PCDD/F and planar
webs. Those organisms that cannot eliminate OCs may ac-
PCBs expressed as TEQs, for example (De Swart et al. 1995,
cumulate concentrations high enough to cause effects. The
Ross et al. 1995, 1996). OC-induced impaired immune func-
presence of functional cytochrome P450 enzymes means
tion is suspected to have played a role in the morbillivirus-
that OCs may be metabolized and eliminated, metabolized
induced mass mortalities of harbour seals, grey seals, and
to lipophilic and toxic metabolites, and/or that OC expo-
striped dolphin populations in Europe during 1987-1991
sure may lead to cytochrome P450 enzyme induction, in-
(Hall et al. 1992, Aguilar and Borrell 1994, Ross et al. 1995,
creasing the amounts of metabolic enzymes present. The
1996). Immunosuppression is also suspected to be the cause
species differences described above will lead to species-spe-
of an increasing prevalence of moderate to severe intestinal
cific responses.
ulcers in Baltic grey seals (Bergman et al. 1996).
6.5.2.3. Porphyria
6.5.2.5. Adrenal effects
Longer-term exposure to high concentrations of many OCs
Certain PCBs and DDTs have been shown to cause severe dam-
leads to porphyria. Porphyrias are disorders in heme biosyn-
age to the adrenal glands including hyperplasia and necrosis.
thesis that lead to tissue dysfunction. Heme is synthesized
Under experimental conditions, elevated blood glucocorticoid
in an eight-step process with a specific enzyme responsible
levels, as seen in hyperadrenocorticism, as well as ultrastructu-
for the conversion of the various heme-precursors known
ral signs of hyperactivity of the zona fasciculata have been found
as porphyrins at each step. OC-related porphyria is associ-
in mammals after exposure (Wassermann and Wassermann
ated with the inhibition of uroporphyrinogen decarboxylase,
1972, Wassermann et al. 1973a, 1979). A disease complex has
an enzyme that converts uroporphyrinogen III to copropor-
been found in Baltic grey and harbour seals that have high lev-
phyrinogen III in the fifth step of heme synthesis. This por-
els of OCs, particularly PCBs. This includes reduced reproduc-
phyria is also associated with the induction of the enzyme
tion as well as adrenocortical hyperplasia with symptoms simi-
delta-amino-levulinic acid synthetase, which leads to an in-
lar to Cushing's syndrome (Bergman and Olsson 1985). Adre-
creased rate of porphyrin production at the first step of the
nal effects have mainly been studied as pathological and histo-
process (ATSDR 1994). Thus, production of porphyrins
logical changes in the adrenal glands of laboratory animals
will be increased leading to increases in the production of
and wildlife. Other, less invasive methods include measuring
heme precursors in the following steps. Inhibition of uro-
plasma corticosterone levels and urinary excretion of cortisol.
porphyrinogen decarboxylase at step five will lead to an ac-
cumulation of these precursors in the liver, body tissues,
6.5.2.6. Thyroid and retinol effects
and feces. The analysis of porphyrin levels and composition
are thus useful biomarkers for exposure to some OCs. For
Thyroid hormones control metabolism and growth and are
example, there is an apparent elevated level of total heme in
essential for normal reproduction. They are also important
highly contaminated beluga from the Gulf of St. Lawrence
for the development of normal brain functions during fetal

206
AMAP Assessment Report
development (Morse et al. 1993, Morse 1995). Some effects
Table 6ท4. TCDD toxic equivalency factors (TEFs) for some specific
on the thyroid seem to be related to the ability of some OCs,
PCB congeners according to the WHO International Programme on
particularly hydroxy-PCB metabolites, to attach to the bind-
Chemical Safety (IPCS) model (Ahlborg et al. 1994).
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
ing sites on the transthyretin-retinol-binding protein com-
Congener
CB (IUPAC number)
WHO-IPCS TEFs (1994)
plex (TTR-RBP) in plasma, thereby disrupting the normal
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
transport of the thyroid hormones triiodothyronine (T3)
3,3'4,4'
77
0.0005
3,3',4,4',5
126
0.1
and thyroxine (T4) as well as vitamin A (retinol) to their
3,3',4,4',5,5'
169
0.01
target tissues. Disruption of this transport leads to lowered
2,3,3',4,4'
105
0.0001
plasma levels of T3 and T4, which in turn may initiate in-
2,3',4,4',5
118
0.0001
2,3,4,4',5
114
0.0005
creased release of thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) to
2',3,4,4',5
123
0.0001
stimulate the thyroid gland to secrete more T3 and T4. This
2,3,3',4,4',5
156
0.0005
2,3,3',4,4',5'
157
0.0005
disruption of the feedback system for thyroid hormones
2,3',4,4',5,5'
167
0.00001
may lead to thyroid hyperplasia (goiter), hypothyroidism,
2,3,3',4,4',5,5'
189
0.0001
and disruptions of metabolism. This is indicated in herring
2,2',3,3',4,4',5
170
0.0001
2,2',3,4,4',5,5'
180
0.00001
gulls from the Great Lakes with high DDT, PCB, and mirex
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
levels, which suffer from goiter and decreased T3 and T4
levels (Jeffries 1975). Another effect may also be related to
Table 6ท5. TCDD toxic equivalency factors (TEFs) for specific PCDD/
the ability of some OCs, such as PCBs, to induce the pro-
PCDF congeners according to the international toxic equivalency factor
(I-TEF) model (NATO/CCMS 1988).
duction of liver enzymes involved in the breakdown of thy-
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
roid hormones. This also results in reduced amounts of thy-
Congener
I-TEF
roid hormones circulating in the plasma.
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
2,3,7,8-TeCDD
1.0
Imbalance in vitamin A (retinol and its esters) status can
1,2,3,7,8-PeCDD
0.5
cause immunosuppression, susceptibility to cancers, and
1,2,3,4,7,8-HxCDD
0.1
skin lesions, as well as disruption of reproduction, growth,
1,2,3,6,7,8-HxCDD
0.1
1,2,3,7,8,9-HxCDD
0.1
and development. Some OCs (particularly PCDDs and PCBs)
1,2,3,4,6,7,8-HpCDD
0.01
affect vitamin A metabolism and transport in several ways.
OCDD
0.001
Hepatic stores may be depleted (Hๅkansson et al. 1990),
2,3,7,8-TeCDF
0.1
1,2,3,7,8-PeCDF
0.05
possibly due to enhanced retinol metabolism (Adams et al.
2,3,4,7,8-PeCDF
0.5
1990). Useful biomarkers for thyroid and retinol effects in-
1,2,3,4,7,8-HxCDF
0.1
1,2,3,6,7,8-HxCDF
0.1
clude measuring plasma levels of free and bound T3 and
1,2,3,7,8,9-HxCDF
0.1
T4, as well as vitamin A levels.
2,3,4,6,7,8-HxCDF
0.1
1,2,3,4,6,7,8-HpCDF
0.01
1,2,3,4,7,8,9-HpCDF
0.01
6.5.2.7. Mutagenic and carcinogenic effects
OCDF
0.001
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Current research supports a two-stage cancer model charac-
terized by a primary mutagenic event (initiation) followed
ortho CBs, mono-ortho CBs, and the bi- and tricyclic conta-
by a long latency period and second event (promotion) that
minant fraction showed similar reproductive success as the
leads to tumor growth. Most of the OCs dealt with in this
controls. This indicates antagonistic effects between the CB
assessment are not mutagenic. However, most of them are
fractions and the PCDF contaminants of the PCB (Kihlstr๖m
strong tumor promoters. Several OCs are associated with
et al. 1992).
increased tumor prevalence found in highly exposed wild-
Mixtures of two pesticides, such as endosulfan, dieldrin,
life from areas outside of the Arctic. Observation of tumor
chlordane, or toxaphene were found to be up to 1000 times
prevalence is being carried out on some Arctic species.
more estrogenic than any individual substance, indicating
synergistic effects (Arnold et al. 1996). However, these re-
sults could not be repeated by other laboratories (Ashby
6.5.2.8. Effects of mixtures
1997, Ramamoorthy et al. 1997). The results have since
Laboratory studies show that some OCs cause additive ef-
been retracted (McLachlan 1997). A mixture of two hydro-
fects, others antagonize, and others cause synergistic re-
xylated PCB congeners has been found to cause synergistic
sponses together with other OCs. For example, PCDD/F,
estrogenic effects (Crews et al. 1995).
nPCB, and some mono-ortho PCBs are now considered to
exert their toxic effects via the same mechanism, which in-
6.5.3. Effects of specific POPs
volves binding to the aryl hydrocarbon (Ah) receptor, and
the effects seem to be additive. This has facilitated the de-
The following descriptions of the toxicology of different POPs
velopment of toxic equivalency factors (TEFs) for the dif-
are short reviews and are not meant to be comprehensive. They
ferent PCDD/F and dioxin-like PCB congeners where their
mainly cover chronic effects and effects that are relevant to
individual toxicity is weighted against the most toxic con-
the Arctic discussion. Results for controlled studies in labo-
gener, 2,3,7,8-TCDD (Tables 6ท4 and 6ท5) (NATO/CCMS
ratory animal species are discussed first. Where done, control-
1988, Ahlborg et al. 1994). Using the TEF values and the
led studies using wild animal species under laboratory con-
individual congener concentrations, the total TCDD-equi-
ditions are then presented. If field studies outside of the Arc-
valents (TEQ) can be calculated for a mixture of PCDD/Fs,
tic have been performed, these are then presented. Last come
nPCBs, and mono-ortho PCBs.
studies correlating specific effects with contaminant concen-
In another example, mink exposed experimentally to
trations found from field studies of wild species. This last
PCB (Clophen A50, Aroclor 1254), fractions of the techni-
type of study has inherent problems as it is never possible to
cal product containing only non-ortho CBs, mono-ortho
state that the contaminant measured is the cause of the ef-
CBs, 2-4 ortho CBs, or bi- and tricyclic contaminants
fect, as there may be other contaminants not measured that
(PCDFs) or combinations of these had reduced reproduc-
covary with the one measured. Field studies and correlation
tion. However, the group exposed to a combination of 2-4
studies of Arctic species are discussed under section 6.8.

Chapter 6 ท Persistent Organic Pollutants
207
reviews see Morissey and Schwetz 1989, Delzell et al. 1994a).
6.5.3.1. Halogenated industrial chemicals
Exposure to organochlorines, particularly technical PCB,
and by-products
causes reproductive failure in mink (Platonow and Karstad
6.5.3.1.1. PCDDs, PCDFs, and PCBs
1973, Aulerich and Ringer 1977, Jensen et al. 1977, Blea-
The 2,3,7,8-polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and diben-
vins et al. 1980, Ringer 1981, Eisler 1986). The non-ortho
zofurans (PCDD/Fs), as well as polychlorinated biphenyls
PCB 3,3',4,4',5,5'-hexachlorobiphenyl (CB 169), given in
(PCBs) substituted in the 3,3'4,4'-positions with no (nPCBs)
low chronic doses, severely impairs reproduction in the mink
or one ortho chlorine (mono-ortho PCBs) are among the
(Aulerich et al. 1985). PCB fed to mink resulted in reduced
most toxic OCs. The most toxic and best studied of these
litter sizes when they were exposed to technical PCB (Clo-
planar compounds is 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin
phen A50, Aroclor 1254) or a combination of non-ortho
(TCDD). These substances exert their toxic effects via a
and mono-ortho PCB congeners (Kihlstr๖m et al. 1992).
common mechanism that requires binding to the aryl hy-
Numerous animal and human studies demonstrate that
drocarbon (Ah) receptor. They produce essentially the same
PCB exposure leads to neurobehavioral effects, particularly
spectrum of toxic effects in treated animals as TCDD, dif-
in offspring, and that these effects are not dependent on bind-
fering only in their potencies. All are less potent than TCDD.
ing to the Ah receptor (for reviews see Tilson et al. 1990, See-
The non-ortho PCBs are more toxic than the mono-ortho
gal and Shain 1992). Holene et al. (1995) studied pre- and
congeners.
postnatal effects on offspring of pregnant female rats treated
Although PCDD/F levels in the Arctic are low, PCB levels
with subtoxic concentrations of CB 118 or 3,3',4,4',5,-PeCB
are higher and the effects of the dioxin-like PCBs may be of
(CB 126). Significant behavioral alterations, including hyper-
concern. Therefore, the toxic effects of PCDD/Fs are of in-
activity and impaired visual discrimination learning, were
terest in the context of the non-ortho and mono-ortho PCBs
seen for both congeners with CB 126 being the most potent.
and these substance groups will be discussed together here.
In another study, male rats were treated with 2,2',4,4',5,5'-
TCDD exposure causes a wide spectrum of biochemical
HxCB (CB 153) or CB 126 during lactation to study behav-
and pathological effects in laboratory animals (for reviews
ioral effects of exposure from mother's milk on the offspring
see Kimbrough 1974, Moore et al. 1979, McConnell 1980,
(Holene et al. 1996). Significant increases in hyperactivity
Ahlborg et al. 1988, WHO 1989b, and Vanden Heuvel and
were seen after exposure to both congeners. In addition, the
Lucier 1993). Of the 209 PCBs, only 11 are considered to
offspring exposed to CB 153 showed other changes in beha-
have dioxin-like properties. Other PCBs do not bind to the
vior. In a recent study (Holene et al. unpubl. results), female
Ah receptor and exert their toxic effects by other mecha-
rats were exposed to CB 153 through mothers milk. The fe-
nisms. Chronic exposure to commercial PCB elicits a broad
males showed a significant sex-specific behavioral response,
spectrum of toxic responses including various indicators of
being less sensitive since only deficient acquisition of time
liver toxicity, porphyria, weight loss, thymic atrophy, im-
discrimination was seen.
munosuppression, reproductive and developmental toxicity,
Chronic exposure to TCDD leads to decreased egg pro-
cancer, genotoxic responses, neurotoxicity, and endocrine
duction and decreased egg hatchability in ring-necked pheas-
disruption (reviewed in Safe 1994). The liver seems to be a
ants (Phasanius colchicus) (Nosek et al. 1992). Increased
major target organ for PCB toxicity.
embryotoxicity is seen in TCDD-treated eggs of chickens
(Brunstr๖m and Andersson 1988) and ring-necked pheasant
ท Reproductive effects
(Nosek et al. 1993) and cardiovascular malformations are
TCDD and other PCDD/Fs produce a range of reproductive
seen in treated chick embryos (Cheung et al. 1981a, 1981b).
and developmental effects (for a review see Peterson et al.
Chickens (white leghorn strain) fed Aroclor 1232, 1242,
1993). TCDD is fetotoxic in several laboratory animals in-
1248 or 1254 had decreased egg production. Aroclor 1221
cluding mice, guinea pigs, hamsters, rabbits, and rats. TCDD
and 1268 had no effect (Lillie et al. 1974). Embryonic mor-
affects reproduction in rats causing reduced number of
tality was also seen when chickens are treated with Aroclor
pups, reduced survival rates for fetuses and pups, and de-
1248 (Peakall 1975, 1986). Hatchability was reduced in ring
creased growth in surviving pups and their offspring. Re-
doves (Streptopelia risoria) fed Aroclor 1254 (Peakall and
productive effects are seen in both males and females. Pre-
Peakall 1973). Ring doves treated with the nPCB 3,3',4,4'-
natal exposure to TCDD and several individual PCDFs
TeCB (CB 77) before mating showed retarded egg laying and
causes cleft palate in mice at doses that do not cause other
high embryo mortality (Spear et al. 1989). Herring gulls
maternal or fetal toxic effects (Hassoun et al. 1984, Weber
(Larus argentatus), bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus)
et al. 1984, Birnbaum et al. 1987).
and double-crested cormorants (Phalacrocorax auritus) fed
Rats exposed prenatally to TCDD (Mably et al. 1991,
Great Lakes fish in the laboratory have reduced reproductive
1992a, 1992b, 1992c, Peterson et al. 1992) had reduced
capacity (Ludwig et al. 1993).
testosterone levels, reduced sperm production, and demas-
Eye and beak deformities are seen in chick embryos treated
culinized and feminized sexual behaviors. Some effects were
with specific planar PCBs (Brunstr๖m and Andersson 1988,
present at one-time maternal doses as low as 64 pg
Brunstr๖m 1990). Large differences in sensitivity to the em-
TCDD/g body weight. Reduced fertility and reproductive
bryotoxic effects of CB 77 are also seen between different
capacity are also seen in rhesus monkeys treated with
bird species (Brunstr๖m and Reutergๅrdh 1986, Brunstr๖m
TCDD (see Couture et al. 1990 for review).
and Lund 1988, Brunstr๖m 1988). All three nPCBs (Brun-
TCDD and PCBs have both been shown to decrease es-
str๖m 1989, 1992a) as well as the mono-ortho PCBs are em-
trogen hormone receptor levels in rats (Korach et al. 1987,
bryotoxic in chick embryos (Brunstr๖m 1991).
Romkes et al. 1987, Umbreit and Gallo 1988). Mink
Two hydroxylated PCBs have been shown to be estrogen-
treated with technical PCB had decreased progesterone lev-
ic in turtles (Crews et al. 1995). Early life stages of fish are
els (Byrne et al. 1975). PCB exposure in laboratory mam-
more sensitive than adults to the effects of PCBs and PCDD/Fs.
mals causes a wide range of reproductive effects (Drill et al.
In fish, TCDD caused decreased egg hatchability, increased
1982), including embryo- and fetotoxicity and decreased
sac fry mortality, and edema in lake, brook (Salvelinus fonti-
offspring survival in rodents, as well as abnormalities in the
nalis), and rainbow trout (Spitsbergen et al. 1991, Walker et
estrus cycle and sex hormone levels of treated monkeys (for
al. 1991, Walker and Peterson 1991, 1992, 1994) and re-

208
AMAP Assessment Report
duced number of eggs and lethal malformations in young
1970s. However, the same data also disclosed an increased
zebrafish (Brachydanio rerio) (Wannemacher et al. 1992).
prevalence of intestinal ulcers when comparing data from
The same effects are seen in lake trout eggs which received
1977-1986 with data from 1987-1996 (Bergman et al. 1996).
their TCDD exposure via maternal transfer and these ef-
The beluga population in the St. Lawrence River estuary
fects were dose-dependent (Walker et al. 1994).
has low proportions of calves and juveniles and this is thought
Exposure to TCDD in water leads to dose-related reduc-
to be the result of high organochlorine concentrations, par-
tions in egg development, reduced growth in fry, and in-
ticularly PCB (Martineau et al. 1987).
creased fry mortality in pike (Esox lucius) (Helder 1980)
There are similarities in toxic effects seen in colonial fish-
and rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) (Helder 1981). Similar
eating birds in the Great Lakes area of North America as
exposure in the Japanese medaka (Oryzias latipes) causes
those seen in chickens accidentally poisoned with 1,2,3,7,8,9-
reduced egg development, decreased embryo survival, in-
HxCDD (reviewed in Gilbertson et al. 1991). These effects
creased vascular hemorrhage, and edema (Wisk and Cooper
are correlated with the concentrations of PCDDs/PCDFs and
1990a, 1990b). Lake trout are the most sensitive species
planar PCBs found in the different bird species studied (re-
studied so far in this respect with a lowest-adverse-effect-
viewed in Giesy et al. 1994a, 1994b). The effects in birds in-
level (LOAEL) of 40 pg TCDD/g egg and an LD50 of 65 pg
clude reduced egg hatching, embryotoxicity, deformities, and
TCDD/g egg (Spitsbergen et al. 1991, Walker et al. 1991).
impaired parental behavior (Hoffman et al. 1987, Kubiak et
Several other PCDD and PCDF congeners cause similar
al. 1989, Tillitt et al. 1989, 1991, 1992, 1993, Yamashita et
types of dose-related egg mortality in fish as TCDD (Wisk
al. 1993).
and Cooper 1990b, Walker and Peterson 1991).
Numerous piscivorous bird species, such as bald eagle,
CB 77 and CB 126 cause similar types of dose-related
herring gull, double-crested cormorant, black-crowned night
egg mortality in fish as TCDD (Wisk and Cooper 1990b,
heron (Nycticorax nycticorax), Caspian tern (Hydroprogne
Walker and Peterson 1991). Adult female white perch (Mo-
caspia), Forster's tern (Sterna forsteri), osprey (Pandion hali-
rone americana) exposed to CB 77 showed reduced sexual
aetus), ring-billed gull (Larus delawarensis), and common
maturation, reduced gonad size, and decreased larval sur-
tern (Sterna hirundo), from the Great Lakes region have
vival (Monosson et al. 1994).
shown decreased reproductive performance and population
Mink fed Great Lakes fish containing high concentra-
declines which may be associated with high concentrations
tions of OCs such as PCBs, PCDD/Fs, and DDT showed re-
of PCBs, particularly the non-ortho and mono-ortho con-
productive failure (Aulerich et al. 1973, Aulerich and Rin-
geners (reviewed in Giesy et al. 1994a, 1994b, Delzell et al.
ger 1977). Captive harbour seals fed fish containing high
1994a, Bosveld and van den Berg 1994, Barron et al. 1995).
PCB levels had reduced pup production compared to seals
Significant negative correlations have been found between
fed less contaminated fish in a semi-field study in the Nether-
PCDD/F concentrations and testosterone levels in male and
lands (Reijnders 1986).
female white sucker (Catostomus commersoni) (van den
It has been suggested that PCB was the cause of the de-
Heuvel et al. 1994). Reduced reproduction has been seen in
cline of the European otter (Lutra lutra) population after the
chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) and lake trout
1950s, including the otter population living north of the Arc-
from Lake Michigan (Mac 1988). A significant negative cor-
tic Circle in Sweden (Sandegren et al. 1980, Mason and Mac-
relation was found between egg hatching success in chinook
donald 1986, Olsson and Sandegren 1991a, 1991b). Reduc-
salmon and PCB concentrations in the eggs (Ankley et al.
tions in wild mink and otter populations in North America
1991). Reduced hatching and an increase in hatchling defor-
may also be correlated with high levels of organochlorines,
mities were found to correlate well with concentrations of
particularly PCB (Wren 1991). In support of this, a recent
CB 105 in the common snapping turtle (Chelydra serpentina
study has shown that the northern Swedish otter populations
serpentina) (Bishop et al. 1991).
as well as the Swedish mink population have recovered since
the 1980s and that these improvements are significantly cor-
ท Cytochrome P450-dependent monooxygenases
related with decreasing PCB concentrations in the otter and
TCDD induces cytochrome P450 1A1, increasing EROD
in the food of both otter and mink (Olsson et al. 1996a).
and AHH activity in a range of laboratory animals (rodents,
High concentrations of OCs, especially PCB, are corre-
cattle). AHH and EROD induction are also seen in labora-
lated with reduced fertility in Baltic Sea grey, harbour, and
tory animals after exposure to other 2,3,7,8-chlorinated
ringed seals (Hook and Johnels 1972, Olsson et al. 1975,
PCDD/F congeners and planar PCBs (for reviews, see
1992a, Helle et al. 1976a, 1976b, Olsson 1978, Helle
Ahlborg et al. 1988, 1992, WHO 1989b, Safe 1990, 1994).
1980, 1981, 1986, Bergman et al. 1981, Almkvist 1982)
Aroclor 1242 fed to male and female mink induced cy-
and harbour seals from the Dutch part of the Wadden Sea
tochrome P450, but ferrets fed the same diet showed no ef-
(Reijnders 1978, 1979, 1980, 1986). An increase in aborted
fects. AHH and ethoxycoumarin-O-deethylase (ECOD) ac-
fetuses is associated with high PCB and DDT concentra-
tivities were induced in both species. Aroclor 1016 had no
tions in California sea lions (Zalophus californianus) (De
effects (Shull et al. 1982). EROD, AHH, and APND activi-
Long et al. 1973, Gilmartin et al. 1976).
ties were measured in female mink treated with PCB before
Recent studies show that PCB, PCDD/F, and DDT levels
mating and in their kits after birth (Brunstr๖m 1992b). Tech-
have declined in the Baltic Sea, with concomitant increases
nical PCB (Clophen A50 and Aroclor 1254) and fractions
in grey seal populations in the northern parts of the Baltic
containing non- and mono-ortho PCB induced EROD and
and harbour seal populations in the southern parts of the
AHH activity, whereas APND was induced by the technical
Baltic (Bergman et al. 1996). The ringed seal population in
PCB and fractions containing mono- and di-ortho PCB. The
the northern parts of the Baltic still exhibits a fairly high in-
response was stronger in the kits born after fetal exposure
cidence of uterine occlusions even in young animals (Helle
than in the adult females.
1995) and the population trend is still uncertain (Hไrk๖nen
Female mink treated with CB 77 had severe anorexia and
et al. 1996). Recent findings based on autopsies of Baltic grey
intestinal hemorrhage (Gillette et al. 1987a, 1987b) and sig-
seals have also revealed increased pregnancy rates and pop-
nificant increases in cytochrome P450 content, but no changes
ulation censuses have shown population increases after the
in ECOD, AHH, APND or AE activities. No changes were
sudden drop in the environmental PCB concentrations in the
seen after treatment with 2,2',4,4'-TeCB (CB 47).

Chapter 6 ท Persistent Organic Pollutants
209
All 2,3,7,8-substituted PCDDs/PCDFs (tetra- to hepta-
geners, also induce cytochromes P450 2B1 and 2B2, and
chlorinated) and non- and mono-ortho PCBs that have been
lead to increased APND, ECOD, and AHH activity (Kato et
tested in bird embryos have led to liver enzyme induction
al. 1993a, 1993b).
measured as EROD (Brunstr๖m and Andersson 1988, Ni-
kolaidis et al. 1988a, Brunstr๖m 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992a,
ท Porphyria
Bosveld et al. 1992).
TCDD is a potent inducer of porphyria in laboratory ro-
Pigeons (Columba livia) injected with Aroclor 1254
dents (for review see WHO 1989b) and a number of PCBs
showed significant increases in cytochrome P450 proteins,
also cause porphyria in experimental animals (Strik et al.
AE, EROD and several other MFOs (Borlakoglu et al.
1980). PCBs induce accumulation of porphyrins in Japa-
1991). Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica) ex-
nese quail (Vos et al. 1971, Miranda et al. 1983) and CB
posed chronically to CB 105, CB 126, or CB 153 had in-
105 is more potent than CB 126 or CB 153 (Elliott et al.
creased EROD and APND activity, however the response
1990). Female kestrels fed chronically with the same three
was strongest for CB 105. For kestrels (Falco sparverius),
PCB congeners showed no porphyrin accumulation (Elliott
chronic doses of CB 126 led to increased EROD and AE
et al. 1991).
activity, CB 105 led to increased APND activity, and CB
Porphyrin levels were measured in livers of herring gulls
153 led to increased APND and AE activity (Elliott et al.
from different sites on the Great Lakes and on the Atlantic
1990, 1991). Eider ducklings (Somateria mollisima) given
coast and related to concentrations of organochlorines. Be-
CB 77 had increased EROD and PROD activity and cyto-
tween-site porphyrin levels were found to correlate with
chrome P450 1A levels. Treatment with Clophen A50 only
concentrations of PCDDs and DDE (Fox et al. 1988).
increased cytochrome P450 1A levels (Rozemeijer et al.
1992, Murk et al. 1994).
ท Immunosuppression
TCDD causes liver enzyme induction in experimentally
PCDD/Fs have been shown to adversely affect the immune
treated fish (Janz and Metcalfe 1991, van der Weiden et al.
system in laboratory animals (Vos and Luster 1989). Expo-
1992, 1993, 1994a, 1994b, Hektoen et al. 1994) as well as
sure to high levels of TCDD leads to thymic atrophy, and
in cultured rainbow trout hepatocytes (Pesonen et al. 1992),
exposure to lower levels suppresses the immune system. For
and in a trout hepatoma cell line (Lorenzon and Okey 1990).
reviews, see Holsapple et al. (1991a, 1991b). Immunosup-
Several PCDDs and PCDFs cause EROD induction in rain-
pression is also seen after exposure to several other PCDDs
bow trout (Muir et al. 1990d), scup (Stenotomus chrysops)
and PCDFs (Luster et al. 1979, Kerkvliet et al. 1985, Kerk-
(Gooch et al. 1989, Smolowitz et al. 1991), and carp (van
vliet and Brauner 1987, Harper et al. 1993). Effects on im-
der Weiden et al. 1994a).
mune function occur at exposure levels that do not produce
Liver enzyme induction and increased EROD activity are
signs of toxicity. Changes occur in both cell-mediated and
also seen after treatment with individual nPCBs and mono-
humoral immunity in both laboratory rodents and chickens,
ortho PCBs in rainbow trout (Skaare et al. 1991), in winter
and in non-human primates exposed to TCDD. The fetus
flounder (Pleuronectes americanus) (Monosson and Stege-
and lactating newborn animals are particularly sensitive to
man 1991), in adult and larval fathead minnow (Pime-
the immunosuppressive effects of TCDD. Antibody produc-
phales promelas) (Lindstrom-Seppa et al. 1994), in scup
tion is affected and host defense mechanisms are suppressed
(Gooch et al. 1989, Smolowitz et al. 1991), in a fish he-
in treated animals, increasing illness and mortality rates when
patoma cell line (Hahn et al. 1993), and in carp (Cyprinus
they are exposed to infectious agents.
carpio) (van der Weiden et al. 1994a). Rainbow trout (On-
PCBs also adversely affect the immune system in labora-
corhynchus mykiss) treated with CB 105 showed increased
tory animals (Wassermann et al. 1973b, 1979, Vos and Luster
EROD activity and increased cytochrome P450 1A1 levels,
1989). In some cases, this immunosuppression has increased
whereas immature cod (Gadus morhua) showed no in-
the animal's susceptibility to infections (Vos et al. 1988).
creased activity in either enzyme or cytochrome P450 1A1
Immunosuppression is also seen in mice after exposure to
levels (Bernhoft et al. 1994).
CB 126 and CB 169 (Harper et al. 1993). In birds, TCDD,
A number of wild animal species have shown asso-
CB 77, CB 126, CB 169, CB 105, and CB 118 all impair lym-
ciations between EROD and/or AHH activity and con-
phoid tissue development in the bursa of Fabricius and in
centrations of dioxin-like substances, including seals (Ad-
the thymus of chicken embryos (Nikolaidis et al. 1988a,
dison et al. 1988), various birds (Hoffman et al. 1987,
1988b, Andersson et al. 1991).
Bellward et al. 1990, Yamashita et al. 1992, Bosveld et al.
Significant impairment of natural killer (NK) cell activity,
1993, van den Berg et al. 1994), and fish (Monosson and
in vitro T-lymphocyte function, antigen-specific in vitro lym-
Stegeman 1991, Servos et al. 1994, van den Heuvel et al.
phocyte proliferative responses, and in vivo delayed-type hy-
1994).
persensitivity (DTH) responses were found in captive har-
A significant correlation was found between EROD ac-
bour seals fed highly PCB-contaminated Baltic Sea herring
tivity and PCB concentrations in the liver of short-finned
compared to seals fed relatively uncontaminated Atlantic
pilot whale from the western North Pacific (Tanabe and
Ocean herring (De Swart et al. 1994, 1995, Ross et al. 1995,
Tatsukawa 1991). Correlations have also been found be-
1996). Immunosuppression may have increased mortality of
tween EROD, PROD and PCB concentrations in northern
harbour seals, grey seals, striped dolphins, and bottlenose
fur seal (Callorhinus ursinus) from northern Japan (Tanabe
dolphins in the phocine distemper (morbillivirus) epizootics
et al. 1994a, 1994b).
that occurred in the North Sea, Mediterranean Sea, and Gulf
Levels of cytochrome P450 1A1 correlate with concen-
of Mexico in the 1987-1991 period (Hall et al. 1992, Agui-
trations of PCBs in shag, cormorant, razorbill, guillemot,
lar and Borrell 1994, Lahvis et al. 1995). Signs of immuno-
puffin, and Manx shearwater (Ronis et al. 1989). EROD
suppression are also seen in heavily contaminated beluga
and AHH activities as well as cytochrome P450 1A and 2B
whales from the St. Lawrence estuary (De Guise et al. 1995).
levels significantly correlate with total PCB concentrations
No correlation has been found between blood PCB levels
in black-crowned night herons (Rattner et al. 1993).
and serum IgG levels in grey seal from Norway and Canada
Laboratory studies in rats show that methylsulfone meta-
having low PCB levels (S๘rmo, Jensen, Skaare and Larsen
bolites, particularly the 3-MeSO2 forms of several PCB con-
1995 unpubl. results, S๘rmo 1996).

210
AMAP Assessment Report
ท Skeletal changes and adrenal hyperplasia
hormone levels (Jeffries and French 1971, Grไssle and Biess-
Certain PCB congeners are taken up and retained in the
mann 1982). Ring doves exposed to CB 77 before mating
adrenocortical tissue of laboratory rodents (Brandt 1977,
were studied for effects on serum retinol and retinoids in the
Brandt et al. 1978). MeSO2-PCB metabolites are retained in
eggs (Spear et al. 1989). Exposed females that laid viable
the lung, adrenals, and fetuses of mice (Lund et al. 1984,
eggs had higher serum retinol levels than those that laid eggs
Brandt et al. 1985, Darnerud et al. 1986). Primarily 3- and
that failed to hatch. Eggs from exposed females had reduced
4-MeSO2-2,2',4',5,5'-PeCB, metabolites of 2,2',4,5,5'-PeCB
levels of yolk retinol and retinyl palmitate compared to con-
(CB 101), are found in mink exposed to technical PCB or
trols.
fractions containing 2-4-ortho PCB (Bergman et al. 1992b).
Herring gull eggs collected from several breeding colonies
These are the same as those previously found in Baltic grey
on the Great Lakes were analyzed for yolk retinoids (Spear
seals (Haraguchi et al. 1992). Mink treated with Clophen
et al. 1990). Correlations were found between the molar ra-
A50 or Aroclor 1254 had increased urinary excretion of
tios of retinol to retinyl palmitate and (1) 2,3,7,8-TCDD
cortisol (Madej et al. 1992).
concentration, (2) TCDD-equivalents calculated from
Baltic grey and ringed seals suffer from a disease com-
PCDD/Fs, and (3) the sum of PCDD and PCDF concentra-
plex caused by hyperadrenocortism (Bergman and Olsson
tions. Significant correlations were found between reduc-
1985, 1989). The pathological changes include skull-bone
tions in free plasma thyroxine levels and concentrations of
lesions, adrenal hyperplasia, glomerulopathy, hypotrichosis,
PCDD/Fs expressed as TCDD-equivalents in cormorants
regional alopecia, and uterine occlusion. The prevalence of
(van den Berg et al. 1994). Eider ducklings exposed to CB 77
skull-bone lesions in grey and harbour seals in the Baltic
and Clophen A50 had decreased plasma T3 and retinol lev-
Sea coincides with high PCB and DDT concentrations and
els, and CB 77 also decreased levels of plasma T4 and he-
is suggested to be the result of PCB toxicity (Bergman et al.
patic retinyl palmitate (Murk et al. 1994). Correlations have
1992a, Mortensen et al. 1992).
been found between PCB levels and reduced thyroid hor-
Several MeSO2-PCB metabolites accumulate in the adre-
mone levels in common tern (Murk et al. 1993) and cor-
nal tissue of Baltic grey seals (Jensen and Jansson 1976, Ha-
morants (Craane et al. 1991).
raguchi et al. 1990, 1992). More than twenty-two MeSO2-
Blood samples were collected from 17 grey seal pups at
PCB metabolites have been identified in Canadian polar
Froan, Norway (64ฐ10'N, 09ฐ20'E) (Jenssen et al. 1995a).
bears (Ursus maritimus) (Bergman et al. 1994b, Letcher et
PCB (sum of 22 congeners) and DDT concentrations were
al. 1994, 1995). MeSO2-PCB metabolites have also been
determined as well as plasma concentrations of thyroid hor-
identified in otter and wild mink from northern Sweden,
mones. The two pups with the highest PCB concentrations
beluga from the St. Lawrence estuary, as well as Arctic
also had the lowest thyroxine concentrations, but no signifi-
ringed seal (Bergman et al. 1994b, Letcher 1996).
cant correlation was found between PCB and thyroxine con-
centrations for the entire data set. In a larger study, blood
ท Thyroid and retinol effects
samples from grey seal pups at Froan were analyzed for
Rats exposed to TCDD have reduced liver vitamin A levels
PCBs, retinol, free and total thyroxin (T4), and free and
(Thunberg et al. 1980). Laboratory and field studies have
total triiodothyronine (T3) (Jenssen et al. 1995b). A signifi-
shown that PCB exposure leads to drastic reductions in
cant negative correlation was found between blood PCB
plasma concentrations of vitamin A (retinol) (Innami et al.
concentrations and plasma retinol concentrations. A border-
1974) and thyroid hormones (Brouwer et al. 1989, Durham
line significant negative correlation was found between PCB
and Brouwer 1989). This is thought to be due to metabo-
concentrations and the ratio of total T4 to free T4. This
lism of some PCBs to hydroxylated metabolites which in
ratio would be expected to be reduced if hydroxylated PCBs
turn bind effectively to transthyretin, the major transport
bind to transthyretin and hinder T4 from binding. The mean
protein for retinol and the thyroid hormones, thyroxine
PCB levels in blood were low, 1100 ng/g lw, and are similar
(T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) (Brouwer and van den Berg
to or lower than the lipid weight levels found in Arctic seals.
1986, Brouwer et al. 1988, 1990). 4-OH-3,3',4,4'-TeCB, a
metabolite of CB 77 binds three times more effectively to
ท Cancer
TTR, and 4-OH-2',3,3',4',5-PeCB (CB 105) binds six times
TCDD is a potent carcinogen in laboratory animals (Kociba
more effectively to TTR than thyroxine (Bergman et al.
et al. 1978, NIH 1982). It is a powerful tumor promoter in
1994a). TCDD and nPCBs also induce the enzymes respon-
both cell culture and animal studies, especially in females
sible for hepatic and brain thyroid hormone metabolism,
(Pitot et al. 1980, 1987, Graham et al. 1988). For reviews
leading to hypothyroidism in fetal and neonatal rats (Morse
on the carcinogenicity of TCDD see WHO (1989b), Ahlborg
et al. 1993, Morse 1995).
(1993), Lucier et al. (1993) and Huff et al. (1994). Several
Treatment with CB77 causes thyroid hypertrophy, thy-
other PCDD/F congeners, as well as planar PCBs, have been
roid hyperplasia, reduced T4 and T3 levels, and increased
shown to be potent tumor promoters (NIH 1980a, 1980b,
TSH in marmoset monkeys (van den Berg et al. 1988). PCB
Silberhorn et al. 1990, Sargent et al. 1991, Wๆrn et al.
exposure generally increased blood thyroxine concentra-
1991, Hemming et al. 1993, 1994). PCB mixtures and con-
tions in mink except during estrus and the reproductive sea-
geners are not mutagenic when tested using the Ames test
son (Byrne et al. 1975). Exposure to non- and some mono-
and no DNA adducts are formed (reviewed in Safe 1994).
ortho PCBs causes vitamin A reduction in mink (Hๅkans-
PCB mixtures are cancer promoters, however.
son et al. 1992).
In a semi-field study, harbour seal (Phoca vitulina) were
6.5.3.1.2. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs)
fed fish containing low or high levels of PCB. Those fed the
more highly contaminated fish had lower levels of plasma
Very little is known about the toxicity of PBDEs as only lim-
retinol, total and free T4, and total T3 than those fed the
ited studies have been carried out so far.
cleaner fish (Brouwer et al. 1989).
Treatment of different bird species with technical PCB
ท Cytochrome P450-dependent monooxygenases
mixtures often causes an increase in thyroid gland weights
The commercial product Bromkal 70-5DE, containing
(reviewed in Peakall 1986) as well as reduction of thyroid
2,2',4,4'-TeBDE, 2,2',4,4',5-PeBDE, and an unidentified

Chapter 6 ท Persistent Organic Pollutants
211
PeBDE, has weak dioxin-like activity expressed as EROD in
munity, and reduced host resistance to infections (Loose et
rat hepatoma cells (Hanberg et al. 1991). Bromkal 70 has
al. 1981, Loose 1982, Wong et al. 1992).
also been shown to induce cytochrome P450 levels in rats,
leading to increased EROD activity, and the PBDEs in
ท Cancer
Bromkal 70 were concluded to be mixed-type inducers (von
Aldrin and dieldrin are not mutagenic in a variety of test
Meyerinck et al. 1990). EROD activity is weakly induced in
systems. Dieldrin treatment causes increases in benign and
rainbow trout embryos microinjected with Bromkal 70-
malignant liver tumors in mice but not other rodents (re-
5DE (Norrgren et al. 1993, Holm et al. in press) and in
viewed in WHO 1989c).
three-spined stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus) fed with
Bromkal 70-5DE (Holm et al. 1993). For a review see also
6.5.3.2.2. Chlordane
WHO (1994).
ท Reproductive effects
ท Thyroid effects
Rats treated with chlordane showed reduced rates of mat-
Rats fed PeBDE showed thyroid hyperplasia (WHO 1994).
ing, reduction in viable litters, and increased offspring mor-
tality (Ambrose et al. 1953). Treated mice fed chlordane at
100 g/g for six generations showed decreased offspring
6.5.3.2. Persistent organochlorine pesticides
survival in the first two generations and no offspring in the
Most of the cyclic, aromatic, chlorinated pesticides are neu-
third generation (Keplinger et al. 1968). Treatment with 25
rotoxic. They alter sodium and potassium ion flux across
g/g once a week for three weeks in mice led to a reduction
nerve cell membranes and interfere with nerve impulse trans-
in the number of females that became pregnant (Welch et al.
mission. In general, they are more toxic to insects than to
1971). Chlordane has a damaging effect on spermatogenesis
other animals. All pesticides discussed here produce adverse
and causes degeneration of testicular tissue in mice (Balash
effects on the liver after chronic exposure, often including
et al. 1987). Chlordane caused decreased progesterone bind-
hypertrophy and various changes in histopathology.
ing in the rabbit uterus and the shell gland in ducks (Lund-
holm 1988).
6.5.3.2.1. Aldrin and dieldrin
ท Cytochrome P450-dependent monooxygenases
Aldrin is oxidized to dieldrin in plants and animals and is
Chlordane induces cytochrome P450 levels and enzyme ac-
rarely found in samples from living organisms (WHO
tivities (WHO 1984a). It also induces monooxygenases that
1989c). Chronic exposure leads to signs of liver toxicity.
hydroxylate testosterone.
Dieldrin is more toxic to fish than aldrin.
ท Immunosuppression
ท Reproductive effects
Pregnant female mice treated with chlordane had offspring
Dieldrin administration produces reduced fertility in male
with decreased cell-mediated immune competence (Spyker-
and female rats fed 15 ng/g body weight for 300 days (Tho-
Cranmer et al. 1982).
mas and Colborn 1992). High doses cause reduced litter
size in mice and increased pup mortality in mice, rats, and
ท Cancer
dogs (reviewed in WHO 1989c). Different bird species dosed
Chlordane does not appear to be mutagenic. However, it
with dieldrin generally show no effects on reproduction un-
does display characteristics that are common for other sub-
less the adults have been treated with sufficiently high doses
stances that act as tumor promoters. Studies in mice indicate
to cause toxic effects such as reduced food intake (WHO
that chlordane treatment leads to increases in liver tumors
1989c).
(WHO 1984a).
Rainbow trout eggs exposed to dieldrin in water showed
increased mortality only for the early fry stage (LC50 of
6.5.3.2.3. DDT
3000 ng/L) (Van Leeuwen 1986). Rainbow trout embryos,
alevins, and fry were exposed to a range of dieldrin concen-
DDT products contain primarily p,p'-DDT and some o,p'-
trations (12-52 000 ng/L) (Chadwick and Shumway 1970).
DDT. These DDTs are metabolized to the comparable DDDs
There was no effect on egg hatchability but newly hatched
and DDEs in many organisms and it is primarily these meta-
alevins exposed to higher concentrations had lower weights.
bolites that are found at higher trophic levels.
Survival was reduced for alevins and trout fry at water con-
centrations above 390 ng/L. Flounder exposed to dieldrin
ท Reproductive and developmental effects
showed reduced fertilization of eggs (Smith and Cole 1973).
No reproductive failure was seen in mink treated with DDT
Dieldrin has been shown to be estrogenic when measured
(Kihlstr๖m et al. 1976). Chicken eggs injected with DDT
using the in vitro E-screen test (Soto et al. 1994).
showed no change in hatchability, but chick survival was
reduced (Dunachie and Fletcher 1969).
ท Cytochrome P450-dependent monooxygenases
DDT has long been known to affect bird reproduction
Both aldrin and dieldrin treatment lead to increased APND
(Ratcliffe 1967, Longcore et al. 1971, Postupalsky 1971,
and AE activity and increased cytochrome P450 in rodents,
Wiemayer et al. 1972, 1975, 1978, Cooke 1973, Peakall et
dogs, and rhesus monkeys (Zavon and Stemmer 1975, Camp-
al. 1973, 1975, Newton and Bogan 1974, Longcore and
bell et al. 1983). Dieldrin also induces monooxygenases
Stendell 1977). p,p'-DDE has been shown to cause signifi-
that hydroxylate testosterone (Haake et al. 1987).
cant egg-shell thinning in treated birds and predatory species
have been found to be the most sensitive (Bitman et al. 1969,
ท Immunosuppression
Heath et al. 1969, Longcore et al. 1971, Peakall et al. 1973,
Dieldrin has been shown to adversely affect the immune
Longcore and Stendell 1977, Vangilder and Peterle 1980).
system of laboratory animals (Fournier et al. 1988). These
For example, American kestrels were fed different doses of
effects include impaired macrophage antigen processing, re-
DDE and DDE concentrations in the eggs were found to
duced tumor cell killing ability, suppression of humoral im-
correlate well with dietary intake. These concentrations

212
AMAP Assessment Report
were found to correlate significantly with the degree of egg-
DDT exposure, particularly to p,p'-DDT, has been linked
shell thinning (Lincer 1975). The same relationship was
to reduced hatchability, reduced offspring survival, male de-
found when kestrel eggs from the field were studied.
masculinization, and female superfeminization in American
Eggshell thinning above 18% is associated with popula-
alligators (Alligator mississippiensis) from Lake Apopka,
tion decreases (Hickey and Andersson 1968, Peakall and
Florida (Guillette et al. 1994).
Kiff 1988). Suggested mechanisms for p,p'-DDE's effects on
eggshell thinning are that it inhibits calcium ion ATP-ase
ท Immunosuppression
and possibly also carbonic anhydrase (Lundholm 1987).
DDT has been shown to adversely affect the immune system
o,p'-DDT is strongly estrogenic and its metabolites o,p'-
in laboratory animals (Banerjee et al. 1986, Banerjee 1987).
DDE and o,p'-DDD are also estrogenic (Kupfer and Bulger
DDT causes increased susceptibility to parasitic and viral in-
1980). o,p'-DDT causes uterine proliferation in rats and
fections, decreased delayed-type hypersensitivity, and de-
binds to rat and human estrogen receptors (Kupfer and
creased antibody response in mice, rats, rabbits, and chick-
Bulger 1980, Mason and Schulte 1980). o,p'-DDE also
ens (Wong et al. 1992).
strongly inhibits the binding of progesterone to its receptor
(Lundholm 1988).
ท Adrenal effects
p,p'-DDE has been shown to be antiandrogenic, with the
DDT is taken up and retained in the adrenocortical tissue
ability to block androgen-stimulated gene transcription and
of birds and laboratory rodents (Backstr๖m et al. 1965,
androgen effects in the rat (Kelce et al. 1995). It is not es-
Brandt et al. 1978). o,p'-DDD binds covalently in human
trogenic, however.
adrenal cortex but not in mice. 3-MeSO2-DDE is a lipo-
Reduced survival after hatching was seen in Japanese
philic, persistent metabolite of DDT and has a high bind-
quail treated in ovo with 6.25-10 g o,p'-DDT/g egg (Bryan
ing affinity for, and high toxicity in, the adrenal cortex of
et al. 1989). Japanese quail treated in ovo and subsequently
mice (Lund et al. 1988, J๖nsson et al. 1991, 1992, Brandt
mated also had reduced egg hatchability and both males
et al. 1992). 3-MeSO2-DDE is metabolized to a reactive
and females showed significant reductions in normal sexual
and cytotoxic intermediate that binds covalently to the
behavior. Male California (Larus californicus) and western
zona fasciculata causing necrosis and decreased plasma
gull (Larus occidentalis) eggs injected with 2 g/g o,p'-DDT
corticosterone levels.
showed feminized embryos (Fry and Toone 1981, Fry et al.
MeSO2-DDE has been found to be highly corticolytic al-
1987). Female California and western gull eggs injected
though there are substantial species differences. In vivo and
with 20 g/g o,p'-DDT developed both left and right ovi-
in vitro experiments show that p,p'- and o,p'-DDD are me-
ducts (development of a right oviduct is abnormal).
tabolically activated to intermediates that bind covalently to
Japanese quail embryos treated with p,p'-DDT had re-
the adrenal cortex of mink (J๖nsson et al. 1993) where they
duced survival (1.75-5 g/g egg) and when subsequently
cause necrosis, but MeSO2-DDE is not activated (Lund et al.
mated, also had reduced egg hatchability (1.75 g/g egg)
1988, Brandt et al. 1992). J๖nsson et al. (1993) also showed
(Bryan et al. 1989). p,p'-DDE fed to adult birds also causes
that o,p'- and p,p'-DDD were metabolically activated and
a wide range of reproductive behavioral disturbances (re-
covalently bound by otter adrenal as well in an in vitro sys-
viewed in WHO 1989a). Male California and western gull
tem. MeSO2-DDE did not bind covalently in either species
eggs injected with 20 g/g p,p'-DDE were feminized (Fry
and the authors concluded that this metabolite does not seem
and Toone 1981).
to be an adrenal toxicant in mink or otter. Previously, it has
Killifish (Fundulus heteroclitus) exposed to DDT in wa-
been shown that DDD, particularly o,p'-DDD, is toxic to
ter showed reduced fertilization and delayed development
the adrenal cortex in humans and other species (Nelson and
of fertilized eggs (Crawford and Guarino 1976). Flounder
Woodard 1948, Bergenstal et al. 1960, Eriksson et al. 1987)
(Pseudopleuronectes americanus) embryos exposed to DDT
and it has been used as a corticolytic agent in human and
in water showed abnormal gastrulation and high incidences
veterinarian medicine.
of vertebral deformities (Smith and Cole 1973). Water con-
Birds treated with p,p'-DDE show increased adrenal
centrations greater than 0.5 g DDT/L are toxic to early
weights compared to controls (reviewed in WHO 1989a).
life stages of coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) (Halter
In vivo and in vitro experiments show that o,p'-DDD and
and Johnson 1974).
3-MeSO2-DDE are metabolically activated to intermediates
Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) eggs exposed to different
that bind covalently to the adrenal interrenal cells of chick-
doses of DDT in water resulted in fry with impaired bal-
ens (J๖nsson et al. 1994) where they cause cellular degenera-
ance and retarded behavioral development at the highest
tion. Experiments also showed that o,p'-DDD and 3-MeSO2-
exposures (50 and 100 g/L) (Dill and Saunders 1974).
DDE are metabolically activated and bind covalently to adre-
Other behavioral changes have also been observed in adult
nal tissue in eider and domestic duck embryos.
fish, including reduced righting ability and changes in tem-
3-MeSO2-DDE is found in Baltic grey seals and is sus-
perature selection and exploratory behavior (reviewed in
pected to be one possible cause of adrenal cortex hyperpla-
WHO 1989a).
sia seen in these animals (Jensen and Jansson 1976, Bergman
A significant negative correlation was found between
and Olsson 1985). Lund (1994) has found that o,p'-DDD,
serum testosterone levels and DDE-concentrations in blub-
and to a lesser extent even 3-MeSO2-DDE, bind covalently
ber from Dall's porpoises (Phocoenoides dalli) in the north-
to adrenal cortical tissue from grey seal. Two MeSO2-DDE
west Pacific Ocean (Subramanian et al. 1987). The authors
congeners have been identified in tissues from Canadian
hypothesize that this may be due to induction of the cyto-
polar bears and ringed seal, beluga from the St. Lawrence
chrome P450 system leading to an increased metabolism of
estuary, and otter and wild mink from northern Sweden
testosterone.
(Bergman et al. 1994b, Letcher et al. 1994, 1995, Letcher
Significant correlations between DDE concentrations and
1996).
eggshell thinning have been seen in a number of wild bird
species (see for example Ratcliffe 1967, Koeman and van
ท Thyroid effects
Genderen 1972, Cooke 1973, Koeman et al. 1973, Parslow
Birds treated with p,p'-DDE show increased thyroid weights
et al. 1973, Weseloh et al. 1983, Elliott et al. 1988).
compared to controls (reviewed in WHO 1989a).

Chapter 6 ท Persistent Organic Pollutants
213
al. 1983, Carpenter et al. 1985a, 1985b, 1985c, Buhler and
6.5.3.2.4. Hexachlorobenzene (HCB)
Carpenter 1986, Lambrecht et al. 1988).
HCB may form metabolites such as pentachlorophenol (PCP),
Liver porphyrin concentrations were significantly corre-
tetrahydroquinone, pentachlorothiophenol, and lower chlo-
lated with concentrations of HCB, PCB, and DDE in herring
rinated benzenes (Debets and Strik 1979, Renner 1988).
gulls (Larus argentatus) from Saginaw Bay on Lake Huron
Pentachlorophenol has been detected in green sunfish (Le-
(Fox et al. 1988).
pomis cyanellus) (Sanborn et al. 1977), rainbow trout (On-
corhynchus mykiss), rats, mice, and guinea pigs (Koss and
ท Immunosuppression
Koransky 1978, Koss et al. 1978) after HCB treatment.
HCB has been shown to adversely affect the immune system
in laboratory animals (Vos 1986, Barnett et al. 1987, Vos
ท Reproductive and developmental effects
and Luster 1989, Van Loveren et al. 1990). Mice exposed to
HCB has been shown to affect male reproduction when
HCB were more susceptible to infection (Loose 1982), and
given at high doses (30 000-221 000 ng/g body weight/d).
had reduced resistance to tumor cells (Loose et al. 1981), de-
The effects include reduced serum testosterone levels in mice
pressed delayed-type hypersensitivity response to contact al-
(Elissalde and Clark 1979), histologic changes in testes caus-
lergen (Barnett et al. 1987), and depressed humoral immu-
ing retarded sexual maturation in pigs (den Tonkelaar et al.
nity, cell-mediated immunity and host resistance (Vos 1986,
1978), and reduced mating index in rats (Simon et al. 1979).
Carthew et al. 1990).
In utero exposure to HCB leads to increases in fetal mal-
Mink and ferrets treated with HCB had depressed T-cell
formations and cleft palate in mice (Courtney et al. 1976).
function and other immunosuppressive effects (Bleavins et
Fetotoxicity has been seen in treated rats and mink (Khera
al. 1983).
1974, Grant et al. 1977, Kitchin et al. 1982, Rush et al.
1983). Grant et al. (1977) also observed reduced fertility
ท Thyroid effects
index in rats. Reduced litter sizes, increased number of still-
Subchronic exposure to HCB affects the thyroid in various
births, and reduced offspring survival are seen in HCB-
strains of rats, leading to decreased serum levels of total
treated rats and cats (Mendoza et al. 1977, 1978, 1979,
and free thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). This, in
Hansen et al. 1979, Kitchin et al. 1982). The no-effect level
turn, has led to changes in the thyroid gland including in-
for rats was 20 000 ng/g food (approximately 1000-1200
creased thyroid weight, increases in circulating levels of
ng/g body weight/d) (Grant et al. 1977).
thyroid-stimulating hormone and increased iodine uptake
Rush et al. (1983) observed a significant decrease in kit
(Rozman et al. 1986, Kleiman de Pisarev et al. 1989, 1990,
survival for female mink fed 1000 and 5000 ng/g HCB diets
Van Raaij et al. 1991b, 1993a, 1993b, Foster et al. 1993,
for 47 weeks. Female ferrets (Mustela putorius furo) fed
Den Besten et al. 1993, Sopena de Krakoff et al. 1994).
125 000 ng/g HCB failed to reach estrus (Bleavins et al. 1984).
These effects were seen in rats dietarily exposed to as little
Female mink fed 25 000 ng/g produced fewer kits and had a
as 9500 ng/g body weight/d during a 13-week period (Den
higher incidence of stillbirths. A diet of 1000 ng/g led to re-
Besten et al. 1993).
duced kit birthweights in both mink and ferret. Offspring
Possible mechanisms include increased metabolism of
mortality was higher in treated mink and ferrets.
thyroid hormones by HCB-induced enzymes, increased deio-
Japanese quail exposed to HCB had decreased fertility,
dination of thyroxine (Kleiman de Pisarev 1989, Van Raaij
egg production, and hatchability after 90-day exposure to
et al. 1993b), and competition for T4 binding sites on thy-
20 000 ng/g food (Vos et al. 1971). Herring gull embryos
roid hormone transport proteins in plasma (Van Raaij et al.
injected with HCB showed reduced embryonic weights at a
1991a, 1993a). This may be due to the formation of pen-
dose of 1500 ng/g body weight and an LD50 of 4300 ng/g
tachlorophenol as a metabolite of HCB. Pentachlorophenol
body weight (Boersma et al. 1986).
has been shown to bind to the thyroid hormone transport
Offspring of rats exposed to 2500 or 25 000 ng/g body
protein, transthyretin, two times better than T4, for example
weight/d showed increased hyperactivity (Goldey and Tay-
(van den Berg 1990).
lor 1992). The startle response to noise was reduced at age
23 days, but significantly increased at 90 days in the high
ท Cancer
dose group.
HCB has not been found to be mutagenic (Haworth et al.
1983, G๓rski et al. 1986, Siekel et al. 1991, Rumsby et al.
ท Cytochrome P450-dependent monooxygenases
1992) and does not bind strongly to DNA (Stewart and
HCB induces cytochrome P450 1A (increased AHH activ-
Smith 1987). HCB does cause cancers of the liver (hepa-
ity) and 2B in laboratory animals (Delzell et al. 1994b).
tomas, hepatocellular carcinomas), thyroid (alveolar adeno-
HCB treatment leads to increased cytochrome P450 and
mas), kidney (renal cell adenomas), parathyroid (adenomas),
EROD activity in mink exposed in utero (Rush et al. 1983).
and adrenal glands (cortical adenomas, phaeochromocyto-
HCB-treated hens had increased APND and cytochrome
mas) in mice, hamsters, and rats (reviewed in Delzell et al.
P450 (Kan et al. 1979). HCB also leads to increases in cy-
1994b). Results from several studies indicate that HCB is a
tochrome P450 and some enzymes in Japanese quail (Car-
tumor promoter (Shirai et al. 1978, Pereira et al. 1982, Her-
penter et al. 1985a, 1985b). HCB does not induce cyto-
ren-Freund and Pereira 1986, Smith et al. 1989, 1993a, Ste-
chrome P450 1A or EROD in rainbow trout (Tyle et al. 1991).
wart et al. 1989).
ท Porphyria
6.5.3.2.5. -, -, and -hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCHs)
HCB is a potent inducer of porphyria in laboratory rodents
(reviewed in Delzell et al. 1994b). In rats, females are more
Technical HCH is a mixture of -, -, - and - HCH.
sensitive to HCB's porphyrogenic effects than males (Grant
et al. 1975, Kuiper-Goodman et al. 1977, Rizzardini and
ท Reproductive effects
Smith 1982, Smith et al. 1985). Chronic exposure to HCB
No information on the effects of -HCH on reproduction,
(500 000 ng/g body weight/d for 5-10 days) leads to in-
embryotoxicity, or teratogenicity in laboratory animals is
creased liver porphyrin levels in Japanese quail (Miranda et
available.

214
AMAP Assessment Report
-HCH is estrogenic in rodents and leads to decreased
1992). In some experiments with mice, increases in liver tu-
testes weights, atrophied testes, and atrophied ovaries (Van
mors have been seen. No increased tumor production has
Velsen et al. 1986). A two-generation study in rats found
been seen in treated rats. -HCH has been classified as a tu-
that litter size was reduced in the highest dose group and
mor promoter. Lindane is not mutagenic (WHO 1991). High
the offspring had reduced fertility and higher mortality (Van
doses cause liver tumors in mice and lindane is considered to
Velsen 1986).
be a tumor promoter.
-HCH has been shown to be estrogenic in both male
and female guppies (Poecilia reticulata), causing excess pro-
6.5.3.2.6. Mirex
duction of vitellogenin (Wester et al. 1985, Wester 1991).
The effect was seen at water concentrations of 100 g/L or
Chronic exposure leads to body weight loss, various signs of
higher. Medaka (Oryzias latipes) eggs and young fish were
liver toxicity, and induced monooxygenases. Reduced survi-
exposed to -HCH for one and three months (Wester and
val of fish has been seen in ponds treated with mirex (Book-
Canton 1986, Wester 1991). Intersexuality and hermaphro-
hout and Costlow 1975).
ditism were seen in males and production of vitellogenin
was seen in both sexes, both evidence of estrogenic activity.
ท Reproductive effects
Lindane ( ญHCH) may have both estrogenic and antie-
Chronic studies of mirex on mice and rats have shown de-
strogenic effects. Female rats treated with lindane showed
creased litter sizes, decreased or absent reproduction, and
disrupted estrous cycling, reduced pituitary and uterine
reduced viability of the young (reviewed in WHO 1984c).
weights, and delays in vaginal opening (Chadwick et al.
Mirex treatment in birds did not reduce egg production or
1988). Fertilization rate was reduced in female rats treated
embryo survival in chickens, mallard ducks, or bobwhite
with 10 000 ng/g compared to rats fed only 5000 ng/g (Tri-
quail (Colinus virginianus) (Heath and Spann 1973, Davison
fonova et al. 1970). Lindane given to mice during early
and Cox 1974). No effects were seen on eggshell thickness.
pregnancy reduced implantation and when given at later
High doses (600 000 ng/g) caused a significant reduction in
stages of pregnancy, caused resorption of fetuses, high off-
egg hatchability and chick survival in chickens (Naber and
spring mortality, and reduced offspring body weights (Sir-
Ware 1965). Mallards fed mirex for three generations had
car and Lahiri 1989). Other studies in several species of
reduced duckling survival in the third generation (Hyde et
laboratory animals indicate no direct effects of lindane on
al. 1973).
reproduction in terms of litter sizes, offspring survival, or
defects in offspring (WHO 1991).
ท Cytochrome P450-dependent monooxygenases
Lindane fed to chickens and Japanese quail does not af-
Rats, rabbits, and mice treated with mirex show an increased
fect eggshell thickness, but does reduce egg production at
microsomal cytochrome P450 content (Fabacher and Hodg-
high doses (100 000-200 000 ng/g food) (Whitehead et al.
son 1976, Iverson 1976, Villeneuve et al. 1977, 1979, Ka-
1972a, 1972b, 1974). Ducks (Anas platyrhynchus domesti-
minsky et al. 1978, Warren et al. 1978, Chambers and Tre-
cus) treated with lindane stopped laying eggs immediately
vathan 1983). Mirex causes an induction pattern similar to
after treatment, and had reduced clutch sizes when laying
phenobarbital (cytochrome P450 2B) (Madhukar and Mat-
restarted (Chakravarty et al. 1986). No effects are seen on
sumura 1979). No induction of APND or cytochrome P450
spawning, egg hatchability, or fry survival in fish treated
was seen in treated chickens or Japanese quail (Davison and
with lindane (Macek et al. 1969).
Cox 1974, Davison et al. 1976).
ท Cytochrome P450-dependent monooxygenases
ท Immunosuppression
ญHCH-treated laboratory animals have increased APND
Mirex treatment leads to decreased thymus and spleen
activity (Schulte-Hermann et al. 1974, Seifart and Buchar
weights, reduced antibody response, and reduced antibody
1978, den Tonkelaar et al. 1981, Kuiper et al. 1985). Rats
levels in chickens and mice (Wong et al. 1992).
treated with -HCH had increased APND activity and cy-
tochrome P450 levels (Van Velsen 1986, Van Velsen et al.
ท Cancer
1986). Lindane increases APND, ECOD, AE, EROD, and
Mirex does not appear to be mutagenic when tested in the
cytochrome P450 levels (Van Velsen et al. 1984, Videla et
Ames test (Hallett et al. 1978). It does induce cancer in rats
al. 1990).
and mice (IARC 1979).
ท Immunosuppression
6.5.3.2.7. Toxaphene (campheclor, polychlorinated
-HCH has been shown to adversely affect the immune
camphenes, polychlorinated bornanes)
system in laboratory animals (Cornacoff et al. 1988). Dose-
dependent reductions in immune response have been seen in
Toxaphene is acutely toxic to fish, with lethal water concen-
rabbits treated with lindane (Desi 1976, Desi et al. 1978).
trations in the range of 5-100 g/L, and saltwater fish are
more sensitive than freshwater fish (Saleh 1991). Laboratory
ท Adrenal effects
studies have shown that exposure to toxaphene affects be-
Rats treated with -HCH had increased adrenal weights
havior and growth in fish (Mayer et al. 1975, 1977, Pollock
(Van Velsen 1986).
and Kilgore 1978). Fish injected with environmentally rele-
vant doses of technical toxaphene and released into the wild
ท Thyroid effects
had reduced long-term survival (Delorme et al. 1993).
Medaka treated with -HCH developed thyroid hypertro-
phy (Wester and Canton 1986).
ท Reproductive effects
Oral dosing in pregnant mice and rats resulted in maternal
ท Cancer
toxicity and fetotoxicity (Chernoff and Carver 1976) with
-HCH does not appear to be mutagenic (WHO 1992), but
a LOAEL for these effects of less than 15 000 ng/g body
seems to be a promoter. High doses in rats and mice cause
weight/d. No reproductive effects are seen in multigenera-
liver tumors. -HCH does not appear to be mutagenic (WHO
tional studies using laboratory rodents or chickens (WHO

Chapter 6 ท Persistent Organic Pollutants
215
1984d, Chu et al. 1988). No effects are seen on egg hatch-
activity (Naqvi and Vaishnavi 1993). Endosulfan is an effec-
ability or eggshell thickness. Brook trout (Salvelinus fonti-
tive inducer of cytochrome P450 1A activity in fish (Goks๘yr
nalis) treated with toxaphene have decreased ova viability
1995b).
(Mayer et al. 1977). Brook trout fry show high mortality
after exposure to toxaphene (Mayer et al. 1975). Toxa-
ท Immune effects
phene has been shown to be estrogenic in the in vitro E-
Endosulfan treatment leads to depressed humoral and cellu-
screen test (Soto et al. 1994).
lar immune responses at subtoxic doses (Naqvi and Vaish-
navi 1993).
ท Cytochrome P450-dependent enzymes
Rats fed more than 2400 ng/g body weight/d for 1-6 months
ท Cancer
had increased liver enzyme induction (Peakall 1976b).
Endosulfan does not appear to be genotoxic. Data are inade-
quate about the possible carcinogenicity of endosulfan (Na-
ท Skeletal effects
qvi and Vaishnavi 1993).
Bones of fish are altered after exposure to toxaphene (May-
er et al. 1977, 1978, Hamilton et al. 1981). There are in-
6.5.3.4. Other pesticides
creased calcium levels, but decreased levels of collagen and
6.5.3.4.1. Tributyltin (TBT)
hydroxyproline, leading to brittleness in the backbone. Re-
duced hydroxyproline is also seen. Channel catfish fry (Icta-
ท Reproductive effects
lurus punctatus) with body concentrations of 3400 ng/g ww
TBT is arguably the most toxic substance deliberately intro-
or higher had decreased growth, and body concentrations
duced to natural waters (Goldberg 1986). Chronic effects
of 600 ng/g ww adversely affected bone development (Stickel
are observed at exposure levels of 1 g/L or less for oysters,
and Hickey 1977).
mussels and crustaceans (Rexrode 1987), while the most
sensitive species (dogwhelk snails, e.g., Nucella) show sub-
ท Immunosuppression
lethal effects at concentrations of only a few ng/L or less (Bry-
Offspring of mice fed toxaphene during mating, pregnancy,
an and Gibbs 1991, Gibbs 1993, Stewart and Thompson
and lactation showed immunosuppression including depres-
1994). At these ultra-low concentrations, which challenge
sed antibody formation (Allen et al. 1983).
present analytical detection limits for TBT in seawater, dog-
whelk snails exhibit imposex (development of male charac-
ท Adrenal effects
teristics leading to sterilization of females). Although impo-
Toxaphene is taken up and retained in the adrenocortical
sex has been observed most frequently along shores adjacent
tissue of rats (Mohammed et al. 1985). Adrenal hypertro-
to obvious sources such as marinas or harbors and has been
phy was seen in bobwhite quail fed toxaphene (Hurst et al.
associated with both pleasure boats and commercial ship-
1974).
ping, the problem has been defined as long-term and global
rather than short-term and regional (Ellis and Pattisina 1990,
ท Thyroid effects
Bryan and Gibbs 1991, Ten Hallers-Tjabbes et al. 1994).
Increased thyroid growth was seen in bobwhite quail fed toxa-
TBT is moderately lipophilic and may therefore bioaccu-
phene (Hurst et al. 1974). Thyroid effects were seen in rats and
mulate in the marine environment (bioaccumulation factors
dogs fed different doses of toxaphene for 13 weeks. The no-
are of the order of 103-104). However, it is also metabolized
adverse-effect-levels (NOAELs) found in this study for thyroid
by vertebrates and invertebrates, reducing the body burden
effects were 4000 ng/g feed or 350 ng/g body weight/d for rats
of TBT and its level of bioaccumulation. While TBT is clear-
and 200 ng/g body weight/d for dogs (Chu et al. 1986).
ly causing harm to components of the marine ecosystem,
studies of its hazard to humans suggest that it is not neuro-
ท Cancer
toxic, nor is it considered mutagenic, teratogenic, or car-
Toxaphene is mutagenic in the Ames test (Hooper et al.
cinogenic. In view of its effects on sensitive marine species,
1979, Mortelmans et al. 1986) and a potent carcinogen in
particularly the mollusks, TBT falls into the category of `en-
rats and mice (reviewed in Saleh 1991).
docrine disrupters' (Colborn et al. 1993). The main argu-
ment supporting its continued use is that the effective anti-
fouling properties reduce fuel consumption. It has been esti-
6.5.3.3. Less persistent organochlorine pesticides
mated by the European Chemical Industry Council (unpubl.
6.5.3.3.1. Endosulfan
manuscript) that world fleet consumption of oil is reduced by
ท Reproductive effects
7
106 tonnes/y with consequent reduction in CO2 (22 106
Male rats treated with endosulfan had reduced testes weights
tonnes/y) and sulfur (0.6
106 tonnes/y) emissions to the at-
(FAO/WHO 1968, WHO 1984b), lowered plasma gonado-
mosphere.
trophin and testosterone levels, as well as lowered testicular
testosterone levels (Singh and Pandey 1990). Endosulfan
ท Immunosuppression
has been shown to be estrogenic in the in vitro E-screen test
TBT induces thymic atrophy (Wong et al. 1992).
(Soto et al. 1994). Endosulfan causes fetal resorption and
skeletal and internal abnormalities in fetuses of treated preg-
nant rats at levels that also cause maternal toxicity (Naqvi
6.6. Regional and circumpolar levels
and Vaishnavi 1993).
and trends in abiotic and biotic media
Female vitellogenic catfish (Clarias batrachus) treated
with endosulfan had reduced plasma vitellogenin levels
The state of knowledge of contaminants in Arctic abiotic
(Chakravorty et al. 1992).
and biotic media has advanced considerably since the publi-
cation of the first major reviews such as those by Andersson
ท Cytochrome P450-dependent monooxygenases
et al. (1988), Thomas et al. (1992), Lockhart et al. (1992),
Rats treated with endosulfan had increased MFO activity
and Muir et al. (1992b). The most significant gains are new
(den Tonkelaar and van Esch 1974) and increased APND
knowledge of spatial trends of organochlorines (OCs) in air,

216
AMAP Assessment Report
snow, and sediments, as well as in terrestrial and marine bio-
or small mammalian or avian prey, OC levels on a wet weight
ta where no information was previously available. There are
or whole weight basis, whichever represents the consumed
also some new data on temporal trends in biota (section 6.7).
food, may be the most informative statistics since they repre-
Most data discussed in this chapter are from recent pub-
sent the total mass of OCs consumed. 2) OC levels on a wet
lications, from unpublished data and short summaries from
weight basis may be an adequate measure of the OC level on
the scientists in charge of projects on Arctic contaminants,
a lipid weight basis. For example, in marine mammals, OC
or from AMAP-associated databases. Summary data are
level in blubber is the accepted measure, since blubber is
usually presented in the same form selected by the scientist
mostly lipid. 3) Whether lipid-normalized OC concentra-
responsible for the data, and in some cases, data are sum-
tions are the only valuable measure is still open to some de-
marized further. Results from older studies are often men-
bate. Lipid levels in some tissues fluctuate greatly, for exam-
tioned, however, raw data were not available in most cases.
ple, lipid levels in liver in relation to feeding and starvation
Most interpretation in this chapter, including compari-
cycles. Two similarly contaminated animals could appear to
sons and conclusions about spatial and temporal trends,
have very different lipid weight levels of OCs in liver tissue
were made by scientists in charge of projects (most listed as
simply because they were measured at different times of the
co-authors), contributors, and by the three editors. In some
year, yet each animal may experience the same stresses due
cases interpretation was not possible due to limited sample
to contaminant load over an extended period of time. Model-
numbers. These data were primarily entered as summary data
ing approaches have been used to describe and predict the
in the Annex Tables, and interpretations were kept to a mini-
movement of OCs between tissues and the risk at various
mum. It should also be noted that sample sizes for means
stages (Kingsley and Hickie 1994), however, such approaches
given in these tables vary greatly. Readers should be aware of
are usually not possible. As an intermediate approach, Hebert
the risk of spurious conclusions drawn from small data sets.
and Keenleyside (1995) recommend calculation of lipid-ad-
It should be noted that results from different studies are
justed means using analysis of covariance rather than normal-
not always comparable for a number of reasons. One rea-
izing individual values. 4) The measure of percent lipid can be
son is that the same compounds were not measured. For ex-
unreliable due to variation with extraction methods and due
ample, PCB (sum of PCBs) could refer to the sum of 7-100
to weighing errors. 5) Lipid content was not determined. Even
PCB congeners. For this reason, results are usually sub-
today, lipid amount is not always determined when doing
scripted by explanations of the compounds presented. It is
chemical analyses of OCs, therefore, some results can only be
suggested that serious comparisons be made only in refer-
given here on a wet weight basis, as is evident in values in
ences to the raw, not summarized, data, obtained from the
most of the Annex Tables in this chapter. This is a major
scientists or agencies in charge of the data.
shortcoming in many of the available data presented.
Another reason for limited comparisons is that the con-
Nevertheless, wet weight comparisons can be made with
centrations of OCs in biotic and abiotic samples are ex-
the same tissues with individuals of the same species in simi-
pressed in several ways in this report. Due to lack of sup-
lar condition. Since OCs occur in lipids, tissues with high fat
porting information (e.g., percent lipid), it was not always
content will have higher OC wet weight concentrations than
possible to convert a value in one basis to its corresponding
lean tissues. For example, blubber will have higher wet weight
value in another basis. In biological samples, concentrations
concentrations than leaner muscle from the same animal.
can be expressed on a wet weight (ww) basis, giving the
Organisms with a large amount of lipid in a particular tis-
concentration of OC in the total weight of tissue analyzed;
sue, for example, fish with fatty livers (e.g., cod) or with
on a lipid weight (lw) basis, giving the concentration in the
fatty muscle (e.g., salmonids) will often have higher wet
lipids in that particular tissue; or as a body burden, giving
weight concentrations of OCs than leaner organisms.
the contaminant concentration in the whole organism. OC
An organism's size, sex, age, fitness, reproductive phase,
levels in abiotic samples are often expressed on a dry weight
nutritional status, health status, individual food preferences
(dw) basis, and some biotic samples, most often plants,
or feeding habits, and many environmental factors such as
were also reported on a dry weight basis. All lipid weight
seasonal or climatic characteristics can also influence OC
concentrations are calculated from the wet weight concen-
levels in biota (sections 6.3 and 6.4). In statistical analyses,
trations unless otherwise indicated.
these factors are called `covariates' because they vary along
In the case of abiotic samples, results for sediments are
with the dependent variables of interest, OC levels in this
usually expressed on a dry weight basis because organic
case. Methods of working with covariates vary, and opin-
carbon, an important covariate, is not always available for
ions about valid methods differ among scientists. Linear and
all samples. For water samples, a distinction needs to be
non-linear models which were relatively difficult to work
made between whole water (containing dissolved and par-
with as few as fifteen years ago, for example, mixed models
ticulate organic carbon) and filtered or centrifuged samples,
which combine analysis of variance, covariance, and regres-
because very hydrophobic compounds could be primarily
sion models, are now available as computer software and
associated with particles. Concentrations of OCs in air
relatively easy to apply and interpret, with appropriate ad-
samples, expressed as pg/m3, are presented for gas phase
vice from statisticians who are aware of the pitfalls.
and particle phase separately or are summed to give a total
The correlation between OC levels and one or more of
air concentration. For most semi-volatile OCs, total air
these factors is often the main objective of a study, for exam-
concentrations are similar to gas phase concentrations, ex-
ple the relationships between OC levels and organisms' size
cept at very low temperatures (e.g., ญ 30 to ญ 40ฐC which
and reproductive status. In most cases, a covariate is a factor
occur in some regions during January-February).
that accounts for much of the unexplained variation in the
When comparing the OC concentrations in different tis-
data, but is not one of the main factors of interest in the
sues and organs, in different species, or when describing
study. An example of this is the use of stable isotopes of ni-
spatial and time trends or biomagnification, the compar-
trogen to quantify an organism's food preferences and tro-
isons are best made on a lipid weight basis (section 6.3.1.1).
phic status, and this measurement is then related to OC lev-
However, this has not always been done for the following
els. In other studies, particularly in wide-ranging surveys,
reasons: 1) When discussing intake of OCs from food or
the effects of some factors are `adjusted for' by the use of
prey, for example, from reindeer muscle or liver, whole eggs,
appropriate linear modeling methods before comparisons

Chapter 6 ท Persistent Organic Pollutants
217
are made (e.g., the polar bear study, section 6.6.4.8). Linear
dressed where relevant to the interpretation of individual
coefficients calculated to describe the effects of these covari-
data sets. However, the reader should be aware that inadver-
ates are of interest in themselves. In such cases, the unex-
tent contamination is a major problem, especially in dealing
plained error is high, but results have wide applicability. In
with very low levels of POPs, which is generally not addres-
other studies, efforts have been made to keep the values of
sed through interlaboratory-type studies.
some of these covariates as consistent as possible in order
to determine the effects of other factors of interest. Specifi-
6.6.1. Air and precipitation
cally, in studies in Sweden, efforts were made to collect fish
6.6.1.1. Air
annually of similar age, sex, stage of gonad development,
and at the same stations at the same time of the year in or-
Measurements of persistent organic pollutants, including
der to determine subtle temporal trends (section 6.7.3.2).
herbicides, pesticides, synthetic industrial compounds, and
If important covariates are ignored, spurious temporal
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), have been made
and spatial trends may appear to exist. More seriously, if
on a weekly basis in the Canadian, Norwegian, and Russian
important covariates are not considered, ecologically im-
Arctic since 1992 (Barrie et al. 1997, Oehme et al. 1995b,
portant temporal trends may not be noticed, and the unex-
1995d, Rovinsky et al. 1995). Limited numbers of air sam-
plained variability in the data can be extremely high. For
ples have also been collected in the past six years in the Be-
example, Bignert et al. (1993, 1994) demonstrated that
ring/Chukchi Seas (Iwata et al. 1993, Jantunen and Bidle-
temporal trends could not be distinguished if they pooled
man 1995, Chernyak et al. 1996) and during the USA/Can-
tissue samples from Baltic guillemots or from herring.
ada transpolar cruise (Barrie et al. 1997). Air samples have
These studies showed that interpretations of temporal and
also been collected in Iceland on Heimaey Island (63ฐ24'N,
spatial trends based on a single year's sampling or from
20ฐ17'W) from January to December 1995 (Icelandic Mete-
scattered sampling over time should be made with caution.
orological Office 1996 unpubl. results). Results for PAHs in
Studies of spatial trends require a standardized sampling
air are discussed in chapter 10.
design to minimize the effect of covariates on concentra-
The Canadian program involved high-volume air samplers
tions. Sampling should also preferably be done during the
placed at Alert, NWT (82ฐ30'N, 62ฐ20'W); Tagish, Yukon
same time period so as to minimize the influence of tempo-
(60ฐ20'N, 134ฐ15'W); Cape Dorset, Baffin Island (64ฐ20'N,
ral trends. In only a few cases were samples taken in such a
76ฐ00'W), and, in collaboration with Russian scientists, at
way that spatial trends over major parts of the Arctic were
the mouth of the Lena River on Dunai Island (74ฐ00'N,
possible to study with some confidence (polar bears, cari-
125ฐ00'E) in Russia. Samples were collected every six days
bou). In other cases, results are available for the same spe-
(11-13
103 m3) using glassfiber filters and polyurethane
cies from various parts of the Arctic from independent stud-
foam. A total of 18 PAHs, 29 OCs, and 90 PCB congeners
ies. Sampling was done in different areas for different rea-
were determined in samples taken at Alert, Tagish, and Dunai.
sons, sometimes in different years, and because of this, this
Results for Cape Dorset are not yet available. The Norwe-
type of spatial comparison is more tenuous and conclusions
gian program involved collection of 1000-1100 m3 air over
about spatial trends must be made with caution.
a two- or three-day period once a week at Ny-ลlesund, Sval-
Environmental measurements, such as air and water tem-
bard (78ฐ55'N, 11ฐ56'E) during 1993 to 1995. Air samples
perature, wind speed, basic water chemistry (pH, suspended
were also collected at Ny-ลlesund and Svanvik (N. Norway)
solids, dissolved organic carbon), particle size, extent of ice
from March to May 1992 (Oehme et al. 1995b). Samples
cover, snow depth, and water flow rate, are just some of the
were analyzed for ten PCB congeners plus HCH, HCB, and
possible ancillary data needed for interpreting OC data in
chlordane-related compounds. Results for the four Canadian
abiotic samples. The development of a mass balance budget
locations are available for 1993 and 1994. Additional sam-
for OCs in the Arctic Ocean (section 6.6.4.3) illustrates the
ples from 1995 from all sites have been collected and ana-
need for detailed environmental measurements (e.g., flow
lyzed but final results are not yet available. The Icelandic
rates of north-flowing rivers) along with sound physical/
program, on Heimaey Island, also used a high-volume air
chemical property information on the chemicals of interest.
sampler with collection on polyurethane foam over a period
There are large uncertainties in physical properties, for ex-
of approximately 14 days. This site is located 4.5 km from a
ample, in H and VPL for OCs at Arctic temperatures.
small town of 4500 inhabitants and is 118 m above sea level.
All data reported in this chapter are relatively recent, and
One of the predominant OCs in Arctic air is HCH (Oehme
most results satisfy basic standards of quality assurance set
et al. 1995b, 1995d, Barrie et al. 1997). At Ny-ลlesund, HCH
by AMAP. Virtually all of these recent data have been gen-
concentrations during 1993 ranged from 10 to 240 pg/m3 and
erated by laboratories which have participated in national
from 21-148 pg/m3 in 1994 (Table 6ท6, Figure 6ท4; next page).
and international interlaboratory comparisons on OCs in
During 1993, a similar range of concentrations was found at
biological tissues (e.g., cod liver oil) or in standard solu-
Tagish (50-200 pg/m3), while lower concentrations were gen-
tions. Thus, it is believed that uncertainties associated with
erally observed at Alert (15-145 pg/m3) and Dunai Island (1-
analytical measurements reported in this chapter are rela-
100 pg/m3). At Heimaey Island (Iceland), HCH concentra-
tively low, and attempts have been made to identify results
tions (in 1995) were lower than at other locations (8-68
that appear suspect. The major uncertainty in the OC data
pg/m3). At all locations, -HCH was the major individual
sets probably arises from contamination during sample col-
OC present, with concentrations that were two to more than
lection and storage prior to analysis. This is especially the
ten times higher than other OCs. Lindane ( -HCH), PCBs,
case with abiotic samples such as air, suspended solids, and
and toxaphene are also prominent in Arctic air samples.
water. Several contributors of abiotic data have stressed
A summer minimum concentration of HCH isomers was
that contamination from lubricating oils, possible insecti-
observed at Alert and at Heimaey Island, but it was less dis-
cide use on ships, and evaporation of OCs from construc-
tinct at the other three sites (Figure 6ท4). At Alert, this mini-
tion materials may have contributed to unusually elevated
mum in HCH concentration corresponds to a summer maxi-
levels of PCBs and DDT. Air drying of samples in the labo-
mum in precipitation. Alert sees air that has spent much time
ratory has been noted as another source of contamination
over the ice-covered Arctic Ocean, in an environment that
of plants, sediments, and soils. These issues are briefly ad-
has a strong summer maximum in precipitation. Seasonal

218
AMAP Assessment Report
Table 6ท6 Mean and range of concentrations (pg/m3) of major OCs in Arctic air (1992-1994).
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Svanvik, Ny-ลlesund Ny-ลlesund Ny-ลlesund
Alert
Alert
Tagish
Dunai Island Heimaey Island Bering-Chukchi Resolute
Location
Norway
Norway
Norway
Norway
Canada
Canada
Canada
Russia
Iceland
Seas
Canada
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Mar-May Mar-May
Mar-May
May-Sept.
1992
1992
1993
1994
1992
1993
1993
1993
1995
1993
1992
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
97
144
78
61
57
61
79
40
19
91
114
-HCH
(39-205)
(68-338)
(6.8-203)
(16-112)
(1.1-116)
(13-116)
(24-160)
(0.63-77)
(7.8-46)
(60-114)
46
32
14
16
11
10
11
9.8
15
23
9.8
-HCH
(11-194)
(13-99)
(3.3-38)
(5.3-62)
(0.03-37)
(1.9-29)
(3.3-25)
(< 0.05-23)
(< 0.1-50)
(12-37)
108
205
92
115
56
58
42
55
8.0
ญa
ญ
HCB
(55-188) (121-373)
(23-312)
(76-541)
(1.8-109)
(12-108)
(10-14)
(19-173)
(3.1-15.7)
Dieldrin
ญ
ญ
ญ
ญ
1.1
1.2
0.91
1.1
< 0.1
ญ
ญ
(0.12-2.8)
(0.06-3.2)
(< 0.05-2.2) (< 0.05-2.0)
ญ
ญ
ญ
ญ
4.2
3.6
5.3
3.0
ญ
ญ
ญ
Endosulfan
(0.05-11) (< 0.05-9.4)
(0.08-15)
(0.05-7.2)
Toxapheneb
ญ
ญ
ญ
ญ
19
11
14
14
ญ
4.9
7
(3-73)
(< 3-43)
(3-41)
(3-32)
CHLc
3
4
2.6
3
4.8
2.5
2.9
2.3
3.3
ญ
3
(1.6-5.4)
(1.7-15)
(1.2-4.9)
(1.5-7.3)
(0.50-18)
(0.34-10)
(1.1-6.6)
(0.11-6.0)
(1.3-9.8)
ญ
ญ
1.2
5.4
4.3
0.82
1.4
0.93
ญd
ญ
ญ
DDT
(0.47-2.6)
(1.5-15)
(0.32-16)
(0.12-2.2)
(0.26-3.2)
(0.24-2.0)
(< 1.0-7.1)
PCB 98e
13
13
57f
ญ
5.8
3.7
8.1
17
ญ
ญ
(10 congen.) (2.8-33)
(7.0-25)
(2.9-121)
(7-990)
(0.18-25.9)
(0.92-8.3)
(6.5-23)
(< 1.0-45)
PCB
_
ญ
ญ
ญ
ญ
32
22
34
ญ
ญ
ญ
(total)
(3.1-102)
(14-41)
(5.4-95)
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Reference
Oehme Oehme
Oehme
Hagen
Fellin
Barrie
Barrie
Barrie
Thorlacius
Jantunen
Bidleman
et al.
et al.
et al.
unpubl.
et al.
et al.
et al.
et al.
1996
and
et al.
1995d
1995d
1995b
data
1996
unpubl.
unpubl.
unpubl.
Bidleman
1995b
data
data
data
1995
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
a. not determined or results not available; b. Toxaphene determined by GC-ECD with hi-resolution NIMS confirmation. GC-ECD results multiplied by
2.7 to yield results equivalent to GC-NIMS based on analysis of 15 samples from Tagish by both methods; c. Sum of cis- and trans-chlordane + cis- and
trans-nonachlor; d. Mean not calculated; 14 of 22 samples were < detection limit of 1 pg/m3; e. Sum of seven congeners (CB 28, 31 and 52 not deter-
mined); f. Elevated PCB results in 1994 at Ny-ลlesund may be due to local contamination.
variations of HCH observed at Tagish (Yukon) do not show
The seasonal variation of PCBs at five Arctic locations is
the summer dip in concentrations. This is likely due to the
shown in Figure 6ท5. PCB results for Ny-ลlesund and Heimaey
strong influence of flow off the North Pacific Ocean over the
Island consisted of ten congeners (CB 28, 31, 52, 101, 105, 118,
Rocky Mountains into this site. The seasonal variation of
138, 153, 156 and 180), whereas 90 congeners were determined
- and -HCH at Dunai (Russia) peaked in the spring and
(about 50 were routinely detected) at Alert, Tagish, and Dunai
decreased in summer similar to that seen at Alert. However,
Island. The PCB results shown in Figure 6ท5 are all based on
the spring decrease occurred in early May while at Alert it
the sum of the above ten congeners in the gas and particle
was in June. The Dunai site, at 74ฐN, is farther south than
phase, in order to allow comparison among sites. These ten
Alert (82.5ฐN) and, like Alert, it sees Arctic air much of the
congeners represent 6-25% of PCB in air at Alert (Table 6ท6).
winter, however, spring melt comes earlier than at Alert.
Highest PCB concentrations for all four sampling sites in
The occurrence of an early HCH peak may reflect vol-
1993 were found at Ny-ลlesund (Table 6ท6). PCB concentra-
atilization of cold-condensed HCHs from the snow pack
tions (based on ten congeners) at Ny-ลlesund were two
during spring warm-up. It also may be due to use of tech-
times higher than at Alert and 1.5 times higher than at Du-
nical HCH and lindane during spring months in temperate
nai during 1993. The PCB profile at Ny-ลlesund was domi-
regions. The -/ -HCH ratios at Alert increased from 0.1
nated by long-range transport events. Increases in concentra-
to 0.45 between March and June 1992 indicating fresh
tions of more volatile PCBs (e.g., trichlorobiphenyl, CB 28/31;
sources of lindane (Fellin et al. 1996). At Ny-ลlesund,
and tetrachlorobiphenyl, CB 52) were associated with long-
little seasonal variation in HCH was observed, but con-
range transport back trajectories from western Europe and
centrations were influenced by long-range transport epi-
central Russia, while lowest concentrations were found in
sodes where concentrations increased by 50-100% from
air passing over the Arctic Ocean. At Alert, the PCB homo-
one sampling time to the next (Oehme et al. 1995d). High-
logue pattern varied seasonally. The di-, tri-, and tetra-chlo-
est -/ -HCH ratios at Ny-ลlesund were observed episodi-
rinated PCBs peaked in the coldest months while the penta-,
cally in May and July.
hexa-, and hepta- PCBs peaked later in the summer. Results
At the Icelandic site, a springtime maximum of HCH
for PCBs at Ny-ลlesund in 1994 may be compromised by
was observed in 1995 followed by low concentrations dur-
unidentified contamination that resulted in some elevated
ing July and August (Figure 6ท4). HCH profiles in Icelandic
PCB concentrations (J.-E. Haugen pers. comm. 1996). Mean
air (Figure 6ท4) during 1995 differed from the other sites by
PCB concentrations are higher in 1994 than in 1992-1993,
having much higher -/ -HCH ratios (average 0.9, range
but lowest concentrations are similar each year. Similar con-
0.3-2.78), indicating greater proportions of the insecticide
tamination problems, possibly associated with contaminated
lindane, which was widely used in Icelandic sheep-farming
oils in vacuum pumps used for air sampling, were encoun-
until 1990, but only sparsely, if at all, after that. As its half-
tered at Alert in 1992 (L. Barrie pers. comm. 1996).
life is a maximum of three years, these practices cannot ex-
The PCB profile at Alert in 1993 shows a peak in July cor-
plain the high ratio and a source outside of Iceland is sus-
responding to higher air temperatures. Most of the mass is in
pected (Icelandic Meteorological Office, pers. comm. 1996).
the gas phase (80-90%), but the particulate fraction is still im-
Schreitm�ller and Ballschmiter (1995) found a wide range
portant because it is more readily scavenged from the atmos-
of HCH ratios in the North Atlantic (average 0.86, range
phere than the gaseous fraction. PCB profiles at Dunai Island
0.2 to 3.6) and attributed high ratios to air masses from
and at Tagish did not show as much seasonal variation as Alert
Western Europe where lindane is still used.
or Ny-ลlesund. Some of the highest concentrations at Tagish

Chapter 6 ท Persistent Organic Pollutants
219
150
PCB
Tagish
-HCH
Tagish
Dunai
pg/m3
Dunai
Island
Island
Total HCH
Alert
Alert
50
Ny-ลlesund
Ny-ลlesund, Svalbard, Norway,
HCH
-HCH
Ny-ลlesund
Apr.-Dec. 1993
pg/m3
Heimaey
Heimaey
Island
250
Ny-ลlesund, Svalbard, Norway, Apr.- Dec. 1993
Island
40
30
200
20
150
10
100
0
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
50
30
Alert, Ellesmere Island, Canada, Jan.-Dec. 1993
0
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct Nov
Dec
20
200
Alert, Ellesmere Island, Canada, Jan.- Dec. 1993
10
150
0
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
100
20
Tagish, Yukon, Canada, Jan.-Dec. 1993
50
10
0
0
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
200
Tagish, Yukon, Canada, Jan.- Dec. 1993
30
Dunai Island, Lena River Delta, Russia, Mar.-Dec. 1993
20
150
10
100
0
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
50
0
50
Heimaey Island, Iceland, Feb.-Dec. 1995
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
40
100
Dunai Island, Lena River Delta, Russia, Mar.- Dec. 1993
30
50
20
0
10
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
0
100
Heimaey Island, Iceland, Jan.- Dec. 1995
Jan Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug Sep Oct
Nov
Dec
Figure 6ท5. Concentrations of PCB in Arctic air (sum of CBs 28, 31, 52,
101, 105, 118, 138, 153, 156, 180).
50
pg/m3 at Heimaey Island to 205 pg/m3 at Ny-ลlesund. HCB
0
results for the two Canadian and one Russian location are
Jan
Feb
Mar Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug Sep Oct
Nov
Dec
about two-fold lower than in the Norwegian Arctic (Table
Figure 6ท4. Concentrations of HCH in Arctic air.
6ท6). The regional variation of HCB concentrations, particu-
larly the low levels at the North Atlantic (Heimaey Island)
and Dunai were found during the winter months. Maximum
site, is higher than for HCH, chlordanes, or DDT-related
PCB levels at Tagish were 2.5 times lower than at Alert.
compounds, and warrants further investigation.
HCB is found at the highest concentrations of any indi-
Chlordane-related compounds were also relatively promi-
vidual OC in Arctic air with mean levels ranging from 8
nent in air samples collected at all five Arctic sites, especially

220
AMAP Assessment Report
`Clean' air ;
times higher than ECD results (D. Muir unpubl. data). In
low toxaphene
contrast, toxaphene measured at the Ice Island by GC-NIMS
over NW Pacific
was about a factor of 2 lower than ECD values (Patton et al.
`Clean' air ; low chlordane
1989). Results for toxaphene in Table 6ท6 for Alert, Tagish,
and PCBs across the
Arctic Ocean
and Dunai are based on measured GC-ECD values adjusted
Tagish
assuming an NIMS/ECD factor of 2.7 and are regarded as
Elevated
toxaphene
best estimates of toxaphene at these sites. The discrepancy
from US/Canada
west coast
between the Resolute-BERPAC results, which were deter-
mined by GC-NIMS, and the adjusted Alert-Tagish values is
Elevated PCBs
Dunai
a factor of 2-3.5. The lack of NIMS data for all of the sites
and HCH from
Russia/Siberia
Elevated PCBs
limits our ability to accurately predict current atmospheric
and HCH from
loadings of toxaphene to the Arctic Ocean and is a matter
Russia/Siberia
Cape Dorset
that needs to be resolved. Toxaphene concentrations at Alert
Alert
were found to be much higher during May-September than
Ny-ลlesund
during the cold period from October to April (1992-1993)
Elevated PCBs and HCH
Elevated chlordane
originating from
(Fellin et al. 1996). The toxaphene profile in Arctic air con-
originating from
Svanvik
Europe and
sists mainly of hepta- and octachlorobornanes and differs
US/Canada
western Russia
east coast
markedly from the chlorobornane pattern in technical toxa-
Heimaey Island
phene (Bidleman et al. 1993).
Back trajectories for samples at Tagish in 1993 showed
that air masses originating over North America were associ-
ated with high toxaphene concentrations (Figure 6ท6). Low-
est toxaphene concentrations at Tagish were found in air
Figure 6ท6. Source regions for HCH, chlordane, toxaphene, and PCBs in
masses passing over the North Pacific Ocean. Nearly 80%
Arctic air based on 5-day back-trajectories for elevated air concentra-
of the toxaphene applications in the USA were in the south-
tions at Tagish, Alert, and Ny-ลlesund (Oehme et al. 1996; Barrie et al.
ern states (Voldner and Schroeder 1989), and it is likely that
unpubl. data).
volatilization of residues from agricultural soils in this re-
those in Canada. CHL (sum of cis- and trans-chlordane,
gion are contributing to the background concentrations in
and cis- and trans-nonachlor) at Ny-ลlesund averaged 2.6
North America, including the Arctic. Despite a decade-old
pg/m3 in 1993, and 3.0 pg/m3 in 1994, similar to levels at
ban on toxaphene use in the USA, relatively high concentra-
Tagish and Alert (Table 6ท6). Elevated CHL concentra-
tions of toxaphene still occur in the southern USA. The mean
tions at Svalbard were found to be mainly of North Ameri-
concentration of toxaphene in Columbia, South Carolina,
can origin (Oehme et al. 1995b, 1995d). The major path-
USA, during August 1994-January 1995 was 180 pg/m3 (Bid-
ways identified by back trajectory analysis for Tagish, Alert,
leman unpubl. data). Based on limited information, Siberia
and Ny-ลlesund are shown in Figure 6ท6. Episodic increases
does not appear to be a significant source of toxaphene. Aver-
at Ny-ลlesund, especially of trans-chlordane, were associ-
age concentrations of toxaphene measured by GC-NIMS at
ated with air mass back trajectories that passed over North
Lake Baikal in June 1991 were 16 pg/m3 (McConnell et al.
America. At Alert, trans-chlordane levels were also elevated
1996), similar to average concentrations at the three Cana-
in June (Fellin et al. 1996) consistent with higher tempera-
dian Arctic sites (Table 6ท6).
tures in source regions of North America. Patton et al. (1991)
found that trans-/cis-chlordane ratios were useful for infer-
6.6.1.2. Precipitation
ring air mass history because of the gradual conversion of
trans- to cis-isomer during transport in the atmosphere. At
Snow is an important component of annual precipitation in
Tagish, elevated concentrations of cis- and trans-chlordane,
the Arctic and is highly efficient at scavenging organic conta-
oxychlordane, heptachlor epoxide, along with dieldrin, -
minants from the atmosphere (see chapter 3). As a result,
HCH, -HCH, and p,p'-DDE were observed during the sam-
much of the emphasis on monitoring of persistent OCs in
ple week of the 7-14th January 1993. Air mass back trajec-
precipitation in the Arctic has been on snow chemistry. In
tories over this period revealed the movement of air from as
Canada, snow collection and analysis of OCs were conducted
far away as India, where DDT and HCH are still used for
at about 20 locations in the NWT and three locations in the
mosquito control in both agricultural and urban areas. In-
Yukon (Swyripa and Strachan 1994, Palmer 1993). Results
deed, higher ratios of p,p'-DDE/(p,p'-DDT + p,p'-DDE)
for OCs in snow were also available from the Taimyr Penin-
than those predicted by temperature for this period are prob-
sula in the Russian Arctic. OCs were also determined in wet
ably due to the conversion of applied p,p'-DDT to p,p'-DDE.
precipitation collected during 1995 in Iceland (Icelandic Me-
This photo-degradation process occurs post application in
teorological Office, unpubl. data 1996), and in wet precipita-
agricultural areas and/or during long-range transport.
tion collected in August 1994 on the Taimyr Peninsula (Mel-
Toxaphene is also an important OC contaminant in Arc-
nikov et al. 1995, 1996a, 1996b). Several current-use pesti-
tic air. Toxaphene concentrations are usually lower than
cides were determined in precipitation collected in northern
HCH, HCB, or PCBs but greater than CHL or DDT.
Norway (Lode et al. 1995).
Year-round monitoring of toxaphene has been carried out
There are major uncertainties associated with determina-
at Alert, Tagish, and Dunai from 1992-94, with analysis by
tion of semi-volatile contaminants in snow. These compounds
GC-ECD and confirmation by GC-NIMS. Toxaphene has
are not permanently encapsulated in snow crystals and may
also been determined (by GC-NIMS) from summer 1992-
exchange with the atmosphere as snow morphometry changes.
1993 air sampling at Resolute Bay (Bidleman 1996) and on
Thus, fresh snow generally shows much higher concentra-
the BERPAC-93 cruise in the Bering and Chukchi Seas (Bid-
tions of contaminants than does aged snow (Gregor et al.
leman et al. 1995b). A comparison of 12 air sample extracts
1995). Studies of OCs in snow at Amituk Lake (Cornwallis
from Tagish by both GC-ECD and GC-NIMS found that
Island) showed that there were losses of most compounds
the NIMS method yielded average values that were 2.7
from shallow snowpack, especially for di- and trichloroben-

Chapter 6 ท Persistent Organic Pollutants
221
zenes, heptachlor epoxide, -chlordane, PCB, and DDT
loss during snow melt. The actual delivery of contaminants
prior to melt (Semkin 1996). Hoff et al. (1995) have calcu-
to the aquatic system is perhaps better estimated using the
lated that, based on theoretical considerations, less than
snowpack concentrations in samples collected toward the
1.5% of the snowpack burden initially found at about ญ 30ฐC
end of the accumulation season.
remains at 0ฐC because of partitioning into the vapor phase
A wide range of fluxes of OCs to snow was observed in
as the temperature of the snowpack increases. This calcula-
the Yukon Territory. The presence of mountains close to the
tion assumes that there are no particles in snow for these
North Pacific Ocean results in much higher deposition rates
chemicals to bind to although this still may be valid for the
in the mountains of northern British Columbia, western Yu-
more volatile compounds such as HCB and HCH. Semkin
kon, and neighboring Alaska. Stations in the Yukon River
(1996) has demonstrated further that the loss from the snow-
valley had wintertime deposition of approximately 600 ng
pack can be controlled by its thickness as only the top layer
PCB/m2, but in the mountains, such as at White Pass, annual
(perhaps of the order of 20-30 cm) is in contact with the at-
deposition is of the order of 1800 ng/m2 (Palmer 1996). The
mosphere.
increased snowpack in the mountains, consistent with the
observations above, also affects the concentration of highly
Table 6ท7. Estimated seasonal deposition of selected contaminants to the
volatile compounds such as HCH. Analytical results indi-
Canadian Arctic, based on samples collected from snow collectors at vari-
ous locations (ตg/m2/season) (Barrie et al. 1997).
cated that shallow snowpacks in most of the Yukon had a
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
mean HCH concentration of 243 pg/L compared to the
Station
HCH
CHL
DDT
HCB
PCB
mean concentration at the high elevation, high snowfall site
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
at White Pass which was 1348 pg/L. This difference is pre-
Alert, 1993/94
0.50
0.01
0.05
0.11 a
0.37
Alert, 1992/93
0.88
0.03
0.05
0.06
0.19
sumably due to less volatilization from the deep snowpack
Eureka, 1991/92
0.78
< 0.01
0.01
0.01
0.26
than from the shallow snowpack (Palmer 1996) as observed
Mould Bay, 1993/94
0.25
< 0.01
0.03
0.02
0.23
at Amituk Lake by Semkin (1996). A statistically significant
Cape Dorset, 1993/94
0.22
0.01
0.06
0.01
0.51
difference such as this was not seen for PCBs, presumably
Dawson City, 1993/94
0.19
0.03
0.04
0.01
0.41
Whitehorse, 1993/94
0.12
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.20
due to their lower volatility.
Whitehorse, 1992/93
0.07
0.04
0.05
< 0.01
0.43
During 1995, rainfall was collected in an open collector
Tagish, 1993/94
0.20
0.03
0.04
0.01
0.35
(area 1 m2) at Heimaey Island, Iceland (Icelandic Meteoro-
Tagish, 1992/93
0.28
0.09
0.01
0.01
0.24
logical Office unpubl. data 1996) (Figure 6ท7). The rainwa-
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
a. Value reported to be suspect.
ter was adsorbed on polyurethane foam over a period of
about 14 days. The foams, plus cotton swabs of the collec-
Deposition rates of major OC groups in snow at sam-
tor surface, were analyzed for PCBs, chlordane, DDT, and
plers in the Canadian Arctic are presented in Table 6ท7.
HCH compounds. HCH dominated in rainfall at Heimaey
There is surprising uniformity in the deposition at these
Island (mean 31 ng/m2) compared to other OCs. -/ -HCH
sites. Flux estimates for PCBs from a snow core on the
ratios during 1995 averaged 1.0 (range 0-9) indicating fresh
Agassiz Ice Cap (406
187 ng/m2) (Gregor et al. 1995,
sources of lindane at this location, as was observed for air
Franz et al. 1997) are well within the range of measured
samples from the same site. PCB (sum of ten congeners)
fluxes for these collectors. These fluxes are also in good
were the next most prominent OCs (18 ng/m2). On an an-
agreement with fluxes of PCBs to sediments (Muir et al.
nual basis, PCB fluxes (436 ng/m2) were very similar to
1996b). However, it is difficult to determine the significance
those for snow in the Canadian Arctic (Table 6ท7).
of contaminant flux in snow in the context of delivery to
A study of lindane and current-use pesticides in wet pre-
the aquatic environment because of the many routes of OC
cipitation in Norway (Lode et al. 1995) included samples
HCH
ng/m2
250
-HCH
200
Total HCH
150
-HCH
100
50
0
6/1
21/1
4/2
17/2
5/3
19/3
3/4
19/4
3/5
17/5
31/5
12/6
30/6
15/7
31/7
15/8
31/8
15/9
1/10
16/10
1/11
15/11
2/12
16/12
day/month
*
PCB
ng/m2
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
6/1
21/1
4/2
17/2
5/3
19/3
3/4
19/4
3/5
17/5
31/5
12/6
30/6
15/7
31/7
15/8
31/8
15/9
1/10
16/10
1/11
15/11
2/12
16/12
* sum of 10 congeners
day/month
Figure 6ท7. Flux of HCH and PCB (sum of ten congeners) in precipitation at Heimaey Island, Iceland.

222
AMAP Assessment Report
Table 6ท8. Concentrations (ng/L, meanฑSD) of major OC groups in snow and precipitation in samples collected during 1994 and 1995 from the Taimyr
Peninsula, and from rainfall events in the Barents and Laptev Seas (Melnikov et al. 1995, 1996a, 1996b).
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Area
N
Latitude
Longitude
HCH a
CBzb
CHLc
DDT d
PCBe
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Snow (May 1995)
Taimyr Peninsula
9
72-74ฐN
98-106ฐE
5.61ฑ2.97
0.76
0.02ฑ0.03
2.06ฑ1.28
5.3ฑ3.7
Precipitation (August 1994)
Taimyr Peninsula
7
74ฐ33'N
98ฐ37'E
0.88ฑ0.42
0.46ฑ0.26
0.13ฑ0.20
3.2ฑ1.5
11.9ฑ6.1
Laptev Sea
3
74ฐ00'N
127-130ฐE
< 0.1
0.07ฑ0.12
0.10ฑ0.17
1.1ฑ0.77
1.1ฑ0.65
Barents Sea
1
70ฐ00'N
53ฐ30'E
0.67
0.06
< 0.05
0.34
4.3
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
a. Sum of - and -HCH.
b. Sum of HCB and pentachlorobenzene.
c. Sum of cis- and trans-chlordane and cis- and trans-nonachlor.
d. Sum of p,p'-DDE, DDD, DDT, and o,p'-DDT.
e. PCBs quantified using seven congeners (CBs 28, 52, 101, 118, 138, 153, 180).
from Troms๘. Lindane was not detected (< 1 ng/L) in sam-
sula and the Bering Sea region of Russia and Alaska where a
ples from Troms๘, although it was readily detected in pre-
significant portion of precipitation is in the form of rain.
cipitation at two southern sites in Norway (Lista and ลs,
Concentrations of DDT and PCB in snow from the
near Oslo).
Taimyr Peninsula and Laptev Sea in 1995 were about ten
Snowcover on the Taimyr Peninsula in Russia was sam-
times higher than observed in the Canadian Arctic in 1993.
pled and analyzed for POPs during May 1995 by the Rus-
PCB concentrations averaged 10 ng/L in precipitation at the
sian Federal Service for Hydrometeorology and Environ-
Taimyr Peninsula site which was about ten times higher than
mental Monitoring (Roshydromet) (Melnikov et al. 1996a,
found in recent measurements in the Great Lakes region of
1996b). Precipitation samples (24 h) were collected from
Canada (Hoff et al. in press, Franz et al. 1998) or in samples
the same area and the Laptev Sea during August 1994. Con-
collected in the Laptev Sea. The high levels are of particular
centrations of selected OCs in snow and precipitation are
concern given that only seven PCB congeners were analyzed
presented in Table 6ท8. Additional data from this monitor-
(Melnikov et al. 1996a, 1996b); total PCB levels would be
ing program, concerning OCs in snow deposited on sea ice,
higher. The analytical laboratory had participated success-
are discussed in section 6.6.4.1.1. The information neces-
fully in interlaboratory comparisons. However, there is clear-
sary to determine the contaminant mass in the snowpack or
ly a need to confirm the high levels which could also be in-
fluxes in rainfall was not provided with these data and, thus,
fluenced by contamination of collection equipment by, for
reporting is limited to concentrations. The concentrations
example, PCBs in electrical equipment near the sampler. This
of HCH and DDT found in the Russian snow and wet
is difficult to study in an interlaboratory context.
precipitation survey tend to be an order of magnitude high-
Elevated levels of OC pesticides in Arctic air (especially
er than those reported for Canada (Barrie et al. 1997). For
lindane and chlordane) are correlated with long-range trans-
example, Swyripa and Strachan (1994) found DDT con-
port episodes from use areas in the mid-latitudes of North
centrations ranging from <0.02 to 0.42 ng/L in snow at 20
America and Europe (Figure 6ท6). Higher concentrations of
sites across the NWT during 1991/92. However, PCB con-
PCBs are also related to transport of air masses from indus-
centrations in snow from the Taimyr Peninsula were similar
trialized areas of western Europe and eastern North America
to levels found in the NWT by Swyripa and Strachan (1994)
in the mid-latitudes. The results for air demonstrate that cur-
(0.9-13 ng/L).
rent and past use of OCs in the mid-latitudes of the northern
hemisphere is the most likely source of OC contaminants to
the Arctic environment. These OCs are resistant to environ-
6.6.1.3. Summary and conclusions ญ
mental degradation and have high enough volatilities to con-
air and precipitation
tinue to recycle in the environment. A considerable fraction
A large amount of data is now available on levels of POPs,
of past production of PCBs and OC pesticides is still cycling
particularly OC compounds, in Arctic air and snow. The
in the abiotic and biotic environments.
most frequently detected are the persistent OC pesticides,
The movement of fresh sources of lindane and chlordane
hexachlorocyclohexanes ( - and -HCH), toxaphene, chlor-
from source regions was particularly evident from changes
dane-related compounds, and industrial products (PCBs
in ratios of -/ -HCH and trans-/cis-chlordane. Highest
and chlorobenzenes). DDT-related compounds were present
trans-/cis-CHL and -/ -HCH ratios were observed in May-
at levels very near detection limits at both the Canadian
June 1992 at Alert and in May-June 1993 at Ny-ลlesund
and Norwegian sampling sites.
(Svalbard).
Although previous air measurements have been made for
Best correlations of OC concentrations with air mass
limited time periods during summer, results from year-round
movements were obtained with the Norwegian data, which
monitoring at two sites in northern Canada, Svalbard, and
were based on 48-hour samples. One week samples collected
eastern Russia are now available which give far more infor-
at two Canadian and the one Russian (Dunai) site are less
mation on temporal and spatial trends in air.
suitable for back trajectory work because temporal resolu-
Spatial coverage for monitoring of airborne contami-
tion is lost. However, the larger size of the latter samples en-
nants is circumpolar, which is not the case for precipitation.
ables slightly better detection limits for most OCs.
Most of the measurements of OCs in snow are from the
Between long-range transport episodes of elevated levels,
Canadian Arctic and Russia; none are available from Green-
a significant `background' concentration is observed of all
land, Norway, or Alaska. Apart from precipitation moni-
OCs. This is due to volatilization of OCs from snow, plant,
toring in Iceland and on Taimyr Peninsula in Russia there
and soil surfaces, as well as to air-sea exchange.
has been little monitoring of rainfall for OC contaminants
What happens to OCs in snowfall after deposition, when
in the Arctic. This may not be significant for areas which
snow surface area decreases as a result of snowpack meta-
receive most precipitation in the form of snowfall, but is a
morphosis processes, remains an open question. There are
major gap for areas such as northern Norway/Kola Penin-
no detailed studies of the time variation of concentrations in

Chapter 6 ท Persistent Organic Pollutants
223
snow on the ground within hours to days following deposi-
consisting primarily of lichens, which are noted for their
tion. However, seasonal decreases in concentrations of OCs
ability to accumulate nutrients and contaminants from the
in snow over time, by a factor of two to ten times, have been
air. Other terrestrial animals consumed by humans include
documented.
waterfowl, game birds, and shorebirds and their eggs. Other
Concentrations of OCs in Arctic air from northern Can-
terrestrial species such as mink and wolves are top trophic
ada and Norway are generally one order of magnitude low-
species that may serve as sensitive indicator species to assess
er than in air from southernmost locations in the same
trends in terrestrial environmental contamination and eco-
countries. For example, Oehme et al. (1995d) found -
system health.
HCH (lindane) concentrations ranging from 10-300 pg/m3
at Lista (S. Norway) compared to levels of 2-38 pg/m3 at
6.6.2.1. Soils and plants
Ny-ลlesund (Svalbard). PCB levels at Lista were also about
ten times higher than at Svalbard or Svanvik (N. Norway)
ท Soils
(Oehme et al. 1995b).
Data on OCs in soils are available from Canada and Russia.
Air concentrations of most OCs at Alert in the Canadian
The Canadian study involved collection of 3500 soil and
High Arctic show a strong seasonal summer minimum in
1600 vascular plant samples in the immediate vicinity of re-
concentration corresponding to a summer maximum in
cently active (main) military radar (or DEW line) sites (sec-
precipitation. Less of a trend is observed at Ny-ลlesund or
tion 6.2.4.1) as well as at `intermediate' sites, i.e., those
at Tagish in the southern Yukon. The magnitude of the sum-
abandoned during the 1960s (Reimer et al. 1991, 1993a,
mer minimum is roughly proportional to the substance's
1993b, 1993c, 1994, Dodd and Reimer 1992, Dushenko
solubility in precipitation. At Tagish, HCH (Figure 6ท4) and
and Reimer 1994, Grundy et al. 1994). `Site background'
endosulfan do not show the summer dip in concentration.
(within several kilometers of the site) and `remote' (20 km
This is likely due to the strong inputs of air to the Arctic
or more from the site) locations were also sampled. PCBs
from the North Pacific Ocean over the Rocky Mountains
and lead were the primary contaminants found along the
into this site. In contrast, air arriving at Alert has spent
DEW Line. The average (Aroclor) PCB concentrations for
much time over the ice-covered Arctic Ocean where there is
525 associated plants and soils collected at various back-
a strong summer maximum in precipitation.
ground locations and different radar sites ranged from about
At most locations -/ -HCH ratios increased between
1 ng/g to 10 000 ng/g dw (Figure 6ท8a; next page). The PCB
March and June indicating fresh sources of lindane from tem-
results indicate that past activities at these sites, such as
perate regions of the northern hemisphere. HCH profiles in
spills, solid waste disposal, and down-the-drain discharge to
Icelandic air during 1995 differed from the other sites by
sewage outfalls, have had a significant influence on concen-
having much higher -/ -HCH ratios, indicating proximity
trations relative to local background and more remote Arc-
to fresh sources of lindane.
tic locations. Lower concentrations of PCBs in plants rela-
The lack of NIMS data for toxaphene for all of the sites
tive to underlying soils indicate that not all of the PCBs oc-
limits our ability to accurately predict current atmospheric
curring in the soils are directly bioavailable to plants and/or
loadings of toxaphene to the Arctic Ocean and is a matter
a portion of the PCBs bioaccumulated is lost during leaf/
that needs to be resolved.
plant senescence. Significantly higher concentrations of PCBs
There is a need to standardize the number of individual
are also found in soils (maximum 35 ng/g dw) and plants
OC components measured in future air and precipitation
(maximum 66 ng/g dw) from site background areas than
monitoring. For example, the PCB results from Svalbard
more remote Arctic locations (0.90 and 1.71 ng/g dw) indi-
and Iceland were based on ten congeners which represented
cating that the sites can serve as local aerial sources of PCBs
only 10-30% of PCB (measured at Alert, Tagish, and Du-
to the surrounding ecosystem. This has been confirmed by
nai). The analysis of total PCBs in snow and rainfall from
the analysis of congener signatures in both soils (Bright et al.
the Russian Arctic was based on seven PCB congeners (these
1995a) and plants. The ratio of PCB concentrations in soils
seven were also part of the suite used for the Svalbard and
to plants also decreases when moving away from sites to-
Iceland analyses).
ward background and remote locations (Figure 6ท8a). This
suggests a decline in the importance of PCBs redistributed to
the surrounding tundra from local sources (e.g., spills) rela-
6.6.2. Terrestrial environment
tive to long-range atmospheric transport. Concentrations of
Information on levels of OCs in soils, plants, and terrestrial
PCBs in plants are found to be significantly correlated with
species in Arctic and subarctic regions was very limited pri-
soil levels (r2 = 0.98, p < 0.001) from background and radar
or to 1991, and data on temporal trends were virtually non-
stations (Figure 6ท8b).
existent (Wong 1985, Thomas et al. 1992). Long-lived un-
Soil samples were collected from nine locations in the
gulates such as Alces alces (moose in America, elk in Europe)
eastern and western Russian Arctic during August 1994 and
and caribou and reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) accumulate
1995 and analyzed by the Russian `Regional Center Moni-
significant levels of cadmium in their organs, but informa-
toring of the Arctic' (Annex Table 6ทA3, Melnikov et al.
tion on levels of persistent OCs in these important species,
1996a, 1996b). The samples were collected some distance
as well as in waterfowl, were too limited to derive any con-
from population centers. PCBs and HCH isomers were the
clusions about spatial or temporal trends of contaminants.
most prominent OCs detected. Highest PCB (7.9 ng/g dw,
Although the levels of OCs detected in terrestrial mam-
seven congeners) concentrations were found in peaty soils
mals (Thomas et al. 1992) were substantially lower than in
from the Pechora River mouth area. Lowest PCB and sum of
marine mammals and birds, the importance of species such
pentachlorobenzene and HCB levels were found in samples
as caribou and reindeer as food species in communities
from the eastern Russian mainland, eastern Taimyr Penin-
across the north has made the determination of baseline
sula, and the Olenek Gulf. Concentrations in the Russian
residue data particularly important. Both caribou and rein-
soils were similar to levels in `background' sites in the Can-
deer are a staple source of food for people and other preda-
adian Arctic (0.9-1.7 ng/g dw), but direct comparison is
tors in the north, and their potential level of contamination
problematic because the latter results are based on the sum
is therefore of great concern. Rangifer has a winter diet
of 80 congeners (Bright et al. 1995a).

224
AMAP Assessment Report
PCB (Arochlor)
(a)
Dieldrin levels were lowest in plants (range < 0.01-1.0 ng/g
ng/g dw
dw). Toxaphene was found to be the most abundant OC in
1 000 000
Plants
lichen (8-43 ng/g dw) and saxifrage (2-43 ng/g dw) from
Soils
Ellesmere Island (France et al. 1997). There are no results
100 000
for toxaphene in plants from other Arctic areas with which
to compare these results.
10 000
No geographical trend in PCBs is evident in the Russian
data for lichen, bryophytes (mosses), and willows (Salix).
1 000
Mean PCB concentrations ranged from less than 0.1-7.8
100
ng/g dw. These results are based on seven congeners which,
in the case of Sphagnum sp. analyzed by Himberg and Paka-
10
rinen (1994), accounted for 50% of PCB in samples from N.
Finland. Assuming a factor of two times to allow compar-
1
isons with other locations, it can be concluded that PCB lev-
els in Russian plants are generally lower than in plants from
0
Remote
Back-
Intermediate
Auxiliairy
Main
East coast
northern Norway and Finland, but higher than found in the
sites
ground
sites
sites
sites
sites
Canadian Arctic (Figure 6ท9).
sites
Concentrations of -HCH, HCB, -HCH, p,p'-DDE, and
p,p'-DDT in lichens from southern Ellesmere Island were
Plant concentration
(b)
ng/g dw
lower than those for lichens from Europe and southern Can-
ada, but similar to residues measured in lichens from other
100 000
remote polar sites (central NWT in Canada, Spitsbergen,
and Antarctica). Total chlordane and toxaphene were pre-
10 000
sent at higher concentrations on Ellesmere Island than ob-
1 000
served in southern Ontario lichen (Muir et al. 1993). HCB
and total chlordanes in Ellesmere Island lichens were pro-
100
portionally higher than those found from more southern
growing species. Calamari et al. (1991) actually found high-
10
er HCB residues in polar compared to temperate vascular
plants (mosses) and lichen, and suggested that this was due
1
to the farther northward transport of this volatile OC. Simo-
nich and Hites (1995) also found higher levels of HCH iso-
0.1
mers and HCB in tree bark from northern latitudes (40-70ฐN)
and relatively low levels in the tropics.
0.01
9.6
140
0.001
0.01
0.1
1
10
100
1 000
105
104
106
Soil concentration
ng/g dw
6.4
Figure 6ท8. Concentrations of Aroclor PCBs in soils and plants (ng/g dw)
associated with military radar sites in the Canadian Arctic. a) Mean PCB
concentrations in soils and associated plants from remote (>20 km), back-
0.5
ground (<20 km), intermediate, auxiliary, main, and east coast DEW line
Western NWT
radar sites. Intermediate sites were abandoned in the 1960s. Auxiliary and
East Siberia
Inuvik
0.16
Chukchi*
main sites were used until the 1990s. b) Soilญplant PCB relationships at
background and radar sites.
Kotuy*
0.12
4.2
51
Central
ท Plants
Northern NWT 0.53
Northern
Cambridge Bay
Siberia*
2
Finland
Plants are valuable indicators of contaminants entering the
0.35
1.3
terrestrial ecosystem. They accumulate air- and soil-borne
Central
Taimyr Peninsula*
South
6
pollutants and form the base of the Arctic terrestrial food
NWT
Ellesmere
Northern
Bathurst
Island
Norway
web. Perennial mosses and lichens are particularly good in-
Yamal
7.96.9
Peninsula*
dicators of atmospheric deposition in remote and northern
areas (Thomas et al. 1992, Ross 1990, Grodinska and God-
a b
0.2
7.6
6.1
Western
zik 1990, Nash and Gries 1995a, 1995b). Annual vascular
North central
Russia*
plants are also important because they are important com-
Norway a b Southern
ponents in the summer diets of herbivores.
9.5 8.1
Finland
Results for OC contaminants (including some less per-
sistent OC pesticides) in plants are available from Canada,
a b
PCB ng/g dw
Southern
Russia, Finland, and Norway. Mean levels of all OCs in
Lichens
Mosses
Norway
plants in both North America, Scandinavia, and Russia are
10
50
generally low compared to levels in terrestrial fauna (An-
nex Table 6ทA3). Excluding plant samples collected in the
8
40
* Total PCBs estimated
immediate vicinity of military radar sites, the dominant
6
30
by multiplying by 2.
OC contaminants are PCB, DDT, and HCH with overall
4
20
ranges of < 0.1-7.8, 0.12-9.1 and < 0.1-12.4 ng/g dw, re-
spectively. Chlordanes and HCB were present in lower lev-
2
10
a: coastal
Figure 6ท9. Average concentration (ng/g
els (range < 0.1-2.44 and < 0.1-3.1 ng/g dw, respectively).
0
0
b: inland
dw) of PCBs in Arctic lichen and mosses.

Chapter 6 ท Persistent Organic Pollutants
225
A major geographical survey of Arctic/subarctic mos-
Caribou herds have distinct migratory ranges which may
ses (Hylocomium splendens) was conducted by Lead et
cover hundreds of kilometers. In Canadian mainland tundra
al. (1996a) along a transect from southern to northern
subspecies, the tundra summer ranges and forested winter
Norway. Temporal trends in this survey are discussed
ranges may be as much as 1300 km apart (Banfield 1974).
in section 6.7.2.1. PCB concentrations (sum of 33 con-
Packs of wolves will have migration patterns similar to the
geners) were lower in samples from the two northern Nor-
caribou herd. However, most populations of caribou and
way areas (coastal, 6.9
2.6; inland/continental, 7.9
2.3
reindeer move over considerably smaller distances. In Nor-
ng/g dw) than in southern Norway (9.5
2.3 ng/g dw)
way, Sweden, and Finland, reindeer are semi-domesticated
(Figure 6ท9). Differences were most pro- nounced
and their traditional ranges depend on which Saami village
for octachlorobiphenyls (0.30
0.47 ng/g in the
the herd belongs to.
south vs. 0.12
0.14 ng/g in the north). Himberg
Recent data on levels of OC contaminants in Rangifer tis-
and Pakarinen (1994) also found much lower mean con-
sues are available from Russia, Canada, Svalbard, northern
centrations of PCBs (49 congeners) in mosses (Sphagnum
Norway, and Sweden, almost representing the circumpolar
sp.) from northern Finland (51
14 ng/g dw) compared
distribution of the species (Annex Table 6ทA4). Unfortunate-
with southern Finland (140
17 (SE) ng/g dw), and saw
ly, data are difficult to interpret for a number of reasons.
a uniform decline, of about three-fold, in all PCB homo-
Tissues used and compounds measured were not always
logue groups. The much higher levels of PCBs in the
identical, sample sizes ranged from one to 35 individuals per
study by Himberg and Pakarinen (1994) may be due to
location, and detection limits varied. Liver was the tissue
air-drying of the sphagnum in the laboratory, a technique
common to most studies and OC levels were most com-
that Lead et al. (1966a) showed contributed to elevated
monly measured as liver wet weight concentrations. Data
levels of PCBs.
for the most common OCs from all locations are presented
It is noteworthy that, even across a relatively small geo-
graphically (Figure 6ท10; next page), after the application of
graphic area such as from northern to southern Finland and
some course correction factors to convert all data to liver
Norway, and northern to southern Ellesmere Island, a north-
ww concentrations if otherwise reported.
south gradient of OC levels is detectable (Himberg and Pa-
The Russian data are sparse, consisting of only one rein-
karinen 1994, Lead et al. 1996a, France et al. 1998). At
deer at each site. Analytical results are available for two
Ellesmere Island, this is unlikely to be related to air concen-
consecutive years (1994 and 1995) and the OC levels differ
trations, which are quite similar over large geographic areas,
considerably between these years. This makes it difficult to
but may be related to gradients in wet precipitation. In Fin-
compare the Russian results with those of other countries,
land and Norway, however, the differences may be related
as the 1994 results are generally higher than for Canadian
to the proximity of the southern sampling sites to urban
caribou and Svalbard reindeer, while the 1995 levels are
areas (Figure 6ท9).
lower or comparable. For both years, mean PCB and
France et al. (1998) detected the less persistent, but
DDT levels are higher in the Russian samples than in
widely used OC pesticides, tetra- and pentachlorophenol
Canadian Rangifer. It should be noted that the PCBs in
(as anisoles), endosulfan, methoxychlor, trifluralin, and tri-
the Russian reindeer are based on only seven congeners
allate in lichen and saxifrage from Ellesmere Island. Con-
(Melnikov et al. 1996a, 1996b). These seven, CBs 28, 52,
centrations of these pesticides in saxifrage were in the 0.1-
101, 118, 153, 138, and 180, were major congeners in
1.0 ng/g (dw) range, similar to levels of other individual
Canadian caribou fat, comprising about 66% of PCB (Fig-
OCs such as dieldrin and chlordane isomers (France et al.
ure 6ท12; section 6.6.2.5).
1997). Levels of pentachloroanisole (PCA) in the lichen
In Canada, the predominant OCs in caribou fat and liver
from Ellesmere Island were about ten times lower than ob-
are HCH, chlorobenzenes, PCB, and chlordanes. In Rus-
served in southern Ontario lichen (Muir et al. 1993), sug-
sia, PCB dominates in both data sets, followed by DDT,
gesting that there are local sources of PCA in populated
HCB, and HCH. Higher relative levels of DDT and PCB
areas. In contrast, Simonich and Hites (1995) found PCA
are also seen in Russian lemming, ptarmigan, and brant
concentrations increased with latitude (40-70ฐN) in tree
geese (Annex Table 6ทA4). Reindeer from Svalbard have
bark, similar to HCH and HCB.
lower POP levels in their fat and liver and the predominant
POPs are HCB and HCH followed by DDT. PCB levels
were below detection limits (which at 14 ng/g ww were
6.6.2.2. Terrestrial herbivores
much higher than other studies) in samples from Svalbard.
6.6.2.2.1. Caribou and reindeer
Swedish reindeer also have low levels of HCH, PCBs, and
The reindeer of northern Europe and Asia and caribou
DDT, similar to the levels at Svalbard. When the data sets
of North America are considered to be a single species.
from Svalbard, Canada, and Sweden are compared on a
They inhabit the Arctic tundra, subarctic taiga, and coni-
lipid weight basis, levels of most persistent OCs are very
ferous forests. Summer diets include grasses, sedges,
similar (Annex Table 6ทA4).
twigs, leaves, and mushrooms, while winter diets include
Most of the Canadian data are from recent studies by El-
horsetails and sedges, twigs, and lichens. Lichens are the
kin and Bethke (1995), who examined OC levels in several
mainstay of the species' winter diet. In contrast, High
herds of free-ranging caribou in the Northwest Territories.
Arctic species, such as Peary caribou and Svalbard rein-
This data set is of interest because it is capable of showing
deer, feed extensively on grasses and sedges, as well as
spatial variation in levels, and also because the various herds
mosses (Staaland et al. 1988). Differences in selected
are followed and preyed on by wolves, which were also ex-
food at sampling areas have a minor influence on the
amined. A wide range of OC contaminants were detected,
concentrations of POPs found in reindeer tissue (Kelsall
with most compounds found at very low levels and with less
1968, Parker 1978). The defined ranges and distribution
toxic compounds (e.g., HCH isomers) predominating. Mod-
of caribou and reindeer herds, and the simple plant-herbi-
erate levels of HCB and -HCH were detected at all study
vore food web make it a good species for the examination
sites, as in other terrestrial herbivores in the Canadian Arctic
of temporal and geographical variation in terrestrial con-
(MacNeil et al. 1987, Thomas et al. 1992, Salisbury et al.
taminant deposition.
1992). In general, a significant west to east trend in concen-

226
AMAP Assessment Report
ng/g ww
PCB
ng/g ww
DDT
100
100
10
10
1.0
1.0
0.10
0.10
0.01
0.01
24
1
1
2
26
26
2
3
25
25
3
24
4
4
5
6
23
5
23
6
8
22
8
22
7
7
21
9
16
9
16
21
15
10
15
19
10
19
14
20
20
18
14
11
18
11
12 13
12 13
17
17
27
27
ng/g ww
HCH
ng/g ww
HCBz
100
100
10
10
1.0
1.0
0.10
0.10
0.01
0.01
1
26
1
2
26
2
6
6
25
3
3
25
24
24
4
4
23
23
5
5
8
22
7
8
22
7
9
16
21
9
16
21
15
15
10
19
10
19
14
20 18
20
14
11
18
12 13
11 12 13
17
17
27
27
1 Ross River
2 Inuvik
3 Beverly
4 Cambridge Bay
5 Bathurst area
6 Prince of Wales Island
7 Taloyoak
8 Arviat
9 Southampton Island
10 Cape Dorset
11 Lake Harbour
12 Iqaluit
13 Broughton Island
14 Clyde River
15 Pond Inlet
16 Arctic Bay
17 Kaninn Peninsula
18 Yugorskiy Peninsula
19 Yamal Peninsula
20 Yamal Peninsula (1995)
21 Yenisey River
22 Taimyr Peninsula (1994) 23 Taimyr Peninsula (1995) 24 Pronchishev Range
25 Koteinly Island
26 Yana Gulf Coast
27 Abisko
Figure 6ท10. Observed and predicted organochlorine concentrations (ng/g ww) in caribou and reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) liver. All data are presented
in, or were derived from data in Annex Table 6ทA4. The liver wet weight concentrations were predicted from lipid wet weight with the linear equation:
liver ww = k
lipid ww, in which the k's were derived from raw data from three Canadian Arctic locations (Elkin pers. comm.) and were as follows:
0.0675 for HCBz, 0.0792 for DDT, 0.2675 for HCH, and 0.0973 for PCB.
trations of OCs was observed with lowest levels in caribou
Harbour animals. Total PCB residues (sum of 43 congeners)
from the western (Inuvik) and central herds (Bathurst and
ranged from a mean of 0.55 ng/g lw in fat of Inuvik caribou
Qamanirjuaq (Arviat) and highest levels in the eastern
to 32 ng/g at Cape Dorset (Annex Table 6ทA4).
Arctic herds from Cape Dorset and Lake Harbour on
Oxychlordane, a major metabolite of several compounds
southern Baffin Island (Figure 6ท10, Annex Table 6ทA4).
in the pesticide technical chlordane, was the major chlor-
Total HCH ( HCH) ranged from 3.3 ng/g lw from Inuvik
dane-related compound detected. Total chlordane levels
caribou to 39.8 ng/g at Cape Dorset, and consisted almost
ranged from 0.04 ng/g lw in Inuvik caribou to 5.0 ng/g at
entirely of -HCH. HCB residues ranged from a mean of
Cape Dorset, with oxychlordane and to a lesser degree hep-
20 ng/g lw in fat of Taloyoak caribou to 129 ng/g in Lake
tachlor epoxide predominating. DDT, comprised largely of

Chapter 6 ท Persistent Organic Pollutants
227
p,p'-DDE, was below detection limits in Inuvik caribou,
probably originating from urban areas to the south. OCDD,
and ranged from 0.11 ng/g lw in Beverly caribou to 2.58
PeCDD/Fs, and HxCDD/Fs were also higher in eastern Can-
ng/g at Cape Dorset. Total toxaphene levels found in 12
adian Arctic samples and in the samples from Stilla, which is
pooled fat samples from four sites ranged from non-detect-
consistent with long-range transport from the south.
able to 23 ng/g lw.
The PCB congener patterns in fat were similar in all herds
6.6.2.2.2. Waterfowl and other terrestrial birds
in the Canadian Arctic, with greater accumulation of more
highly chlorinated congeners, especially CB 153 (Figure 6ท12).
The Arctic has over 150 species of breeding land birds, most
Higher levels of trichlorobiphenyl and tetrachlorobiphenyl
of which fly south to warmer climates, either to warmer tun-
compounds found in the caribou, relative to other terres-
dra or warmer coastlands or forests, to avoid harsh winter
trial mammals and birds, may be a product of the direct air
conditions (Stonehouse 1989). Some species, such as many
lichen caribou food chain.
ducks and geese, migrate only as far south as is necessary or
Levels of PCDD/Fs, and planar PCBs in Rangifer from Can-
possible, and for these species the degree of migration may
ada, Sweden, and Norway are summarized as TCDD TEQs
differ in different areas of the Arctic or may differ among
and presented in Annex Table 6ทA22. The Canadian study
years. Most of these species will put on lipid stores before
was made using subcutaneous back fat from female cari-
their flight south, with species that have long flights acquir-
bou in the Northwest Territories and the Yukon (Hebert
ing larger reserves. Some species may overwinter in the Arc-
1994, Hebert et al. 1996). The samples were analyzed for
tic (e.g., in Iceland), especially if forced to do so, or may
27 PCDD/F congeners plus five PCBs (CBs 77, 126, 169,
move to subarctic or northern temperate habitats. Small
105, 118). PCDD/F and planar PCB levels were also deter-
seed-eaters such as snow buntings and redpolls, and other
mined in homogenates of male reindeer kidney fat col-
species including corvids, larger birds of prey, and some ptar-
lected from two sites in the Swedish Arctic, at Aitejokk,
migan are in this category. Some species are very transient in
near Abisko (1992) and at Ammarnไs (1992-94), and in
the Arctic, for example, some shorebirds that stay only long
kidney fat from two sites in Norway, Jarfjord and Stilla
enough to mate or hatch eggs and then start their gradual
(Schlabach and Skotvold 1996a, 1996b). Jarfjord is located
migration south. Their southern overwintering habitats in-
in the vicinity of the Syd-Varanger smelter near Kirkenes.
clude some shorelines, estuaries, sewage lagoons, garbage
The samples from Stilla, in west Finnmark served as refer-
dumps, bodies of water receiving agricultural or industrial
ences for comparison with Jarfjord.
runoff, and agricultural fields, all of which can be very con-
In the Canadian study, levels of PCDD/Fs and planar PCBs
taminated.
were extremely low in animals from all herds. Only 2,3,7,8-
The migratory birds of most interest include shorebirds,
substituted PCDDs were observed although non-2,3,7,8-
waterfowl, including geese, swans, and ducks, and birds of
substituted PCDD congeners were also determined. TCDD
prey, which may include owls, accipiters, buteos, and fal-
was found in only two fat samples (Cape Dorset, 0.73 pg/g
cons. Waterfowl and terrestrial game birds and their eggs
ww and Lake Harbour, 0.14 pg/g) despite very low detec-
are harvested to varying degrees for consumption (Coad
tion limits ranging from 0.02 to 0.43 pg/g. OCDD was the
1994). Waterfowl, small passerines, and shorebirds also
only PCDD or PCDF that was found in the majority of fat
constitute major prey species for birds of prey such as the
samples, at levels ranging from <0.38 pg/g to 4.69 pg/g
peregrine falcon, whose population status is of concern.
ww in the Cape Dorset sample. Among PCDF congeners,
Most data available are from Canada and Russia, the
1,2,4,7,8-PnCDF was present in all samples except Fin-
countries with the largest Arctic land areas. For the most
layson, at levels ranging from 0.24 to 0.74 pg/g. Five other
part, data collections are scattered geographically, and many
non-2,3,7,8-substituted PCDF congeners, 2,3,6,8-TCDF,
species were sampled, thus, it is difficult to make generaliza-
2,3,6,7-TCDF, 1,2,4,6,8-PnCDF, 1,2,4,6,7,8-HxCDF and
tions. OC levels in Canadian waterfowl are given in Table
1,2,4,6,8,9-HxCDF, were found only in the Lake Harbour
6ท9; OC levels from body analyses of prey species of the
sample at levels <1 pg/g. TEQs (PCDD/Fs plus planar
peregrine falcon from near Rankin Inlet, NWT, and from
PCBs) ranged from 0.33 to 3.3 pg/g ww and were higher
Sweden are included in Annex Table 6ทA4; and levels of OCs
in the eastern Canadian Arctic herds, consistent with re-
in eider ducks and gulls are presented in section 6.6.4.6.
sults for ortho-substituted PCBs and OC pesticides.
To simplify the presentation of the Canadian data, values
In Sweden, the samples from Aitejokk had no measur-
were grouped by trophic levels and geographic area. North-
able amounts of PCDD/Fs (< 1 pg/g ww), but all five planar
ern collection sites were grouped into western Arctic (north
PCBs were found (Annex Table 6ทA22). The concentrations
of 60ฐN west of 95ฐW) or eastern Arctic (north of 55ฐN east
ranged from 1.5-1.9 pg TEQ/g lw (1.3-1.6 pg TEQ/g ww)
of 95ฐW, so as to include Hudson Bay, northern Quebec,
for the planar PCBs. Two of the three samples from Am-
and northern Labrador). Baker Lake was kept with the east-
marnไs, which is farther south than Aitejokk, contained
ern sites because of its proximity to Hudson Bay, and Spence
2,3,7,8-TeCDF (0.48 pg TEQ/g ww). All three homogen-
Bay was kept with the western sites because of the influence
ates contained all three nPCBs with TEQ levels of 0.91-
of western Arctic waters. Terrestrial birds were grouped ac-
1.03 pg/g ww (C. de Wit unpubl. data).
cording to trophic level as follows: browsers ญ ground dwel-
In Norway, the samples from Jarfjord had higher PCDD/F
lers such as grouse and ptarmigan that feed mainly on terres-
levels (7-13 pg TEQ/g ww) than the samples from Stilla
trial vegetation; grazers ญ geese that graze mainly on aquatic
(0.58-0.81 pg TEQ/g ww). Measurable amounts of most
and terrestrial vegetation; omnivores ญ surface-feeding ducks
2,3,7,8-substituted PCDD/Fs were found in samples from
with a varied diet consisting mainly of aquatic vegetation;
both sites, with PCDFs dominating (Schlabach and Skot-
molluscivores ญ diving ducks feeding mainly on invertebrates;
vold 1996a, 1996b). The TEQ levels found in the Stilla
piscivores ญ diving ducks feeding mainly on fish.
reindeer samples are similar to those found in Sweden and
Levels of OCs in Canadian waterfowl were generally quite
Canada.
low, in the low ng/g range, with exceptions (Table 6ท9).
The presence of 2,3,7,8-TeCDF in the more southern
The highest OC levels were found in birds feeding at the
Swedish herd, at Stilla, and in eastern Canadian Arctic
upper trophic levels, the molluscivores and piscivores. The
herds is consistent with an atmospheric transport source
browsers and grazers contained the lowest levels of organic

228
AMAP Assessment Report
Table 6ท9. Range of organochlorine residue levels in breast muscle of waterfowl and game birds harvested in northern Canada in 1988-94 (ng/g ww). All
data are from Braune (1994 unpubl. data).
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Trophic category a Region
N b
PCB
DDT
CHL
CBz
HCH
Mirex
Dieldrin
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Browsers
East
(5, 9, 39)
< 1.0-3.1
< 1.0
< 1.0
< 1.0
< 1.0
< 1.0
< 1.0
West
(12, 22, 91)
< 1.0-9.6
< 1.0-1.5
< 1.0-2.5
< 1.0-1.9
< 1.0
< 1.0
< 1.0-5.0
Grazers
East
(16, 39, 234)
< 1.0-44.9
< 1.0-30.0
< 1.0-4.5
< 1.0-1.6
< 1.0
< 1.0
< 1.0-3.2
West
(7, 11, 59)
< 1.0
< 1.0-3.1
< 1.0-4.7
< 1.0-1.9
< 1.0
< 1.0
< 1.0-2.0
Omnivores
East
(2, 4, 30)
< 1.0-87.0
< 1.0-31.5
< 1.0-2.3
< 1.0-2.0
< 1.0
< 1.0-1.6
< 1.0-1.3
West
(8, 31, 149)
< 1.0-115
< 1.0-650
< 1.0-12.8
< 1.0-62.4
< 1.0-1.0
< 1.0-1.6
< 1.0-15.9
Molluscivores
East
(14, 30, 175)
< 1.0-1076
< 1.0-403
< 1.0-102
< 1.0-35.9
< 1.0-27.8
< 1.0-222
< 1.0-120
West
(12, 42, 178)
< 1.0-129
< 1.0-127
< 1.0-13.2
< 1.0-15.4
< 1.0-26.5
< 1.0-1.7
< 1.0-3.8
Piscivores
East
(7, 16, 55)
< 1.0-1695
< 1.0-951
< 1.0-105
< 1.0-120
< 1.0-2.4
< 1.0-268
< 1.0-54.7
West
(2, 5, 5)
1.1-909
32.0-530
2.9-75.7
1.6-18.3
< 1.0-9.9
< 1.0-9.2
1.0-17.4
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
a. Species are grouped by feeding habit: Browsers (grouse, ptarmigan); Grazers (geese, tundra swan); Omnivores (black, mallard, teal, pintail, wigeon,
shoveller); Molluscivores (eider, scoter, scaup, oldsquaw or long-tailed duck, ring-necked duck, goldeneye, bufflehead, canvasback); Piscivores (mer-
gansers, loons or divers).
b. Numbers in brackets refer to: (total number of sites, total number of collections, total number of birds).
CBz = Sum of 1,2,3,5 and 1,2,3,4 tetrachlorobenzene, pentachlorobenzene and HCB.
HCH = Sum of -, -, and - hexachlorocyclohexanes.
CHL = Sum of oxy-, trans- and cis-chlordane, trans- and cis-nonachlor, and heptachlor epoxide.
DDT = Sum of p,p'-DDE, p,p'-DDD, and p,p'-DDT.
PCB = Sum of PCB congeners, standardized to the following 29 congeners: 28, 31, 44, 52, 60, 66/95, 87, 97, 99, 101,
105, 110, 118, 138, 141, 146, 153, 170/190, 171, 172, 174, 180, 182/187, 183, 194, 195, 201, 203, 206.
Mirex = Sum of photo-mirex and mirex.
contaminants. The highest OC levels were found for PCB
The peregrine falcon population near Rankin Inlet on
and DDT in piscivores and molluscivores collected from
western Hudson Bay was examined in the time periods
eastern Arctic communities. These generally contained high-
1965-1987 and 1980-1987 (Court et al. 1990, Peakall et al.
er levels of organic contaminants than those from compara-
1990), and 1991-1994 (Johnstone et al. 1996). PCBs and
ble collections from western sites. The wider range of con-
DDE were the most abundant residues in peregrine falcons
taminant concentrations found in the eastern birds reflects a
in eggs and blood plasma (Annex Table 6ทA5). A total of 28
greater risk of exposure to contaminants in overwintering
eggs, representing 20 clutches, were collected for analysis
or staging areas due to the greater prevalence of contami-
between 1991 and 1994. Mean concentration of PCBs (as
nated areas in eastern North America versus western North
Aroclor 1254:1260, 1:1) and p,p'-DDE in eggs were 8.3
America. Historically, some of the eastern overwintering
and 4.4 g/g ww, respectively. These levels were lower than
areas, such as the Great Lakes, the Gulf of Mexico, and the
reported in other recent studies of tundra peregrines. Am-
eastern American seaboard, have been much more contami-
brose et al. (1988) studying F. p. tundrius in Alaska, re-
nated than some of the western areas. This difference is
ported mean p,p'-DDE levels of 9.3 g/g while Peakall et al.
clearly illustrated by mirex, a contaminant characteristic of
(1990) reported a mean of 6.8 g/g for 26 eggs collected
the lower Great Lakes (Kaiser 1978, Comba et al. 1993).
between 1980 and 1986 in Canada. Levels in gyrfalcon, an
Mirex is virtually non-detected in western Arctic birds, but
Arctic resident believed to feed mainly on Arctic hare and
is quite measurable in eastern Arctic birds (Table 6ท9).
ptarmigan, are considerably lower than in peregrines, ap-
proximately 30 to 70 times lower (Thomas et al. 1992).
Results of analyses of several waterfowl prey species of
6.6.2.3. Birds of prey
the peregrine falcon from the 1991-1994 period, from near
Arctic and temperate birds of prey are particularly suscepti-
Rankin Inlet are given in Annex Table 6ทA4 and Table 6ท9.
ble to the effects of contaminants because most prey species
The relatively high levels in these migratory prey species
contain contaminants from overwintering areas. In addition,
have implications for several predators, particularly avian
prey species such as marine invertebrates are often also car-
and human, for which the migrating birds provide a food
nivorous, hence the potential for biomagnification is great.
source. There are, however, sources of relatively clean prey
Over the past 40 years, similar trends in contaminant levels
for peregrines in Rankin Inlet. Up to one-third of the total
(section 6.7.2.3) and reproductive effects (section 6.8.1.3)
biomass of prey consumed are mammalian species, namely
have been seen in both Eurasia and North America. Recent
ground squirrels and microtine rodents (Bradley and Oli-
data are discussed here, and data collected between 1960
phant 1991) (Annex Table 6ทA4). These are non-migratory
and the present are given in Annex Table 6ทA5.
species, so any contamination in their tissues represents conta-
mination of the immediate environment around Rankin Inlet.
Mean PCB and DDE levels in blood plasma of peregrine
6.6.2.3.1. North American peregrine falcon
nestlings (0.12 and 0.06 ng/g ww, respectively) were about
The tundra peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus tundrius)
one-half or less than the levels in adult males (0.20 and 0.32
breeds in the tundra regions of Canada, Alaska, and Green-
ng/g) and almost one-tenth the levels found in adult females
land. The main breeding areas are southern Baffin Island,
(0.95 and 0.6 ng/g) (Annex Table 6ทA5). The difference in
Ungava Bay, western Hudson Bay, the central Arctic coast,
contaminant levels between female and male peregrines may
and the interior barrens of the Northwest Territories (White
be partly attributed to differences in diet. Female peregrines,
1968). Its overwintering range extends from the Great Lakes
being larger than males, eat larger prey. In Rankin Inlet, the
in Canada, through the USA to Texas, and even to Uruguay
larger prey species included oldsquaw (long-tailed duck, Clan-
in South America (Court et al. 1988). The American pere-
gula hyemalis), black guillemot, and pintail (Anas acuta),
grine (F. p. anatum) breeds in forested areas from the tree-
which have higher contaminant levels than the smaller prey
line south to California and Mexico.
species in the area (Bradley and Oliphant 1991).

Chapter 6 ท Persistent Organic Pollutants
229
6.6.2.3.2. Eurasian peregrine falcon
6.6.2.3.4. Gyrfalcon in Iceland
The Fennoscandian population of peregrine falcon (Falco
าlafsd๓ttir et al. (1995) examined OC levels in samples
peregrinus), some of which inhabit the Arctic, declined
from gyrfalcon (Falco rusticolus) found dead and collected
from 2000-3500 pairs pre-1950 to about 65 known pairs
between 1979 and 1992 in Iceland (Annex Table 6ทA5). This
in 1975 (Lindberg 1995a). The species inhabits both Arctic
species of falcon is basically non-migratory. Levels are slight-
and southern areas of Fennoscandia. The Arctic popula-
ly higher than Canadian values, however, a long time span is
tions feed on a broad spectrum of migratory birds that over-
represented, and the sample is no doubt biased toward stres-
winter in Europe and Africa. Arithmetic means of DDE,
sed birds. The study showed a strong correlation of conta-
PCB and dieldrin in eggs for 1991-1994 (32 clutches)
minant levels with age. At hatching, DDT levels were ap-
were 2.9, 12, and 0.14 g/g ww, respectively. Concentra-
proximately 0.1 g/g, and had increased almost 100-fold in
tions of DDE and PCB were not significantly different be-
ten months, and 1000-fold at 20 months. DDE constituted
tween eggs from the northern and the southern popula-
95-99% of the DDT. A linear relationship between the lev-
tions. Factors explaining this are the importance of the win-
els of contaminants and age suggests that contaminants orig-
tering areas for egg concentrations, the more aquatic-based
inate from the same source, making the possibility of local
food for the northern population, as well as the fact that
contamination unlikely. It is likely that migratory prey spe-
the prey of the northern population largely consists of mi-
cies are contaminated.
gratory species (Lindberg et al. 1985, Lindberg 1995a).
The possibility that nutritional status contributed to the
Studies on a population of peregrine falcon on the Kola
death of these birds was also tested by relating lipid levels
Peninsula have been ongoing since 1977 (Henny et al. 1994).
in individuals to contaminant levels. Levels of PCB and
The production rate between 1987-1991 was 1.94 young
DDT were 2-3 times higher in lean birds than in birds with
per active nest. Egg-shell thinning (11.4%) was similar to
more fat. Differences in HCB levels were not observed. It is
levels in Alaska. The geometric mean concentration of DDE
believed that the mobilization of fat deposits, where most of
in eggs was 3.5 g/g ww (Annex Table 6ทA5) and the PCB
the organic contaminants are stored, may have contributed
concentrations were higher than those found in Alaskan
to the death of the leaner birds by critically raising the levels
peregrines (3-21 g/g ww, geometric mean of 7.3 g/g ww).
of contaminants in vital organs (าlafsd๓ttir et al. 1995,
Concentrations of PCDD/Fs and planar PCBs in eggs were
Walker 1990).
also relatively high, with combined TEQ levels of 86-640
The three F. rusticolus candicans individuals, which orig-
pg/g ww (Annex Table 6ทA22).
inate in Greenland, had higher contaminant levels than the
more sedentary F. r. islandus. Also, the oldest bird in the
sample was 28 months, however, gyrfalcon can become nine
6.6.2.3.3. White-tailed sea eagle in Norway and Sweden
years old in the wild. Thus, the reported levels are probably
Norway is a stronghold for the white-tailed sea eagle
considerably lower than in the population on average.
(Haliaeetus albicilla), with a stable or increasing popula-
tion of 1500 pairs, which is 40% of the European breed-
6.6.2.3.5. Fennoscandian merlin
ing population. It is distributed along the Norwegian coast
north of 59ฐN to the Russian border. It is one of the bird
The merlin (Falco columbarius aesalon) is the most common
species in Norway that has the highest OC levels (Nygๅrd
falcon in the Arctic parts of Fennoscandia, and the preferred
1991). Temporal trends since 1974 and spatial trends of
breeding areas are found in the subalpine birch forest (Gjers-
OCs have been examined (Nygๅrd and Skaare 1996). In-
haug et al. 1994). The Norwegian population of merlins
verse relations were found between latitude and DDE and
overwinters from Germany and southwards to the Mediter-
PCB concentrations in eggs. A surprisingly high maximum
ranean countries. It arrives in the breeding areas in Fenno-
level of 4.2 g/g chlordanes were found, but moderate to
scandia in April/May at the same time as its main prey, mi-
low levels of mirex, HCHs, dieldrin, and HCB were re-
grating passerines and waders.
corded (Annex Table 6ทA5).
In eggs collected in 1988-1993 in Norway (mainly from
The white-tailed sea eagle has also been studied at Arc-
Alta, northern Norway), the mean concentrations of DDT
tic sites in Sweden (66-69ฐN) at altitudes of 200-1000 m.
and PCB were 26 782 ng/g and 1820 ng/g ww, respectively.
Most pairs breed below 400 m, but also forage at higher
Low concentrations of other OCs were also found, among
altitudes (Helander 1983). During late winter and spring,
them mirex, which was used on a large scale in the USA
prey consisted of 58% mammals by weight, and 33% birds.
(Nygๅrd et al. 1994).
In summer, fish comprised 43%, birds 34%, and mammals
The PCB levels are low compared to the DDT levels,
23%. Pike, ducks, and reindeer carrion were also important
and according to the authors, probably have no direct effect
foods (Helander 1983). During winter, the birds leave the
on the merlin reproduction in Norway at present (Nygๅrd et
breeding area and migrate to coastal areas of the Fennoscan-
al. 1994).
dian Peninsula.
Studies on concentrations of OCs were carried out on
6.6.2.4. Other carnivores
eggs collected during the 1960s and 1970s. Arithmetic mean
6.6.2.4.1. Mustelids
concentrations of DDE and PCB were 4.6 and 11 g/g ww,
respectively. These levels were 4-7 times lower than those
American mink (Mustela vison) and marten (Martes ameri-
found in the Baltic Sea population (Helander 1983, Helan-
canum) feed primarily on small mammals and fish species
der et al. 1982).
throughout the forested regions of North America. American
PCDD/F and planar PCB (CBs 77, 126, 169, 105, and
mink have been introduced to Europe and today are present
118) levels were determined in two Arctic white-tailed sea
as a wild species in most Scandinavian countries. Small mam-
eagle eggs collected from Sweden in 1989. Concentrations
mals and fish form the greatest components of mink diet in
ranged from 180-230 pg TEQ/g lw (7.5-8.4 TEQ/g ww) for
most areas (Gilbert and Nancekivell 1982, Eagle and Whit-
PCDD/Fs and from 960-2000 pg TEQ/g lw (50-100 pg
man 1987), thus, mink are exposed to contaminants from
TEQ/ g ww) for the PCBs (de Wit et al. 1994).
both terrestrial and aquatic food webs.

230
AMAP Assessment Report
Both mink and marten collected from five sites in the west-
typically prey on smaller mammals, but also consume insects
ern Canadian Arctic between 1991 and 1993 had about ten
and invertebrates. Reptiles, fish, and berries form a major
times higher OC levels than caribou/reindeer when levels
part of the diet in late summer (Banfield 1974). The wolf
were converted to lipid weight values (Annex Table 6ทA5).
data reported here are from packs in Canada that follow
The OC levels were lowest around Inuvik, while levels in
and hunt caribou. However, small mammals constitute a
most sites farther south were higher, but do not follow a
large fraction of their diet, and they will occasionally con-
clear pattern. PCB residues (43 congeners) ranged from a
sume fish or foxes.
mean of 4.94 ng/g ww in the livers of Inuvik mink in 1994
Arctic fox is not included under terrestrial carnivores in
(the most northerly collection site) to 25.8 ng/g in mink
this report because the one population studied was part of
from Fort Liard (one of the southerly sites). The reason why
the marine food web (section 6.6.4.9).
PCB levels in the Fort Providence samples were over three
Red fox and wolf samples from Canada contain measur-
times higher (92.5 ng/g) than mink from any other commu-
able levels of POPs (Annex Table 6ทA5). In red fox muscle
nity is unknown. Higher levels of PCBs, DDT, dieldrin,
and liver from northern Quebec, the dominant OC was PCB
HCB, and CHL were found in mink muscle and liver from
(Aroclors, 320-460 ng/g lw) followed by HCB (79-240 ng/g
northern Quebec (Grand Baleine river basin). Higher PCBs
are due in part to quantitation as Aroclor 1254 : 1260 (1 : 1)
(Langlois and Langis 1995), but the results are consistent
Inuvik
with higher levels of OCs generally observed in terrestrial
Wolf
mammals and waterfowl in the eastern Arctic.
Caribou
Cambridge
Bathurst
Bay
Overall, contaminant levels in western NWT American
Lichen
mink (Mustela vison) were low in comparison with wild
mink from other areas of North America, where PCB
(based on Aroclor equivalent or sum of individual congen-
ers) and DDT were generally 1-2 orders of magnitude
Inuvik
Cambridge Bay
Bathurst
higher (summarized in Poole et al. 1995). The liver of mink
from the Lake Ontario region contained the highest levels
ng/g lw
100
100
100
of PCB and DDT metabolites.
Replicate liver samples for mink were examined for six
PCDD/F congeners (Poole unpubl. data 1996). Only TCDF
10
10
10
HCBz
(one of three samples, 5 pg/g ww) and HxCDD (mean 2
pg/g in two of three samples) were detected.
1
1
1
The European otter (Lutra lutra) is present in the Arctic
and boreal regions of Scandinavia and along the marine coast
in Norway. The prey is predominantly fish, but frogs, insects,
ng/g lw
crustaceans, birds, and mammals are also consumed. Studies
on otters collected in Sweden during the 1970s revealed high
10
10
10
concentrations of, particularly, PCB, with decreasing concen-
HCH
trations from south to north. Concentrations in the remote
Arctic areas of Sweden were 38 g/g lw (median) (Olsson et
al. 1996b), whereas otters from the Norwegian Arctic coast
1
1
1
had lower concentrations (17 g/g lw) (Sandegren et al.
1980). Concentrations of DDT were much lower (2.6 g/g
ng/g lw
and 1.7 g/g lw, respectively) despite the fact that the con-
10
10
10
centrations of DDT were similar or even higher than the
CHL
concentration of PCB in prey and in fish (Olsson and Reu-
1
1
1
tergๅrdh 1986). It was suggested as early as the 1980s that
PCB might have caused the rapid decline of the otter popu-
0.1
0.1
0.1
lation in Europe (Sandegren et al. 1980, Mason and Mac-
donald 1986, Olsson et al. 1996b, Leonards et al. 1995).
ng/g lw
Current PCB levels in otter in Arctic Sweden are 7.5 g/g
lw and DDT levels are 0.14 g/g lw. The PCB levels are
2
2
2
somewhat higher than those found in Canadian mink, er-
DDT
mine, and marten. DDT levels are comparable to those
0.2
0.2
0.2
found in Canadian mustelids.
PCDD/F and planar PCB (CBs 77, 126, 169, 105, 118) lev-
els were determined in two homogenates of otter muscle col-
0.02
0.02
0.02
lected from the Swedish Arctic (Annex Table 6ทA22). Trace
ng/g lw
amounts of PeCDD, one HxCDD, TeCDF, and one PeCDF
50
50
50
were found, as well as high levels of all five planar PCBs. The
concentrations ranged from 2.7-4.7 pg TEQ/g lw (0.04-0.21
PCB
5
5
pg TEQ/g ww) for PCDD/Fs and 100-270 pg TEQ/g lw (1.5-
5
12 pg TEQ/g ww) for planar PCBs (C. de Wit unpubl. data).
0.5
0.5
0.5
6.6.2.4.2. Red fox and wolf
Figure 6ท11. Relative tissue concentrations of organochlorine compounds
The food habits of canine carnivores differ greatly depend-
detected in lichen, and in adipose tissue of caribou and wolf at three loca-
ing on geographic area and time of year. Red foxes most
tions in the Northwest Territories, Canada.

Chapter 6 ท Persistent Organic Pollutants
231
CB concentration relative to CB 153
2.0
Wolf
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
CB concentration relative to CB 153
1.5
Caribou
1.0
0.5
0
CB concentration relative to CB 153
2.0
Lichen
1.0
0
31 28
52 49 44
42 64 74 70 66 60 101 99
97 87 110 151 149 118 146 153 105 141 138 129 182 183 185 174 171 200 172 180 170 201 203 195 194 206 77 126 169 189
95
187
190
PCB congener
Figure 6ท12. Concentrations of PCB congeners relative to CB congener 153 for lichen, caribou, and wolf in the Bathurst herd, Canada. The light bars
denote that the congener was not detected.
lw), chlordanes (185-220 ng/g lw), and DDT (n.d.-172
lected with the cooperation of local hunters from Ndilo
ng/g lw). HCH, dieldrin, and mirex were also found, but
(Fort Rae), Yellowknife, Inuvik, and Cambridge Bay. For
in lower concentrations (22-79 ng/g lw). Similarly, the ma-
both caribou and wolves, samples were collected from 20
jor POPs found in wolf muscle and liver, from three popula-
animals. Mean values of each OC at each trophic level are
tions in NWT, are PCB (24-113 ng/g lw), HCB (35-92
given in Annex Tables 6ทA3, 6ทA4, and 6ทA5. The relative
ng/g lw), and chlordanes (4.5-130 ng/g lw), followed by
tissue concentrations of the predominant OC contaminants
HCH (9-35 ng/g lw). DDT, dieldrin, and mirex were
detected in lichen, caribou, and wolf are given in Figure
also found, but in lower concentrations (0.4-13 ng/g lw).
6ท11. Levels of most OCs increased at the higher trophic
Levels of most persistent OCs were higher in red fox
level. In addition to increasing concentrations with trophic
than in wolf. They reflect the spatial trends in OCs already
level, the pattern and relative amounts of PCB congeners
noted for caribou and mink, i.e., higher levels in northern
(relative to CB 153 = 1) changed (Figure 6ท12). PCBs in lichen
Quebec. Lipid weight OC levels were generally higher from
were dominated by lower chlorinated congeners (CB 52,
Grand Baleine when compared to samples collected in the
66/95, 101). These congeners do not biomagnify in caribou
Northwest Territories.
or wolf. The PCB pattern in wolves is simplified due to me-
tabolism of almost all congeners found in caribou muscle.
Only the most recalcitrant congeners (2,4,5-substituted
6.6.2.5. An example of food chain transfer. The lichen
penta- and hexachloro-, for example, CBs 99, 118, and
caribou wolf food chain (Canada)
153) along with 2,4,5- and 2,3,5- substituted hepta- (CBs
Elkin (1994) examined the transfer of OCs through the
180 and 170) and octachloro- (CBs 195 and 194) remain at
lichen caribou wolf food chain in the Bathurst, Blue-
the top trophic level. A similar trend has been observed for
nose, and Victoria Island caribou herds. Samples were col-
the fish seal polar bear food chain (Muir et al. 1988b).

232
AMAP Assessment Report
PCDD/Fs are available for Rangifer in the Russian Arctic or
6.6.2.6. Summary and conclusions ญ
Svalbard. Most of the TEQs in caribou are due to nPCBs.
terrestrial environment
These results for PCDD/Fs and nPCBs in caribou showed
The information available on contaminants in Arctic terres-
very low levels, which are unlikely to pose a threat to either
trial mammals and waterfowl has increased significantly
the caribou sampled in this study or to their human con-
over the past five years. Previous reviews found relatively
sumers. The levels observed can probably be considered to
little data available on contaminant levels in the Arctic ter-
be background concentrations. TEQs in caribou fat are as
restrial environment (Thomas et al. 1992).
low or lower than those reported in fat of domestic animals
In general, the data available on OCs in the terrestrial en-
in Canada (Ryan and Norstrom 1991).
vironment conforms well to the (mandatory/optional) require-
PCBs are the predominant OCs in red fox and wolf sam-
ments set out in the original AMAP monitoring plan (AMAP
ples from Canada. Comparison of OC levels in the lichen
1993) in terms of media and contaminants that have been mon-
caribou wolf food chain, from three Canadian herds indi-
itored, but not in terms of regions studied. Spatial coverage
cated biomagnification of most OCs and highly selective
of OC levels in major species is good only for caribou/reindeer
bioaccumulation of PCB congeners.
(Rangifer), where adequate numbers of samples have been
Mink studied in NWT, Canada, had higher OC levels
analyzed from all major Canadian herds as well as herds in
than caribou and wolf on a wet weight basis. Mink from the
northern Norway, Svalbard, and Sweden. A few reindeer
northernmost site in Canada had the lowest OC levels. A
samples from several sites have also been analyzed in Russia.
north-south trend is also seen in otter in Sweden. The high-
On a regional basis, there is scattered coverage of water-
est OC levels are seen in mink, marten, and ermine from
fowl and game birds within northern Canada and mink po-
Grand Baleine, Quebec. PCDD/Fs and planar PCBs have also
pulations within the Mackenzie River watershed in NWT.
been found in mink from Canada and otter from Sweden.
Individual populations of birds of prey have been studied
Higher levels of PCBs and other OCs, particularly mirex,
for OC contamination in Sweden, Norway, Iceland, Russia,
were also found in waterfowl, especially in molluscivores
and Canada, but no single species can be compared on a cir-
and piscivores, in the eastern compared to the western Can-
cumpolar basis. Individual populations of otter in Sweden
adian Arctic. In the case of birds, however, most overwinter
and Norway have also been studied.
at temperate latitudes and the east-west trends in OCs may,
Contamination of soils and humus by OCs has been in-
therefore, reflect migratory patterns and winter feeding loca-
vestigated only in a limited number of regions with the ma-
tions rather than regional contamination differences.
jority of samples originating near military radar facilities.
Of the birds of prey for which analytical results are
North-south geographical trends of PCBs in plants have
available, the lowest OC levels are found in Icelandic gyrfal-
been examined only in Norway. OCs have also been deter-
con. This is mainly because they are non-migratory birds,
mined in lichen, mosses, Bryophytes, and vascular plants
thus, their exposure is primarily of Arctic origin. Migratory
from Finland and Russia, but there is much more limited
species such as merlin, white-tailed sea eagle, and peregrine
data from Canada (lichen at three locations) and none from
falcon have much higher DDT and PCB levels than gyr-
Alaska. Lichen and mosses from Alaska have been analyzed
falcon, reflecting accumulation of OCs at wintering grounds
for heavy metals (Ford et al. 1995), but results are not yet
farther south, as well as accumulation in the Arctic from
available for OCs.
preying on migratory birds. Highest DDE levels were found
PCBs appear to be the most prominent contaminants in
in Canadian peregrine falcons as well as an increasing trend
the animal species analyzed, especially in mustelids, water-
for heptachlor epoxide and oxychlordane. Highest PCB lev-
fowl, and birds of prey. In caribou/reindeer (Rangifer), HCB
els were found in peregrine falcons from the Kola Peninsula,
and HCH isomers are present at concentrations similar to
followed by Canada and Fennoscandia, as well as in Nor-
or greater than total PCB congeners in samples from Cana-
wegian white-tailed sea eagles. There was a significant south-
da and Svalbard but PCBs are more prominent in samples
north trend of decreasing OC levels in white-tailed sea eagle
from Russia. The relative proportions of OCs in Rangifer
eggs with increasing latitude (from 61ฐ30'N to 69ฐN) along
liver from Russia are not in accord with results from Swe-
the Norwegian coast.
den, Svalbard, or Canada. In the samples from Canada, the
Within the Canadian Arctic, higher levels of OCs in the
pattern of OCs (HCH = HCB > PCB) in Rangifer is similar
east are probably the result of the predominant west to east/
to that in lichen, but this is not the case for the Russian
northeast atmospheric circulation pattern, which delivers
samples. However, detailed comparison of the results from
these contaminants from industrialized regions of central
Russia with other regions or with plants is problematic be-
and eastern North America to the Arctic via long-range at-
cause only single samples of reindeer liver were analyzed
mospheric transport. The north-south trends seen in Nor-
from each subregion, there is considerable between-year
way and Sweden are probably the result of long-range trans-
variation in the results, and percent lipid results were not
port from industrialized parts of Europe, combined with
available.
southerly/southwesterly atmospheric circulation patterns.
A significant west to east increase in PCBs, HCB, and
Significant contamination of soils and vascular plants by
HCH was found in caribou from the Canadian Arctic
PCBs is observed in the immediate vicinity and within a 20
with highest mean levels in Cape Dorset and Lake Harbour
km radius of abandoned and recently active military radar
herds and lowest in the Inuvik herd. Ten-fold differences in
(DEW line) sites in the Canadian Arctic. There is evidence
DDT, HCB, HCH, and PCB concentrations between
for transfer of PCBs from plants to lemmings at former DEW
1994 and 1995 samples from the Russian Arctic make it
line radar sites. This raises the possibility that 1) military
difficult to infer geographic trends.
sites of other circumpolar countries which contained signi-
A west to east trend of increasing PCDD/F and TEQs
ficant amounts of electrical equipment could also have cont-
levels was also observed in caribou within the Canadian
aminated soils and dump sites and 2) terrestrial mammals
Arctic. TEQs in reindeer fat from the Swedish (Aitejokk,
and birds could be contaminated because of feeding, even
Ammarnไs) and Norwegian (Stilla) Arctic were within the
infrequently, on resident plants or animals at these locations.
range observed in Canada. Norwegian reindeer sampled
The work on PCBs in plants and soils near DEW line sites
near a smelter (Jarfjord) had higher levels. No data on
demonstrates how these contaminants can move off site over

Chapter 6 ท Persistent Organic Pollutants
233
time, presumably via volatilization and redeposition or on
Table 6ท10. Concentrations (ng/L) of selected contaminants in Canadian,
soil particles, so that concentrations can be elevated (com-
Norwegian, and Russian rivers flowing to the Arctic and to Hudson Bay.
pared to remote background locations) even several kilome-
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
HCH
DDT
PCB
CHL
ters from the site. There was no evidence that large mam-
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
mals, such as caribou, living in the general area of the DEW
Canada, rivers flowing to Arctic Ocean (1993) (Jefferies et al. 1994)
line sites had elevated levels of PCBs, however, it should be
Mackenzie, at Arctic Red
0.32
0.10
0.64
0.01
Mackenzie, east (mean)
0.45
0.25
3.04
0.05
noted that the studies were not designed specifically to ad-
Mackenzie, west (mean)
0.35
0.00
4.83
0.07
dress this question.
Andrews
0.28
0.00
0.91
< 0.01 <
Toxaphene was found to be the major OC contaminant
Coppermine, above Copper Creek
0.80
0.11
1.02
< 0.01 <
Burnside, at mouth
1.17
0.06
0.71
0.08
in vascular plants (saxifrage) and lichen from the Canadian
Ellice, at mouth
1.70
0.04
0.79
0.06
Arctic. Less persistent OC pesticides (endosulfan, penta-
Back, above Hermann River
1.54
0.12
0.62
0.16
chloroanisole, chlorothalonil) were also prominent conta-
Hayes, above Chantrey In.
1.66
0.11
0.54
0.20
Takini (tributary of Yukon River)
0.49
0.02
0.15
1ญ a
minants. Little is known about circumpolar levels or trends
Yukon, north of Whitehorse
1.63
0.02
0.20
ญ
of toxaphene or these less persistent contaminants in lichen/
Canada, rivers flowing to Hudson Bay (1993) (Jefferies et al. 1994)
mosses, higher plants, and terrestrial animals.
Thelon, below Shultz Lake
0.90
0.04
0.71
0.08
Dubawnt, at Marjorie Lake outlet
1.14
0.03
1.20
0.07
Kazan, above Kazan Falls
1.41
0.02
0.73
0.04
6.6.3. Freshwater environment
Quoich, above St.Clair Falls
0.78
0.03
0.77
0.08
Lorillard (flow estimated)
1.23
0.04
0.82
0.07
6.6.3.1. Levels in water
6.6.3.1.1. Organochlorines in river water
Norway (1993) (Holtan et al. 1994)
Orkla
10.29b
ญ
ญ
< 0.05<
Information on contaminant loadings to the Arctic Ocean
Vefsna
10.29b
ญ
ญ
2.70
Alta
10.15b
ญ
ญ
< 0.03 <
from northward-flowing rivers is limited. In North Ame-
Russia (1992) (Rovinsky et al. 1995)
rica, most of the focus has been on the Mackenzie River
Lena (delta)
2.32
ญ
27222
ญ
and its tributaries, since it is the largest river in the region
Bulun (Lena delta area)
1.22
ญ
ญ
ญ
flowing into the Arctic Ocean (Yunker and Macdonald
Ebitym (Lena delta area)
20.22
ญ
2612222
ญ
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
1995a, 1995b, Yunker et al. 1991, Thomas et al. 1986).
a. Dash indicates not determined or no data available.
In Russia, a limited number of OCs have been measured in
b. Results for -HCH only.
water and suspended particulate matter (SPM) in major
north-flowing rivers (Roshydromet 1995, Rovinsky et al.
where both - and -HCH were measured, the -HCH re-
1995, Melnikov et al. 1995). PCBs and -HCH were deter-
sults from Norwegian rivers were multiplied by 2.
mined in water from nine rivers in Norway flowing into the
PCB and CHL concentrations were also lower in the
Norwegian and Barents Seas (Holtan et al. 1993, 1994,
Mackenzie compared to other rivers flowing to the Arctic
1995). There have been no measurements of OCs in water
Ocean and Hudson Bay, respectively. The much longer resi-
of northward-flowing rivers in Alaska or Iceland.
dence time of water in the Mackenzie River system allows
Jeffries et al. (1994, 1996) analyzed Canadian Arctic riv-
greater time for volatilization or degradation to take place
ers for OCs over the period 1992-93. Samples were separa-
than in smaller rivers. DDT concentrations were approxi-
ted into dissolved and suspended solid fractions using con-
mately the same in the Mackenzie River (0.10 ng/L at the
tinuous-flow centrifugation. HCH isomers were the major
Arctic Red River) as in the other Canadian rivers flowing to
group of OCs detected in the Mackenzie River and 11 other
the Arctic Ocean (0.09 ng/L). All rivers flowing to the Arctic
north-flowing rivers of the Canadian Arctic (Table 6ท10).
Ocean have higher DDT concentrations than those drain-
Concentrations of many OCs were at or below their detec-
ing to Hudson Bay (0.03 ng/L). The contribution of the sus-
tion limits and hence the variability between replicates was
pended solid fraction to the total concentration was <10%
high. HCH levels (sum - and - isomers) in the Macken-
for all OC groups. Except for the Mackenzie River, concen-
zie River (0.32 ng/L at Arctic Red River) were lower than
trations of suspended particulate matter (SPM) were low,
the means in other northern rivers in Canada flowing to
ranging from 1 to 10 mg/L. In the Mackenzie River, SPM
either the Arctic Ocean (1.2 ng/L) or to Hudson Bay (1.1
was much higher, ranging from 50 to 200 mg/L.
ng/L). Concentrations of HCH in the Yukon River were
Concentrations of OCs in the Yukon River, which flows
similar to those in the Mackenzie River, but lower than in
into the Bering Sea, have only been measured within Cana-
smaller north-flowing rivers (Alaee and Gregor 1994).
da (Alaee and Gregor 1994, Alaee 1996). HCH (0.42
Circumpolar concentrations of HCH in other north-
ng/L) and toxaphene (0.15 ng/L) were the major OCs in
flowing rivers are illustrated in Figure 6ท13 (next page). In
the Yukon River north of the city of Whitehorse. Based on
Russia, concentrations of HCH ranged from 1.2 ng/L in
work in Yukon Rivers (Alaee 1996), toxaphene may also
River Bulun to 20 ng/L in River Ebitym (Rovinsky et al.
have been a major OC contaminant in other Canadian riv-
1995). Similar concentrations for HCH (range 3 to 17
ers but it was not measured in the survey by Jefferies et al.
ng/L in 1992 and 1993 for all Russian rivers except the Ob
(1994, 1996).
River) were found in the survey by Roshydromet (1995).
PCB congeners (CB 28, 52, 101, 118, 138, 153, and 180)
These levels are higher than those in Canadian rivers (0.3-
were below the detection limit (0.03 ng/L) in 1993 and 1994,
1.7 ng/L); the Ob results were exceptionally high (43-59
with the exception of one sample (Vefsna River, 2.7 ng/L) in
ng/L) (Figure 6ท13, Annex Table 6ทA6). Ratios of -/ -HCH
1993, in surveys of major Norwegian rivers during 1992-
were also high (0.25-3.9), indicating significant inputs of
1994 (Holtan et al. 1993, 1994, 1995) (Table 6ท10).
lindane to the Russian rivers. Surveys of river water in
No assessment of contaminants in Arctic freshwaters
major Norwegian rivers during 1992-1994 found -HCH
would be complete without considering inputs from the
was the major OC contaminant (Holtan et al. 1993, 1994,
Russian sub-continent, the rivers of which contribute more
1995) (Table 6ท10). Concentrations of -HCH in Norwe-
than 68% of total annual riverine input of water to the Arc-
gian rivers (0.03-0.74 ng/L) were similar to those in Can-
tic Ocean (see chapter 3). The data set on the concentrations
adian Arctic rivers, but lower than results for Russian
of OCs in Russian rivers is very large, but limited in terms of
rivers. For purposes of comparison with other locations
numbers of OC contaminants measured (mainly HCH and

234
AMAP Assessment Report
DDT). Although the analytical laboratories involved have
surface waters of urban areas of North America and western
participated in interlaboratory comparisons with Canadian
Europe. In either case, further investigation of the extent of
and Norwegian laboratories, some results, especially those
PCB and DDT contamination of these rivers is needed.
for PCBs, are difficult to reconcile with other measurements
Melnikov and Vlasov (1995), Melnikov et al. (1996a,
in Canada and Norway (Table 6ท10).
1996b), and Skotvold (1996) have measured persistent OCs
Rovinsky et al. (1995) reported DDT in the Lena River
in bottom surficial sediments of major Russian rivers (Annex
and nearby rivers (Bulun and Ebitym). A similar range of
Table 6ทA8). In the Indigirka River delta and Pechora River,
concentrations for DDT was found in river waters sam-
samples were taken independently at approximately the same
pled from 1992 to 1994 by Roshydromet (1995). Samples
locations. The Norwegian study found higher levels of PCB
were collected 2-6 times during each year depending on the
and other OCs than did Melnikov et al. (1996a, 1996b) at
geochemistry of the basin and the likely use of the chemi-
these two locations. These levels are consistent with high
cals. Low concentrations (< 1-5 ng/L) of p,p'-DDT and p,p'-
DDT and PCB levels, which have been consistently re-
DDE were reported in most north-flowing rivers. Highest
ported in surveys by Roshydromet. Previous work in the
DDT concentrations were found in the Ob River (mean 5
late 1980s by Vlasov and Melnikov (1990) found highest
ng/L). Roshydromet (1995) did not include determination
concentrations of HCH and DDT along the coastal areas
of PCBs. The herbicide 2,4-dichlorophenoxy acetic acid
of the Kara, Laptev, and East Siberian Seas in zones influ-
(2,4-D) was detectable in the Ob and Yenisey Rivers, but
enced by inflow of major rivers (Ob, Yenisey, Pyasina, Kha-
not elsewhere, at much higher levels than HCH isomers
tanga, Lena, Indigirka, and Kolyma Rivers). Concentrations
(< 100-65 000 ng/L).
of DDT reached 5 ng/L in the mouth of the Yenisey River
Melnikov and Vlasov (1995) and Melnikov et al. (1996a,
in the vicinity of the town of Dikson. Elevated levels of
1996b) reported relatively high concentrations of PCBs
HCH were also found in the Ob and Gydan River mouths
(< 0.1-26.6 g/g dw) and DDT (0.13-3.89 g/g dw) in
(4-4.5 ng/L). The concentrations of DDT and HCH were
suspended particulate matter from several major Russian
about ten times and three times higher, respectively, than av-
rivers including the Ob, Pechora, Yenisey, and Kolyma (An-
erage concentrations in the Kara Sea. The older results are
nex Table 6ทA7). Highest PCB concentrations (sum of seven
consistent with more recent observations for river water
congeners) were found in the Pechora (mean 10 g/g) and
from Roshydromet (1995).
lowest in the Ob and Kolyma Rivers (0.5-0.7 g/g). These
concentrations are high when compared to other studies.
6.6.3.1.2. Organochlorines in lake water
Yunker and Macdonald (1995a, 1995b) were unable to de-
tect PCBs (< 0.005 g/g) or DDT (< 0.0001 g/g) in SPM
Knowledge of levels of persistent OCs in lake waters in the
from the Mackenzie River. Pearson et al. (1996) found PCB
circumpolar Arctic is limited. The largest data set comes
concentrations averaging 0.14 g/g dw on particles from
from the work of Alaee and Gregor (1994) and Alaee (1996)
Lake Michigan. Pham et al. (1993) found DDT concentra-
who compared OC levels in water and suspended solids
tions on SPM ranging from 0.008 to 0.382 g/g in the St.
from five lakes in the Yukon River system. Amituk Lake
Lawrence River which drains the Great Lakes and industri-
(Cornwallis Island) in the central Canadian Archipelago and
alized areas of Quebec. Thus, the data for PCBs on SPM in
Peter Lake near the west coast of Hudson Bay have also
Russian rivers can either be considered inconsistent with
been studied. Samples consisted of large volume water sam-
other measurements, reflecting sample contamination prob-
ples (20-100 L). Samples were generally filtered or cen-
lems, or are exceptionally high, even when compared with
trifuged to separate `dissolved' and suspended phases and
the filtrate/centrifugate extracted with solvent or via XAD
Yukon, Canada
resin columns to isolate the OCs. Results are also available
Yukon River
for samples (1 L) collected from two lakes on the Taimyr
Mackenzie, Arctic Red
Mackenzie River delta, Canada
Mackenzie East
Peninsula (Melnikov and Vlasov 1995).
Mackenzie West
HCH isomers were the most abundant OCs in lake wa-
Andrews
ters at all Canadian locations (Table 6ท11). Concentrations
Coppermine
Burnside
of -HCH (0.34-0.88 ng/L) and -HCH (0.07-0.17 ng/L) in
Central NWT, Canada
Ellice
Back
the Yukon lakes in 1993 were lower than found in Amituk
Hayes
Lake by Falconer et al. (1995a) (1.3 ng/L for - and 0.28
Thelon
ng/L for -HCH) or in Peter Lake in 1994 ( -HCH = 0.67,
Dubawnt
Hudson Bay area, Canada
Kazan
-HCH = 0.19 ng/L). HCH concentrations in deep waters
Quoich
of two lakes on the Taimyr Peninsula were similar to those
Lorillard
in Amituk Lake but -/ -HCH ratios (0.48-0.64) were high-
Orkla
Northern Norway
Vefsna
Alta
Olenek
Lena
Eastern Russia
Yana
Kolyma
Pechora region, Russia
Pechora
Kola, north
Kola, south/east
Kola and White Sea region, Russia
North Dvina
Mezen
Ob
Taz
Ob and Yenisey region, Russia
Yenisey
Pyasina
Anabar
HCH, ng /L 0
5
10
15
20
Figure 6ท13. Average concentrations (ng/L) of HCH in Arctic rivers in 1993.

Chapter 6 ท Persistent Organic Pollutants
235
Table 6ท11. Average (dissolved) concentrations (ng/L) of major OCs in Arctic lake waters.
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Location
Latitude/longiude
-HCH
-HCH
DDT
Toxaphene
PCB
CHL
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Canada a
Atlin Lake b, Yukon
60ฐ00'N, 133ฐ50'W
0.39
0.2
0.01
0.27
0.018
ญ
Tagish Lake b, Yukon
60ฐ10'N, 134ฐ20'W
0.39
0.15
< 0.005
0.02
0.116
ญ
Bennett Lake b, Yukon
60ฐ06'N, 134ฐ52'W
0.34
0.11
0.02
0.11
0.206
ญ
Marsh Lake b, Yukon
60ฐ25'N, 134ฐ18'W
0.48
0.2
0.005
0.18
0.147
ญ
Kusawa Lake b, Yukon
60ฐ20'N, 136ฐ22'W
0.42
0.07
0.02
0.20
0.219
ญ
Fox Lake b, Yukon
61ฐ14'N, 135ฐ28'W
0.39
0.15
0.09
0.11
0.090
ญ
Lake Laberge b, Yukon
61ฐ11'N, 135ฐ12'W
0.88
0.17
0.06
0.21
0.100
ญ
Amituk Lake c, NWT
75ฐ03'N, 193ฐ46'W
1.2-1.4
0.23-0.34
0.004-0.04
0.15
0.43-0.47
10.4-0.12
Peter Lake d, NWT
63ฐ00'N, 192ฐ00'W
0.67ฑ0.05
0.19ฑ0.01
0.13ฑ0.06
0.34ฑ0.12
0.70ฑ0.08
0.05ฑ0.01
Russia (Taimyr Peninsula) e
Levinson-Lessing Lake (95 m) 74ฐ28'N, 198ฐ38'E
1.51
0.96
2.52
ญ
4.06
0.30
Taimyr Lake (18 m)
74ฐ32'N, 101ฐ43'E
1.09
0.53
0.16
ญ
0.67
0.14
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
a. All samples are from surface waters (0-1 m depth). All are filtered ( 0.5 ตm) except those from Peter Lake.
b. Alaee (1996).
c. Results from Falconer et al. (1995a) and Semkin (1996).
d. Muir et al. 1995b; n = 4 unfiltered water; mean ฑ SD.
e. Results from Melnikov et al. (1995). Unfiltered water samples analyzed by capillary GC-ECD analysis.
er than in most Canadian Arctic lakes (0.17-0.51). Higher
ng/L), but much lower than found by Muir et al. (1995b)
concentrations of HCH and lower -/ -HCH ratios have
for Peter Lake (0.34 ng/L) near Hudson Bay (Table 6ท11).
generally been found in the Great Lakes. Strachan et al.
Toxaphene was also detectable in SPM from Lake Laberge
(1995) reported -HCH of 1-2 ng/L and -HCH of 0.5-
at 9 ng/g dw.
0.75 ng/L in water samples from Lake Ontario. McConnell
A wide range of PCB concentrations is found in Canadian
et al. (1993) found concentrations of -HCH ranging from
lake waters (0.05-0.7 ng/L), with lowest concentrations in
0.98-1.40 ng/L and -HCH from 0.31-0.45 ng/L in surface
headwater lakes of the Yukon River. A similar range of PCB
waters of the Great Lakes in 1990. -/ -HCH ratios aver-
concentrations is observed in the Great Lakes. Jeremiason et
aged 0.33 in Great Lakes surface waters.
al. (1994) found average concentrations of 0.18 ng/L for
Evidence for the selective breakdown of HCH in Arctic
PCB in Lake Superior (1992) while Pearson et al. (1996)
lake waters was found in water in Amituk Lake on Corn-
reported average PCB levels in the open waters of Lake
wallis Island (Falconer et al. 1995a, 1995b). Optically-ac-
Michigan (in 1991) of 0.47 ng/L.
tive pesticides like -HCH are produced as racemates,
The similarities among toxaphene concentrations and
which contain equal proportions of right- and left-handed
patterns in the Yukon River basin lakes suggest that the
optical isomers (enantiomers). In the environment, these
main contaminant source is atmospheric. Similar HCH con-
enantiomers are broken down at different rates by enzy-
centrations in the lakes and rivers also indicate that there are
matic activity. Preferential metabolism of either (+) or
no major local sources to the lakes. On the other hand,
(ญ) -HCH has been found among different species of birds,
DDT concentrations were three times higher in Lake
marine mammals, and terrestrial mammals (Hummert et
Laberge than other lakes, suggesting continuing inputs pos-
al. 1995, H�hnerfuss 1994, M�ller et al. 1992, M๖ssner
sibly from past local use. Compared to the Canadian lakes,
et al. 1992), and in water from different regions of the
very high levels of DDT were found in the two lakes on the
North Sea (Faller et al. 1991). These changes are assumed
Taimyr Peninsula (Table 6ท11), especially in Levinson-Les-
to be caused by microbial activity, since abiotic mechanisms
sing Lake. Whether these DDT levels are accurate or due to
such as hydrolysis and photolysis are not enantioselective.
contamination problems during sampling deserves further
Selective degradation is expressed by the enantiomer ratio,
investigation.
ER = (+) -HCH/(ญ) -HCH. ERs in Amituk lake waters
ranged from 0.77 to 0.93 indicating some biotransforma-
6.6.3.2. Freshwater surface sediments
tion of the (+) -HCH.
The less persistent OC pesticides, endosulfan, methoxy-
The presence of PCBs, persistent OC pesticides, PAHs, and
chlor, and pentachloroanisole, are detectable in lake waters
other POPs in Arctic and subarctic freshwater and terrestrial
in the Arctic. Muir et al. (1995b) found all three compounds
environments in North America and Europe has been well
present at similar, low concentrations (0.017-0.023 ng/L) in
documented in recent years (Gubala et al. 1995, Muir et al.
water from Peter Lake, a large oligotrophic lake near Ran-
1995b, Skotvold 1996, Vartiainen et al. 1997). Although
kin Inlet (NWT). The presence of these compounds is con-
there have been significant local sources, such as military
sistent with their presence in Arctic air (Barrie et al. 1997).
radar sites (Bright et al. 1995a, 1995b, 1995c, Reimer et al.
Concentrations were low relative to another current use
1991) (section 6.2.4.1) and use of DDT and HCH for insect
OC, -HCH (0.14 ng/L).
control, the predominant pathway for persistent, semi-vol-
Toxaphene concentrations in Yukon lake waters ranged
atile POP inputs to Arctic lakes and ponds is thought to be
from 0.02 to 0.27 ng/L. These levels were similar to those
via atmospheric transport and deposition from sources in
observed by Falconer et al. (1995a) for Amituk Lake (0.15
temperate, industrialized regions.
25
30
35
40
45
50
55

236
AMAP Assessment Report
6.6.3.2.1. Spatial trends of organochlorines
PCBs, DDT, HCH, and HCB were detectable at low concen-
trations (0.01-40 ng/g dw) in almost all samples of freshwater
surface sediments from Alaska, northern Canada, Greenland,
Norway, Finland, and Russia (Annex Table 6ทA8). The major-
241
ity of these samples were from lakes and ponds, although a
few were from Russian rivers. The samples consist of both
surface grab samples (using dredge type devices) or surface
slices of sediment cores (10-15 cm in diameter). The major-
ity of samples were collected from remote locations with no
obvious industrial sources. Some were also collected near or
downstream from urban areas, particularly in the Russian
Arctic. Samples were not size-fractionated prior to analysis.
Circumpolar trends of PCB and DDT are shown in
Figure 6ท14. These data are taken from Gubala et al. (1995),
Muir et al. (1995a, 1996b), Vlasov and Melnikov (1995),
Cleeman et al. (1996a, 1996b), Vartiainen et al. (1997), and
Skotvold (1996). Different numbers of PCB congeners were
determined in each study: seven (Melnikov and Vlasov 1995),
13 (Cleeman et al. 1996a, 1996b), 26 (Skotvold 1996), and
60 (Muir et al. 1996b) congeners. However, most of the re-
PCB ng/g dw
PCB ng/g dw
sults for PCB are comparable because a common suite of
< 2
40
about 12 congeners (CB 18, 28, 52, 66/95, 101, 105, 110,
2 to 7
35
118, 138, 153/132, 170, and 180) were determined in most
30
studies and they were found to represent greater than 75%
7 to 15
25
20
of total PCBs (Muir et al. 1996b, Skotvold 1996). The sum
15 to 25
15
of seven congeners determined in the Russian monitoring
25 to 40
10
PCB ng/g dw
program represented from 11 to 65% of PCBs determined
5
5
> 40
in the Canadian program. Concentrations of PCB and
0
0
DDT were not correlated with percent organic carbon of
the sediments (p > 0.10).
Lowest concentrations of PCBs and DDT (both less
than 0.1 ng/g dw) were found in surface sediments from
four lakes in Greenland (Figure 6ท14). Low PCB (< 0.1-10
ng/g) and DDT levels were observed in Russian lakes, espe-
cially those east of the Taimyr Peninsula. Highest PCB (10-
35 ng/g) and DDT levels were observed in northern Nor-
way, Bear Island (Bj๘rn๘ya), at one site (western Yamal) in
the western Russian Arctic, and in several Canadian loca-
tions in the NWT. The highest reported PCB concentration
in Arctic lake sediments (240 ng/g) was in Wonder Lake
(central Alaska). This latter site had disproportionately high
levels of PCBs relative to DDT, which may indicate local
contamination.
Other OCs detected in most freshwater sediments were
HCH isomers, HCB, and cis- and trans-chlordane. Highest
HCH results (3-15 ng/g dw) occurred in Russian lakes/ponds
(68-70ฐN, 45-67ฐE), in Finnmark, Norway, and in Alaska.
No circumpolar trend for HCH was evident. It is possible
that local or regional use of lindane for biting fly control
might explain the elevated levels.
Variations among lakes in sedimentation rates, which
DDT ng/g dw
may be influenced by lake morphometry including water-
DDT ng/g dw
6
shed area, steepness of the watershed, and water column
5
< 0.25
depth, as well as phytoplankton biomass (Blais and Kalff
4
0.25 to 1
1995) probably have a major influence on the observed con-
3
1 to 2
centrations in these freshwater sediments. In this respect,
2
DDT ng/g dw
dated sediment cores corrected for focusing, are far superior
2 to 4
1
1
for assessment of spatial trends.
4 to 5.25
0
0
There is no obvious variation of major OCs reported in
Annex Table 6ทA8 in freshwater surface sediments with lon-
Figure 6ท14. Concentrations of PCB and DDT in freshwater surface
sediments (from grab samples or from top slices of cores) on a circum-
gitude or latitude. However, when results from mid-latitude
polar basis, and the ranked distribution of values. Most samples were
lakes in Canada are included, concentrations of DDT in
collected from remote lakes with little or no human activity. PCB repre-
surface sediments declined significantly with latitude from
sents the sum of 13 to 60 congeners, but all studies determined a common
9.7 ng/g (dw) in sediments from two lakes near 49ฐ44'N,
suite of 10 to 12 (CBs 18, 28, 52, 66/95, 101, 105, 110, 118, 138, 153/132,
170, 180). DDT = sum of p,p'-DDE, -DDT, -DDD, and o,p'-DDT.
93ฐ45'W in northern Ontario (L382, L375) to 0.10 ng/g in

Chapter 6 ท Persistent Organic Pollutants
237
Lake Hazen at 81ฐ45'N, 71ฐ30'W on Ellesmere Island. In
PCB flux
the same lakes, the proportion of di-/trichloro- congeners
ng/m2/y
of PCB increased significantly with latitude, while total
100 000
levels of octachlorobiphenyls declined (Muir et al. 1996b).
L. Ontario
The lower chlorinated congeners, especially CB 28 and
CB 52, were also the most abundant congeners, accounting
10 000
for 20-30% of the 24 PCB congeners determined in lake
Siskiwit
Great Slave
sediments from northern Norway (Skotvold 1996).
Trout
Kusawa SainteTherese
With the exception of Wonder Lake, the results show
Lake 375
1 000
Belot
Agassiz
Hawk
Amituk
that surface sediment samples from remote Arctic lakes
Superior
Lake 382
Ice Cap
Far
have similar or lower concentrations of PCBs and DDT
Pahtajไrvi
Wonder
Hazen
than those reported for mid-latitude lakes in North Ameri-
Lake 222
100
ca and Europe (Swackhamer et al. 1988, Sanders et al. 1992,
Sierram
Sophia
1993, Muir et al. 1995a, 1996b), and far lower levels than
lakes or reservoirs near industrialized areas in North Ame-
rica and western Europe (Eisenreich et al. 1989, Jไrnberg et
10
Schrader
al. 1993). Jeremiason et al. (1994) reported PCB concen-
40ฐN
50ฐN
60ฐN
70ฐN
80ฐN
trations ranging from 7.8 to 17.6 ng/g dw in surface slices
of six cores collected from Lake Superior in the 1980s.
Canada
Great Lakes
Alaska
Snow Core
Finland
PCB concentrations in surface slices of cores from four
isolated Wisconsin lakes (2.6-89 ng/g dw) (Swackhamer et
Figure 6ท15. Latitudinal fluxes of PCB in dated sediment cores from 25
al. 1988), Siskiwit Lake (Isle Royale, Lake Superior; 48
locations including 13 Arctic locations (in Canada, Finland, and Alaska).
ng/g) (Swackhamer et al. 1988), and four central Ontario
All fluxes (except those from Finland) are corrected for focusing of fine
lakes (12-54 ng/g) (Macdonald and Metcalfe 1991) were
particles in deep zones of the lake. There is a significant relationship
(r2= 0.45) between latitude and PCB flux (omitting results for Schrader
similar or slightly higher than found in Arctic lake sedi-
Lake and Lake Ontario).
ments. Concentrations of other persistent OCs in freshwa-
ter sediments were generally higher than found in Arctic
latitude sites receiving PCBs solely via atmospheric deposi-
marine sediments by up to ten times (see section 6.6.4.2).
tion. The results for Finland and Alaska are in general agree-
ment with the approximately six-fold exponential decline
observed for the Canadian data (Muir et al. 1996b). The
6.6.3.2.1.1. Latitudinal trends of PCB fluxes
predicted fluxes in the High Arctic agree well with observed
in lake sediments
PCB flux in a snow core from the Agassiz ice cap on north-
The majority of the freshwater data for OCs are from sur-
ern Ellesmere Island (Gregor et al. 1995).
face sediment samples (Annex Table 6ทA8), however, sedi-
ment cores have been analyzed from Alaska, northern Can-
6.6.3.2.1.2. Concentrations and patterns of PCDD/F
ada, and northern Finland. Muir et al. (1995a, 1996b) col-
congeners in lake and river sediments
lected sediment cores from eleven remote lakes in Canada
between 49ฐN and 82ฐN and Gubala et al. (1995) analyzed
PCDD/Fs have been determined in a limited number of lake
two cores from Alaskan lakes. Sediment cores were also
sediment cores in Canada and Finland, and in surface sedi-
collected in Great Slave Lake (Evans et al. 1996) and in
ments from Arctic lakes in Norway and Sweden (Annex
three lakes in northern Finland (Vartiainen et al. 1997). In
Table 6ทA21). PCDD/F profiles with depth in sediment cores
all cases, sediment slices were dated using excess 210Pb and
are discussed in more detail in section 6.7.3.1. Vartiainen et
137Cs and sedimentation rates determined from the decline
al. (1996) determined PCDD/F profiles in three lakes in north-
of the radionuclide signal with depth using constant-rate-
ern Finland and found low TCDD TEQ concentrations rang-
of-supply models (Robbins 1978). PCB fluxes (ng/m2/y)
ing from 1.4 to 4.2 pg/g dw in the surface slices. PCDD/F
were calculated by multiplying the sedimentation rates by
TEQs in lakes Storvindeln and Akusjไrvi in northern Swe-
the PCB concentration in surface slices and the inventories
den were very similar, at 3.0 and 4.1 pg/g dw, respectively
(ng/m2) were calculated by summing annual fluxes. Sedi-
(C. de Wit unpubl. data).
ment focusing factors, used to correct results to an average
Schlabach and Skotvold (1996a, 1996b) studied the levels
aereal deposition for the entire lake, were calculated as ra-
and spatial distribution of PCDD/Fs in lake sediments col-
tios of the depositional 210Pb fluxes or total sediment inven-
lected near the Syd-Varanger smelter works in Kirkenes, in
tories of radionuclides to the regional atmospheric 210Pb
Arctic Norway (section 6.2.4.3.1). TCDD TEQs in sediment
fluxes, or decay-corrected regional radionuclide inventories.
from Hauksj๘en, the reference lake (25 km from the smelter),
The latitudinal trend of PCB fluxes is shown in Figure
were similar to the Swedish and Finnish lakes. The PCDD/F
6ท15 using results from 25 sites (focus-corrected except for
congener profile in Arctic lakes of Sweden, Finland, and Nor-
cores from Finland). Omitting results for Schrader Lake, a
way was dominated by OCDD. Levels of 2,3,7,8-TCDD/Fs
significant (six-fold) decline of PCB flux with increasing
were low or non-detectable in most of the sediment samples,
north latitude over the 35ฐ latitude range (46-81ฐN) was
however, other non-2,3,7,8-substituted tetra-CDD/F congen-
observed (r2 = 0.45, n = 24, p < 0.001). This decline is mainly
ers were present.
due to declines in penta- to octachlorobiphenyls because no
Evans et al. (1996) determined PCDD/Fs in two cores
significant decline in di-/trichloro-biphenyl fluxes was found
from Great Slave Lake, as well as in surface grab samples
for 11 Canadian mid-latitude and Arctic cores (Muir et al.
from the same lake, and found TEQs in surface slices rang-
1996b). Fluxes of PCB for six Lake Superior cores (841-
ing from < 0.01 to 0.2 pg/g. The predominant PCDD/F
1670 ng/m2/y) (Jeremiason et al. 1994) were also in good
congeners in Great Slave Lake surface sediments were OCDD
agreement with the exponential decline. Results for Lake
(< 2-14 pg/g) and di- and trichloro-dioxin and -furan con-
Ontario illustrate differences between a location receiving
geners (2,7/2,8-DiCDD, 2,8-DiCDF, 2,3,8-TriCDF). The
substantial riverine inputs compared with Arctic and mid-
toxic tetra-, penta-, and hexachloro- CDD/F congeners were

238
AMAP Assessment Report
near or at detection limits in most surface sediments of
6.6.3.2.2. Modeling OCs in Arctic lakes
Great Slave Lake (< 0.2-0.9 pg/g dw). This study was the
only one to determine di- and trichloro- dioxins/furans in
Preliminary chemical fate modeling of inputs and outputs of
Arctic sediments. The presence of 2,7/2,8-DiCDD, 2,8-
OCs has been conducted in Arctic lakes in Canada (Diamond
DiCDF, 2,3,8-TriCDF, and 2,3,7,8-TCDF, along with pen-
1994, Freitas 1994, Diamond et al. 1996). A mass balance
tachloroanisole and chlorinated veratroles, in surface sedi-
model was developed, which accounted for inputs via stream
ments suggests that bleached kraft pulp mills in the Peace-
inflow, gas exchange, and dryfall, and contaminant output
Athabasca-Slave River basin, which contributes much of
via stream outflow, burial in sediments, and volatilization.
the flow into the lake, are also important sources. The
Satisfactory agreement was obtained between predicted and
2,7/2,8-DiCDD, 2,8-DiCDF, 2,3,8-TriCDF, and 2,3,7,8-
measured concentrations of HCH isomers and other OCs
TCDF congeners also predominated in bleached kraft mill
following model calibration with field measurements at
effluent in the region (Pastershank and Muir 1995).
Amituk Lake (Cornwallis Island). A major adjustment to the
Concentrations of most PCDD/F congeners in surface se-
model was the use of empirical rather than theoretical ad-
diments from the lakes studied in Finland, Norway, and Swe-
sorption partition coefficients for sedimenting particles be-
den were generally higher than in Great Slave Lake, by up to
cause of very low organic carbon. However, the modeling
ten times. This may be due to much lower sedimentation
has raised questions about the fate of hydrophobic organics
rates (30-90 g/m2/y) in these small lakes than in Great Slave
in Arctic lakes. It has shown that only a small fraction of
Lake (550-690 g/m2/y). OCDD was the predominant con-
PCBs and other particle-reactive OCs are sequestered in sedi-
gener in all three lakes (28-76 pg/g dw), along with 1,2,3,4,
ments, with the bulk of the snowmelt inputs passing through
6,7,8-HpCDF, but many non-2,3,7,8-PCDD/Fs were also
the lake to the outflow during the brief and rapid summer
present, representing 15-25% of total (Cl4 - Cl8) PCDD/Fs.
melt. Yet fluxes of OCs in sediment cores agree well with es-
Atmospheric deposition of combustion-related PCDD/Fs ap-
timates of inputs from snow deposition monitoring.
pears to be the only logical source of contamination of these
lakes which are situated in uninhabited areas with no road
6.6.3.3. Freshwater fish and invertebrates
access or where no local sources exist. Concentrations of
PCDD/Fs in the Finnish lakes were similar to `background'
Levels of OCs in freshwater fish from Canada, USA, Green-
levels in some other areas of Europe. For example, PCDD/F
land, Finland, Norway, Sweden, and Russia are documented
concentrations were 5.3 and 3.3 pg/g dw in two cores from
in Annex Table 6ทA9. Levels from studies monitoring OC
the northern part of Lake Ladoga (Sไrkkไ et al. 1993). Much
levels in fish in undisturbed lakes as well as levels in Arctic
higher concentrations of PCDD/Fs, i.e., greater than 1000
lakes with suspected contaminant problems are presented.
pg/g total PCDD/Fs, are found in sediments near industrial-
PCBs were generally present at 1.5 to 2-fold higher levels
ized areas in Europe, in Newark Bay, USA and its tributaries
than DDT- or chlordane-related compounds. HCHs (sum of
(Ehrlich et al. 1994), and in several locations in the Great
-, -, and -HCH isomers) and chlorobenzenes were present
Lakes region of North America (Czuczwa et al. 1984, Czu-
at much lower concentrations than the four major OCs (PCB,
czwa and Hites 1984, 1986, Smith et al. 1993b).
DDT, chlordane, toxaphene). Where it has been measured
(mainly in samples from Canada and Greenland), toxaphene
is a prominent OC present at concentrations similar to or
6.6.3.2.1.3. PCDD/Fs in the Severnaya-Dvina River
greater than PCBs. Problems with the analysis of toxaphene
near Arkhangelsk, Russia
have already been discussed (section 6.6.1.1). Determination
A study of PCDD/Fs in sediment of the Severnaya Dvina
of toxaphene is less accurate than for other OCs because of
River in western Russia, which flows into the White Sea at
the lack of analytical standards for individual hepta- to nona-
the city of Arkhangelsk, was conducted by the Russian Min-
chlorobornanes, the major components of toxaphene. Inter-
istry of Nature Protection and Natural Resources. This was
laboratory comparisons have shown agreement among par-
part of a larger study to investigate the extent of contami-
ticipating laboratories within a factor of 2 (Andrews 1994).
nation from chlorine-bleached kraft pulp and paper mills
Highest toxaphene levels are generally seen in fish that are
(Yufit and Khotuleva 1994). Analyses of PCDD/Fs were
strictly piscivorous, such as lake trout and burbot in Lake
conducted by both the Institute of Evolution Morphology
Laberge and burbot in the east arm of Great Slave Lake.
and Ecology of Animals (IEMEA) and the Bavarian Insti-
PCDD/Fs and nPCBs have been measured in Arctic char,
tute of Water. PCDD/F levels as TCDD TEQs in Dvina
burbot, pike, and lake trout (Annex Table 6ทA22) and are
River sediments ranged from 0.08 to 0.12 pg/g dw at `back-
discussed in more detail below. Measurements of other pla-
ground' sites and from 0.30-0.60 pg/g dw in sediments col-
nar OCs such as polychlorinated naphthalenes (PCN), chlo-
lected within 2 km of chlorine-bleach pulp and paper mills
rinated diphenyl ethers (PCDE) or their brominated analogs
at Syktyvkar and Kotlas. These TEQs were lower than re-
(PBDE) in Arctic fish are limited to work in Sweden (Sell-
ported in sediments from the Baltic Sea (Kjeller and Rappe
str๖m et al. 1993, Jไrnberg et al. 1993) and Finland (Koi-
1995), but similar to levels found in Barents Sea sediments
stinen et al. 1993). Levels of PCDEs in salmon from north-
(Oehme et al. 1993). The PCDD/F congener pattern ob-
ern Finland (Tenojoki river) were about ten times lower than
served in Severnaya Dvina River sediments was typical of
in salmon from southern Finnish lakes and rivers (Koistinen
chlorine-bleach pulp and paper mills combined with chlo-
et al. 1993). PCDEs accounted for a lower proportion of
rophenol sources. TCDD TEQs were mainly due to the con-
TEQs than nPCBs and PCDD/Fs in the salmon. PCNs were
tribution of 2,3,7,8-TCDD and -TCDF. OCDD, HpCDD/F,
detected in pike muscle from Lake Storvindeln. The major
and HxCDFs were the predominant PCDD/F congeners.
PCN congener, a hexachloronaphthalene, was present at
OCDD levels ranged from 2.4- 4.2 pg/g at `background'
similar concentrations as the non-ortho PCB congeners 77
locations. These levels are low compared to lakes in Nor-
and 126.
way, Sweden, and Finland (Annex Table 6ทA21). Similar
The less persistent OCs, such as methoxychlor, endosul-
levels of OCDD were found in the western basin of Great
fan, and pentachloro-anisole are frequently detected at low
Slave Lake which is more than 1000 km downstream of
levels (relative to major persistent OCs) in Arctic freshwater
bleached kraft pulp mills in Canada.
fish. Methoxychlor concentrations ranged from < 0.01-0.17

Chapter 6 ท Persistent Organic Pollutants
239
7.0
4.6
2.8
2
2
1.7
1.1
1
1
1
1.0
1
0.7
0.7
1
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.3
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.0
0
0
0
0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1
0 Talurjuac
Somerset
Char lake
Amituk Lake
4.1
0
Island
Buchanan Lake
1
2
2
0.4 0.4
1.3
0.1 0.2
0
1
1
0.9
Peter Lake
2
2
1.7
0.2
1
0.1
0.7
1.3
0.5
1
1.0
0
0
0.2 0.2
1
Kongressvannet
Diesetvannet and
0.4
and Linnevann
Rickardvannet
0
1
Sanikiluaq
0.2
0.3
0.1
0
0
0.3 0.2
Lake Hazen
2
Salluit
0.0 0.0
0
1.6
Mittimatalik
1
2
0.6
males
1.0
1
0.9
1
0.3
1.3
females
0.1 0.1
1
0.3
0
0.6
0.3 0.3
1
0.5
0.1 0.1
0.8
Thule
0.3
0
0.6
0
Kangiqsujuaq
0.1
Inukjuaq
0.3
0
2
0
Lake 222
1
0.9
1.5
Nuuk
0.6
1
1
0.1 0.1
0
0.5
0.2
0.2
Kola Peninsula
0.1
2
1
0.0
0
0
1.4
Kangiqsualujjuaq
0.4 0.4
Abiskojaure
1
males
0.2 0.1
1.0
1
females
0
0.6
ต
Isortoq
0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1
g/g lw
0.3
0
in muscle
0
2
2
Pahtajไrvi
Ammasalik
1.6
CHL
1
1

0.4
0.4
DDT
0.1
0
0
Toxaphene
Dwarfs
Normal
Lake Blๅsj๖n
Landlocked Arctic char

AMAP
PCB
Anadromous Arctic char
Figure 6ท16. OC levels (ตg/g lw in muscle) in landlocked and anadromous (italic labels) Arctic char.
ng/g ww in lake trout muscle from lakes in NWT (D. Muir
its of individual fish and different species, and also in the
unpubl. data 1996). Pentachloroanisole concentrations in
productivity, food webs, and possibly pathways of contami-
lake trout and Arctic char in Peter Lake (NWT) ranged
nant entry in different lakes. Year-to-year variation is large
from < 0.01-0.1 ng/g ww while endosulfan levels ranged
even when sampling is standardized for covariates.
from < 0.01 to 1 ng/g ww. Concentrations of these com-
pounds in Canadian Arctic fish were lower than levels re-
6.6.3.3.1. Circumpolar trends in Salvelinus species,
ported in surveys of fish in the USA (USEPA 1991). A sur-
Arctic char and lake trout
vey by the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA)
in the lower 48 states showed methoxychlor concentrations
Arctic char (Salvelinus alpinus) are the most widely exam-
in fish ranging from < 0.1 to 2.5 ng/g in 95% of fish sam-
ined fish from a circumpolar perspective. Char can be found
pled. The USEPA study did not include fish from Alaska.
as both landlocked and anadromous populations, and both
Assessment of circumpolar trends in concentrations of
forms can in fact occur in the same lake. Many populations of
persistent OCs in fish is difficult for several reasons. Most
Arctic char occur as multimodal size classes with a wide range
data for freshwater fish are very recent and have not been
of ages represented in each size class. There are notable differ-
fully statistically analyzed for all possible correlations with
ences even between populations from the same geographic
ancillary data (such as percent lipid, size) or spatial trends.
areas. The causes are assumed to be food web differences.
Most data are from studies with a limited number of sam-
Levels of major OC groups in muscle in both landlocked
ples per location, designed to examine regional spatial trends
(Annex Table 6ทA9) and anadromous char (Annex Table
and estimate human dietary exposure. This situation is made
6ทA17), expressed on a lipid weight basis, are presented in
more complicated by the observation that levels of many
Figure 6ท16. Anadromous char are discussed further in sec-
OCs are highly variable, due to differences in the food hab-
tion 6.6.4.5.

240
AMAP Assessment Report
Landlocked char from Canada, Greenland, Finland, Nor-
way and Sweden have been analyzed for persistent OCs
(Annex Table 6ทA9). Results for PCBs are the most readily
compared among sampling sites although there are minor
differences in concentrations due to determination of differ-
ent numbers of congeners. Mean concentrations of PCBs in
High Arctic, Buchanan L.
landlocked char range from 1 to 290 ng/g ww, although
High Arctic, Amituk L.
levels at most sites are less than 10 ng/g ww. The lowest lev-
N. Finland, Pahtajไrvi
els were found in Finnish Lapland (1-2 ng/g ww), while
Char
Greenland, Ammasalik
highest PCB concentrations were found in char from Char
Norway, Kongresvannet
Lake, a lake on Cornwallis Island near the Resolute airport,
S. Sweden, L. Vattern
which may have been contaminated by PCBs. Elevated lev-
N.W. NWT, Travaillant
els of PCBs were also found in char from Amituk Lake in
S. NWT, Great Slave L.
-1 SD mean +1 SD
Canada (73 ng/g ww) and from Ammasalik Lake in Green-
S.E. NWT, Peter L.
land (36 ng/g ww). Both are remote lakes with no obvious
N.W. NWT, Raddi L.
local sources of contaminants. The variations in levels of
N.W. Ontario, ELA L375
PCBs and other OCs are likely related to effects of age or
Banff Nat'l Park, Bow L.
Lake trout
growth rate on bioaccumulation. Hammar et al. (1993)
S.E. Ontario, Boshkung
found that slow growing char (dwarfs, mean weight 81 g,
Great Lakes, L. Erie
mean age 7.5 years) had significantly higher levels of PCB
S. Yukon, Kusawa L.
and p,p'-DDE than faster growing char (normal, mean
S. Yukon, L. Laberge
weight 239 g, mean age 4.9 years) in a Swedish Arctic lake
Great Lakes, L. Superior
(Annex Table 6ทA9, Figure 6ท16).
Great Lakes, L. Huron
Despite differences in size and feeding behavior between
Great Lakes, L. Ontario
anadromous and stationary populations, OC concentra-
Finland, Simo R.
Salmon
tions are similar in both forms when expressed on a lipid
0.1
0.3
1.0
3.0
10
30
weight basis. This circumpolar comparison (Figure 6ท16)
demonstrates that toxaphene is the major OC in most char
PCB ตg/g lw
and that generally higher levels of PCBs, toxaphene, and
Figure 6ท17. Comparison of PCB concentrations (lipid normalized, cal-
culated from geometric means) in Arctic versus temperate zone salmonid
DDT are found in landlocked char in Canada than in
fish. See Annex Table 6ทA9 for wet weight concentrations.
Scandinavia.
PCDD/Fs and nPCBs have been measured in landlocked
Levels of PCBs, toxaphene, and other persistent OCs have
Arctic char in Sweden, Norway, Finland, and Canada (An-
been measured in other regions of Canada and the USA, es-
nex Table 6ทA22). In char samples from Norway, Sweden,
pecially in the Great Lakes (DeVault et al. 1995). Figure 6ท17
and Finland, TCDD TEQ concentrations ranged from 0.02
compares lipid-weight concentrations of PCBs in landlocked
to 0.14 pg TEQ/g ww for PCDD/Fs and from 0.05 to 0.32
Arctic char from northern Canada, Greenland, Norway, Fin-
pg/g ww for planar PCBs. Higher TEQs (0.14-7.4 pg/g ww)
land, and southern Sweden, in lake trout from the NWT,
were found in landlocked char from Arctic Canada.
Yukon, and southern Canada/USA, and in salmon from Fin-
Lake trout are widely distributed predatory fish that feed
land. Concentrations in Great Lakes lake trout are higher
on forage fish and/or invertebrates. A large data set is avail-
than in all char and most lake trout from the Arctic. An ex-
able for OCs in muscle of lake trout from northern Canada
ception is lake trout from Lake Laberge which have similar
and Alaska (Annex Table 6ทA9). A wide variation in toxa-
levels (on both a wet weight and lipid weight basis) to those
phene and PCB levels is evident in lake trout in NWT and
in Lake Superior. Lake trout from smaller remote lakes in
Yukon lakes. Even in lakes of similar size at the same lati-
Alberta (Bow L.) and northwestern Ontario (L. 375) have
tude (Peter, Belot, and Colville; Travaillant, Raddi, and Fish)
levels similar to Arctic salmonids.
there were large differences in concentrations of toxaphene
and, to a lesser extent, of PCBs. Within lakes, age and fish
6.6.3.3.2. Burbot (Lota lota)
weight were significantly correlated with toxaphene levels
in lake trout at several locations (Muir et al. 1997). By far
OCs, including PCDD/Fs, have been measured in burbot
the highest concentrations observed are found in muscle
liver from Canada, Sweden, Finland, and Russia. The major-
of lake trout from Lake Laberge (mean PCB and toxa-
ity of the data is from the Yukon and NWT in Canada where
phene of 448 ng/g ww and 344 ng/g ww, respectively).
the widespread availability of the species, and consumption
Mean PCB concentrations in lake trout from other Yukon
of the fatty liver by indigenous people, have made it a prior-
and NWT lakes were lower, ranging from 10 to 128 ng/g
ity for monitoring OCs. Burbot is a predatory, bottom-feed-
ww. Converting the results to a lipid weight basis to elimi-
ing species of fish that inhabits deep lakes and Arctic rivers
nate the effect of different fat content of samples from dif-
over much of Canada, Scandinavia, and Russia (Scott and
ferent locations did not remove the lake-to-lake variation
Crossman 1973). Their sedentary nature and the high lipid
in mean PCB levels. This variation, which is mainly due to
content of the liver make the species suitable for monitoring
food chain length, is discussed in more detail in section
lipophilic pollutants (Burgermeister et al. 1983). Burbot ap-
6.6.3.4. Lake trout muscle from the Grand Baleine region
pear to accumulate similar levels of OCs as other predatory
of northern Quebec had similar PCB levels (Langlois and
fish (Veith et al. 1977, Musial et al. 1979, Burgermeister et
Langis 1995) to those from the NWT. Lake trout from five
al. 1983).
Arctic lakes in Alaska also had similar PCB levels (average
Relatively high OC concentrations are found in burbot
454 ng/g lw) to those in the NWT (Allen-Gil et al. 1997).
liver in Canada. Mean PCB levels ranged from 27 to 1270
Brown trout (Salmo trutta) from Lake 222 in Finland had
ng/g ww and toxaphene from 40 to 2300 ng/g ww. Highest
lower levels of DDT than lake trout, but higher total
concentrations were found in piscivorous burbot from large
chlorobenzenes and HCH.
lakes in the Yukon and in Great Slave Lake in NWT. Lower

Chapter 6 ท Persistent Organic Pollutants
241
Table 6ท12. Concentrations of major chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides in burbot liver from remote lakes and rivers in Canada (Muir et al. 1990a).
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Compound
Concentration (ng/g lw)
95% confidence interval at each locationa
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Lake
ELA
Trout Lake
South
Mackenzie River, Mackenzie River, Mackenzie River,
Peel River,
Winnipegb
Lake 625
Indian Lake
Fort Simpson
Fort Good Hope Arctic Red River
Fort McPherson
50ฐ42'N,
49ฐ45'N,
51ฐ15'N,
56ฐ47'N,
61ฐ52'N,
66ฐ15'N,
67ฐ26'N,
67ฐ26'N,
96ฐ34'W
93ฐ48'W
93ฐ30'W
98ฐ56'W
122ฐ21'W
128ฐ38'W
133ฐ44'W
134ฐ53'W
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
CBz
33.9ฑ5.0
27.9ฑ7.6*
39.9ฑ11.1
67.5ฑ12.6**
48.7ฑ30.8
44.2ฑ23.3
43.6ฑ38.7
25.5ฑ24.0
HCB
29.7ฑ4.5
22.2ฑ5.4*
34.4ฑ8.2
66.4ฑ12.1**
34.1ฑ18.0
43.0ฑ22.7
42.7ฑ37.7
23.8ฑ22.6
HCH
69.9ฑ18.4
72.3ฑ14.8**
35.9ฑ7.8
54.6ฑ11.0
27.1ฑ24.4*
30.3ฑ5.3*
29.0ฑ17.4*
18.8ฑ9.8
-HCH
53.6ฑ14.9
43.2ฑ16.9
30.6ฑ6.7
38.8ฑ4.3
24.5ฑ14.8
19.7ฑ4.5
24.5ฑ22.0
15.3ฑ8.6
CHL
143.0ฑ51.4
373.0ฑ126
378.0ฑ101**
285.0ฑ67.6
207.0ฑ106
173.0ฑ88.9
229ฑ161
86.4ฑ79.4*
trans-nonachlor
34.3ฑ14.5
109.0ฑ57.7**
92.8ฑ25.4
68.3ฑ19.1
56.4ฑ25.4
56.7ฑ27.1
83.5ฑ58.0
25.9ฑ23.5*
DDT
622.0ฑ219
1490.0ฑ601**
1029.0ฑ523
461.0ฑ132*
163.0ฑ117 *
95.2ฑ57.4*
101.0ฑ67.4*
50.7ฑ46.1*
DDE
350.0ฑ123
1017.0ฑ405**
946.0ฑ474
386.0ฑ112*
123.0ฑ85.1*
55.0ฑ32.2*
1147.1ฑ30.0*
27.1ฑ23.0*
Mirex
10.1ฑ3.0
14.0ฑ4.1
16.9ฑ7.6
17.4ฑ4.5**
8.6ฑ2.3
7.0ฑ3.6
5.2ฑ4.2*
3.7ฑ3.1*
Toxaphene
807.0ฑ285
1723.0ฑ541
2338.0ฑ769
1467.0ฑ324
1132.0ฑ684
1570.0ฑ1000
1700.0ฑ134611
931.0ฑ904
Dieldrin
.41.2ฑ13.3
60.1ฑ9.8
70.8ฑ21.2**
34.8ฑ8.9*
14.0ฑ11.6*
13.5ฑ6.1*
16.2ฑ11.3*
7.1ฑ6.3*
PCB
1941.0ฑ682
1290.0ฑ386**
874.0ฑ468
944.0ฑ281
557.0ฑ389*
344.0ฑ172*
301.0ฑ221*
345.0ฑ284*
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Ratios c
DDE/ DDT
0.57ฑ0.06
0.68ฑ0.05*
0.92ฑ0.02**
0.84ฑ0.04
0.76ฑ0.08*
0.59ฑ0.10*
0.47ฑ0.08*
0.55ฑ0.14*
-HCH/ HCH
0.16ฑ0.02
0.13ฑ0.04
0.15ฑ0.01**
0.14ฑ0.03
0.09ฑ0.02*
0.08ฑ0.03*
0.11ฑ0.02
0.08ฑ0.01*
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
a. Geometric means ฑ 95% confidence limits calculated from log transformed data. Results marked ** are significantly higher (Tukey test at p < 0.05) than
those marked *. Unmarked results are not significantly different from the highest mean value, but may be significantly higher than the lowest values.
Results for Lake Winnipeg were omitted from the means comparisons.
b. South basin of Lake Winnipeg.
c. Mean ratios ฑ standard deviations.
OC concentrations were found in burbot liver from Fin-
6.6.3.3.3. Lake whitefish (Coregonus clupeaformis)
land. A single burbot liver sample from the Yenisey River in
Russia had higher DDT and similar PCB (sum of seven
A reasonably large data set exists on concentrations of per-
congeners) concentrations to burbot from the Mackenzie
sistent OCs in lake whitefish from Canada, Norway, and
River. No geographic trends of OCs in burbot liver can be
Sweden (Annex Table 6ทA9). Lake whitefish, a widespread
discerned from the NWT and the Yukon data. This is prob-
insectivorous fish, is of importance for commercial and sub-
ably due to the confounding effects of fish size and food
sistence fishing in northern Canada and Scandinavia. PCBs
chain length. The effect of food chain length on OC con-
are generally low in lake whitefish compared to piscivorous
centrations in burbot is discussed in more detail in section
species such as lake trout. Mean PCB concentrations ranged
6.6.3.4.
from 0.54 ng/g ww in Lake Ravdujav'n, Norway, to 280
Previous work by Muir et al. (1990a) examined OC lev-
ng/g ww in Lake Laberge, Yukon. Mean toxaphene and
els in burbot in remote lakes and rivers in Canada, with
PCB levels were also higher in lake whitefish from Great
sample sites ranging from northwestern Ontario to Fort
Slave and Kusawa Lakes in northern Canada, both large
McPherson on the Peel River in the Northwest Territories.
lakes with complex food webs compared to other small
Declines in concentrations of PCB congeners, DDT, HCH,
lakes in the NWT, northern Quebec, and Norway.
dieldrin, and mirex in burbot livers were found with in-
Data on PCDD/Fs and planar PCBs in lake whitefish are
creasing north latitude (Table 6ท12). Mean PCB concen-
available for samples from Lake Storvindeln (Sweden) and
trations ranged from 301 ng/g lw in samples from the Mac-
Great Slave Lake (Canada), and for PCDD/F from Lake F๘r-
kenzie River at Arctic Red River, NWT to 1290 ng/g lw in
stevann (Norway) (Annex Table 6ทA22). The Norwegian
a remote lake in northwestern Ontario and 1941 ng/g in
sample was collected in close proximity (1 km) to the Syd-
Lake Winnipeg, Manitoba. No significant differences in the
Varanger smelter at Kirkenes. Lake whitefish muscle from
mean concentrations of toxaphene, -HCH, and tri- and
Lake Storvindeln and Great Slave Lake had low or non-de-
tetrachlorobiphenyls were observed between southern and
tectable levels of 2,3,7,8-TCDD, but the nPCBs (CB 77, 126,
northern sampling sites. Toxaphene was the predominant
and 169) were present at low pg/g ww concentrations. Total
OC residue in the northern fish samples, averaging 1400
TEQs in whitefish muscle from Lake Storvindeln and Great
ng/g lw at the three most northerly sites and 1723 ng/g lw in
Slave Lake were identical, 0.47 pg/g ww. The Norwegian
northwestern Ontario. The results were consistent with the
sample was more highly contaminated, with a PCDD/F TEQ
hypothesis that inputs of semi-volatile OCs decrease with
of 8.3 pg/g ww.
increasing north latitudes and distance from North Ame-
PBDEs were detected in samples of lake whitefish from
rican sources.
Lake Storvindeln in northern Sweden (Sellstr๖m et al. 1993).
PCDD/F concentrations are relatively high in burbot
2,2',4,4'-tetrabrominated diphenyl ether (TeBDE) was present
liver compared to other fish tissues (Annex Table 6ทA22).
at highest levels (15 ng/g lw) while two pentabromo- congen-
A pooled sample of burbot liver from Pajala, along the river
ers (a congener of unknown structure and 2,2',4,4',5-PeBDE)
Torneไlv in Sweden, had TCDD TEQ concentrations of
were present at levels of 3.39 and 7.2 ng/g lw, respectively.
3.75 pg/g ww for PCDD/Fs and 18.5 pg/g ww for planar
Chlorinated paraffins were also determined in whitefish
PCBs. TEQ levels in burbot muscle were lower, 0.05 pg/g
from Lake Storvindeln, but were not detected (<1 ng/g lw).
ww for PCDD/Fs and 0.28 pg TEQ/g ww for planar PCBs,
due the low lipid content of muscle. Total TEQs in burbot
6.6.3.3.4. Invertebrates
liver from two lakes in Finland ranged from 5.4 to 8.6 pg/g
ww. TCDD TEQs in burbot liver in Canada range from 0.8
A reasonably large data set on OCs in zooplankton exists
pg/g in Great Slave Lake to 166 pg/g in Lake Laberge. In
for Arctic lakes in Canada (Annex Table 6ทA9). No results
burbot from Scandinavia and Canada, TEQs due to planar
have been reported for other circumpolar countries. Plank-
PCBs were much greater than those due to PCDD/Fs.
ton have proven to be useful biomonitors of PCBs and OC

242
AMAP Assessment Report
Amituk
Utuk
and is used as an integrated measure of trophic level. This
645
284
699
268
approach is informative because many freshwater Arctic or-
227
ganisms are opportunistic feeders. The use of nitrogen iso-
567
tope ratios is an excellent method for identifying trophic sta-
Sophia
tus since it represents what is assimilated into an organism
Twelve Mile
CH Pond
from its diet and integrates signals from food consumed over
Hardy
219 Char
B and D
178
the time period of tissue turnover. Slopes from the logarithm
150
144
(OC) concentration versus 15N regressions thus describe
biomagnification factors within biological communities.
6.6.3.4.1. Biomagnification in Lake Laberge, Canada
IQ2
IQ4
IQ5
PI Pond
IQ3
199
193
A and B
181
Lake Laberge, downstream from Whitehorse, a major com-
171
munity of 13 500 people on the Yukon River, Canada, was
Fox
examined because of known contamination problems. The
43
12
lake has been used for commercial, sport, and native sub-
51 Laberge
Lutsel K'e
Kusawa
sistence fisheries for over a century. As described in section
Resolution Bay 48 Ford-Brown
6.6.3.3, analyses of lake trout, burbot, and lake whitefish
LH3
46
IQ1
SE-Wager
221
revealed that levels of PCBs, DDE, and toxaphene were 30
183
189
Alda
times as high in Lake Laberge as in other Yukon lakes and
129
123
lakes in the Northwest Territories (Muir et al. 1990a, Palmer
PCB ng/g dw
1992, Kidd et al. 1993, 1995b, Kidd and Schindler 1994).
Levels were comparable to those found in the Great Lakes
Figure 6ท18. Geographic trends of PCBs in zooplankton (>100 ตm) in
(Oliver and Niimi 1988, Borgmann and Whittle 1991).
northern Canadian lakes. Data are from Evans (1994), Kidd et al. (1995a,
1995b) and Koenig (1996). All concentrations in ng/g dw.
There have been numerous hypotheses about the origin of
the contamination in Lake Laberge, including contamination
pesticides in lakes (Taylor et al. 1991). A study by Koenig
due to sewage, past use of toxaphene and DDT, and PCBs in
(1996) examined geographical and temporal variation of
transformer oils, and characteristics of the runoff to the lake
PCBs and OC pesticides in a series of 19 Arctic lakes be-
(Kidd et al. 1995a, 1995b). The most current view is that
tween 63ฐN and 79ฐN. Kidd et al. (1995a, 1995b) and Evans
past activities and local sources are not the cause of present-
(1994) have also determined OCs in zooplankton from Lake
day contamination of the fish. Local contamination can be
Laberge and Great Slave Lake, respectively. Highest PCB
discounted because surface sediments contain levels of OCs
concentrations were observed in the northern-most lakes on
similar to other regional lakes that do not contain contami-
Cornwallis Island and eastern Ellesmere Island (Figure 6ท18).
nated fish. Long-range atmospheric transport and deposition
The lowest PCB levels observed by Koenig (1996) were
are sources of toxaphene, HCH, DDT, and HCB to all of the
found in samples from the Wager Bay area of northwestern
lakes, however, an additional factor in Lake Laberge is that
Hudson Bay, but concentrations in zooplankton from Great
overfishing and increased nutrient input from the Whitehorse
Slave Lake and Yukon Lakes were even lower. These regio-
sewage lagoon may have changed the food web (Kidd et al.
nal differences could be related in part to variations of zoo-
1995b). The lake trout are solely piscivorous, unlike trout
plankton biomass and food web differences among lakes.
populations from other regional lakes, which is reflected in
Taylor et al. (1991) found an inverse relationship between
their high lipid content.
OC concentrations and plankton biomass in 33 Ontario
Contaminant levels in fish and invertebrates in Lake La-
lakes. The results may also reflect differences in concentra-
berge and other lakes in the Yukon are given in Annex Table
tions of PCBs in surface waters between the eastern and west-
6ทA9. Kidd et al. (1995a) examined biomagnification in the
ern Arctic. PCB and toxaphene levels are higher in lake wa-
food web of Lake Laberge and two reference lakes, Fox and
ters from the eastern Arctic than in the Yukon (Table 6ท11).
Kusawa, using 15 nitrogen isotope measurements as an indi-
cator of the trophic position of fish and invertebrates (Figure
6ท19). The heavier 15N isotope is enriched relative to 14N
6.6.3.4. Examples of food web transfer ญ
from prey to predator and is expressed as 15N (15N/14N sta-
freshwater environment
ble isotope ratio standardized against air). Lake trout and
Studies have been conducted to examine whether food web
burbot, mainly carnivorous species, have the highest trophic
differences may explain elevated levels of PCBs and toxa-
status and level, while snails and trichopterans (caddis flies),
phene in Lake Laberge and Great Slave Lake, compared to
which feed mainly on periphyton and other plant material,
nearby lakes (Kidd et al. 1995a, 1995b, Evans 1994, 1996).
occupy the lowest trophic level. There are differences in the
In the case of Lake Laberge, it was hypothesized that the
food web structures of Laberge, Fox, and Kusawa Lakes
food web structure of Lake Laberge is different, resulting in
(Figure 6ท19). The top predators in Lake Laberge feed at a
elevated concentrations of atmospherically deposited conta-
higher trophic level than those from the reference lakes, a fac-
minants in the fish. This hypothesis was based on the work
tor that has been previously implicated in higher contaminant
of Rasmussen et al. (1990) who found that lake trout from
concentrations in lake trout (Rasmussen et al. 1990).
Ontario lakes with longer food webs had higher concentra-
Examination of the relationship between concentrations
tions of PCBs and DDT.
of HCH, DDT, and toxaphene over the range of trophic
The studies by Kidd et al. (1995a, 1995b) and Evans
levels in Lake Laberge (Figure 6ท20) showed that toxaphene
(1994, 1996) used stable isotope ratios to identify the tro-
and DDT were significantly correlated with trophic level
phic status of various organisms, to demonstrate differences
measured by 15N (Kidd et al. 1995a, 1995b). HCH was
in food web transfer in different lakes. The heavier isotope
also correlated with 15N, but showed less of an increase
of nitrogen (15N) is enriched 3-5 parts per thousand () in
with trophic level consistent with its known lower persis-
an organism compared to its diet (Peterson and Fry 1987),
tence in the environment. Similar relationships were ob-

Chapter 6 ท Persistent Organic Pollutants
243
15 N
Toxaphene ng/g ww
13
Yukon, Canada
10 000
log toxaphene = 0.29 15 N - 0.57
12
Lake Laberge
11
Fox Lake
1000
10
Kusawa Lake
9
8
100
7
6
10
5
4
1
3
15 N
2
0.1
1
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
Snails
Cisco
BurbotLake trout
Tricopterans
Chironomids
Zooplankton
Lake whitefish
DDT ng/g ww
Longnose sucker
Round whitefish
10 000
log DDT = 0.32
Figure 6ท19. Mean 15 nitrogen () for invertebrates and fish collected
15 N - 0.72
from Laberge, Fox, and Kusawa Lakes.
tained for 15N and OCs in the food webs of the reference
1000
lakes. The trophic difference between Laberge and the ref-
erence lakes provides one explanation for the higher con-
centrations of toxaphene, DDE, and PCBs in the fish from
100
Lake Laberge.
10
6.6.3.4.2. Great Slave Lake and Slave River studies, Canada
Fish in Great Slave Lake, the seventh largest freshwater lake
1
in North America, also have higher concentrations of per-
sistent OCs and PCDD/Fs than the same species in the
15 N
smaller surrounding lakes such as Trout, Gordon, and
0.1
Alexie Lakes. Evans (1994) and Evans et al. (1995) deter-
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
mined levels of OCs in food web organisms in the eastern
and western basins of Great Slave Lake and showed that
OC concentrations were strongly associated with trophic
HCH ng/g ww
level. Slopes for the regressions were similar although a lit-
100
log HCH = 0.16 15 N - 1.0
tle less steep than the 0.16-0.32 slopes observed by Kidd et
al. (1995a, 1995b) for Lake Laberge in the Yukon. These
slopes indicate that organic contaminants may not biomag-
nify as strongly in Great Slave Lake food webs as in the
Lake Laberge food web.
10
15N values were similar in burbot from Great Slave Lake
and Lake Laberge, suggesting that burbot feed at similar
positions in the food webs in both lakes. Toxaphene con-
centrations were substantially lower in Great Slave Lake
burbot liver, averaging 244 ng/g ww for the Slave River
1
delta and 762 ng/g for East Arm burbot, than the 2820 ng/g
observed for Lake Laberge. This suggests that trophic level
alone cannot account for the high toxaphene concentra-
tions in Lake Laberge burbot liver. There were also differ-
15 N
ences in concentrations in invertebrates between Lake
0.1
Laberge and Great Slave Lake. It is difficult to assess
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
whether these inter-lake differences in contaminant concen-
tration reflect true differences between the systems or are
Trichoptera
Zooplankton (whole)
Longnose sucker
more a reflection of the inherent variability in such mea-
Snail
Broad whitefish
Cisco
surements. The resolution of this is important because the
Chironomids
Lake whitefish
Lake trout (muscle)
concentrations of organic contaminants in fish appear to be
Burbot (contaminant in liver, 15N in muscle)
a function not only of trophic level but also of other aspects
of the lake ecosystem. Thus, while there is some evidence of
similarities in the slope of contaminant concentration as a
Figure 6ท20. 15 Nitrogen isotope ratios versus Toxaphene, DDT, and
function of trophic level (15N) for a variety of lakes, the in-
HCH for fish and invertebrates from Lake Laberge, Yukon Territory.
tercepts, representing overall contaminant levels, differ.
(Kidd and Schindler 1994).

244
AMAP Assessment Report
Great Slave Lake receives most of its water flow from the
wegian rivers. PCB and DDT levels on suspended solids in
Slave River, which drains a large area of northwestern Can-
the Ob and Yenisey Rivers are higher than found in river
ada (983 000 km2). The western basin of Great Slave Lake,
water near industrialized areas in North America. Although
as well as the Mackenzie River, are greatly influenced by
there may be unidentified quality assurance problems with
flows of the Slave River. The Slave River Environmental
the PCB and DDT data for Russian rivers, results from inde-
Quality Monitoring Program, conducted between 1990 and
pendent Russian and Norwegian studies of bottom surficial
1995, was designed to characterize the baseline aquatic eco-
sediments in the Indigirka River delta and Pechora River
system conditions in the Slave River at Fort Smith, NWT
were roughly in agreement considering the heterogeneous
(Peddle et al. 1995). Water, suspended sediment, and fish
nature of the bottom material. The Norwegian study actu-
samples were collected from the Slave River at Fort Smith
ally found higher levels of PCB and other OCs than did Mel-
and at two control sites and analyzed for organic and inor-
nikov et al. (1996a, 1996b) at these two locations. Thus, the
ganic contaminants, including PCDD/Fs, PCBs, and persis-
data for PCBs and DDT in Russian rivers, while reflecting
tent OC pesticides such as toxaphene (Peddle et al. 1995).
some sample contamination problems, may in fact be extra-
Levels of these OCs in fish are given in Annex Table 6ทA9
ordinarily high even compared with surface waters of urban
and PCDD/Fs in Annex Table 6ทA22.
areas of North America and western Europe. In either case,
Toxaphene and PCBs were the predominant OC conta-
further investigation of the extent of PCB and DDT conta-
minants in walleye and burbot liver from the Slave River
mination of these rivers is needed.
and the control lakes. A wide range of toxaphene concen-
The emphasis on measurements of OCs in suspended sol-
trations were found in burbot liver, however, in general,
ids in Russian river waters rather than in the dissolved phase
concentrations were similar to levels observed in burbot
also limits the usefulness of the data for estimating loadings
liver from Great Slave Lake, but higher than in smaller
to the Arctic Ocean. In the Mackenzie River, suspended sol-
control lakes (e.g., Alexie Lake).
id loads represented only about 10% of total loadings of
Higher levels of toxaphene, DDT, and PCBs in walleye
PCBs and < 1% for HCH because most of the OCs were in
and burbot tissues compared to control lakes were likely
the dissolved (or dissolved organic carbon associated) phase.
due to longer food chains in the Slave River and Great
The AMAP project directory lists joint USA/Russian pro-
Slave Lake, where these species migrate, compared to the
jects (by Geochemical and Environmental Research Group
small control lakes.
(GERL) of Texas A&M University) in which water samples
In walleye (whole fish) and burbot liver, 2,3,7,8 TCDD
were collected in the Ob and Yenisey Rivers for analysis of
and 2,3,7,8 TCDF isomers generally made up 100 percent
POPs. However, results from these studies are not yet avail-
of the total TCDD and TCDF detected (nPCBs were not de-
able.
termined). The TCDD and TCDF levels in walleye from the
Information on POPs in lake water is confined to a small
control lakes were similar to those from the Slave River. In
number of lakes in the Canadian Arctic and to samples from
burbot liver, however, the levels were higher in the Slave
two lakes on the Taimyr Peninsula (Melnikov and Vlasov
River than the control lake. The TCDF/TCDD ratio sug-
1995) so that little can be said about circumpolar trends.
gested that the major source of these contaminants was
HCH, HCB, and toxaphene, as well as several less persistent
from bleached kraft mill discharges that occurred upstream
OCs, were readily detectable in lake water, which suggests
(see also section 6.2.4.3.2).
that the water column is an important reservoir for the more
polar OCs (i.e., log Kow < 5.5). Although these OCs are pro-
minent in lake waters, their levels in Arctic lakes do not cor-
6.6.3.5. Summary and conclusions ญ
relate well with levels in fish, which underlines the impor-
freshwater environment
tance of food web rather than direct water pathways for up-
6.6.3.5.1. Abiotic environment
take by fish, especially for toxaphene.
Recent studies of contaminants in water, sediments, and
HCH concentrations in deep waters of two lakes on the
biota from Arctic lakes and rivers have greatly expanded
Taimyr Peninsula were higher than in most Canadian Arctic
the information available on OC levels. Particularly impor-
lakes, suggesting greater inputs of lindane as was also ob-
tant for understanding spatial trends are new data on OCs
served in river water. Very high levels of DDT and PCB
in lake sediments and fish from Alaska, Greenland, Nor-
were found in the two lakes on the Taimyr Peninsula relative
way, Finland, Sweden, and Russia. With the exception of
to Canadian Arctic lakes or the Great Lakes in general. As
river and lake waters, the original minimum monitoring ob-
noted for river water, there may be quality assurance prob-
jectives of AMAP for POPs in freshwater matrices (AMAP
lems with these PCB and DDT data that precludes their use
1993) have been met in all circumpolar countries.
for assessment purposes at the present. Whether or not lev-
Knowledge of concentrations of OCs in northward flow-
els are indeed this high deserves further investigation.
ing rivers is useful for estimating contaminant loadings to
The less persistent OC pesticides endosulfan, methoxy-
the Arctic Ocean and for identifying local/regional point
chlor, and pentachloroanisole are detectable in lake waters
sources. This information is still extremely limited spatially
in the Arctic. This is consistent with their presence in Arctic
and temporally. Loadings of HCH to the Arctic Ocean can
air and plants. Levels are, however, low relative to HCH.
be estimated with reasonable accuracy for the Mackenzie
Circumpolar data on levels of these current use OCs in wa-
River, for three Norwegian rivers (Orkla, Vefsna and Alta;
ter or sediments are not available.
for -HCH only), and for major Russian rivers. Concentra-
Concentrations of PCBs in Arctic lake waters in Canada
tions of -HCH in Russian rivers are similar to results for
exceeded the USEPA Great Lakes Water Quality guideline
Norway and Canada. However, higher -/ -HCH ratios are
for protection of aquatic life of 17 pg/L, but DDT did not
found in the Russian rivers suggesting continued inputs of
exceed the guideline limit of 870 pg/L (Table 6ท13). Levels of
the pesticide lindane in these areas.
PCB reported in water of Lake Levinson-Lessing on the
Data on PCBs and DDT in Russian rivers are problem-
Taimyr Peninsula exceeded Canadian environmental quality
atic. PCB and DDT concentrations in river water and sus-
guideline limits of 1 ng/L.
pended solids reported in recent surveys of Russian rivers
Circumpolar coverage of POPs in freshwater lake surface
are ten to 100 times higher than found in Canadian or Nor-
sediments is, in comparison with information for freshwa-

Chapter 6 ท Persistent Organic Pollutants
245
Table 6ท13. Selected criteria, action levels, or guidelines for critical pollutants in the Great Lakes (modified from De Vault et al. 1995).
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Contaminant
USFDA(1) IJC (2)
GLI (4)
OMEE(5)
IJC (3)
EQG (6)
USEPA (7)
ERL (8)
ERM (8)
EQG(6)
EQG (6)
Fisha
Water
Water
Water
Fish tissuea Fish tissuea
Fish tissuea
Sedimentb
Sedimentb
Water
Sedimentb
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
2,3,7,8 TCDD
25 pg/g
0.0096 pg/L
1.1 pg/g
0.5 pg/g
0.02 pg/L
0.091 pg/g
DDT
5 mg/g
0.003 ตg/L 0.00087 ตg/L 0.003 ตg/L
1.0 ตg/gc
0.0063 ตg/g
0.039 ตg/g
1.6 ng/g
46 ng/g
Total PCBs
17 pg/L
0.001 ตg/L
0.1 ตg/gc
0.0076 ตg/gd
0.16 ตg/g
23 ng/g
180 ng/g
0.006ตg/ge
Mirex
2 ตg/g
< detection
0.001 ตg/L
Toxaphene
5 ตg/g
0.008 ตg/L
0.008 ตg/L
Aldrin/dieldrin
0.3 ตg/g
0.001 ตg/L
0.001 ตg/L
0.3 ตg/gc
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
a. All values for fish are based on wet weight.
b. All values for sediment are based on dry weight.
c. Whole fish.
d. Freshwater fish.
e. Marine fish.
(1) USFDA (US Food and Drug Administration) action levels in edible portions of fish for regulation of interstate commerce.
(2) (3) International Joint Commission, Annex 1 objectives for protection of aquatic life and wildlife.
(4) USEPA (US Environmental Protection Agency) Great Lakes Water Quality Guidance, proposed criteria for protection of wildlife (USEPA 1995).
(5) Ontario Ministry of Environment and Energy (OMEE 1993).
(6) Draft Canadian Environmental Quality Guidelines for protection of animals that consume aquatic biota (Environment Canada 1996).
(7) USEPA guideline values for assessment of hazards to fish-eating wildlife (USEPA 1995).
(8) ERL = Effects range low and ERM = effects range median for sediments (Long et al. 1995).
ters, reasonably complete, with some results from every cir-
fluxes of penta- to octachlorobiphenyls, as well as DDT-re-
cumpolar country. No geographical trend in concentrations
lated compounds, with increasing north latitude, and the
of any OC is discernible. This is not surprising given the in-
lack of a decline in fluxes of di-/tri-chlorobiphenyl fluxes in
fluence of lake sedimentation rates, which in turn may be
Canadian mid-latitude and Arctic sediment cores are consis-
influenced by lake nutrient status, morphometry (steepness,
tent with predictions of the `cold condensation' hypothesis
mean depth), and organic and inorganic inputs from the
(Wania and Mackay 1993). The results for PCB fluxes in
watershed. In general, surface sediment samples from re-
Finland and Alaska sediment cores are in general agreement
mote Arctic lakes have similar or lower concentrations of
with the Canadian data (Muir et al. 1996b). Because the re-
PCB and DDT as compared to mid-latitude lakes in
sults for dated sediment cores are limited to Canada, Alaska,
North America and far lower levels than lakes or reservoirs
and Finland, there is insufficient information with which to
near industrialized areas in North America and western Eu-
estimate OC fluxes on a circumpolar basis.
rope.
The fact that fluxes predicted from lake surface sediment
Concentrations of PCB and DDT in Arctic lake sur-
in the Canadian High Arctic agree well with observed PCB
face sediments generally do not exceed guideline limits for
flux in a snow core from the Agassiz ice cap on northern
effects on aquatic life (Table 6ท13). Sediments from only a
Ellesmere Island (Gregor et al. 1995) and with recent esti-
few locations exceed the Effects Range Low (ERL) or Ef-
mates of PCB fluxes at other sites in the Canadian Arctic
fects Range Median (ERM) values. Values below the ERL
(Barrie et al. 1997) was unexpected. Mass balance calcula-
are referred to as being in the minimal effects range and
tions suggest that retention of OCs in Arctic freshwater
those between the ERL and ERM as in the low probability
lakes during summer snow melt is very inefficient because
of effects range. ERL and ERM were derived by Long et al.
most of the meltwater does not mix and net sedimentation
(1995) from a review of contaminant levels and biological
rates are generally low (Diamond 1994, Semkin 1996).
effects data for sediments from the USA and Canada. In the
case of PCB, sediments from five lakes in Canada, one in
6.6.3.5.2. Biota
Norway (Bear Island), and one in Russia (Yamal Peninsula)
exceed the ERL, and only one location, Wonder Lake (Alas-
Toxaphene is the major OC contaminant in all freshwater
ka), exceeded the ERM. The ERL for DDT of 1.6 ng/g dw
fish and invertebrates that have been analyzed from the
was exceeded at about ten locations (Annex Table 6ทA8),
Canadian Arctic and West Greenland. Although relatively
but the ERM (46 ng/g dw) was not exceeded. ERL and
little data on toxaphene levels in freshwater environments
ERM values are not available for HCH isomers, HCB, or
are available for Norway, Finland, and Russia, results from
TCDD. TCDD TEQ levels in all sediments exceeded Can-
Finland (Paasivirta and Rantio 1991), as well as measure-
adian Environmental Quality guidelines for protection of
ments in anadromous char and whitefish from Russia (sec-
aquatic life of 0.09 pg/g dw.
tion 6.6.4.5.1), suggest that toxaphene is also a prominent
In the case of PCDD/Fs, there are higher concentrations
OC pesticide contaminant in fish in the European Arctic. No
of TEQs in Finnish than in Canadian (Great Slave Lake)
data are available for toxaphene in surface waters, sedi-
sediment cores. However, this difference may be due to
ments, or lower food web organisms in the European Arctic.
much greater dilution from high sedimentation rates in the
Because the source of most OC contaminants in Arctic
Great Slave Lake cores. Much higher concentrations of
freshwaters is atmospheric, prevailing air concentrations are
PCDD/Fs have been found in sediments in the Great Lakes
relatively similar (within a factor of 2) at the four polar air-
and near industrialized areas of Europe. The high propor-
sampling stations, and fluxes to lake sediments vary over a
tion of OCDD in all Arctic lake sediments suggests that the
narrow range, similar levels of OCs might be expected in
major source of PCDD/Fs is combustion-related.
fish over a wide geographic area. However, this is not the
The availability of results for OCs in dated lake sediment
case. Highest toxaphene and PCB levels are generally seen in
cores has provided, for the first time, regional estimates of
fish that are strictly piscivorous such as lake trout and bur-
current and historical fluxes to freshwater and terrestrial
bot. Toxaphene and PCB levels also show significant correla-
environments. It has also provided insights into temporal
tion with fish size within lakes (Muir et al. 1997). In the case
trends (section 6.7.3.1). Significant latitudinal decline of
of lake trout and whitefish data from the Canadian Arctic,

246
AMAP Assessment Report
levels of OCs are not strongly correlated with lipid content
land and Sweden. TCDD levels are low (typically < 1 pg/g) in
(Muir and Lockhart 1996), possibly because lipid levels in
comparison to levels in fish sampled near bleached kraft mills
individuals fluctuate seasonally. Thus, for Canadian fresh-
(Servos et al. 1994) or to species in the lower Great Lakes or
water fish, lipid normalization does not help to improve
the Baltic Sea. TCDD TEQ concentrations in fish muscle,
understanding of geographical trends although it is useful
based on PCDD/Fs only, did not exceed guideline limits for
for qualitatively examining differences among species and
human consumption (20 pg/g ww) used in most circumpolar
among regions.
countries. Some fish tissues, especially burbot liver and lake
On a lipid weight basis, POP levels in freshwater fish are
trout muscle in Lake Laberge, approach or exceed the 20 pg/g
generally higher than levels in terrestrial herbivores and are
ww limit if planar PCBs are included in the calculation of
similar to or higher than levels in mammalian carnivores.
TCDD TEQs. With the exception of the lakes Pahtajไrvi and
Differences in levels of bioaccumulating contaminants,
Nitsijไrvi in Finland, TCDD TEQ levels in fish tissue (based
such as PCBs in lake trout in Ontario lakes have been attri-
on PCDD/Fs) also did not exceed the USEPA (1995) guide-
buted to food chain length and lipid content (Rasmussen et
line for protection of fish-eating wildlife of 0.57 pg/g ww.
al. 1990). Toxaphene and PCB concentrations within the
Fewer measurements have been made of the toxic non-
food webs of all lakes examined so far (Fox, Kusawa, La-
ortho substituted PCBs and other planar OCs, such as chlo-
berge, and Great Slave Lakes) correlate significantly with
rinated diphenyl ethers (PCDEs) and polychlorinated naph-
15N in muscle (Kidd et al. 1995a, Evans 1996). The possi-
thalenes (PCNs), in Arctic fish, but, in general, concentra-
bility exists that PCB and toxaphene levels in Arctic lakes
tions are an order of magnitude higher than those of PCDD/Fs.
with lake trout or burbot as top predators could be pre-
Where nPCBs have been measured along with PCDD/Fs,
dicted with this empirical relationship. While there is some
PCNs, and PCDEs, calculation of TCDD TEQs shows that
evidence of similarities in the slope of contaminant concen-
nPCBs, especially CB 126, account for most of the TEQs.
tration as a function of position in the food chain (15N) for
However, knowledge of levels of nPCBs in freshwater fish
a variety of lakes, the intercepts differ due to lake differen-
analyzed in the Arctic are very limited in both Canada and
ces in the proportion of 15N in lower trophic organisms.
Scandinavia, and non-existent for Alaska, Iceland, Green-
Therefore, it is not possible at present to predict levels of
land, and Russia. Therefore, the priority for future measure-
OCs in fish from 15N except by thorough study of each
ments of toxic planar OCs in the Arctic should be additional
food web.
measurements of nPCBs. More information is also needed
With the exception of Arctic char (discussed in section
on circumpolar trends of PCNs, PCDEs, and PBDEs because
6.6.3.3.1), there is insufficient geographical coverage of any
of their toxicological significance and the fact that they have
freshwater species to permit examination of circumpolar
been analyzed in very few samples. No data are available
trends of OCs. Although a north-south trend in PCB (lipid-
from Canadian or Alaskan freshwater sediments or biota for
normalized) concentrations (but not for toxaphene or more
a wide range of planar OCs, including PCNs, PCDEs or
volatile OCs such as HCH) was previously observed in bur-
their brominated analogs (PBDEs).
bot liver collected from a series of lakes and riverine sites in
Although less persistent OC pesticides have been detected
central and northwestern Canada (Muir et al. 1990a), no
in Arctic air, plants, and lake waters, little is known about
geographic trends of levels or patterns of OCs can be dis-
their presence in Arctic fish or sediments. The limited data
cerned for lake trout, burbot, or lake whitefish (lipid-nor-
suggest that compounds such as endosulfan, methoxychlor,
malized) from within NWT and the Yukon. There may be
and pentachloroanisole are not present at high levels in Arc-
no trend or there may have been too few samples to detect
tic fish in comparison with persistent OCs. Although the
a trend, especially considering the confounding effects of
data suggest that biomagnification is not occurring, little is
fish size and food chain length.
known about circumpolar trends of methoxychlor and other
Char and lake trout from Arctic lakes clearly have lower
less persistent pesticides because their analysis has been lim-
levels of PCBs and DDT when compared to levels in the
ited to fish in Arctic Canada.
Great Lakes (Figure 6ท17). Lake trout from smaller remote
lakes in Alberta and northwestern Ontario, which receive
6.6.4. Marine environment
contaminants solely from the atmosphere, have PCB levels
similar to Arctic salmonids, indicating that proximity to
The marine environment was the first component of the Arc-
sources rather than north latitude, is a critical factor in ex-
tic environment to be examined for the presence of persis-
plaining spatial trends. An exception is lake trout from Lake
tent organic pollutants. As was noted in the introduction to
Laberge which have similar levels (on both a wet weight
this chapter, studies of the presence of organochlorine conta-
and lipid weight basis) to those in Lake Superior, one of the
minants began in the late 1960s. Holden (1970) reported
Great Lakes. Char from northern Norway and Finland had
the presence of dieldrin and DDT as well as PCBs in blubber
lower levels than char from southern Sweden (Lake Vไttern).
of ringed seals from the Canadian and Norwegian Arctic.
The PCB concentrations found in Arctic char, lake white-
Reviews of the information on persistent OCs in the Arctic
fish, and lake trout muscle generally exceed the most con-
marine environment that were available up to 1991 (Anders-
servative guideline limits for protection of aquatic life. These
son et al. 1988, Muir et al. 1992b) identified a general lack
limits range from 7.6 ng/g ww (Canada) to 160 ng/g ww
of data on OCs in the abiotic Arctic environment, and lim-
(USEPA 1995) (Table 6ท13). Most lake trout exceed the
ited information on circumpolar spatial trends in biota. The
Canadian guideline, while Arctic char and lake whitefish do
past five years has seen a large increase in the amount of data
so only in a few locations. Fish from Lake Laberge are an
on persistent OCs available, especially from the European
exception; all three species exceed the USEPA guideline
and Russian Arctic.
limit of 160 ng/g ww. No fish muscle samples were found to
This assessment first examines levels of major OCs in Arc-
exceed the PCB guideline limit for human consumption and
tic seawater, ice, snow, and marine sediments. These data are
export of fish of 2 g/g ww which is widely used in Europe
summarized in: Annex Table 6ทA7ญ OCs in suspended sedi-
and North America.
ment in Russian rivers; Annex Table 6ทA10 ญ OCs in seawa-
There now exists a relatively large data set on PCDD/Fs
ter in Russia; Annex Table 6ทA11 ญ OCs in suspended par-
in freshwater fish from Canada, Norway, and northern Fin-
ticulate matter from Russian seas; Annex Table 6ทA12 ญ

Chapter 6 ท Persistent Organic Pollutants
247
Table 6ท14. A summary of measurements of organochlorine concentrations (ng/m3 or pg/L ) in seawatera (mean ฑ S.D.).
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Norwegian Barents
Laptev
Kara Sead
Pechora
Canadian
Bering
Bering
Chukchi
Chukchi
Seab
Seac
Sead
Sead
Archipelagoe
Seaf
Seag
Seaf
Seag,h
(N = 2)
(N = 3)
(N = 8)
(N = 4)
(N = 7)
(N = 3)
(N = 2)
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Year
1985
1992
1994
1994-95
1992
1992
1990
1993
1990
1993
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-HCH
2750
477ฑ85
260ฑ270
120-460
330ฑ250
4180ฑ1600
1500
1990ฑ390
1400
2060ฑ360
-HCH
380
120ฑ36
160ฑ240
100-330
320ฑ540
430ฑ120
190
450ฑ120
180
430ฑ100
Toxaphene
ญ
14ฑ4
ญ
ญ
ญ
48ฑ8
ญ
22ฑ6
ญ
15ฑ1
CHL
ญ
3ฑ1
240ฑ260
< 10-570
20ฑ40
13ฑ6
3.9
2.7ฑ1.5
4.0
1.2ฑ0.1
Heptachlor epoxide
ญ
ญ
40ฑ40
< 10-70
< 10
ญ
ญ
2.4ฑ0.5
ญ
2.8ฑ0.1
Dieldrin
ญ
ญ
30ฑ70
< 10
< 10
ญ
ญ
3.7ฑ0.7
ญ
3.4ฑ0.2
Endosulfan ญ
ญ
ญ
ญ
ญ
ญ
ญ
2.1ฑ0.4
ญ
1.8ฑ0.1
DDT
< 50
3ฑ1
760ฑ590
50-450
270ฑ350
1.0ฑ0.3
1.0
ญ
0.3
ญ
PCB
< 500
38ฑ15
2540ฑ2940
510-6120
550ฑ750
ญ
12
ญ
8.4
ญ
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
a. Samples of surface waters (0-1 m depth). Dash indicates not analyzed or results not reported.
b. Gaul 1989. Average of two sites, 77ฐ30'N, 15ฐ55'W and 77ฐ00'N, 1ฐ33'W.
c. Chernyak et al. 1995. Coastal waters near the Kola Peninsula.
d. Melnikov and Vlasov 1995. Surface waters 1 m depth (filtered). Results for the Kara Sea are range of means for three locations sampled in 1995 (Bayda-
ratskaya Gulf, Yenisey Gulf, Ob Gulf).
e. Bidleman et al. 1995b. N = 8 except for DDTs where N = 4; HCH results from Falconer et al. 1995a (N = 12).
f. Iwata et al. 1993.
g. Bidleman unpubl.; HCH results from Jantunen and Bidleman 1995 (N=14).
h. Siberian Chukchi, N = 7 for HCH.
OCs in ice cover in Russian seas; Annex Table 6ทA14 ญ OCs
and east Russian Arctic (Table 6ท14). An exception is the
in marine sediments; and Annex Table 6ทA21 ญ PCDD/Fs in
Pechora Gulf where the highest levels of HCH were found
freshwater and marine sediments. Recent data on OCs in
along the Russian coast (means of 1270 and 1590 pg/L in
marine and anadromous fish, seabirds, marine mammals,
1995 for - and -HCH, respectively) (Melnikov and Vla-
polar bear, and Arctic fox are also presented. These data
sov 1995).
are summarized in: Annex Table 6ทA15 ญ OCs in marine in-
The most thoroughly studied Arctic region, in terms of
vertebrates; Annex Table 6ทA16 ญ OCs in seabird and shore-
concentrations of OCs in seawater, is the Bering/Chukchi
birds; Annex Table 6ทA17 ญ OCs in anadromous and ma-
Seas (Table 6ท14). Joint USA/Russian (Hinckley et al. 1991,
rine fish; Annex Table 6ทA18 ญ OCs in marine mammals;
Jantunen and Bidleman 1995) and Japanese cruises (Iwata et
Annex Table 6ทA19 ญ PCDD/Fs and nPCBs in marine bio-
al. 1993) have determined OCs in seawater from this region.
ta; Annex Table 6ทA20 ญ OCs in polar bear and Arctic
The study by Iwata et al. (1993) determined OCs in surface
fox; and Annex Table 6ทA22 ญ PCDD/Fs and nPCBs in
seawater during 1989-1990 from 73 locations in the north-
terrestrial and freshwater biota.
ern hemisphere and found highest seawater concentrations
of HCH in the Bering/Chukchi Seas (1400-2100 pg/L) and
Gulf of Alaska (1700-2100 pg/L) compared to almost all
6.6.4.1. Seawater
other locations (58-1600 pg/L). HCH levels appeared to in-
Data for POPs in the water column and ice published prior
crease in a smooth gradient with latitude from the tropical
to 1991 have been reviewed by Muir et al. (1992b). Analy-
western Pacific Ocean to the Arctic Ocean (Figure 6ท21).
sis of samples of seawater collected during the mid- to late
Wania and Mackay (1995, 1996) have suggested that this is
1980s showed the presence of OCs in waters of the Norwe-
evidence of the `cold-condensation' effect. Other less volatile
gian, Russian, Alaskan, and Canadian Arctic Ocean and in
OCs (e.g., chlordanes, PCBs, DDTs) were present at lower
the Bering Sea. The most predominant chlorinated POP was
concentrations in the Bering/Chukchi Seas than at more tem-
HCH (Table 6ท14). Of all the OCs measured, the most
complete water-column database is for - and -HCH.
Gaul (1989) found average concentrations of 2750 and 380
pg/L for - and -HCH, respectively, from two sites in the
Norwegian Sea (73ฐ30'N-80ฐ48'N) in 1985 near the edge
of the ice pack (Table 6ท14). Gaul (1989) observed a grad-
ient of HCH ( - + -HCH) between the North Sea, where
Ice
Island
concentrations ranged from 4800 to 6200 pg/L, and the
Chukchi Sea
Beaufort
Lancaster
Sea
Norwegian Sea, where they ranged from 900 to 1500 pg/L.
Sound
In a large survey of OCs in surface seawater collected
Gulf of Anadyr
Chirkov
during 1986-1989 from the Kara, Laptev, East Siberian,
Basin
Okhotsk Sea
and Chukchi Seas, Vlasov and Melnikov (1990) found
HCH concentrations ranging from 1580 to 2170 pg/L.
Sea of Japan
Bering
In a repeat of this survey in 1994-1995, Melnikov et al.
Sea
(1995) reported mean HCH levels ranging from 180 to
North Pacific
- HCH
East China Sea
pg/L
2900 pg/L in the Pechora, Kara, and Laptev Seas. These
7 000
HCH results in the Laptev Sea were in good agreement
6 000
South
5 000
with work by Jantunen and Bidleman (1995) and Cherny-
China Sea
4 000
ak et al. (1995). Chernyak et al. (1995) reported mean lev-
3 000
Strait of
Celebes Sea
2 000
els of HCH of 720 120 pg/L in samples collected in
Malacca
1 000
Java Sea
0
1992 from the Barents Sea coast of Russia. In general, lev-
els of HCH in the Norwegian and western Russian waters
Figure 6ท21. -HCH (pg/L) in seawater: an illustration of the cold conden-
were lower than in seawater from the Canadian, Alaskan,
sation effect (Wania and Mackay 1996, Iwata et al. 1993).

248
AMAP Assessment Report
perate latitudes. PCB concentrations decreased from means
0.0
0.4
0.8
1.2 ng/L
0.0
0.4
0.8
1.2
0.0
0.4
0.8
1.2
0
0
0
of 17 and 26 pg/L in the East China Sea and Japanese North
100
100
100
Pacific, respectively, to an average of 8.4 pg/L in the Chuk-
200
200
200
chi Sea (Iwata et al. 1993).
300
300
300
Most recent data confirm that the relative abundance of
Depth (m)
400
400
400
OCs in Arctic seawater is -HCH > HCB > -HCH toxa-
TC 93
E1 93
LS
500
500
500
phene > chlordanes PCBs > DDTs as described by Bidleman
0
2
4
6
8
0
2
4
6
8
ng/L
0
2
4
6
8
et al. (1990). Iwata et al. (1993) found -HCH > -HCH >
PCBs > chlordanes > DDTs in the Chukchi sea. The excep-
tion is the recent survey of Russian seawater which found
0.0
0.4
0.8 1.2 ng/L
0.0
0.4
0.8
1.2
0.0
0.4
0.8
1.2
0
0
0
PCBs > DDT > HCH > chlordanes > chlorobenzenes.
100
100
100
Levels of PCB in the Russian Arctic seas are much higher
200
200
200
than observed in other studies with seawater (Table 6ท14),
300
300
300
but are similar to some results for riverine inputs (section
Depth (m)
400
400
Chukchi
G.B. 85
400
Ice Island 86
6.6.3.1.1). PCB concentrations ranging as high as 15 000
500
500
500
0
2
4
6
8 ng/L
0
2
4
6
8
0
2
4
6
8
pg/L (Annex Table 6ทA10) are difficult to reconcile with data
from other studies (e.g., Hargrave et al. 1988, Iwata et al.
1993, Chernyak et al. 1995), which found PCB concentra-
0.0
0.4
0.8
1.2 ng/L
tions in seawater to be in the low pg/L range (< 4-38 pg/L).
0
However, they are consistent with the results of Joiris et al.
100
(1995) who reported whole water concentrations of 22-
200
Eurasian
Canadian
Basin
52 000 pg/L for PCBs (based on measurements in suspended
300
Basin
Greenland
Basin
Depth (m)
particulate matter) of the Barents Sea and waters near the
400
A1 93
E1 93
North Pole. The results are also consistent with other re-
500
Chukchi
0
2
4
6
8 ng/L
TC 93
LS
G.B. 85
ports of elevated DDT and PCBs in suspended sediments of
Ice Island 86
A1 93
Russian rivers (see section 6.6.3.1.1). Unfortunately, there
are no measurements of PCBs in whole water samples of
Russian rivers available at present. Studies by Roshydromet
-HCH (ng/L)
(1995) included only OC pesticides. A project by Texas
-HCH (ng/L)
A&M University, listed in the AMAP project directory,
mentions collection of water samples for analysis of POPs,
Figure 6ท22. Vertical profiles of HCH for the Arctic Ocean. Data have
but results from this work are not yet available. If con-
been taken from Gaul (1989); Hargrave et al. (1988) (Ice Island); Jantu-
firmed by future measurements, this implies major inputs of
nen and Bidleman (1995) (Chukchi); Macdonald (1994) (A1, TC, E1, LS).
DDT and PCB to the Arctic Ocean from Russian sources.
Despite possible quality assurance problems with the Rus-
formly distributed in surface waters; stations in the southern
sian data for PCB, some interesting spatial trends emerge for
part of the Canada Basin contain relatively high concentra-
OCs (Annex Table 6ทA10). Higher concentrations of most
tions, over twice those observed in the Chukchi and East Si-
OCs, especially HCH and CHL, were found in seawater
berian Seas and in the Greenland Sea.
from shallow areas influenced by riverine inputs such as the
There are too few data to assess the vertical distribution
Baydaratskaya, Ob, and Pechora Gulfs, than in samples col-
of OCs other than HCH. At 200 m depth at Ice Island, north
lected in more northerly parts of the Laptev and Kara Seas.
of Axel Heiberg Island, at approximately 81ฐN (Hargrave et
HCHs are not uniformly distributed within the Arctic
al. 1988), HCB, chlordane, and dieldrin decreased to one
Ocean (Figures 6ท22 and 6ท23). A large proportion of HCH
half or less than a half of their surface concentrations. Mel-
is contained in the top 200 m of the water column. The Can-
nikov et al. (1995) found up to two-fold lower concentra-
ada Basin and other Canadian sites contain pools of surface
tions of HCH and DDT at depths of 15-30 m in the Lap-
water where HCH concentrations are elevated by a factor of
tev and Kara Seas than in surface waters, but no consistent
2 or more compared to other regions of the Arctic Ocean or
trend for PCB or CHL.
oceans to the south (Figures 6ท21). This pool of surface wa-
Toxaphene is the second most prominent OC contami-
ter in the Canada Basin has a relatively long residence time
nant in Arctic Ocean water. It was first identified in seawater
(chapter 3). Due to permanent ice cover, it does not easily
in the Canadian Arctic at Ice Island in 1986-1987. More re-
outgas. The surface concentrations in the Canada Basin may,
cent measurements were made in the Canadian Archipelago
therefore, reflect conditions a decade or so ago when atmos-
in 1992-1993 (Bidleman et al. 1995a, Hargrave 1996) and
pheric HCH concentrations were much greater. Relatively
on oceanographic cruises through the Bering and Chukchi
high concentrations of HCH in water of the Canadian Archi-
Seas and across the polar cap (Bidleman et al. 1996) (Table
pelago waters (Falconer et al. 1995a) are, therefore, explained
6ท14). Figure 6ท24 summarizes measurements of toxaphene
by the flow of surface waters from the Canada Basin.
in surface water on the Bering/Chukchi Seas (1993) and the
Since 1985, a number of vertical profiles have been mea-
transpolar cruises (1994). Concentrations of toxaphene in-
sured for both - and -HCH (Figure 6ท22), allowing as-
crease from 15-30 pg/L in the Bering/Chukchi Seas to 90 to
sessment of the inventories of these compounds (Table 6ท15,
120 pg/L at higher latitudes. In comparison, toxaphene in
section 6.6.4.3.1.1) and their distributions in the ocean. Most
lakes within the Yukon River basin ranged from 20 to 270
of the data have been collected near the surface of the ocean
pg/L. The spatial distributions of toxaphene and HCHs in
with only relatively few points from water deeper than 400
the Arctic Ocean are similar in that both pesticides are ele-
m. Concentration ranges vary from `very low' in the deep
vated in more northerly waters. The range of toxaphene con-
ocean to as much as 7 ng/L for -HCH and 1.1 ng/L for -
centrations from 1992-1993 falls below the 1986-1987 Ice
HCH at the surface. The concentrations of both forms of
Island measurements. However, considering that only two
HCH are highest in the top 200 m of the water column. An
surface samples were analyzed in the latter study, it is not
important observation is that, horizontally, HCH is not uni-
possible to say whether a real decline has occurred. Unlike

Chapter 6 ท Persistent Organic Pollutants
249
-HCH in water
-HCH Enantiomeric Ratio in water
ng /L
ng /L
A
6
1.2
Bering Sea
5
1.1
4
B
1.0
3
Bering Sea
North
Greenland Sea
0.9
2
North
Greenland Sea
1
0.8
0
0.7
A 50-54 55-59 60-64 65-69 70-74 75-79 80-84 85-89 89-85 84-80 77-67 67-61 55-45 B
A 50-54 55-59 60-64 65-69 70-74 75-79 80-84 85-89 89-85 84-80 77-67 67-61 55-45 B
Latitude ฐN
Latitude ฐN
-HCH in air
-HCH Enantiomeric Ratio in air
pg/m3
North
pg/m3
Greenland Sea
1.2
140
Bering Sea
Bering Sea
120
1.1
100
North
Greenland Sea
1.0
80
60
0.9
40
0.8
20
0
0.7
A 50-54 55-59 60-64 65-69 70-74 75-79 80-84 85-89 89-85 84-80 77-67 67-61 55-45 B
A 50-54 55-59 60-64 65-69 70-74 75-79 80-84 85-89 89-85 84-80 77-67 67-61 55-45 B
Latitude ฐN
Latitude ฐN
Figure 6ท23. Trends in -HCH and enantiomer ratios (ER) on a transect from the Bering Sea across the polar cap to the Greenland Sea during the Arctic
Ocean Transect Study of July and August 1994. The pesticide is produced with a racemic ratio (ER = 1.00). An ER less than 1.00 implies selective
breakdown of the (+) -HCH enantiomer.
HCHs, there are no measurements of toxaphene in eastern
Latitude ฐN
Arctic waters, including the Norwegian and Barents Seas.
A
The following scenario is suggested to account for the el-
evated toxaphene and HCHs in the northern Canada Basin.
50-54
Bering Sea
A
Atmospheric levels of HCHs in the early to mid-1980s were
55-59
about 4-8 times higher than present-day values (Bidleman
et al. 1995b, Jantunen and Bidleman 1995, see Figure 6ท43),
60-64
and there is a suggestion that toxaphene levels were also
65-69
higher in the last decade, perhaps by a factor of 2-6 (see sec-
B
tion 6.7.1.1). Thus, it is likely that atmospheric loadings of
70-74
these pesticides were greater in the past, especially to the re-
75-79
gional seas which surround the central Arctic Ocean. These
80-84
seas are largely unfrozen during the summer months and
are susceptible to gas exchange, whereas exchange at higher
85-89
latitudes is inhibited by the ice cover. Over time, water con-
taining high concentrations of toxaphene and HCHs has
89-85
been transported from the regional seas into the central Arc-
84-80
tic Ocean. Today these regional seas have cleared themselves
by outgassing and sedimentation and have become adjusted
77-67
North Greenland Sea
to reduced atmospheric inputs, but these processes do not
B 0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
operate efficiently in the High Arctic. Toxaphene and HCHs
which are trapped under the polar cap are thus `ghosts of
Toxaphene (pg/L)
the past' and will be slowly drained, largely through the
Figure 6ท24. Measurements of toxaphene in surface water in the Bering
Canadian Archipelago, on a time scale of decades.
Sea (1993) and along the transpolar cruise (1994). (Jantunen and Bidle-
man 1995, Bidleman unpubl. 1996).
Hargrave (1996) monitored OC pesticides in the upper
50 m of the water column in the Canadian Archipelago at
(Figures 6ท23 and 6ท24). Hargrave (1996) also found that
Resolute Bay during 1993. Mean concentrations of HCHs
toxaphene levels in surface water were highest during win-
(4100 pg/L) and toxaphene (85 pg/L) were similar to levels
ter-spring, and decreased in summer-fall. The decline paral-
found under the polar cap on the transpolar cruise in 1994
leled an increase in phytoplankton productivity in July and

250
AMAP Assessment Report
elevated concentrations of particulate organic carbon which
persisted in the water column through early fall. This sug-
Seawater
gests that toxaphene is scavenged from the water column
Ice
Laptev Sea
by settling particles during and following the productive
Snow
Yenisey Gulf
season. Fugacity calculations show that enhanced air-to-
Kara Sea
ng/L
water gas exchange accompanies the draw-down in toxa-
Baydaratskaya Gulf
7
PCB
phene surface water concentrations, thus demonstrating the
6
close coupling between the atmospheric and biotic compo-
5
nents of the system.
4
3
2
1
6.6.4.1.1. Sea ice, suspended particulates,
n.d.
0
surface microlayers, and fog waters
Baydaratskaya Gulf
Kara Sea
Yenisey Gulf
Laptev Sea
Sea ice may entrain dissolved and particulate bound OCs
1.0
HCH
from ocean water and the surface microlayer during freez-
0.8
ing. Some OCs may be lost during freezing due to rejection
0.6
of brines and other dissolved substances (chapter 3). Ice, in
0.4
general, has lower or equivalent concentrations of all OCs
0.2
n.d.
0
in comparison to those observed in seawater. Gaul (1989)
Baydaratskaya Gulf
Kara Sea
Yenisey Gulf
Laptev Sea
found that concentrations of HCH isomers were lower in
sea ice than in seawater (Norwegian Sea), while PCB con-
1.2
DDT
geners, DDT-related compounds, and HCB were at much
1.0
higher concentrations. Gaul also found PCB concentrations
0.8
0.6
of 1-2.5 ng/L in melted sea ice, which was attributed to the
0.4
contribution from particulates associated with the ice. Har-
0.2
grave et al. (1988) did not detect PCBs, chlordanes, or any
0
Baydaratskaya Gulf
Kara Sea
Yenisey Gulf
Laptev Sea
DDTs in sea ice (detection limits 2-23 pg/L). Vlasov and Mel-
n.d.: no data available.
nikov (1990) found generally 20% lower levels of DDT
and PCBs in sea ice than in sea surface waters in nearshore
Figure 6ท25. Concentrations of PCB (sum of CBs 28, 52, 101, 110, 138,
samples from the Kara, Laptev, and East Siberian Seas.
153, and 180), HCH, and DDT in seawater, ice, and overlying snow
collected at approximately the same locations in the Russian Arctic in
In more recent work, Melnikov et al. (1996a, 1996b)
1993-95 (Melnikov et al. 1996a, 1996b).
reported HCH and DDT-related compounds, and PCB
(sum of seven congeners), in sea ice and snowcover from
and chlorothalonil. The source of the contaminants in sea
the Kara, Laptev, East Siberian, and Chukchi Seas (Figure
ice was thought to be snow because both compounds would
6ท25). PCB concentrations in sea ice were lower than in
be efficiently scavenged from the atmosphere by precipita-
overlying snow by 1.5 to more than three times (Annex
tion. Concentrations of chlorpyrifos in surface waters de-
Table 6ทA12). However, volatilization of OCs from fallen
creased with distance from the ice fields, suggesting that this
snow may result in large concentration changes after depo-
organophosphate was degrading in seawater following re-
sition and prior to melting. PCB concentrations in surface
lease from the ice or simply that the ice was the only major
seawater were higher than in ice or snow at three of four
source of the pesticide. Pfirman et al. (1995) have pointed
sites where results for OCs in ice, snow, and seawater were
out that ice movement and melting at the ice edge could be a
available from the same location (although samples were
major pathway of transport of contaminants deposited by
not collected at the same time). There were fewer differ-
precipitation or dryfall/gas absorption or associated with
ences between seawater and ice for HCH or DDT. Sea-
epontic (under ice) algae.
water/ice ratios for PCB and DDT for the Yenisey and Ob
Chernyak et al. (1996) made the first measurements of
Gulfs differed from the other locations. Water at these sites
chlorinated pesticides in fog waters in the Bering/Chukchi
may be of lower salinity than other locations because of the
Seas. Chlorpyrifos, an insecticide, and chlorothalonil, a wide-
influence of freshwater from rivers and levels of suspended
ly used fungicide, were detected in almost all samples. Chlo-
sediments entrapped in the ice may be higher.
rothalonil was also detected in samples of the surface micro-
Melnikov et al. (1995) reported relatively high concentra-
layer from the Bering and Chukchi Seas. Enrichment of these
tions of five major OC groups in suspended particulate mat-
pesticides in fog and surface microlayers may reflect similar
ter from Russian coastal waters. PCBs were the most promi-
phenomena, i.e., the association of the organic contaminants
nent OCs with means ranging from < 0.1 to 5.2 g/g dw (An-
with dissolved and particulate matter. Measurements of
nex Table 6ทA11). Expressed on a volume basis, these con-
HCH isomers in surface microlayers from the Barents Sea
centrations are similar to those reported by Gaul (1989) for
(Chernyak et al. 1995) showed little enrichment for these
sea ice, that is, in the 0.5-5 ng/L range with SPM content of
relatively water soluble OCs. Additional measurements are
1-10 mg/L. Joiris et al. (1995) found mean PCB concentra-
needed to determine whether fog may represent a significant
tions (as Aroclor 1254) of 110 ng/g dw on SPM from the Ba-
transport and deposition pathway of more hydrophobic
rents Sea near Svalbard. Expressed on a volume basis (that
chlorinated POPs and whether surface microlayers could be
is, dissolved + SPM), the PCB concentrations in Arctic sea
an important route of exposure for some Arctic biota.
waters (80-90ฐN) were 22 ng/L, about 2.54 times lower than
in mixed North Atlantic/Barents Sea waters near Svalbard,
6.6.4.2. Marine sediments
and three times lower than in Atlantic waters (73ฐN 0ฐW).
6.6.4.2.1. PCBs and organochlorine pesticides
In a survey of current-use pesticides in the Bering/Chuk-
chi Seas, Chernyak et al. (1996) detected atrazine (400 pg/L)
Organochlorine contaminants have been determined in a
and chlorpyrifos (170 pg/L) in sea ice, but did not detect
large number of surface grab samples of marine sediments
other semi-volatile pesticides such as endosulfan, trifluralin,
from the Arctic Ocean and adjacent seas during the AMAP

Chapter 6 ท Persistent Organic Pollutants
251
15.7
21.9, 31.4
DDT ng/g dw
DDT ng/g dw
6

PCB ng/g dw
< 0.25
PCB ng/g dw
5
9
< 0.5
8
0.25 to 1
4
7
0.5 to 1
1 to 2.5
6
3
5
1 to 2
2.5 to 4
2
4
DDT ng/g dw
2 to 5
3
4 to 6
1
1
5 to 9
PCB ng/g dw
2
1
1
> 6
0
0
> 9
0
0
AMAP
Figure 6ท26. Concentrations of DDT and PCB in marine surface sediments (from grab samples or from top slices of cores) on a circumpolar basis, and
the ranked distribution of values. Square symbols distinguish the dataset of Savinov and Savinova (reference 5 in Annex Table 6ทA14), which has rela-
tively high levels of DDT and HCH in samples from the Barents Sea.
DDT = sum of p,p'-DDE, -DDT, -DDD, and o,p'-DDT.
PCB represents the
sum of 13 to 60 congeners, but all studies determined a common suite of 10 to 12 (CBs 18, 28, 52, 66/95, 101, 105, 110, 118, 138, 153/132, 170,
180).Full data set is in Annex Table 6ทA14.

HCB ng/g dw
HCH ng/g dw
16
5
HCH ng/g dw
HCB ng/g dw
14
< 0.25
4
< 0.5
12
10
0.25 to 1
3
0.5 to 1.5
8
1 to 2.5
2

6
HCH ng/g dw
1.5 to 5
HCB ng/g dw
2.5 to 4
4
1
1
5 to 10
2
2
4 to 5.25
0
0
10 to 16
0
0
Figure 6ท27. Concentrations of HCH and HCB in marine surface sediments (from grab samples or from top slices of cores) on a circumpolar basis,
and the ranked distribution of values. Square symbols distinguish the dataset of Savinov and Savinova (reference 5 in Annex Table 6ทA14), which has
relatively high levels of DDT and HCH in samples from the Barents Sea. Full data set is in Annex Table 6ทA14.
program. Results for HCB and three major OC groups
the Beaufort Sea/Mackenzie River Delta area. All laborato-
( HCH, DDT, and PCB) are listed in Annex Table 6ทA14
ries contributing data used capillary GC-ECD or GC-MS for
and plotted in Figures 6ท26 and 6ท27. Most samples are
determination of PCBs and other OCs and, therefore, ana-
from nearshore areas in Norway, Russia, Greenland, the
lytical results should be comparable. However, in the case of
North American shelves of the Bering/Chukchi Seas, and
PCBs, various labs may have measured more congeners than

252
AMAP Assessment Report
others, especially of lower chlorinated congeners, which
some sites along the northern coast of Norway (1-5.2 ng/g
contribute a significant fraction of PCB in marine sedi-
dw; Annex Table 6ทA14). In a highly productive region of
ments. The data extracted from the ICES database were
the Chukchi Shelf, Macdonald et al. (1996) measured -
standardized to ten PCB congeners (CB 28, 52, 101, 105,
HCH concentrations in shallow-water surficial sediments
118, 153, 138, 180, 170, 206) while Melnikov et al. (1995)
as high as 0.23 ng/g, about ten times lower than in North
used seven congeners (CB 28, 52, 101, 118, 153, 138, 180).
American lakes dominated by atmospheric inputs (e.g., Lake
The results from the Beaufort/Chukchi Seas and High Arctic
Superior; Baker and Eisenreich 1990).
Ocean are based on the above ten congeners plus about 30-
Bright et al. (1995c) found that sediments within Cam-
50 additional congeners. Intercomparison of results for HCB,
bridge Bay harbor had higher concentrations of PCBs (0.14-
HCH isomers, and p,p'-substituted DDT-related compounds
45 ng/g dw, sum of 47 congeners) and a different congener
is less of a problem because of the fewer components in-
pattern from those in two control sites (0.05-0.44 ng/g dw)
volved and the wide availability of analytical standards.
about 60 km east and west of the harbor. Contamination of
Spatial coverage of OCs in surface grab samples of ma-
Cambridge Bay was attributed to improper disposal of PCBs
rine sediments is relatively good in Norwegian and Russian
from a military radar site. Sediments from control sites had
waters, especially in the Barents Sea. The circumpolar dis-
higher proportions of lower chlorinated CBs indicative of at-
tribution of PCB and DDT levels is indicated in Figure
mospheric sources. This pattern may also exist along the Nor-
6ท26. In general, concentrations of all OCs in marine sedi-
wegian coast, however, a limited number of PCB congeners
ments are extremely low in comparison with freshwater
and a high frequency of non-detects makes the comparison
sediments. Most sites have concentrations less than 1 ng/g
of nearshore and open ocean sites difficult in this region.
dw. Data are lacking on OCs in marine sediments from the
Canadian and Alaskan Arctic except for a limited number
6.6.4.2.2. PCDD/Fs
of samples from the southern Beaufort Sea and Bering Sea.
Higher concentrations of HCH, HCB, and DDT were
Levels of PCDD/Fs have been determined in marine sedi-
found in Mackenzie Delta sediments than in the Beaufort/
ments from northern Norway (near Kirkenes), in the Mac-
Chukchi Seas, but PCBs were present at similar levels.
kenzie River Delta area, and in the Barents Sea. Oehme et al.
A large data set for OC contaminants in sediment for
(1993) analyzed surface sediments from the Barents Sea for
the Russian Arctic is available as a result of studies by Mel-
PCDD/Fs and compared results with samples from the North
nikov et al. (1995) and Akvaplan-niva (dos Santos et al.
Sea/Norwegian Sea. Concentrations of PCDD/F homologues
1996a, 1996b) (Annex Table 6ทA14). DDT, HCB, and
in Barents Sea sediments are given in Annex Table 6ทA21 and
HCH are elevated in nearshore sediments from the White
levels of OCDD and PCDD/Fs at Barents Sea locations are
Sea, Pechora Sea, Baydaratskaya Gulf, and Khatanga Gulf
compared with those in the North Sea in Figure 6ท28. OCDD-
relative to open ocean sites in the northern Barents and
concentrations are much lower in the Barents Sea than the
Kara Seas (Figures 6ท26 and 6ท27). PCB concentrations
North Sea. PCDD/F concentrations in the Barents Sea were
range from 0.01 to 2.20 ng/g, but the majority are less than
low and fell within a relatively narrow range (12-32 pg/g dw
1 ng/g dw. Levels of HCH, HCB, and DDT are also low,
for PCDDs; 16-102 pg/g dw for PCDFs). Non-2,3,7,8-
much lower than in Norwegian nearshore sediments or in
substituted PCDD/Fs predominated. Average levels (11 sites)
the Mackenzie River Delta.
of 2,3,7,8-TCDF were 0.86 pg/g, while TCDF averaged
No geographic trend for PCB and DDT is apparent
14.1 pg/g. The proportion of more volatile PCDD/F congeners
for offshore sites, that is those in the Beaufort/Chukchi Seas,
was higher in the Barents Sea than the North Sea, indicating
and the northern Barents, Kara, and Laptev Seas (Figure
a fractionation process (Oehme et al. 1993). Two samples
6ท26). A distinct difference between offshore and nearshore
closer to the Norwegian coast had higher levels of TCDD TEQs
sediments is evident at locations along the Norwegian Sea
(1.1 and 0.72 pg/g) than other sites (0.31-0.63 pg/g) due to
coast of Norway between Bergen (60ฐ25'N, 5ฐE) and Trom-
slightly higher levels of 2,3,7,8-TCDD and 1,2,3,7,8-PeCDD
s๘ (69ฐ40'N, 19ฐE) (Annex Table 6ทA14). Most of these
than sites farther north. No correlations were found between
locations are open areas near shore rather than in fjords,
PCDD/F levels and total organic carbon in the sediments.
nevertheless, relatively high levels of HCH (0.1-1.5 ng/g
Concentrations of PCDD/Fs in the Barents Sea were 10-
dw), PCB (0.1-31.4 ng/g), and HCB (0.1-15.1 ng/g) were
20 times lower than those in the northern North Sea where
found at some of the sites. By comparison, open ocean
TCDD TEQs ranged from 5.5 to 17.2 pg/g (eight samples;
sites in the Norwegian Sea (60-61ฐN and 3ฐE-7ฐW) had
four locations). TCDD TEQs at one site in the Norwegian
much lower levels of HCH (0.01-0.18 ng/g), PCB (0.35-
Sea between the Shetland Islands and Norway averaged 0.78
1.13 ng/g), and HCB (0.10-1.15 ng/g). DDT did not show
pg/g dw (n = 2), similar to levels in the Barents Sea.
a clear nearshore and open ocean trend. Higher levels of
Schlabach and Skotvold (1996a, 1996b) studied the levels
PCBs, HCH, and HCB at nearshore sites suggests possible
and spatial distribution of PCDD/Fs in marine sediments col-
influences from industrial and municipal effluents, however,
lected from B๘kfjord near the Syd-Varanger smelter works in
none of these sites are in harbors. Given that HCH, HCB,
Kirkenes, in Arctic Norway and at a reference site (Heikenes-
and lower chlorinated CB congeners are the predominant
set) on the Barents Sea coast. TCDD TEQs declined northward
OCs in precipitation and in the gas phase, it is possible that
along the fjord from 2.5 pg/g dw near the smelter to 0.1 pg/g
elevated levels in nearshore sampling sites may also be due
dw at the reference site. The PCDD/F congener profile at the
to runoff and riverine flow from terrestrial drainage basins
reference site was dominated by PCDFs ( TCDF = PeCDF =
receiving only atmospheric inputs.
HxCDF > OCDD > all other PCDD/F homologues) similar to
There have been fewer measurements of OCs in sedi-
observations in the Barents Sea (Oehme et al. 1993). PCDD/F
ments of the Bering Sea. Rice et al. (1992) reported that
isomer patterns were very similar for both the Barents Sea and
HCH, PCBs, and DDT were the major OCs in upper slices
North Sea samples and indicative of combustion sources.
of cores from four sites in the Bering/Chukchi Seas. Iwata et
OCDD was the predominant congener, averaging 42% of
al. (1994a) measured relatively low HCH concentrations
PCDDs at the 11 Barents Sea sites. Similar congener profiles
in the Chukchi Sea and Bristol Bay (Bering Sea). Higher con-
were found in an unpolluted lake in Sweden (Kjeller et al.
centrations of HCH were found in the Barents Sea and at
1990) and in lakes in northern Finland (Vartiainen et al. 1997).

Chapter 6 ท Persistent Organic Pollutants
253
tions from chlorophenol use (which has a significant OCDD
content) in North America compared with Europe.
PCDD/F
OCDD
6.6.4.2.3. Tributyltin
pg/g dw
There are few data on TBT concentrations in environmental
1 000
media from the Arctic. Measurements made in coastal regions
of northern Norway show sediment contamination in several
harbors (Berge 1995). TBT concentrations are highly vari-
able, as they are elsewhere, and are probably related to ship-
800
ping activities and local rates of flushing and sedimentation.
131
6.6.4.3. Mass balance modeling of organochlorines
30
600
in the Arctic Ocean
85
5
41
11
8.3
Constructing a mass balance for selected OCs helps to de-
17
velop an understanding of the processes controlling the in-
62
55
put and fate of POPs as well as to identify knowledge gaps
5.8
108
400
10
critical to prediction of future trends. This has been attempted
with four OCs: - and -HCH, toxaphene, and PCBs (Barrie
11
82
1 170
et al. 1992). Less information is available for the latter two
7.7
compounds. As discussed in sections 6.6.1.1 and 6.6.4.1,
200
57
HCHs are the most abundant pesticides in Arctic air and
water. Toxaphene has airญwater partitioning characteristics
8
69
similar to the HCHs and would be expected to follow simi-
14
lar transport pathways. The difference between HCHs and
0
less volatile, more hydrophobic OCs such as PCBs, chlor-
danes, DDTs, and toxaphene, is that the fate of the latter
substances is influenced to a greater extent by wet and dry
715
deposition of particles from the atmosphere and sedimenta-
516
tion in the water column. Barrie et al. (1992) formulated a
mass balance for HCHs in the Arctic Ocean using air and
water concentrations typical of the mid-1980s. The budget
was based on limited data for HCHs in ocean water and
577
rivers, and assumed that atmospheric levels remained con-
stant over the year. Deposition of HCHs was calculated for
two seasons, winter and summer. The estimated standing
stock of HCHs in the upper 200 m of the water column was
143
8100 tonnes with a residence time of 20-30 years. Major in-
puts to the Arctic Ocean were by ocean currents (63%), at-
191
mospheric deposition (30%), and river runoff (7%). Losses
56
were mainly by outflow of water to the North Atlantic through
14
the Canadian Archipelago (78%), the East Greenland Cur-
152
rent (16%), and to a lesser extent by other currents (4%)
and ice export (2%).
The HCH budget of Barrie et al. (1992) has been updated
143
here and extended to toxaphene and PCBs, taking into account
advances in knowledge by: 1) using atmospheric concentra-
tions measured in the early 1990s; 2) estimating atmospheric
fluxes on a monthly or quarterly basis rather than biannually;
Figure 6ท28. Concentration (pg/g dw) profiles for octachlorodioxin (OCDD)
3) incorporating new data on the spatial variability of HCHs,
and total PCDD/Fs in marine sediments from southern and western Nor-
toxaphene, and to a limited extent PCBs in the Arctic Ocean;
wegian waters and from the Barents Sea (Oehme et al. 1993).
4) making use of more detailed information on the circula-
Macdonald (unpubl. data 1996) found a different PCDD/F
tion, ice cover, and water budget of the Arctic Ocean; and,
pattern in sediments from the Eskimo Lakes (Husky Lake),
5) updating estimates on the input of HCHs and PCBs (but
estuarine lakes on the eastern edge of the Mackenzie River
not toxaphene) from rivers (especially in Russia).
Delta, in which TCDD, PeCDD, and HxCDD congeners
For purposes of the budget, the `Arctic Ocean' is defined
and OCDD predominated (Annex Table 6ทA21). This pat-
as selected waters above 65ฐN, namely, the Canada and Eu-
tern was quite different from PCDD/F patterns upstream in
rasian Basins, the Canadian Archipelago, and the following
the Mackenzie River basin in Great Slave Lake. The pro-
regional seas: Barents, Kara, Laptev, East Siberian and Chuk-
portion of OCDD found in the Eskimo Lakes sediments
chi. Excluded are Baffin Bay, Hudson Bay, the Bering Sea,
and in northern Norway and the Barents Sea was consider-
the Norwegian Sea, and the Greenland Sea. Even though
ably lower than that found in Great Slave Lake (Evans et
portions of these waters lie above 65ฐN, they are not in-
al. 1996) or mid-latitude lakes in the eastern USA (Czuczwa
cluded because their circulation patterns place them outside
et al. 1984, Czuczwa and Hites 1986, Smith et al. 1993b).
of the Arctic Ocean regime. The Arctic Ocean was parti-
The reasons for this difference are unclear, but may reflect
tioned into two domains; the `North American Arctic Ocean'
different combustion sources as well as greater contribu-
(NAAO = 2.57
106 km2), which includes the Canada Basin

254
AMAP Assessment Report
and the Archipelago and accounts for approximately 25%
6.6.4.3.1. Hexachlorocyclohexane mass balance
of the total ocean area, and the `Eurasian Arctic Ocean'
in the Arctic Ocean and regional seas
(EAO = 7.72
106 km2), which includes the Eurasian Basin
and the regional seas.
HCH compounds volatilize soon after application, especially
The net exchange direction of gaseous OCs between air
in the tropics (Takeoka et al. 1991), and are atmospherically
and sea is controlled by the fugacity (partial pressure) in
transported to the Arctic and other remote regions. The low
surface water relative to air. The water/air fugacity (F) ratio
Henry's Law constants of HCHs favor partitioning from air
is calculated (McConnell et al. 1993):
into water, especially at low temperatures. At equilibrium,
the ratio of -HCH concentration in seawater to that in air
F = fw / fa = CwH / CaRTa
is 3000 at 25ฐC, but 22 000 at 0ฐC. The world's oceans are
where fw and fa are the fugacities of water and air, Cw and
the major reservoir of HCHs. Global models estimate that
Ca are the dissolved and gaseous OC concentrations in wa-
approximately 20% of the HCH present in the environment
ter and air (ng/m3), H is the Henry's Law constant at the
is held in the ocean surface layer, which is taken to be the
water temperature (Pa ท m3/mol), Ta is the air temperature
upper 75 m (Strand and Hov 1996) or 200 m (Mackay et al.
(K), and R = 8.314 Pa ท m3/mol K.
1995). Even though the heaviest use of HCHs has been in
The framework for the atmospheric portion of the bud-
tropical and subtropical regions, levels in surface seawater
get and descriptions of the process parameters are presented
are an order of magnitude higher in the Arctic (Iwata et al.
by Barrie et al. (1992) and Cotham and Bidleman (1991).
1993, Schreitm�ller and Ballschmiter 1995). Concentrations
Deposition mechanisms include: 1) rain and snow scaveng-
of HCHs in tree bark increase with latitude, being relatively
ing of particulate OCs (associated with haze aerosols),
high in Canada, Nordic countries, Alaska, and Russia, and
2) dry deposition of particulate OCs, 3) rain scavenging of
lower in tropical countries (Simonich and Hites 1995). Thus,
vapor-phase compounds, 4) adsorption of vapors to fal-
the transport and distribution of HCHs exemplifies the `cold
ling snow, and 5) air-to-sea gas exchange. Processes which
condensation' effect (Wania and Mackay 1993, 1995).
release OCs to the atmosphere from within the Arctic are:
6) volatilization from ocean surface water, and 7) volati-
6.6.4.3.1.1. Budgets for water and dissolved HCHs
lization from ice and snow. The equations used to calcu-
late these air-surface fluxes as well as the values of process
The results of the calculations and the HCH sources data are
parameters required for the calculations are given in An-
summarized in Table 6ท15. One of the problems identified in
nex Table 6ทA13. The fraction of each OC on particles
constructing this budget is that there are no surveys which in-
was estimated from the Junge-Pankow adsorption model
clude measurements of HCH in all the important water mas-
(see section 6.2.1.1), using the subcooled liquid vapor
ses within a time frame of a few years. Although HCH con-
pressure as a function of temperature. Details of these
centrations are now available for the regional seas in the Rus-
calculations are given by Cotham and Bidleman (1991).
sian Arctic, recent values for the Eurasian Basin are especially
The atmospheric budget takes into account monthly (aver-
lacking. The values selected for Table 6ท15 incorporate data
aged quarterly) variations in the atmospheric concentra-
from Table 6ท15 and other sources from the past decade.
tion of OCs, haze aerosols, air temperature, precipitation,
The burden of HCH estimated from available vertical profile
and the area of the Arctic Ocean that is ice-free. The total
data (Figure 6ท22) is 2200-2600 tonnes of -HCH and 280-
area used for calculating loadings by wet and dry deposi-
420 tonnes of -HCH for the NAAO, and 2200-2400 tonnes
tion is 1.03
107 km2.
of -HCH and 500-630 tonnes of -HCH for the EAO.
Gas exchange fluxes were converted into the mass of
For the removal of HCHs by ice flow through the Cana-
each OC depositing or volatilizing by assuming values for
dian Archipelago and Fram Strait, we have relied on the
the area of the ocean that is unfrozen and available for gas
measurements of HCH levels in ice from the Russian coastal
exchange. The extent of sea ice cover and area of open
waters (Melnikov et al. 1996a, 1996b). Representative HCH
water within the ice pack has been measured by a multi-
concentrations for the Bering Sea have been determined
channel microwave radiometer from the NASA Nimbus-7
(Jantunen and Bidleman 1995) which, when combined with
satellite operated from 1978-1987 (Gloersen et al. 1992).
reliable estimates of inflow through the Bering Strait, makes
Their estimates of the proportion of the entire Arctic Ocean
this the best-determined component of the HCH budget.
that is ice-free ranged from 11% in February to 64% in
Estimates of riverine inputs of HCHs are uncertain, particu-
August. These figures are heavily weighted by the large
larly for the Russian rivers. Jeffries et al. (1994) measured a
areas of open water in the regional seas, and we used them
fairly uniform, low range of HCH concentrations in the Mac-
for the EAO. The ice cover in the Canada Basin is greater.
kenzie River and eleven other small Canadian Arctic rivers.
Satellite imagery for 1987-1990 in the Beaufort Sea shows
In contrast, average HCH concentrations for the Russian
greater than 90% cover in January-February and 10-60%
rivers in 1992-1993 (Roshydromet 1995) were well above
in August (LeDrew et al. 1992). Satellite data collected in
those found in the North American rivers (Figure 6ท13). In
August-September 1994 in connection with the AOS-94
the budget, we have used 1994 - and -HCH concentra-
cruise show 10-50% ice cover between 70-75ฐN and 90-
tions of 5 and 2 ng/L, respectively (the range is 0-55 ng/L),
100% at higher latitudes. The open water in the NAAO
to take into account the high levels in Russian rivers. Our
was assumed to be 5% and 25% of the total area in Febru-
estimation of the exchanges between the Atlantic and Arctic
ary and August, respectively. Linear changes in ice cover
Oceans is based exclusively on the data of Chernyak et al.
were taken for the summer-winter transitions in the EAO
(1995). Lacking data for HCH in the Norwegian Coastal
and NAAO.
Current, the results from Gaul (1989) were used which are
The budget for each OC was constructed using the volu-
based on measurements in 1985. These latter measurements
metric flows for freshwater, seawater, and ice into and out
are higher than levels reported for the Barents and Kara Seas
of the Arctic Ocean (chapter 3), together with the respective
by Chernyak et al. (1995) and Melnikov et al. (1995). For
estimated concentrations of each compound (Table 6ท16).
the East Greenland Current, we have partitioned the water
Details of the new budget calculations are presented for
column into two domains (Polar Water and Return Atlantic
each chemical group in the following sections.
Water) (Foldvik et al. 1988) and have chosen HCH values

Chapter 6 ท Persistent Organic Pollutants
255
Table 6ท15. Arctic Ocean input/output budget for HCH isomers and preliminary estimates for toxaphene and PCBs a. Standard deviations (SD) calculated
from recent measurements (see Table 6ท14). SD for model results calculated for seawater flows only, assuming variance is due to the contaminant measurement.
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Water concentration, ตg/m3 or ng/L
Flux, tonnes / year
Water flow,
Toxa-
Toxa-
104 km3/ year
-HCH SD
-HCH SD
phene SD
PCB SD
-HCH SD
-HCH SD
phene SD
PCB SD
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Input
Bering Strait
2.6
2.0 0.48
0.45 0.10
0.025 ญ
0.01
ญ
52
12.4
12
3
0.65 ญ
0.3
ญ
Norwegian
Coastal Current
2.2
2.0 0.30
0.45 0.20
0.08
ญ
0.025 ญ
44
6.6
9.9
4.4
1.76 ญ
0.6
ญ
Barents Sea
3.8
1.0 0.09
0.25 0.04
0.08
ญ
0.025 ญ
37.8
3.40
9.5
1.5
3.0
ญ
0.9
ญ
W. Spitsbergen
Current
6.3
1.0 0.09
0.25 0.04
0.08
ญ
0.025 ญ
63
5.67
15.8
2.5
5.04 ญ
1.6
ญ
Rivers: N. America
0.03
0.5 0.50
0.1
0.10
0.15
ญ
0.5
ญ
0.15 0.15
0.03 0.03
0.045 ญ
0.15 ญ
Rivers: Eurasian
0.3
5.0 5.00
2.0
2.00
0.10
ญ
5.0
ญ
15
15
6.00 6
0.30 ญ
15
ญ
Gas deposit. ญ EAOb
34
5.62
7.28
38.6
Dry fall ญ EAO
0.06
0.04
0.85
6.21
Wet fall ญ EAO
0.77
0.20
0.57
2.29
Gas deposit. ญ NAAOb
4.50
0.75
0.96
2.05
Dry fall ญ NAAO
0.02
0.01
0.28
0.89
Wet fall ญ NAAO
0.25
0.07
0.19
0.32
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Total
247
59
20
66
Output
East Greenland
Current
(Polar water)
3.2
0.90 0.20
0.20 0.04
0.08
ญ
0.025 ญ
ญ 28
7
ญ 6.3 10
ญ 2.5
ญ
ญ 0.8
ญ
East Greenland
Current
(Return Atlantic water) 7.3
0.70 0.20
0.16 0.02
0.08
ญ
0.025 ญ
ญ 51
13
ญ 12
20
ญ 5.8
ญ
ญ 1.8
ญ
Can. Archipelago
5.4
4.5 0.50
0.60 0.12
0.09
ญ
0.01
ญ
ญ 241
47
ญ 32
45
ญ 4.8
ญ
ญ 0.5
ญ
Ice
0.52
0.50 0.50
0.20 0.20
0.05
ญ
0.038 ญ
ญ 2.6
3
ญ 1.0
1.0
ญ 0.3
ญ
ญ 0.2
ญ
Volatilization ญ EAO
ญ 14.9
ญ 1.2
ญ 1.2
ญ 0.7
Volatilization ญ NAAO
ญ 49.8
ญ 6.7
ญ 0.6
ญ 18.9
Hydrolysis
ญ 55
14
ญ 6.0 10
0.0
ญ
0.0
ญ
Sedimentation
ญ 0.06
ญ 0.03
ญ 0.03
ญ 0.15
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Total
ญ 443
ญ 65
ญ 15
ญ 23
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Net input/output
ญ 196
ญ 6
4
43
(negative = output)
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
a. See Annex Table 6ทA13 for details on calculation of each input and output process.
b. EAO = European Arctic Ocean; NAAO = North American Arctic Ocean.
based on recent measurements from the transpolar cruise
25ฐC, but increase to 60 and 100 years at 0ฐC, using the hy-
(Figure 6ท23).
drolysis rate constants derived by Ngabe et al. (1993). The
As discussed in section 6.6.4.2, there are insufficient data
fraction of the initial concentration that is hydrolyzed in one
at present to make a reliable determination of HCH flux to
year is 0.0110 for -HCH and 0.0064 for -HCH. Taking
sediments as part of the budget. HCHs are neither very par-
the surface layer burdens to be 5000 tonnes of -HCH and
ticle-reactive nor bioaccumulative and, therefore, are often
1000 tonnes of -HCH, hydrolysis accounts for annual
below detection limits in suspended particles or in sediments
losses of 55 tonnes of -HCH and 6 tonnes of -HCH,
(e.g., Hargrave et al. 1988, 1989b). Recent fluxes of HCH
amounts comparable to removal by other processes such as
in a core from the Gulf of Alaska were estimated to be 61
water outflows and volatilization (Table 6ท15).
ng/m2/y based on a sedimentation rate of about 1 mm/y
The first evidence that OC pesticides can be microbially
(Iwata et al. 1994b). Assuming this rate is typical of the
degraded in Arctic waters has recently been obtained from
NAAO and EAO, this represents about 0.5 tonnes/y deposi-
the changing proportion of -HCH enantiomers (optical iso-
tion of HCH to sediments for the entire Arctic Ocean.
mers) (Falconer et al. 1995a, 1995b). Selective breakdown
This may be a high estimate. Net sedimentation rates in the
of (+) -HCH was found in the Canada Basin and the Green-
Arctic Ocean are generally much lower than 1 mm/y. Aver-
land Sea, with ERs for surface water ranging from 0.75-0.93.
age sedimentation rates for Ice Island site (7.3 g/m2/y; Har-
Loss of (+) -HCH increased with depth, and the level of this
grave et al. 1989b) yield a sedimentation rate of -HCH of
enantiomer was near the detection limit below 750 m (Jan-
< 0.7 ng/m2/y or 0.008 tonnes/y extrapolated to the entire
tunen and Bidleman 1995). Water samples from the Bering
Arctic Ocean. For the mass balance calculations, we as-
and Chukchi Seas were depleted in (ญ) -HCH, an opposite
sumed a net sedimentation of 10 g/m2/y in pelagic areas of
degradation preference from the Arctic Ocean (Figure 6ท23).
the NAAO and EAO and 100 g/m2/y in shelf areas. Even
Reasons for this are not known, but may be related to dif-
with this modification, sedimentation and burial of HCH
ferent microbial populations in these regions. The -HCH in
isomers is negligible in comparison to the other values in
air was also depleted in the (+) enantiomer for samples col-
Table 6ท16. Based on these lines of reasoning, it appears un-
lected over the Arctic Ocean and the Greenland Sea, and in
likely that sedimentation plays much of a role in the overall
the (ญ) enantiomer over the Bering/Chukchi Seas (Figure
HCH budget for the Arctic Ocean, even though there may
6ท23). The appearance of the enantiomeric profile for sur-
be locations where the vertical fluxes are enhanced by high
face water in the overlying air provides evidence of sea-to-
primary productivity.
air volatilization (see below). Because the degradation rates
The hydrolysis half-lives of -HCH and -HCH in sea-
for this breakdown in seawater are currently unknown, this
water at pH 8.1 are estimated to be 0.4 and 0.5 years at
pathway was not included in the HCH budget.

256
AMAP Assessment Report
particles were highest during March, reaching 2% for -
-HCH -HCH
A
HCH and 6% for -HCH.
Gas exchange fluxes were estimated from the concentra-
fw/fa
tion of vapor-phase HCHs in air and dissolved HCHs in sur-
5
B
face water. Separate terms were calculated for deposition and
volatilization. Correction was made for the small fraction of
North Pole
HCHs bound to atmospheric particles. HCHs are relatively
4
water soluble and sorption to particles and colloidal organic
matter in the water column is expected to be negligible (Cot-
A
B
3
ham and Bidleman 1991).
North
Bering and
Greenland
Chukchi Seas
Sea
2
6.6.4.3.1.3. Overall HCH budget for the Arctic Ocean
The mass budget of HCH in the Arctic is illustrated in Fig-
1
ure 6ท30. Gas exchange is a dominant process, accounting
for 88% of the atmospheric budget for -HCH and 81% for
-HCH. Loadings of -HCH to the Arctic Ocean are 1.0
0
50-54
55-59
60-64
65-69 70-74
75-79
80-84
85-89 89-85
84-80
77-67
tonnes/y by precipitation, 0.1 tonnes/y by dry particle depo-
Latitude ฐN
sition, and 39 tonnes/y by air-to-sea gas transfer. These in-
Figure 6ท29. Water/air fugacity ratios (fw/fa) of -HCH and -HCH on a
puts are offset by ญ 65 tonnes/y volatilization, and the net re-
transect from the Bering Sea to the Greenland Sea in July and August
sult is an output of about 196 tonnes/y. However, on a re-
1994. A fugacity ratio of 1 indicates airญwater equilibrium. A ratio dif-
gional basis, volatilization is higher in the NAAO than the
ferent than 1 indicates the potential for net deposition to, or volatiliza-
tion from the ocean.
EAO due to the substantially higher -HCH concentrations
in the surface waters of the Canada Basin and the Canadian
Archipelago (Figure 6ท22). In addition, the high percentage
6.6.4.3.1.2. The atmospheric HCH budget
of ice cover in the NAAO suppresses outgassing.
In the 1980s, mean fugacity (F) values of - and -HCHs
Inputs of -HCH by precipitation and dry particle depo-
were 0.74 and 0.28, respectively, in the Arctic Ocean, and
sition are 0.27 and 0.05 tonnes/y. Deposition and volatiliza-
0.76 and 0.55 in the Bering/Chukchi Seas. That is, the sur-
tion of vapor-phase -HCH account for 6.3 and ญ8 tonnes/y,
face water was 28-76% saturated with respect to the partial
respectively. Thus, the atmospheric budget for -HCH is
pressure of HCHs in air. At that time, air-to-water deposi-
close to steady state. For HCH ( - + -HCH) in the early
tion of gaseous HCHs was estimated to have contributed
1990s, there is net output of 202 tonnes/y. By comparison,
80% of atmospheric loadings, or 63 tonnes/y, to the Arctic
Barrie et al. (1992) estimated the net loading of - + -HCH
Ocean (Cotham and Bidleman 1991, Barrie et al. 1992).
in the 1980s at 79 tonnes/y, 80% of which was by gas-phase
The more recent (1992-1994) F values, measured in the
deposition.
Canadian Archipelago (Falconer et al. 1995a), in the Be-
Ocean currents provide 79% of the total HCH input,
ring/Chukchi Seas (Jantunen and Bidleman 1995), and on
with atmospheric deposition and rivers contributing 15%
the transpolar cruise in 1994 (Jantunen and Bidleman un-
and 6%, respectively. Although HCH inputs from Russian
publ. data 1996), were more than 1.0 at most stations (Fig-
rivers, based on recent measurements, were set ten times
ure 6ท29). Lower F values were calculated for the EAO,
higher than from North American rivers, their influence on
where HCH concentrations are lower than in the Canadian
Archipelago and Beaufort Sea. Average F values for -HCH
Bering Sea
input
for the EAO ranged from 1.0-1.8 based on water concen-
trations of 2 ng/L and on air concentrations of 58-90 pg/m3.
Atmospheric input
- gas exchange 45
This implies that waters throughout the Arctic Ocean are
- dry deposition 0.15
now oversaturated and outgassing HCHs to the atmosphere
- wet deposition 1.3
when not ice-covered.
Canadian and Alaskan
rivers
64
Volatilization
Although the uptake and release of vapor-phase HCHs
0.18
by snow and ice is expected to be significant (Hoff et al.
46.45
1995, Wania and Mackay 1995), we have not included
these mechanisms in the atmospheric budget. The specific
73
273
surface area of fresh snow is highly variable and changes by
21
Russian rivers
two orders of magnitude as the snow ages (Hoff et al. 1995).
4
This large uncertainty precludes quantitative estimates of
Ice output
these processes. Furthermore, the revolatilized compound
Output though
97
79
Archipelago
could be deposited into the water column by gas absorp-
47
54
tion. Thus, while omitting the snow scavenging pathway
underestimates deposition to the ice surface, it prevents
Output via East Greenland Current
possible double accounting for inputs. Based on recent sur-
Polar and Atlantic Waters
veys of HCHs in surface seawater (Table 6ท15, Figures
HCH
6ท22 and 6ท23), the concentrations in the Canada Basin and
Norwegian Current
Tonnes/y
Barents Sea Current
the Canadian Archipelago are about twice those in the
West Spitzbergen Current
250
Eurasian Basin and the regional seas.
100
Because HCHs are relatively volatile, even at Arctic tem-
Input
40
peratures, sorption to haze aerosols does not play a large
Loss via hydrolysis and biodegradation 61
10
Output
part in their environmental distribution, and inputs by dry
sedimentation <1
AMAP
deposition are small (Table 6ท16). Percentages sorbed to
Figure 6ท30. HCH budget for the Arctic Ocean (tonnes/y).

Chapter 6 ท Persistent Organic Pollutants
257
the overall Arctic Ocean HCH budget is small. Outflow of
tion), and gas exchange is maximized because of the ex-
HCHs occurs mainly through the Canadian Archipelago
panded area of open water.
(52%) and the East Greenland Current (16%). Volatiliza-
Net atmospheric loadings of toxaphene were estimated to
tion and ice export account for 14% and 1% of the loss, re-
be 5 tonnes/y. With an uncertainty in atmospheric concen-
spectively. The only chemical loss quantified in this exercise
trations of about a factor of 3, the estimate of net loadings is
was hydrolysis, estimated to account for 12% of the re-
also highly uncertain because the net input is primarily due
moval of total HCHs. However, the enantiomer data sug-
to gas exchange, which responds to the water/air fugacity
gest that microbial breakdown may also be an important,
ratio. Other factors, such as limitations in icecover data,
as yet unquantified, sink.
compound the uncertainty in the toxaphene loadings calcu-
It is likely that loadings of HCHs to the Arctic Ocean
lations and, at the present time, it seems fair to say that at-
from the atmosphere as well as ocean currents were greater
mospheric loadings of toxaphene can be expressed to no
in the past, and were dominated by technical HCH mix-
better than an order of magnitude.
tures that contained a high proportion of the -isomer. The
Overall, atmospheric inputs may represent 46% of total
picture that emerges from this mass balance exercise is of
inputs of toxaphene. Volatilization is also an important loss
the Arctic Ocean in steady state with -HCH and exporting
process (11%), although export via the Canadian Archipe-
-HCH. Inputs and outputs of HCHs are dominated by
lago and the Greenland Current account for most of the re-
ocean current advection, with about a 14% contribution by
moval of toxaphene from the Arctic Ocean. These export
atmospheric processes, largely air-sea gas exchange (Figure
fluxes are reasonably certain because they are based on re-
6ท30). In the future, we can expect to see a decline in the
cent measurements of toxaphene in seawater near Resolute,
large pool of -HCH in the Canada Basin due to drainage
NWT, Canada (Table 6ท15) and in the Greenland Sea. There
out through the Canadian Archipelago and to a lesser ex-
is much greater uncertainty about input fluxes via ocean cur-
tent by sea-to-air volatilization. Outgassing will also result
rents because of the absence of toxaphene data for seawater
in a slow decline of both HCH isomers in waters of the Eu-
in the West Spitsbergen, Barents Sea, and Norwegian Coast-
rasia Basin and the regional seas, assuming that atmospheric
al Currents. Sedimentation was estimated by assuming a sur-
concentrations continue their downward trend.
face sediment concentration for toxaphene of 0.1 ng/g, simi-
lar to concentrations found in some Arctic lakes (Muir and
Lockhart 1994). There appears to be no data on toxaphene
6.6.4.3.2. Toxaphene mass balance in the Arctic Ocean
in marine sediments. The small flux to sediments predicted
and regional seas
in the mass balance is consistent with the physical properties
Processes of atmospheric deposition and volatilization of
of toxaphene. Like other chlorinated aliphatics, such as HCH,
toxaphene were considered, using the framework developed
most chlorobornanes are less hydrophobic than chlorinated
for HCHs (section 6.6.4.3.1, Table 6ท15). Because almost
aromatics of similar molecular weight, such as PCBs, and
all toxaphene measurements have been made in the NAAO,
are thus probably not scavenged to the same extent by sink-
the mass balance modeling was limited by lack of data for
ing particles. Hydrolysis and biotransformation of toxaphene
the EAO.
in seawater were assumed to be negligible. Both these pro-
Since measurements of toxaphene in Arctic air and water
cesses could be important for removal of toxaphene, but val-
have been made on a `total toxaphene' basis, rather than of
ues for this OC are largely unknown in seawater.
individual chlorinated bornane components, average proper-
The quantity of loadings of toxaphene from rivers is also
ties for the toxaphene mixture must be used. The vapor pres-
largely unknown. A tentative value of 0.15 ng/L was used,
sure and Henry's Law constant of technical toxaphene mea-
based on mean concentrations of recent measurements of
sured at 20ฐC by Murphy et al. (1987) were extrapolated to
lake surface waters in NWT and Yukon, Canada (Table 6ท12).
Arctic temperatures (0ฐC for water) using equations for sub-
A toxaphene level of 0.1 ng/L was used for Eurasian rivers
cooled liquid vapor pressure versus temperature (logarithm
based on Kucklick et al. (1994) who found mean concentra-
VPL = 12.25 ญ 4487/ T) for two hepta- and octachlorobor-
tions of 0.064 ng/L in Lake Baikal surface waters which ulti-
nanes (Hinckley et al. 1991) and for Henry's Law constant
mately drain into the Arctic Ocean via the Yenisey. Overall
versus temperature (logarithm H = 11.48 ญ 3416/ T) based
riverine inputs of toxaphene are low, representing about
on the work of Tateya et al. (1988) for PCBs. These equa-
10% of all inputs, and are outranked by inputs from gas
tions were also used by Hoff et al. (1993) to estimate the
deposition and ocean currents.
atmospheric deposition of toxaphene to Lake Superior.
Although the modeling results are highly uncertain, they
As discussed in section 6.6.1.1, current estimates of toxa-
suggest that inputs and outputs of toxaphene to the Arctic
phene concentrations in Arctic air differ by about a factor
Ocean are roughly in balance. Further measurements, espe-
of 3. For mass balance purposes, airborne toxaphene con-
cially of toxaphene concentrations in EAO waters, are criti-
centrations adjusted to the NIMS scale were used (Table
cal to making more accurate budgets.
6ท6). Dry deposition was assumed to be highest during
winter haze season, when about 90% of the toxaphenes are
6.6.4.3.3. PCB mass balance in the Arctic Ocean
predicted to be associated with aerosols according to the
and regional seas
Junge-Pankow model. The contribution of precipitation is
fairly constant over the year due to particle scavenging dur-
Unlike the situation for toxaphene, there are numerous mea-
ing winter and gas scavenging during summer.
surements of PCBs in surface waters, air, and sediments.
F values for toxaphene, based on air concentrations of
However, mass balance estimates for PCBs are confounded
7.6-20 pg/m3 and water concentrations of 80 pg/L in the
by lack of measurements of seawater concentrations at key
NAAO and 40 pg/L in the EAO, range from 0.1 to 6. Low
locations and by order of magnitude differences in concen-
concentrations of toxaphene in air during winter leads to
trations in river water SPM and in seawater between North
the higher F values. Little outgassing takes place during
American/Norwegian and Russian waters. There is very lim-
winter because of the small area of open water available for
ited information on PCB congener profiles in seawater al-
exchange. During summer, the atmospheric concentrations
though substantial information is available on air concentra-
are higher, fugacity ratios are well below 1.0 (net deposi-
tions of individual congeners. Thus, a total PCB approach

258
AMAP Assessment Report
was used to conduct a preliminary mass balance. Average
6.6.4.4. Marine invertebrates
properties for tetra- and pentachlorobiphenyls, which pre-
dominate in air and seawater, were used for vapor pressure
OCs have been measured in small numbers of benthic and pel-
and Henry's Law constant (H). Extrapolations of physical
agic marine invertebrates, including crustaceans, amphipods,
property data (generally at 20-25ฐC) to Arctic temperatures
zooplankton, annelid worms, and mollusks (Annex Table
(0ฐC for water) for subcooled liquid vapor pressure versus
6ทA15). Results are available from Russia, Canada, Iceland,
temperature were made using slopes for toxaphene and for
and Greenland. There are very limited data for any one spe-
Henry's Law constant (logarithm H = 11.48 ญ 3416/ T)
cies/genera of invertebrates which makes evaluation of cir-
based on the work for PCBs by Tateya et al. (1988).
cumpolar trends difficult. Furthermore, OC values in inver-
Based on monthly PCB averages for 1993 for air at
tebrates are quite variable, depending upon the trophic posi-
Alert (NAAO) and Ny-ลlesund (EAO), and water concen-
tion of the organism and its life span. Zooplankton and pe-
trations of 10 pg/L, F values range from 0.1-4, with lowest
lagic amphipods generally have a one to two year life cycle
levels during the summer months when air concentrations
and, therefore, lower levels of OCs than more long-lived fish
are generally lower. Prevailing PCB concentrations in air are
and benthic amphipod species. An exceptional example of
well documented (although not collected simultaneously
the influence of trophic position on levels of OCs in inverte-
nor at the same location as water sampling), thus, uncer-
brates are the high concentrations of PCB and toxaphene
tainty in the direction of flux is related to water concentra-
found in the large benthic lysianassid amphipod, Eurythenes
tions. Much higher F values would result if PCB results
gryllus, in the Canadian Arctic, which may scavenge marine
from the Russian seas were used (Annex Table 6ทA10).
mammal tissues. Food chain biomagnification of OCs in the
However, these values are difficult to reconcile with much
marine food web is discussed further in section 6.6.4.10.
lower results given in Chernyak et al. (1995) for the Barents
For most invertebrates analyzed, the dominant OCs found
Sea (38 pg/L), Hargrave et al. (1988) at the Canadian Ice Is-
were PCBs, followed by DDT and HCH. HCB and CHL
land (7 pg/L), or Iwata et al. (1993) in the Chukchi Sea
were also present in all samples analyzed. With the excep-
(6.6-9.3 pg/L). Therefore, we used 10 pg/L as an ocean-
tion of Eurythenes, concentrations of major OCs were rela-
wide average and 25 pg/L for inflowing waters of the EAO
tively low (e.g., PCBs are generally less than 10 ng/g ww)
(Table 6ท16). Overall atmospheric deposition of PCBs via
and were similar within a species group. Where toxaphene
dryfall, gas exchange, and precipitation was estimated to
has been measured, mainly in samples from the Canadian
equal volatilization. Outgassing of PCBs would be expected
Arctic and the Bering Sea (Rice et al. 1992), it has often
to be especially important in the Russian seas, assuming rel-
been present at similar concentrations as PCB. Various
atively high concentrations there.
data are given in Annex Table 6ทA15, and more detailed
The importance of riverine inputs and sedimentation of
studies are described in section 6.6.4.10.
PCBs differs from HCH and toxaphene. Using average con-
The blue mussel, Mytilus edulis, was included in the AMAP
centrations of 5 ng/L PCBs in Eurasian rivers (derived from
monitoring program because of its widespread distribution
concentrations on river SPM, Annex Table 6ทA7), fluxes of
in Arctic waters. Levels of OCs in blue mussel are available
15 tonnes/y are estimated. This represents 24% of all inputs
from several locations in Russia, Iceland, Canada, and Green-
estimated for PCBs. Although the 5 ng/L concentration is
land (Annex Table 6ทA15). Since lipid amounts were fairly
highly uncertain, levels one-tenth as large (that is, equiva-
similar, the results can be compared on a wet weight basis.
lent to North American rivers) would still give rise to sig-
The dominant OCs in all blue mussel samples were PCBs
nificant inputs. Thus, knowledge of riverine inputs from
(sum of ten congeners), followed by HCH, DDT, CHL,
Eurasian sources is critical for accurate estimates of load-
and chlorobenzenes. Values of HCB, DDT, and PCB were
ings to the Arctic Ocean. By comparison, ocean current in-
similar for Iceland and Greenland. In Greenland, values of
puts are less significant because of low surface water con-
DDT and PCB were higher at Uummannaq than at Na-
centrations.
nortalik, which in turn were higher than at Disko. PCB
Removal by sinking particles is much more significant
(sum of seven congeners), DDT, and total chlorobenzenes
for PCBs than it is for HCH and toxaphene because of their
were higher in the two samples from the Ob and Baydarat-
much greater hydrophobicity, and this gives rise to the low
skaya Gulfs (southern Kara Sea) than in samples from Ice-
seawater concentrations observed by Hargrave et al. (1988)
land or Greenland. Slightly elevated PCBs and DDT were
and Iwata et al. (1993). Sedimentation and burial of PCBs
observed in surface sediments from this region, especially
is not predicted to be a major removal process compared to
the Ob Gulf (Annex Table 6ทA14). Levels in blue mussels
outflows via ocean currents, because of low overall sedi-
from the Ob and Baydaratskaya Gulfs were similar to those
mentation rates, however, it is much greater than in the case
in blue mussels from Cambridge Bay, Canada, where levels
of HCH and toxaphene. Sedimentation may be particularly
are believed to be affected by the community garbage dump.
significant in the EAO which has large shelf areas that could,
The Russian samples had similar levels of HCH and CHL
at least temporarily, sequester particle-bound PCBs. Sedi-
to the Greenland samples, but higher levels of HCB and
ment concentrations are generally higher in the EAO than
DDT than all other samples.
in the NAAO, although measurements in the latter region
OCs were determined in zooplankton (larger than 150
are limited. For budget purposes, average concentrations of
m) at 12 locations in the central Arctic Ocean during the
0.5 ng/g dw were used for EAO sediments and 0.25 ng/g
Russia/Canada transpolar cruise in 1994. PCBs and toxa-
dw for the NAAO.
phene were the prominent OCs, with concentrations in the
There is greater certainty in some of the budget results
range of 35-67 ng/g ww and 15-31 ng/g ww, respectively
for PCBs than for toxaphene, but overall, the estimates are
(Figure 6ท31). Higher PCB levels were observed in samples
highly uncertain. The results suggest that the Arctic Ocean
from the highest latitudes, that is, at stations 24-26 in the
is not in steady state or in export mode with respect to PCBs.
Canada/Eurasian Basins, while toxaphene concentrations
Inputs exceed outputs by a factor of 1.5. Further measure-
showed less of a spatial trend. The results for toxaphene in
ments, especially of seawater concentrations, as well as con-
zooplankton did not follow the trend in seawater, which
firmation of high PCBs in Russian seas and rivers, are criti-
showed higher levels in samples near the pole (Figure 6ท24).
cal to more accurate budgets for PCB.
Zooplankton from four sampling locations in the Bering Sea

Chapter 6 ท Persistent Organic Pollutants
259
have been determined in all samples, along with HCB, major
54
HCH, chlordane and DDT-related compounds. Toxaphene
39
35
31
has been determined in only a limited number of fish, mainly
28
22
from Canada and Greenland. Various numbers of congeners,
44
44
from seven to about 90, have been used to calculate PCB
41
29
29
levels in fish. However, almost all studies have determined
8
23
STN08STN14 STN10
10
the congeners recommended by ICES (CB 28/31, 52, 101,
14
105, 118, 138, 153, 156, 170, and 180) which account for
67
59
19
40-60% of total PCB congeners in Arctic char and Green-
56
20 22
24
STN19STN20 STN22
land halibut (Muir unpubl. data 1996). PCB results in An-
25
26
31
nex Table 6ทA17 are presented only as PCB, as received
26
24
35
24
from the authors of various studies, because it was not pos-
36
47 45
sible in all cases to correct for possible differences due to
37
congener numbers. Readers should be aware that PCB re-
26
STN24STN25 STN26
22
sults can, therefore, differ by a factor of 1.5-2.0, and this
15
ng/g ww
has been noted where relevant to the assessment.
80
PCB
OCs have been measured in the above-mentioned species
Toxaphene
STN31STN35 STN36
in either liver and/or muscle or in whole fish. Species in the
60
Gadidae family, such as Atlantic and Arctic cod, have high
40
lipid content in the liver (ca. 50%) and lean muscle tissue
(< 1% lipid). Species in the Pleuronectidae family, such as
20
Greenland halibut and log rough dab, have more variable
0
lipid distribution in liver and muscle, with less pronounced
Figure 6ท31. PCB and toxaphene (ng/g ww) in zooplankton from the
differences in lipid content between these tissues. These dif-
transpolar cruise of the Arctic Ocean, July-September 1994.
ferences must be taken into account when comparing OC
levels among species, both within and among different areas
(summer 1988 BERPAC cruise) had lower concentrations
of the Arctic. As with many other fauna, lipid-normalized
of most OCs than those from the 1994 transpolar cruise
data are most informative.
when compared on a wet weight basis (Rice et al. 1992,
The tendency for older individuals to have higher levels
Annex Table 6ทA15). However, adjusting for the low lipid
of OCs than young of the same species is also true for ma-
content (1.3%) in the Bering Sea samples, levels of all OC
rine fish. Age and size information on individual fish is not
groups were found to be higher than in the transpolar
always reported, but these parameters are included in Annex
cruise samples.
Table 6ทA17 when available. In the Barents and Norwegian
Seas, cod of 2-11 years and redfish of 7-26 years are repre-
sented in the samples (Stange and Klungs๘yr 1997, Stange
6.6.4.4.1. Tributyltin
et al. 1996). Cod older than 4-5 years are seldom encoun-
TBT has been detected in snails from the Norwegian and
tered. Ideally, fish of the same species in different areas
Alaskan coasts including some collected from remote re-
should be of similar age and size when sampled or compared.
gions. Imposex has been documented in snails in harbors of
northern Norway (Nucella lapillus), Spitsbergen and Sval-
6.6.4.5.1. OC levels in anadromous fish
bard (Buccinum undatum), Iceland (Nucella lapillus), and
Alaska (Nucella lima), although not always accompanied
Many stocks of anadromous fish species, including white-
by detectable TBT concentrations (Short et al. 1989, Har-
fish, Arctic char, and trout in both North America and Eu-
ding et al. 1992, Brick and Bolte 1994, Berge 1995, Skarp-
rasia, feed in the sea in summer after reaching a certain size,
h้dinsd๓ttir et al. 1996).
and then return to rivers and lakes in winter to avoid low
seawater temperatures. While at sea, these species feed in
nearshore habitats. They feed mainly on crustaceans and
6.6.4.5. Marine and anadromous fish
small fish species available in that habitat, for example, Arc-
A review of the information available up to 1990 on levels
tic cod or Pacific herring (Clupea harengus). In the most ex-
of POPs in marine fish from the Arctic found that few ma-
treme conditions, for example, in the Canadian High Arctic,
rine or anadromous species, other than Arctic char, had
these species may feed sparsely or not at all during the win-
been analyzed for OCs (Muir et al. 1992b). A far larger
ter, and even lose weight. Female Arctic char may not mi-
data set is now available on OCs for Arctic marine and
grate to sea in a year during which they will spawn. The large
anadromous fish. Four species of marine fish and two ana-
age-at-size variability common to both landlocked and ana-
dromous species were included in the AMAP monitoring
dromous char is discussed in section 6.6.3.3.1.
program for the marine environment: Arctic cod (polar cod,
Levels of major OC groups in both landlocked (Annex
Boreogadus saida), Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua), sculpin
Table 6ทA9) and anadromous char (Annex Table 6ทA17), are
(Myoxocephalus spp.), long rough dab (Hippoglossoides
compared on a circumpolar basis in Figure 6ท16. As previ-
platessoides), Arctic char, and whitefish/cisco (Coregonus
ously noted for landlocked char, toxaphene is the major OC
spp.). Numerous other locally important marine species
contaminant in anadromous char at three of four locations
have also been sampled, including redfish (Sebastes mari-
in Greenland and at many Canadian sampling sites. Anadro-
nus, S. mentella), Greenland halibut (Reinhardtius hippo-
mous char from the Kola Peninsula also had higher toxa-
glossoides), Atlantic herring (Clupea harengus), navaga
phene levels than PCB or other OC pesticides. PCB was
(Eleginus navaga), tusk (Brosme brosme), capelin (Malotus
present at levels 1.2 to three times lower than toxaphene at
villosus), and Greenland cod (Gadus ogac).
most locations. DDT and CHL levels were generally 1.5
This newer data generally meets the quality assurance
to three times lower than those of PCB. Levels of DDT
criteria set by AMAP. Congener-specific results for PCBs
and PCB show no clear spatial trends in anadromous char

260
AMAP Assessment Report
because there are large variations in mean levels within re-
gions (Figure 6ท16). For example, mean PCB levels in char
from two lakes on Svalbard, Diesetvannet and Rickard-
vannet, differ by nine times (Skotvold 1996). This difference
cannot be explained by fish maturity, because char from
799
both lakes were in non-spawning condition, nor by lipid
699
levels. However, char from Rickardvannet were older (13
221
years) compared to those from Diesetvannet (9 years) and
214
there may be differences in trophic position of the char de-
pending on the food chains in each lake.
8589
Results for OC contaminants in anadromous char from
Russian rivers are very limited and lipid content is not avail-
able (Annex Table 6ทA17). Single samples of char from the
9422
Khatanga and Ob Rivers had PCB levels of 7.6-8.4 ng/g
200
42 253
76
132
ww (sum of seven congeners), which are lower than those
125
57
10977
8677
found for the Kola Peninsula and Rickardvannet on Sval-
102
127
bard. The levels in the Ob and Khatanga River char were
5026
within the range of mean PCB (wet weight) levels found in
all anadromous char of 2.5-54 ng/g.
ng/g lw
Levels of OC contaminants in whitefish (Coregonus spp.)
800
PCB
muscle are generally lower than in char (means and single
DDT
samples ranging from 0.82-27 ng/g ww). Coregonus spp.
400
are generally first-order carnivores, feeding on phytoplank-
ton and zooplankton at early life stages, then progressing to
0
pelagic and benthic invertebrates in later life stages. In broad
Figure 6ท32. PCB and DDT (ng/g lw) in Arctic cod liver, 1994-95. Data
whitefish from Canadian rivers, toxaphene was the major
are from Annex Table 6ทA17.
OC, however, in three samples from the Ob River in Rus-
sia, PCBs predominated (Annex Table 6ทA17). The PCB lev-
Movements of individual Arctic cod have not been mon-
els in broad whitefish from the Ob (Muir and Lockhart
itored, however, it is believed that they move depending on
1994) were similar to levels found in the survey by the
feeding opportunities. In the autumn, Arctic cod tend to
`Regional Center Monitoring of the Arctic' (Melnikov et al.
move to coastal areas, this behavior believed to be a temper-
1995). The latter study found highest levels of PCBs in cis-
ature response to spawning. Arctic cod show extensive mi-
co (C. autumnalis) in the Ob River (25 ng/g ww). A single
gration patterns in the Soviet Arctic, believed to be in re-
sample of inconnu (C. leucichthys), a second-order carnivo-
sponse to feeding and spawning behavior. They have been
rous fish, from the Yenisey River had higher DDT and
reported from along the coast to ranging well out to sea,
PCB levels than all other samples of Coregonus species
and from the surface, where they can occur in pockets in
surveyed. However, sample numbers from this survey are
sea ice, to as deep as 450 m (Lowry and Frost 1981) and
too small to make general conclusions about spatial varia-
900 m (Walters 1955).
tions of OC levels in anadromous fish from Russian waters.
Lipid weight PCB and DDT concentrations in Arctic
Koistinen et al. (1993) detected low levels of 26 poly-
cod liver are compared in Figure 6ท32. Results for samples
chlorinated diphenyl ether (PCDE) congeners in salmon
from the Barents/Norwegian Seas are based on liver sam-
from the Tenojoki River in northern Finland. Concentra-
ples, while those from the central Arctic Ocean and Canada
tions of individual PCDE congeners ranged from 0.01 to
Archipelago are whole fish. Based on results of Killie and
0.047 ng/g ww with PCDE 99 (2,2',4,4',5-PeCDE) predom-
Dahle (1996a), who analyzed both muscle and liver of Arc-
inating. About ten-fold higher levels of PCDEs were found
tic cod (Annex Table 6ทA17), lipid normalized concentra-
in salmon from the Simojoki River in southern Finland.
tions in the two tissues are similar. Highest concentrations
of PCB were found in fish from the central Arctic Ocean
(Muir and Macdonald unpubl. data) and those from the
6.6.4.5.2. OC levels in marine fish
southern Novaya Zemlya area compared to Arctic cod from
In general, the major OCs found in marine fish were toxa-
the Greenland Sea. Killie and Dahle (1996a) found PCB
phene (measured only in Greenland halibut and Arctic cod)
(sum of ten congeners) in cod liver from the Pechora Sea
followed by PCB, DDT, CHL, HCH, chlorobenzenes,
ranged from 59 to 110 ng/g ww.
and dieldrin. The geographic coverage of OC measurements
Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) inhabit cool-temperate to
for any one marine species is limited. Perhaps the best spa-
subarctic waters from offshore regions to the edge of the
tial coverage is found for Arctic cod (Boreogadus saida) be-
continental shelf (Scott and Scott 1988). It is found in most
cause samples from the Canadian Arctic, the mid-Arctic
coastal areas in the North Atlantic Ocean and in the Baltic
Ocean, the Barents Sea, and the Pechora Sea have been
Sea. Commercially, it is one of the most important fish spe-
analyzed.
cies in the Atlantic, however, it is not always considered to
Arctic cod stay within the cold water masses of the Arc-
be an Arctic species. Due to its wide distribution, Atlantic
tic region and have a circumpolar distribution. Arctic cod
cod is a species given priority in many national and interna-
feed on plankton along the ice edge. Young fish feed on
tional marine monitoring programs within the OSPARCOM
phytoplankton, while the diet of older fish consists of cope-
and HELCOM areas.
pods and amphipods (Sameoto 1984). It is a key species in
Atlantic cod is an opportunistic feeder, and the diet will
many Arctic food webs, consumed by fish, including char
vary considerably from year-to-year based on availability of
(Moore and Moore 1974) and plaice; birds such as murres,
prey species. As fry, they feed on copepods, amphipods, and
guillemots, and kittiwakes; harp and ringed seals; and whales
crustaceans, including crabs, and as adults, on redfish, cape-
(narwhal and beluga) (Bradstreet and Cross 1982).
lin, and herring.

Chapter 6 ท Persistent Organic Pollutants
261
There are several different stocks of Atlantic cod within
ng/g ww, respectively; Muir and Lockhart 1996). These lev-
the Northeast Atlantic. The two main European stocks mi-
els are three to five times higher than wet weight levels in
grate annually from southern locations in summer to north-
sea-run char muscle and 15-20 times higher than Arctic cod
ern areas in winter. Cod that spawn around Greenland are
(whole fish). However, PCB levels in Greenland halibut
part of the Iceland-Greenland migration. The Arcto-Nor-
liver from the Norwegian and Barents Sea were lower, 24
wegian stock in the Barents Sea migrates down the Norwe-
and 18 ng/g ww, respectively (sum of 13 congeners; K. Stan-
gian coast for spawning (Harden-Jones 1968). The Cana-
ge unpubl. data). Toxaphene was the major OC found in
dian stocks also migrate annually. One tagged fish was re-
Greenland halibut muscle and liver. Mirex was detectable in
corded to move from the Grand Banks, off Newfoundland,
halibut tissues, at mean concentrations of 1 ng/g in muscle
to the North Sea, a distance of 3228 km (Gulland and Wil-
and 2.8 ng/g in liver (Muir and Lockhart 1996). Higher
liamson 1962). The stock of Labrador cod move north and
HCH levels were found in Greenland halibut from the
south along the coast of Labrador.
Beaufort Sea and Cumberland Sound (Baffin Island) than in
In the Barents Sea, OC concentrations in Atlantic cod
halibut from the eastern Davis Strait (Annex Table 6ทA17).
liver (expressed as wet weight) were two to ten times higher
Stange and Klungs๘yr (1997) found PCB concentrations
than in Arctic cod and long rough dab (Stange and Klungs-
in long rough dab (American plaice, Hippoglossoides plate-
๘yr 1997). Atlantic cod feed on a variety of prey, including
soides) from the Barents and Greenland Seas ranging (means)
other fish species, and have a higher trophic status than
from 15 to 57 ng/g ww. Levels in long rough dab were simi-
plankton-eating Arctic cod and benthic-feeding long rough
lar to those reported from Iceland by J๓hannesson et al.
dab. The levels of OCs in Atlantic cod liver from the Ba-
(1995). Dab can be found on both sides of the northern
rents Sea ( PCB 94-685 ng/g ww, DDT 67-344 ng/g ww)
North Atlantic. It is the most abundant flatfish in the Ba-
were lower than the levels found in cod from Haltenbanken
rents Sea (Albert et al. 1994). Long rough dab live near the
in the Norwegian Sea ( PCB 232-519 ng/g ww; DDT
bottom and prey mainly upon various benthic organisms
129-452 ng/g ww; Stange et al. 1996) and cod from the
such as Ophiuroidea and Polychaeta (Pแlsson 1981). Small
northern parts of the North Sea ( PCB 506 ng/g ww,
long rough dab also feed on planktonic prey groups.
DDT 350 ng/g ww; de Boer 1988). The lowest OC con-
PCB levels in liver of redfish (Sebastes spp.) from the
centrations ( PCB and DDT < 100 ng/g) were found in
Greenland Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean ranged from
livers of cod from different stocks in Icelandic and Faeroese
13 to 203 ng/g ww, and DDT levels from 13-177 ng/g ww
waters (J๓hannesson et al. 1995, Stange et al. 1996).
(Stange et al. 1996). Similar concentrations were found in
Toxaphene was a prominent OC in Atlantic cod liver
redfish liver from West Greenland ( PCB, 127 ng/g ww;
from Tanafjord, northern Norway, and was present at levels
DDT, 77 ng/g ww) (Berg et al. 1996). Redfish are found at
similar to those found in the same species from the Baltic
depths down to 500 m in the North Atlantic and the Barents
Sea collected in the late 1980s (Paasivirta and Rantio 1991).
Sea. They are thought to feed on planktonic crustaceans and
Few other measurements of toxaphene are available for At-
small fish (Pedersen and Riget 1992).
lantic cod (liver) from Arctic waters.
Berg et al. (1996) studied OC levels in livers of eight dif-
OCs have been measured in liver of sculpins (Myoxoce-
ferent deep-sea fish species from the Davis Strait. The high-
phalus sp.) in the Canadian Archipelago and at four loca-
est levels of PCBs were found in blue hake (Antimora ros-
tions in Greenland waters (Annex Table 6ทA17). These
trata, 615 ng/g ww) and tusk (Brosme brosme, 522 ng/g
species are bottom feeders, preying on benthic fauna such
ww). Lowest levels were found in jelly wolffish (Anarhichas
as bivalves, sea urchins, polychaetes, and amphipods. Scul-
denticulatus, 38 ng/g) and Greenland halibut (119 ng/g ww).
pins are, therefore, good potential indicators of sediment
OC levels in liver of these deep-sea Arctic species were simi-
contamination. In Cambridge Bay (Victoria Island, Can-
lar to or slightly higher than concentrations in Atlantic cod
ada), where PCB contamination of sediments has been iden-
caught at the same depth in the northwest Atlantic (off New-
tified, sculpins had higher levels of PCB than those from
foundland/Labrador) (Hellou et al. 1993). Berg et al. (1996)
reference areas (Bright et al. 1995c). Cleeman et al. (1996c)
did not observe any clear relationship between food prefer-
found higher PCB concentrations in sculpin from East
ence or feeding depth and OC levels in deep-sea species. They
Greenland (Scoresbysund) than locations on the western
noted that some differences between species may be related
side of Greenland or in the Canadian Archipelago. The rea-
to lipid distribution. Greenland halibut and jelly wolffish
son for these differences is unknown and could not be ex-
have significant lipid storage in muscle, whereas liver is the
plained by lipid content.
major organ for other species, for example, gadiformes, blue
Greenland halibut (Reinhardtius hippoglossoides) is a
hake, tusk, and roughhead grenadier. The deep sea preda-
bottom-feeding predatory fish with high lipid content in the
tory fish were distinguished from shallow depth pelagic feed-
muscle tissue and in the liver ( 15%). The species has a cir-
ers, such as Arctic cod, by lower levels of more water solu-
cumpolar distribution and is found on the east and west
ble OCs, such as HCH, and higher proportions of highly
coasts of Greenland (Muus et al. 1982). It is common at
chlorinated PCB congeners. This reflects the fact that more
depths of 200-1000 m. Tagging studies of Greenland hali-
highly chlorinated PCBs are preferentially sorbed to sink-
but have shown that at least some individuals migrate over
ing particles, whereas HCH is mainly in the dissolved phase
1000 km (Sigurdsson 1981, Bowering 1984). Bowering and
with much lower dissolved concentrations at depth.
Brodie (1991) suggest that Greenland halibut from off the
coast of Labrador and eastern Newfoundland migrate to
6.6.4.5.3. PCDD/Fs and planar PCBs in fish
deep-water spawning areas, then after spawning move back
and invertebrates
to summer feeding areas (Chumakov 1969, Sigurdsson 1981).
Relatively high levels of OCs were found in Greenland
Information on levels of PCDD/Fs and non-ortho-substi-
halibut liver from the eastern Canadian Arctic ( PCB = 136
tuted PCBs (nPCBs) in anadromous and marine fish is very
ng/g ww) and West Greenland ( PCB = 119 ng/g ww) (Berg
limited. Arctic char from the Canadian Arctic were found to
et al. 1996). PCB levels in Greenland halibut muscle from
have low pg/g ww concentrations of nPCBs and PCDD/Fs
the Beaufort Sea were very similar to those from western
(Annex Table 6ทA19, Ford et al. 1993). CB 77 was the major
Davis Strait (Cumberland Sound) (means of 202 and 165
non-ortho-substituted congener in char (means of 6.9-63

262
AMAP Assessment Report
pg/g ww). TCDD TEQs in char muscle were attributable
sue. PCB was the dominant OC contaminant in egg sam-
mainly to PCDD/Fs when these and nPCBs were deter-
ples followed by DDT, except for king eider, which had
mined in the same samples.
higher CHL levels. HCB, CHL, HCH, and dieldrin were
Bright et al. (1995c) detected nPCBs (CB 77 and 126) in
also present. Where congener-specific PCB analyses were
sea urchins and sculpin from Cambridge Bay (Victoria Is-
done, the dominating CBs in samples were those with six
land), but levels in mussels and soft shell clams were below
chlorines. No data on levels of toxaphene, PCDD/Fs, or nPCB
detection limits (< 10 pg/g ww). Arctic cod from Lancaster
congener levels were available.
Sound in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago had low concen-
Lipid weight levels of PCB in eggs from various species,
trations of nPCBs, mainly CB 77 (5 pg/g ww). Schlabach and
based on two studies (B. Braune unpubl. data, Barrett et al.
Skotvold (1996a, 1996b) found low pg/g levels of PCDD/Fs
1996) are shown in Figure 6ท33. In general, spatial trends in
in samples of the filter-feeding mussel (Modiolus modiolus)
levels of PCB were correlated with trends in other OCs.
in the vicinity of a smelter near Kirkenes in northern Nor-
Glaucous gull, herring gull, black-legged kittiwake, cormo-
way. TCDD TEQ concentrations in mussels ranged from
rant, and puffin had the highest lipid weight OC levels. DDE
0.61 pg/g ww near the smelter (Jakobsnes) to 0.2 pg/g at
concentrations were highest in glaucous gulls from the Cana-
the reference site (Heikenesset). Atlantic cod caught at Prest-
dian High Arctic (1580 ng/g ww), herring gull from West
๘yskjๆr, located 1.5-2.3 km northeast of the source of emis-
Finnmark, Lofoten, and Troms๘ (440, 530, and 1000 ng/g
sions, and at a reference area close to Russeviknesset, ap-
ww, respectively), and Br�nnich's guillemot from Svalbard
proximately 12.7 km north of the smelter works, also had
(Figure 6ท33). Both gull species examined are fish-eating op-
low TCDD TEQs in muscle (0.02-0.04 pg/g ww).
portunistic species. The northern fulmar and black-legged
kittiwake are both offshore surface feeders, but the fulmar is
also a scavenger that includes carrion in its diet. Shag (Pha-
6.6.4.6. Seabirds
lacrororax aristotelis), a piscivorous species, also had rela-
There are approximately 50 species of seabirds in Arctic
tively high OC levels. Lowest lipid weight levels of most
marine waters, feeding primarily on fish, crustaceans, am-
OCs were found in common eider (Somateria mollissima)
phipods, and other marine invertebrates (chapter 4). Auks,
and king eider (Somateria spectabilis). These species are
guillemots, razorbills, loons, and mergansers of the family
molluscivores.
Alcidae are the characteristic fish-eating birds of the Arctic.
Differences in levels of OCs in different species related to
Alcids usually breed on cliffs and islands, but feed at sea.
feeding were evident in data from Prince Leopold Island in
Skuas and jaegers winter at sea, but feed almost entirely on-
the Canadian High Arctic (B. Braune pers. comm., Annex
shore on insects and small mammals during the breeding
Table 6ทA16). Analyses of variance on residue levels found
season. Loons (divers) and several species of ducks switch
in eggs of black guillemot (Cepphus grylle), glaucous gull,
from marine foraging in winter to feeding and breeding on
black-legged kittiwake, northern fulmar, and thick-billed
the tundra wetland in summer. Also, three species of petrel
murre from Prince Leopold Island, indicated that the five
nest on land and feed on zooplankton at sea. Many prey
species of seabird had significantly different levels of HCB,
species are often first- or second-level carnivores, therefore
CHL, DDE, and PCB (p < 0.001). OC residue levels were
the possibility for biomagnification of contaminants exists.
four to ten times higher in glaucous gulls than in the other
Some gull species are opportunistic surface feeders as
species. Similarly, in the Barents Sea, gulls had the highest
well, with diets including carrion, bird eggs and chicks, and
OC levels, and levels in common eider were the lowest, while
also garbage. Some individuals of glaucous gulls (Larus hy-
kittiwakes had intermediate levels.
perboreus) and herring gulls (Larus argentatus) feed on sea-
Levels of persistent OCs in seabird eggs are particularly
bird nestlings and adults.
low in the western Canadian Low Arctic (western NWT).
Surveys of OC levels in eggs and tissues of Arctic seabirds
Analyses of variance of OC levels in eggs of thick-billed mu-
conducted in the mid-1970s showed that seabirds breeding
rres collected from two High Arctic colonies (Prince Leopold
in the High Arctic were contaminated with a similar suite
Island, Coburg Island) and two eastern Canadian Low Arc-
of organic contaminants as those breeding in temperate re-
tic colonies (Coats Island, Digges Island) showed that there
gions (Noble and Elliott 1986). Since that time, Arctic sea-
were significantly different levels among colonies for HCB
bird species have been monitored for contaminants, with
and PCB at the two locations (p < 0.001 and p = 0.05, re-
various species having been selected to represent different
spectively) (B. Braune pers. comm.). The eggs from Digges
geographic areas, trophic levels, feeding strategies, and
Island contained higher residue levels of OCs than the eggs
overwintering habits. Data on contaminant levels in eggs
from the High Arctic sites. This may be partly due to differ-
sampled from Canada and northern Eurasia were available
ences in the overwintering habitats. Similar patterns existed
for several species, thus, comparison of levels on a geo-
for black guillemots. All of the species except for the black
graphic basis is possible. Samples were also analyzed from
guillemot disperse widely after breeding. Large numbers of
chicks and from various tissues in adults (liver, brain, fat,
the northern fulmar, thick-billed murre, and glaucous gulls
muscle) in a number of species, mainly in samples from
from the eastern Arctic overwinter in the northwest Atlantic.
Norway and Russia. Levels of OCs in Arctic seabirds from
The black guillemot is relatively sedentary, overwintering at
several studies are given in Annex Table 6ทA16.
the edge of the winter pack ice (Godfrey 1986). This same
In a recent Canadian study, lipid weight levels of OCs in
trend of higher OC levels in eastern Canada is also evident
chicks were lower than levels in eggs from the same species
in the waterfowl (section 6.6.2.2.2).
at the same site for common guillemot, black-legged kitti-
In the Barents Sea, levels of persistent OCs in seabird tis-
wake (Rissa tridactyla), glaucous gull, and northern fulmar
sues differed in the four areas examined, namely Franz Josef
(Fulmaris glacialis) (Braune unpubl. data, Annex Table 6ทA16).
Land, Ny-ลlesund, Bj๘rn๘ya (Bear Island), and Horn๘ya, al-
OC levels were similar in chicks and eggs of thick-billed
though these could not be shown to be significantly different
murre (Br�nnich's guillemot, Uria lomvia) from the same
statistically (Savinova et al. 1995b). Hepatic PCB levels, ex-
sites. Where several tissue types were analyzed in adult birds
pressed as wet weight values, in juvenile common eider from
(mainly from Norway and Russia) lipid weight levels of OCs
Franz Josef Land were 25% of levels from Ny-ลlesund. On
were highest in liver and fat tissues and lowest in brain tis-
a lipid weight basis, the levels at Franz Josef Land were 4-

Chapter 6 ท Persistent Organic Pollutants
263
PCB ตg/g lw
100
10
5
1
PCB ตg/g lw
PCB ตg/g lw
PCB ตg/g lw
0
PCB ตg/g lw
100
100
100
100
Western Low Arctic
27
18
16
16
12
12
10
10
10
7
10
4
5
6
5
4
3
3
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
Svalbard
West Finnmark
East Finnmark
High Arctic
PCB ตg/g lw
100
10
8
8

1
PCB ตg/g lw
100
0
10
Kola Peninsula
4
PCB ตg/g lw
3
100
1
PCB ตg/g lw
29
100
10
10
10
5
0
15
19
10
Eastern Low Arctic
6
1
4
1
0
South Troms / North Nordland
0
Lofoten
Common eider
Glaucous gull
Northern fulmar
Shag
Puffin
Herring gull
Black-Iegged kittiwake
King eider
Common guillemot
Black guillemot
Thick-billed murre
Figure 6ท33. Levels of PCBs in seabird eggs (ตg/g lw) (Braune unpubl. data, Barrett et al. 1996). Values above bars are actual mean concentrations. Wet
weight means are given in Annex Table 6ทA16.
5% of those on Svalbard, which is an even larger differ-
are about seven times higher than in common eider. Also,
ence. Since these juveniles had not yet migrated, these dif-
mean hepatic levels of OCs in kittiwakes increased from Ny-
ferences reflect primarily local contamination. Wet weight
ลlesund to Bj๘rn๘ya. Glaucous gulls from Bj๘rn๘ya had sig-
hepatic OC levels in adult common eider from Ny-ลlesund
nificantly higher levels than those from Ny-ลlesund on a wet
were approximately two times higher than the correspond-
weight basis. On a lipid weight basis, the levels were higher
ing levels in juveniles from the same area. On a lipid weight
in the samples from Ny-ลlesund.
basis, the juveniles had higher PCB levels (2500 versus 1600
Barrett et al. (1985) had previously concluded that there
ng/g lw). Mean hepatic levels of OCs found in adult kitti-
were few differences in OC levels in seabirds on the Norwe-
wake, the most common species in all three areas, were ap-
gian mainland, the Kola Peninsula, and Svalbard. This may
proximately five times as high as levels in common eider.
be due to similar overwintering areas and similar environ-
On a lipid weight basis the levels were 7-34 times higher.
mental contamination throughout the Barents Sea.
The comparison should probably only be made for Ny-ลle-
Lipid weight levels of most OCs in black-legged kittiwake
sund, as this is the only site where data for adults of both
eggs from Svalbard are higher than in eggs from the Cana-
species are available, in which case the levels in kittiwake
dian High Arctic (Figure 6ท33). DDT and PCB levels in

264
AMAP Assessment Report
thick-billed murre eggs are higher in samples from Sval-
ng/g lw
ng/g lw
bard, Horn๘ya, and the Kola Peninsula when compared to
420
DDE
1 800
PCB
samples from the High Arctic and eastern Low Arctic of
350
1 500
Canada. However, HCH levels are higher in the Canadian
thick-billed murre eggs than in the Norwegian site and HCB
280
1 200
and chlordane levels are similar at the Norwegian and Can-
210
900
adian sites. For glaucous gull, wet weight hepatic levels of
140
600
PCB and DDT, in particular, seem to be high in the one
sample from the Taimyr Peninsula, Russia, when compared
70
300
to samples from Svalbard and Bj๘rn๘ya. PCB levels, as
0
0
well as other OCs, are also higher in a liver sample from
Western Hudson
Low
High
Western Hudson
Low
High
Arctic
Bay
Arctic
Arctic
Arctic
Bay
Arctic
Arctic
herring gull from the Taimyr Peninsula, when compared to
liver samples from the same species from eastern Taimyr
ng/g lw
ng/g lw
and the Yamal Peninsula. The lipid content of these samples
360
Chlordanes
360
HCB
was not available, thus, it is not possible to determine whe-
300
ther these higher levels were simply due to higher lipid con-
300
tents. However, the picture that emerges from the results of
240
240
OC analyses in Arctic seabirds is that the Barents Sea may
180
180
be more contaminated with DDT and PCB than the Can-
adian High Arctic.
120
120
Surveys in 1994-1995 by Roshydromet (Melnikov et al.
60
60
1995, Melnikov et al. 1996a) have provided the only data
0
0
available on OC contaminants in seabirds/shorebirds in the
Western Hudson
Low
High
Western Hudson
Low
High
Kara and Laptev Sea region (Annex Table 6ทA16). However,
Arctic
Bay
Arctic
Arctic
Arctic
Bay
Arctic
Arctic
sample numbers are small and could be unrepresentative of
populations as a whole. Some samples have occasional high
DDT and PCB levels compared to other Arctic regions.
In Steller's eider (Polysticta stelleri), the liver levels of most
OCs are not different from common eider liver except for
DDT and PCB, which are higher. The same seems to be
true of the king eider sample for PCB. The northern ful-
mar and thick-billed murre from the Laptev Sea have rela-
tively high PCB levels. OC levels in both gull species were
similar to the range of mean concentrations found in gulls
from Canada and Norway (Annex Table 6ทA16).
Gabrielsen et al. (1995) obtained data on glaucous gull
from Svalbard, from seabirds that were found dead of un-
known causes. The wet weight concentrations of various
Figure 6ท34. Migration patterns of four main stocks of eider ducks in the
OCs are not notably different from those observed for live-
Canadian Arctic. Organochlorines in the same four stocks. Values in the
sampled tissues. However, these animals were emaciated
western Arctic are based on 11 birds in 2 pools; in Hudson Bay, 28 birds
in seven pools; in the High Arctic, 18 birds in three pools; and in the Low
and stressed before death, with lipid levels in all tissues ex-
Arctic, 55 birds in eight pools (Braune unpubl. data).
cept brain much lower than those observed in whole eggs
or chicks in Canadian samples. Thus, the lipid-normalized
seabirds have higher lipid weight OC levels than those found
concentrations are high. The authors believe that PCBs can-
in the Arctic marine fish species studied (Annex Table 6ทA17).
not be discounted as contributing to the death of the gulls
Seabirds that prey on mollusks also have higher lipid weight
(Gabrielsen et al. 1995). OC levels in eggs of two of the
OC levels than those found in blue mussels from the Arctic.
gulls' prey species (both guillemot species) are similar to, or
OC levels in glaucous gull are also much higher than those
lower than those observed in Canadian samples.
found in guillemot eggs, which is a food source in many
There are several population groups of eiders throughout
areas. These observations indicate that biomagnification of
Arctic Canada and Hudson Bay, some of which overwinter
OCs occurs in Arctic seabirds.
in the north and others which migrate to more temperate
latitudes (Barry 1986, Reed and Erskine 1986). The main
6.6.4.7. Pinnipeds and cetaceans
migration routes are shown in Figure 6ท34. Only the eiders
from Ungava Bay, Hudson Bay, and Hudson Strait area (east-
There is an extensive series of measurements of OCs, espe-
ern Low Arctic) migrate south to overwinter off Newfound-
cially of PCBs and DDT-related compounds, in blubber sam-
land and in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The Gulf of St. Law-
ples from pinnipeds and cetaceans. Work carried out prior
rence receives the effluent flow from the Great Lakes and
to about 1990 has been reviewed and tabulated by Muir et
St. Lawrence River, waters known to be contaminated (Gag-
al. (1992b). Recent results for OCs in pinniped and cetacean
non et al. 1990, Comba et al. 1993). The western High Arc-
tissues (mainly blubber) are presented in Annex Table 6ทA18.
tic population overwinters in less contaminated northern
Annex Table 6ทA19 presents results for PCDD/Fs and nPCBs
waters. These differences in overwintering areas are reflected
in pinnipeds, cetaceans, and polar bears. This review of spa-
in the tissue residue concentrations of the various groups of
tial trends will focus mainly on work conducted on samples
eiders (Figure 6ท34).
collected between the late 1980s and the present.
Although no biomagnification studies have been carried
In general, all OCs, as well as brominated organics, that
out in Arctic seabirds, lipid- normalized OC levels can be
have been detected in tissues of marine biota in temperate
compared between seabirds and their major prey to deter-
waters (e.g., Baltic Sea, North Sea, Gulf of St. Lawrence,
mine if biomagnification is occurring. Fish-eating Arctic
Mediterranean Sea) have also been detected in Arctic pin-

Chapter 6 ท Persistent Organic Pollutants
265
nipeds and cetaceans. By far the most frequently determined
OCs are PCBs (usually as congeners) and DDT-related com-
PCB in blubber
DDT in blubber
Hudson
ng/g
ng/g
pounds. Less frequently measured are the hexachlorocyclo-
Strait
East Ice
5 000
5 000
hexanes, chlorobenzenes, chlordane-related compounds
Northeast
Jarfjord
Greenland Skjanes
(cis- and trans-chlordane, cis- and trans-nonachlor, oxy-
chlordane), chlorobornanes (toxaphene components), and
4 000
4 000
cyclodienes (dieldrin, endrin). Measurements of chlordane
and toxaphene-related compounds are much less frequent
3 000
3 000
than might be expected considering their relatively high
proportional contribution to total OCs determined in ma-
2 000
2 000
rine mammal tissues. For example, there is very little data
on toxaphene in Arctic marine mammals from Greenland,
Norwegian, or Russian waters.
1 000
1 000
Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans
(PCDD/Fs) have been determined, along with non-ortho-
0
0
substituted PCBs (nPCBs), in seals from Arctic Canada,
northeastern Greenland, and Svalbard, but information on
Skjanes Jarfjord
Skjanes Jarfjord
Northeast
est Russia
Northeast
est Russia
Greenland
W
Greenland
W
their spatial trends is limited. Brominated diphenyl ethers
Hudson Strait
(East Ice)
Hudson Strait
(East Ice)
and brominated biphenyls were also identified in ringed seal
Figure 6ท35. Geographical trends of PCB and DDT in harp seals from
blubber from Svalbard (Jansson et al. 1993), but have not
Arctic waters. Vertical bars represent arithmetic means ฑ SD of combined
results for males and females. The SD has been estimated from the range
been measured at any other location.
in some cases.
It must be emphasized that spatial trends of persistent
OCs discussed below are qualitative because they are based
land (west ice north of Jan Mayen Island) were found to be
on evaluation of means and ranges of concentrations. Inter-
about two- to three-fold lower than those from northern Nor-
comparability of the laboratories involved in the analyses is
way (Jarfjord, Skjๅnes) and western Russian waters (`east
reasonably good because all have been involved in ICES in-
ice'). PCB levels in female harp seals collected at Salluit in
tercomparisons (de Boer et al. 1992). However, in the case
Hudson Strait (Beck et al. 1994) are similar to levels in fe-
of PCBs and chlordane, some laboratories have included
males from northeastern Greenland, but 2.5-fold lower than
more congeners or components than others in PCB and
mean levels in females from the southern Barents Sea in west-
CHL results. Rigorous comparisons between locations also
ern Russia (Kleivane et al. 1996). Apart from the work of
require information on age, sex, blubber thickness, nutritio-
Beck et al. (1994), there are no other recent studies of OCs
nal status, collection season, and reproductive status of the
in harp seals from the eastern Canadian Arctic or western
animals. This information has been collected for most loca-
Greenland. Female harp seals from the east coast of New-
tions (Canada, Greenland, Norway, Russia), but has been
foundland have similar PCB concentrations in blubber (mean
used only qualitatively in this assessment of spatial trends.
of 1 g/g in samples from the early 1990s) to those from
Salluit and northeast Greenland (Muir 1996 unpubl. data).
Harp seals show major seasonal changes in OC concen-
6.6.4.7.1. Pinnipeds
trations in blubber, which makes it difficult to interpret spa-
ท Harp seals
tial or temporal trends from different studies. Kleivane et al.
Harp seals (Pagophilus groenlandicus) are important Atlan-
(1995, 1996) found that highest levels of all OCs occurred
tic species, inhabiting Arctic and subarctic waters. They feed
in April/May when animals were at their leanest, and lowest
primarily on small marine fish and secondarily on crusta-
levels in September when blubber layers were thicker.
cean macroplankton. Pups feed on euphasid shrimps, krill,
and prawn. There are three separate harp seal populations
ท Ringed seals
in the Arctic, all three of which migrate annually between
The ringed seal (Phoca hispida) is by far the most abundant
southerly breeding sites and northern feeding grounds, both
and widely distributed resident Arctic pinniped, with a wide-
sites at the edge of the pack ice (Lavigne and Kovacs 1988).
spread circumpolar distribution. Ringed seals have a prefer-
Herds that breed off `The Front' near the Magdalen Islands
ence for annual, landfast ice, but are also found in multi-
and in the Gulf of St. Lawrence migrate north to Hudson
year ice. Their diet consists of fish, mainly Arctic cod, and
Bay, Davis Strait, and Baffin Bay. Animals that reach the
crustaceans (amphipods, mysids, and euphausids). A sum-
edges of the range may migrate as far as 5000 km. The
mer diet of about 54% cod has been estimated for ringed
breeding population that congregates in the White Sea off
seal in Barrow Strait using 15N isotope enrichment analysis
the coast of Russia and the population that pups mainly be-
(Hobson and Welch 1992).
tween Jan Mayen and Svalbard move to ice patches north
Ringed seals are not generally considered to be a highly
of the breeding areas, which include the northern Barents
mobile species. Based on site tenacity and territoriality, Smith
and Kara Seas north of Svalbard, Franz Josef Land, and
and Hammill (1981) estimated that male ringed seals may
Severnaya Zemlya. The migrations involve nearly all of the
occupy the same small under-ice habitat for as much as nine
adults and some of the immatures. Many young animals, im-
months of the year. Nevertheless, high rates of immigration
mature adults, and some pregnant females do not migrate.
and emigration have been reported. For example, ringed
An extensive series of measurements of OCs in harp seals
seals tagged at Point Parry, NWT (70ฐN, 125ฐW), were
from the Norwegian Arctic, northeastern Greenland, and
killed at Holman and Sachs Harbour in the NWT, Point
the western Russian Arctic have recently been completed
Barrow in Alaska, and East Cape in Siberia (66ฐN, 170ฐW)
(Skaare 1996, Oehme et al. 1995d, Kleivane et al. 1996)
(Smith 1987). A yearling ringed seal tagged at Resolute Bay,
(Annex Table 6ทA18). Intra-species variation was large.
NWT (75ฐN, 95ฐW) was killed near Paamiut near the south-
Nevertheless, there seems to be a west to east increase in
ern tip of Greenland (S. Innes pers. comm.).
OC levels in harp seal blubber (Figure 6ท35). Concentrations
OC levels in blubber of ringed seals collected prior to
of PCBs and DDT in harp seals from northeastern Green-
1988 from ten locations in the Canadian Arctic (including

266
AMAP Assessment Report
centrations of PCBs than those at Svalbard, but lower mean
levels than a large sample analyzed by Nakata et al. (1996)
from the Yenisey Gulf/south Kara Sea.
Higher HCH levels were found in ringed seals from the
Nome
Canadian Arctic than in the same species from Greenland,
Svalbard, and the Yenisey Gulf. The elevated levels of HCH
Barrow
Holman
are consistent with higher HCH in seawater in the Cana-
Arviat
Admirality
Inlet
dian Archipelago and Beaufort Sea (section 6.6.4.1).
There is little information on levels of other POPs in ringed
Eureka
seals. Low concentrations of PBDEs were found in ringed
Resolute
seal blubber from Svalbard (Sellstr๖m et al. 1993). Tetrabro-
ng/g blubber
mo-DE averaged 47 ng/g lw, while total pentabromo-isomers
PCB
Sanikiluaq
4 000
Thule
were present at about ten-fold lower levels. Jansson et al.
Inukjuak
Yenisey
DDT
(1993) detected low ng/g levels of chlorinated paraffins (60-
Gulf
Pangnirtung
Svalbard
3 000
70% chlorinated C10-C13 alkanes) in blubber of Svalbard
Disko
ringed seals. There are no data for these compounds in
Nanortalik
Scoresbysund
Jarfjord
ringed seals from the North American or Russian Arctic.
2 000
ท Harbour and grey seals
1 000
Skaare (1996) has compared concentrations of PCB (Fig-
ure 6ท37), DDT, and total chlordane ( CHL) in two coastal
0
species, harbour seal (Phoca vitulina) and grey seal (Hali-
choerus grypus), from Bj๘rn๘ya, Svalbard, the Kola Penin-
Figure 6ท36. PCB and DDT in ringed seal blubber (ng/g). Vertical lines
denote standard deviation.
sula, and Finnmark. Significantly lower (p < 0.05) concentra-
tions of all three OC groups were found in males (both spe-
the western and central High Arctic, northwest and north-
cies combined) from the Kola Peninsula. Among females,
east Hudson Bay, Baffin Bay, Ungava Bay) and at Svalbard
mean levels of DDT and CHL were also lower in animals
have been summarized in Muir et al. (1992a). That review
from the Finnmark/Kola regions than from Svalbard. Har-
showed that PCBs, chlordanes, and DDTs were the most
bour seals from northern Norway (Vesterๅlen, Jarfjord) had
prominent contaminants, while toxaphene (or chlorobor-
significantly lower levels (by about two- to three-fold) than
nanes), HCHs, and chlorobenzenes were present at lower
those from three locations in southern Norway (Oslofjord,
concentrations. Concentrations of PCBs and DDT were
Kristiansand, and Bergen areas). Harbour seals from Iceland
higher at Svalbard than in the Canadian Arctic. Within the
(Luckas et al. 1990) have comparable levels of PCBs and
Canadian Arctic, concentrations of PCBs and DDT are
DDT to those from the southern Barents Sea (`East Ice')
quite similar in males and females from all locations, espe-
(Annex Table 6ทA18). There are no data for OC levels in
cially when age and sex of the animals are taken into ac-
harbour seals from the Canadian Arctic.
count using analysis of covariance (Weis and Muir 1996).
Combining the data for the Norwegian Arctic with results
More recent (samples collected post-1988) analyses of seal
from the Wadden Sea (Luckas et al. 1990) and the coast of
blubber samples are given in Annex Table 6ทA18. Spatial
England (Law et al. 1990), a decreasing PCB concentration
trends for PCBs and DDT as means of combined results
gradient with increasing latitude is observed for harbour seal
for males and females at 17 locations from the eastern Bering
(Figure 6ท37). Concentrations may be slightly higher in Jar-
Sea (Nome) to the southern Kara Sea (Yenisey Gulf) are
fjord near the Russian border (Skaare 1996).
summarized in Figure 6ท36. These mean concentrations are
influenced by age and sex differences among sites. Geograph-
100
103
ical comparisons of OCs in seal blubber are best made with
4
1.6
females because they show less variation with age than
0.5
1
males, however, data from females only were not available
from all sites so the combined results were used instead.
Two trends are discernible in Figure 6ท36. Ringed seals
from Hudson Bay (Arviat, Inukjuak, Sanikiluaq) have high-
23
3.4
5.7
er concentrations of PCB and DDT than those in the
5.2
central Canadian Archipelago (Resolute, Admiralty Inlet)
9
3
3.9
2.3
18
and western Greenland (Thule, Disko). Secondly, ringed
13
5.8
3
seals from eastern Greenland (Scoresbysund), Svalbard
(Luckas et al. 1990, Daelemans et al. 1993), and northern
Norway (Skaare 1996) had similar levels to those in Hud-
son Bay, but generally higher levels than found in the cen-
tral Canadian Archipelago or western Greenland. Highest
levels of PCBs were found in ringed seal blubber samples
from the Yenisey Gulf (Nakata et al. 1996). PCB concen-
trations in ringed seals from Nome (Alaska) on the eastern
Bering Sea (Schantz et al. 1993) were similar to those from
PCB ตg/g blubber
the western and central Canadian Arctic. Ringed seals from
Harbour
Grey
Harp
Hooded
Ringed
Scoresbysund in East Greenland had higher mean concen-
seal
seal
seal
seal
seal
trations of PCBs and DDT than those from western Green-
Figure 6ท37. PCB levels in pinnipeds in Norway (Skaare et al. 1990,
land (Cleeman et al. 1996c, 1996d). Ringed seals from Jar-
Bernhoft and Skaare 1994, Jenssen et al. 1995a, Kleivane et al. 1995,
fjord in northern Norway had about two-fold higher con-
Skaare 1996, Espeland and Skaare unpubl. results).

Chapter 6 ท Persistent Organic Pollutants
267
Grey seals from northern Norway have about 25-fold
and winter offshore in pack ice and polynyas (Brodie 1989).
lower PCB concentrations than are found in this species in
These migrations are responses to offshore feeding opportu-
the Baltic Sea (Blomkvist et al. 1992) and about four-fold
nities, coastal ice formation, and the need for estuarine con-
lower than in eastern England (Law et al. 1990 ) (Figure 6ท37).
ditions during the summer calving period. Some general
The overall trend for PCBs and DDT in seals, which are
facts of the migration of major stocks are known. Tagging
the only contaminant groups for which anything approach-
experiments of belugas in Hudson Bay suggest that the mi-
ing a circumpolar survey has been done, is that levels seem
gratory range is 800 km, from southwest to northwest Hud-
to increase from west to east (Annex Table 6ทA18). How-
son Bay (Sargeant and Brodie 1969). The Canadian High
ever, additional samples are needed from the Russian Arctic
Arctic stock essentially migrates along the south coast of
to confirm this trend. Norwegian and Canadian data sug-
Devon Island. A number of extralimital observations suggest
gest that levels of PCBs decline from south to north in blub-
that some individuals, probably males, will wander great
ber of ringed seals and harbour seals. These two species are
distances. The results of some recent tagging studies, in
relatively sedentary and, therefore, better indicators of spa-
which individuals migrated hundreds of kilometers in unex-
tial trends within the Arctic than migratory species such as
pected directions, have emphasized that dispersal and migra-
harp seal. The large data set on OCs in ringed seal blubber
tion are not well understood (P. Richard pers. comm., Nor-
offers the possibility of more rigorously establishing cir-
ris 1994, Stewart and Burt 1994). Nevertheless, OC profiles
cumpolar geographical trends of OCs after adjusting for
have proven to be a valuable tool for stock discrimination
age, sex, blubber thickness, and other factors.
(S. Innes pers. comm.).
Few statistically significant differences in the mean con-
ท Walrus
centrations of the major OCs were found in the five Cana-
Walrus (Odobaenus rosmarus) blubber samples from east-
dian Arctic beluga stocks sampled in the period 1983-1989
ern Hudson Bay (Inukjuak and Akulivik), Foxe Basin (Ig-
(Muir et al. 1990b). Toxaphene levels showed no geographi-
loolik and Hall Beach), and eastern Baffin Island (Loks
cal trends, however, PCBs and DDT were significantly
Land) were found to have higher than expected levels of
higher (p < 0.05) in male belugas from Cumberland Sound
PCB congeners (ortho- and non-ortho-substituted) and
than in samples from Hudson Bay or the Beaufort Sea. No
other persistent OCs (DDT, toxaphene, chlordanes, diel-
significant differences were found among mean levels in fe-
drin, mirex) when compared with previous studies of wal-
males within the five stocks. Differences between stocks are
rus from Greenland and Alaska (Muir et al. 1995c). Sam-
best determined with male belugas because they show little
ples from 19 of 53 individuals had concentrations of PCBs
variation of OC levels with age relative to females (the op-
greater than 1000 ng/g ww; the remaining individuals had
posite is observed in seals). Additional samples of beluga
much lower concentrations (50-600 ng/g ww). Local conta-
blubber from western Greenland, the Bering/Chukchi Seas,
mination was ruled out because levels of all OCs were ele-
and the western Canadian Arctic (south Beaufort Sea) have
vated in each animal from Inukjuak, and elevated levels
confirmed the slightly higher PCB and toxaphene levels in
were also found in animals from other areas of the eastern
the Baffin Bay and southeast Baffin animals (Stern et al.
Canadian Arctic. Skaare et al. (1994b) also found a wide
1994, Becker et al. 1995) (Annex Table 6ทA18). A single bel-
range of concentrations of PCB, DDT, and chlordane-
uga blubber sample from the White Sea had the highest lev-
related compounds in walrus skin/blubber biopsy samples
els of all persistent OCs found in Arctic beluga. North-south
from Svalbard. Concentrations of PCB (mean 11.5 g/g;
comparisons can also be made with beluga because of the
median 8.8 g/g lipid) in Svalbard walrus were similar to
presence of isolated populations in the St. Lawrence estuary
those from eastern Hudson Bay, but much higher than Foxe
and Cook Inlet (Alaska). In the eastern Canadian Arctic,
Basin animals (Annex Table 6ทA18). The results suggest
PCB concentrations, in samples collected from 1992-1994,
that the walrus with elevated OCs are feeding at a higher
averaged about 6000 ng/g ww in male belugas, and 4000
trophic level than those with low levels and are probably
ng/g ww in blubber of females; these levels are about 12
utilizing ringed seals for a portion of their diet.
times lower (in males) than in blubber of dead belugas from
Walrus from the Thule region of western Greenland had
the St. Lawrence estuary sampled in 1993-1994 (Muir et al.
low levels of PCBs and other persistent OCs similar to
1996a). Levels of PCB in belugas from Cook Inlet on the
those in Foxe Basin animals (Annex Table 6ทA18) (Muir
Pacific coast of Alaska (2 600 1140 ng/g in males, n = 9)
and Born 1996).
are significantly lower than in the Beaufort Sea population
where mean levels exceed 5000 ng/g (Muir et al. 1996a).
Narwhal (Monodon monoceros), which are found mainly
6.6.4.7.2. Cetaceans
in the eastern Canadian Arctic and in western Greenland
ท Beluga (white whale) and narwhal
waters, have similar concentrations of PCBs and toxaphene
Belugas (Delphinapterus leucas) have a nearly continuous
in blubber as belugas from the same area (Annex Table 6ทA18).
distribution across the Russian Arctic coast, but are limited
in the Atlantic to the north coast of Norway and in the Pa-
ท Harbour porpoise and minke whale
cific to the Okhotsk Sea (Kleinenberg et al. 1964). They are
Skaare (1996) has reviewed results for OCs in cetaceans
present along the east and west coasts of Greenland and in
sampled along the coast of Norway since 1988, and results
North America, extending from Alaska across the Cana-
for harbour porpoise (Phocoena phocoena) and minke whale
dian western Arctic to a large population in Hudson Bay
(Balaenoptera acutorostrata) are summarized in Annex Table
and among islands in the eastern Canadian Arctic. They
6ทA18. Minke whales had low levels of OCs compared with
feed in shallow estuaries on a variety of foods, including
odontocetes (toothed whales) such as the beluga and har-
capelin, herring, cisco, sculpin, Atlantic and Arctic cod,
bour porpoise. This is due to their feeding primarily on in-
flounder, and char, as well as invertebrates such as octo-
vertebrates. The harbour porpoise from northern Norway
puses, squid, shrimp, and paddleworms (Banfield 1974).
had the highest levels of PCBs and DDT of any cetacean
The beluga may be the most mobile large mammal in the
in Arctic waters. Like other odontocetes in the Canadian
Arctic. Movement of pods is seasonal and predictable. They
Arctic (Muir et al. 1990b, 1992b), the porpoises had higher
come into the coastal waters and estuaries in mid-summer,
proportions of lower-chlorinated PCBs, and higher concen-

268
AMAP Assessment Report
decrease in females after five or six years of age, correspond-
22
ing to the time of first parturition. Kleivane et al. (1996)
2
found PCBs increased with age in harbour porpoise. In
seals, PCB concentrations increase with age in males but not
in females. This has been observed previously (Addison and
5
Smith 1974), but the large number of samples from the
20
28
western Hudson Bay (Arviat) (30 males, 21 females) has en-
5
abled a thorough test of the age/concentration relationship
2.5
(Figure 6ท39). Geographical comparisons are, thus, most
easily done with adult female ringed seals and on a case by
2.5
case basis for cetaceans. A major consideration, evident
from the studies on ringed seals (Cameron et al. 1997) and
harp seals (Kleivane et al. 1995) is the need to standardize
the time of year and nutritional/reproductive status (moult-
ing or lactating) of the seals or cetaceans.
PCB ตg/g blubber
PCB ng/g blubber
Harbour
Minke
porpoise
whale
5 000
Figure 6ท38. PCB levels in cetaceans around Norway (Kleivane et al.
1995, Skaare 1996, Espeland and Skaare unpubl. data).
3 000
trations of chlordane and dieldrin than animals from south-
2 000
ern Norway. PCB concentrations in harbour porpoise from
northern Norway are similar to those found in animals from
the west coast and southern Norway (Kleivane et al. 1995)
1 000
(Figure 6ท38).
6.6.4.7.3. Persistent OCs in other marine mammal tissues
500
Fewer analyses of kidney, liver, and muktuk of marine mam-
mals have been conducted than of blubber. OC concentra-
300
tions are uniformly lower than in blubber due to their low-
0.1
0.3
1
3
10
30
er lipid content. Low ng/g ww levels of PCBs and OC pesti-
females
males
Age (years)
cides were found in liver, kidney and muscle samples of be-
Figure 6ท39. Variation of PCB with age in blubber of ringed seals (western
luga and narwhal (Muir et al. 1992b, Muir 1995, Stern et
Hudson Bay, Canada). A total of 21 females and 30 males were analyzed.
al. 1994). On a lipid weight basis (beluga liver and muscle
The correlation with age applies to males one year and older only. Similar
correlations were observed for DDT and CHL. Log PCB vs. log age:
averaged 3.4 and 1.3% extractable lipid, respectively), lev-
r 2= 0.88.
els of OCs were comparable to or higher than those found
in blubber.
Modeling and measurements of mother-calf pairs has
Muktuk from Beaufort Sea belugas contained low ng/g
shown that in the early life of marine mammals, significant
ww levels of all major classes of OC contaminants (PCBs,
quantities of lipid-soluble contaminants may be transferred
chlorobenzenes, OC pesticides) (Annex Table 6ทA18). The
to the young via lactation (Addison and Brodie 1987, Kings-
lipid content of muktuk ranged from 3 to 7% which indi-
ley and Hickie 1994, Espeland et al. 1996). Females have ac-
cates that it was relatively free of the underlying blubber
cumulated large burdens early in their reproductive life, and
layer. Toxaphene was the major OC contaminant, with
marine mammal milk is high in fat. This initial dose is fur-
mean concentrations of 400 ng/g. As observed for blubber
ther concentrated as the newborn burns fat to provide en-
samples, PCB concentrations in muktuk are higher in males
ergy, before it starts to feed itself and dilute the initial intake
than females. Muktuk from western Greenland belugas had
by less contaminated food. For the female, this represents a
similar concentrations of OCs compared to Beaufort Sea
loss of contaminants, evidenced by the fact that actively re-
samples, and concentrations were the same in males and
producing females have notably lower concentrations than
females (Stern et al. 1994, Annex Table 6ทA18). All animals
mature males.
analyzed were under 4.5 years of age so that differences
between males and females would not be anticipated.
6.6.4.7.5. Spatial trends in non-ortho PCBs
and PCDD/Fs in marine mammals
6.6.4.7.4. Effects of age and sex on organochlorine levels
Information on levels of PCDD/Fs and nPCBs in Arctic ma-
in marine mammals
rine biota is limited in comparison with other OCs (includ-
As noted above, age and sex are important factors to be
ing mono-ortho and ortho-substituted PCBs). The greater
taken into account when comparing geographical and tem-
complexity and higher cost of analysis of these compounds
poral trends in marine mammals. Most OCs, except HCH
has limited the number of samples analyzed to date. All pub-
and mirex, are lower in adult female cetaceans and pinni-
lished results up to early 1995 are summarized in Annex
peds than in males because of elimination of these lipophilic
Table 6ทA19. For PCDD/Fs there is evidence of higher con-
compounds via lactation (Addison and Smith 1974). How-
centrations in Barents Sea animals, a similar geographic
ever, trends with age vary with species and sex. Stern et al.
trend to that observed for PCBs and other OCs.
(1994) found no significant trend of OC levels with age in
The PCDD/F profile in marine mammal blubber differs
male beluga (70 animals were analyzed) and a substantial
between the Canadian Arctic and Barents/Greenland Sea

Chapter 6 ท Persistent Organic Pollutants
269
animals. Ringed seals, polar bear, and walrus in the Cana-
PCBs and chlordane-related compounds, leads to higher con-
dian Arctic have relatively high 2,3,7,8-TCDD and low
centrations than in most other Arctic mammalian species.
PeCDD and PeCDF levels. In Barents and Greenland Sea
Polar bear are distributed widely throughout the Arctic
seals, 2,3,7,8-TCDF and PeCDF tend to be at equal or
and subarctic polar regions. The ecology of polar bears is
higher concentrations than TCDD and PeCDD (Oehme et
closely tied to that of ringed seals (Stirling and Archibald
al. 1988, 1995d, Bignert et al. 1989). Concentrations of
1977). Densities of seal vary in response to the overall pro-
2,3,7,8-TCDF in Canadian ringed seals ranged from <2
ductivity of the ecosystem in different areas, and these changes
to 7 pg/g ww which was lower than values reported for
also cause changes in the productivity of bears (Stirling and
Svalbard ringed seals (9 to 13 pg/g) (Oehme et al. 1988).
ุritsland 1995). Polar bears preferentially consume ringed
Concentrations of 2,3,7,8-TCDD in ringed seal blubber
seal blubber and skin. In addition to ringed seal, they may
from Svalbard ranged from < 2 to 8.2 pg/g ww (Oehme et
eat lesser amounts of bearded seal (Erignathus barbatus)
al. 1988) and from 2 to 37 pg/g in pooled blubber samples
(Smith 1980, Stirling and Archibald 1977), and occasionally
from various locations in the Canadian Arctic (Norstrom et
prey on beluga and walrus (Lowry et al. 1987, Calvert and
al. 1990). Beluga and narwhal blubber had uniformly low
Stirling 1990). In late spring, polar bears become highly ac-
levels of PCDD/Fs (Annex Table 6ทA19), reflecting the abil-
tive in response to readily available young and moulting
ity of cetaceans to metabolize planar aromatics due to
seals. The bears acquire most of their annual nutrient re-
higher cytochrome P450 1A1 activity in comparison with
serves during this period (Ramsay and Stirling 1988). Using
seals and birds (Tanabe et al. 1988, Norstrom et al. 1992).
13C stable isotope analysis, it has been shown that polar
In general, concentrations of PCDD/Fs in Arctic seals are
bears do not eat significant amounts of terrestrial food even
lower than in animals from the Baltic Sea and the North
when forced onto land (Ramsay and Hobson 1991).
Sea (Oehme et al. 1988, Bignert et al. 1989), but higher
Polar bears occur in low densities throughout the polar
than found in Antarctic seals (Oehme et al. 1995c).
basin and are circumpolar in their distribution. Polar bears
Unlike the PCDD/Fs, levels of nPCBs in blubber of ringed
are distributed into relatively discrete populations (Bethke et
and harp seals from the Canadian Arctic, the Greenland Sea,
al. 1996, Taylor and Lee 1995), although individuals can
and Svalbard are similar (Annex Table 6ทA19). These com-
wander over several thousand kilometers in a year (Ramsay
parisons are mainly for males and are therefore confounded
and Stirling 1986, Messier et al. 1992). In the Beaufort Sea,
by the effects of age. There are insufficient data at present
movements have been estimated to range over 10 000-23 000
with which to compare geographic variations of nPCBs in
km2 (Amstrup et al. 1986); in the archipelagic habitats of
female seals. Daelemans et al. (1993) reported a mean total
Canada, they range between 2500 and 23 000 km2 (Schweins-
nPCB of 293 pg/g ww in blubber of ringed seals from Sval-
burg and Lee 1982, Schweinsburg et al. 1984); on Svalbard,
bard, which is very similar to results for the eastern Hudson
the movement is much more variable, 69 000 80 000 km2
Bay ringed seals, but lower than levels found in Danish har-
or a range of 1000 to 325 000 km2 (Wiig 1995); and, in the
bour seals (Storr-Hansen and Spliid 1993). Levels of nPCBs
Bering and Chukchi Seas, the movements are extensive, in
in Arctic cetaceans, narwhal, and beluga are generally high-
the range 150 000-350 000 km2 (Garner et al. 1994).
er than in seals from the same location. Males have higher
Polar bears mate in the spring (Wiig et al. 1992). Ferti-
levels than females. Condition of the animals may be im-
lized eggs do not implant before September-October, about
portant in the relative proportion of the three toxic nPCBs
the same time that the pregnant female enters the den (Ram-
(CBs 77, 126, and 169). Ice-entrapped belugas from the
say and Stirling 1988). According to Sandell (1990), species
southern Beaufort Sea stock were emaciated when their
with delayed implantation appear to be especially suscepti-
blubber was collected. These animals had much higher pro-
ble to deleterious reproductive effects from OC pollution.
portions of CB 169 than `normal' belugas in the eastern
Derocher (1991) suggested that OC-induced effects on re-
Canadian Arctic (Annex Table 6ทA19). Oehme et al. (1995d)
production may be a factor in the decline in reproductive
also found unexplained high levels of CB 169 in some harp
performance of western Hudson Bay polar bears. Cubs are
seal blubber samples from the Greenland Sea. Highest
born around Christmas and the female emerges from the
nPCB levels in Arctic marine mammals have been found in
den usually with two cubs in March-April after fasting for
walrus from Inukjuak (eastern Hudson Bay) which also had
six months. Polar bear milk has a high fat content (Arnoud
high PCB levels. Levels in these walrus were within the
and Ramsay 1994) and lactation seems to occur more or less
range observed for harbour seal in the Danish Wadden Sea.
until weaning at 2.5 years.
Estimates of toxic equivalents of 2,3,7,8-TCDD (TCDD
PCBs and p,p'-DDE were first discovered in polar bear
TEQs) in Arctic marine mammals indicated that CB 126
tissues in the early 1970s in the Canadian Arctic by Bowes
(3,3'4,4',5-pentachlorobiphenyl) contributes 60-70% of the
and Jonkel (1975), a few years after they were identified as
total TEQ in narwhal (Ford et al. 1993) and 30-50% in
environmental contaminants (Jensen et al. 1969). At later
ringed seals using recent toxic equivalent factors for nPCBs
dates, PCBs and persistent OC pesticides were found in
and mono-ortho PCBs (Ahlborg et al. 1994). Results for
bears from other Arctic areas (Norstrom et al. 1988, 1997,
TCDD and nPCBs in ringed seals from Svalbard and harp
Norheim et al. 1992).
seals from the Greenland Sea are similar (Bignert et al. 1989,
Annex Table 6ทA20 summarizes levels of OCs measured
Oehme et al. 1995d). Asplund et al. (1991) also found low
in all major polar bear studies. This includes results from
ng/g levels of chlorinated naphthalenes in seal blubber from
Norheim et al. (1992), who analyzed polar bear fat and liver
Svalbard which could also contribute to `dioxin equivalents'.
collected from Svalbard during the period 1978-1989, recent
There have been no other reports of chlorinated naph-
Svalbard data (Bernhoft et al. 1996), early Canadian results,
thalenes in Arctic animals.
results from a 1982-1984 systematic survey (Norstrom et al.
1988) in the Northwest Territories of Canada, and recent
circumpolar data, summarized by Norstrom et al. (1997).
6.6.4.8. Polar bear
The Norwegian Polar Institute has studied the biology of
The polar bear (Ursus maritimus) has received particular at-
polar bears in the Svalbard area since the late 1960s. The
tention in relation to contaminants in the Arctic. As a fourth-
exceptionally high PCB levels in polar bears from this area
level carnivore, biomagnification of persistent OCs, such as
were first found by Norheim et al. (1992), who analyzed

270
AMAP Assessment Report
Table 6ท16. Geographical regions used to describe OC levels among polar bear populations, relationship to Canadian management zones, and sampling
dates for each region (Taylor and Lee 1995).
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Sampling
region
Sampling period
Zone
Geographical location
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
R1
April 1993
ญ
Wrangel Island (Russia), Chukchi Sea
R2
March 1988-March 1990
ญ
Bering Sea and Bering Strait south of the Arctic Circle, Chukchi Sea and
Goodhope Bay, Alaskan coast to 155ฐW
R3
April 1989-May 1993
NB (part)
McLure Strait and the adjacent Arctic Ocean
R4
December 1989-May 1990
NB (part)
Amundsen Gulf and Beaufort Sea to 135ฐW
R5
April 1989-May 1990
VM PC (part)
Viscount Melville Sound west of 100ฐW
R6
December 1989-May 1990
MC
Queen Maud Gulf and Larsen Sound
R7
January 1990-May 1990
PC (part)
Barrow Strait and Cornwallis Island
R8
December 1989-May 1990
GB
Gulf of Boothia
R9
April 1989-June 1990
PC (part)
Baffin Bay north of 72ฐN, Lancaster Sound,
BB (part)
Jones Sound, Kane Basin, Thule, and Ellesmere Island
R10
December 1989-January 1990
BB (part)
Southern Baffin Bay and northern Davis Strait (between the Arctic Circle and 72ฐN)
R11
October 1989-April 1990
FB
Foxe Basin and Hudson Strait west of 72.5ฐW
R12
August 1989-September 1990
WH
Western Hudson Bay (Cape Churchill area)
R13
January 1990-April 1991
SH
Eastern Hudson Bay (Belcher Islands)
R14
December 1989-March 1991
DS (part)
Davis Strait below the Arctic Circle and Hudson Strait east of 72.5ฐW
R15
January 1990-July 1990
ญ
East coast of Greenland near Scoresbysund
R16
March 1990-April 1990
ญ
Svalbard (Norway)
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
samples from 24 bears shot or found dead during the per-
Nine of 14 PCB congeners detected in bear fat showed sig-
iod 1978-1989. Since 1990, samples from anaesthetized,
nificantly higher levels in adult males than in one or more of
free-ranging bears at Svalbard have been analyzed yearly
the other groups. All PCB congeners, except CBs 99 and 138,
for OCs at the Norwegian College of Veterinary Medicine.
increased with age in males. The increase was more promi-
Including samples collected in the 1996 season, 150 bears
nent with increased chlorination degree. All congeners, ex-
have been sampled (fat biopsies and blood) in the Svalbard
cept CBs 105 and 118, tended to reach a plateau or decline
area during the month of April. Additional data on each
in old males. In females, the individual congeners tended to
bear sampled included length, girth, reproductive status,
follow the levels in males until adulthood. After that age,
nutritional status, sex, and age. Initially, the research was
usually 7-11 years, lower levels of PCB congeners 153, 156,
focused on studying occurrence and levels of OCs, and the
157, 170, and 180 were found in females than in males.
high PCB levels found earlier (Norheim et al. 1992) were
Levels of HCHs in adult male polar bear fat (385 ng/g)
confirmed (Annex Table 6ทA20). The influence of age, sex,
were significantly higher than in subadults (197 ng/g) and
reproduction, and nutritional status on the OC variation in
adult females (163 ng/g). -HCH, the recalcitrant HCH iso-
bears was also investigated. More recently, possible effects
mer, constituted 81% of HCH in the 85 samples. In males,
of the very high PCB levels on reproduction and survival of
HCH increased with age until about 12 years, while in fe-
the cubs have been investigated. The reproductive success
males no change with age was evident.
of Svalbard polar bears is discussed in more detail in sec-
DDE (p,p'-isomer) and HCB were also major individual
tion 6.8.3.6. Information on reproductive success, revealed
OC contaminants in bear fat from Svalbard. DDE was the
by satellite telemetry, has been coupled with physiological
only DDT-related compound present above detection limits
parameters, such as thyroid hormones and Vitamin A in
in bear fat. For DDE and HCB, no statistically significant
blood, and plasma OC levels (Bernhoft et al. 1996) (section
differences with sex or age were observed.
6.8.3.6). Studies on possible effects on the immune system
Bernhoft et al. (1996) also analyzed OCs in maternal
from very high PCB exposure have also been initiated.
milk, subcutaneous fat, plasma, and blood cells of female
In a study of 85 polar bears, Skaare et al. (1994a) and
polar bears and in subcutaneous fat, plasma, and blood cells
Bernhoft et al. (1996) found that CHL and PCBs were
of yearlings. Considerable amounts of OCs are transferred
the major OC contaminants in subcutaneous fat, similar to
to the offspring via milk. Correlations of OCs in subcuta-
previous observations by Norstrom et al. (1988) in polar
neous fat with levels in plasma and milk were significant for
bears from the Canadian Arctic. Levels of all OCs in fe-
most OC compounds. Correlations of OC levels in plasma
males were generally lower than in males (Annex Table
lipids with levels in milk were also significant, but only for
6ทA20). In young (1-2 years old) and subadult (3-6 years
lower chlorinated PCBs (especially penta- and hexachloro-
old) bears, there were no differences in OC levels between
biphenyls). These results indicate a more efficient OC trans-
sexes, except for significantly higher CHL levels in sub-
fer between subcutaneous lipid depot and circulatory lipids
adult females than in subadult males. The highest CHL
than from the circulatory system to milk, particularly for the
levels were found in young (3.38 g/g ww in fat) and
most lipophilic compounds. The OC pattern in suckling
subadult bears (3.44 g/g ww). Levels of CHL were sig-
yearlings reflects the low transfer of the higher chlorinated
nificantly lower in adult (7-15 years) and old males (16-22
(hepta- and octachloro) PCBs into maternal milk. The levels
years) than in subadults. Oxychlordane constituted 72%
of most other OCs were higher in subcutaneous depot lipid
of CHL in all polar bear fat samples that were analyzed.
of yearlings than in that of their mothers.
Mean concentrations of PCB in subcutaneous fat sam-
OC concentrations were determined in 586 samples of
ples from various age groups of polar bear at Svalbard
subcutaneous adipose tissue from hunted polar bears and
ranged from 11.4 g/g ww in juveniles to 28.1 g/g in
tissue biopsies from animals tranquilized for research pur-
adult males. Extremely high PCB levels (up to 80 g/g in
poses between the spring of 1989 and the spring of 1993, as
fat of males and up to 36.7 g/g in females) were found in
part of a large collaborative circumpolar study (Norstrom et
some adults (Bernhoft et al. 1996). PCB levels found in
al. 1997). Samples were analyzed from Wrangel Island in the
adult males were significantly higher than in young and
East Siberian Sea, eastward through the polar bears' com-
adult female bears. The highly recalcitrant PCB congeners
plete range in North America to East Greenland and Sval-
153 and 180 constituted 62% of PCB found in the bears.
bard. Samples were assigned to 16 regions based on knowl-

Chapter 6 ท Persistent Organic Pollutants
271
edge of the subpopulation range (Table 6ท16, Norstrom et
tirely composed of females with cubs just emerging from
al. 1997). Additional information on each bear sampled in-
dens. Polischuk (pers. comm.) has found that PCB levels in
cluded its age, sex, length, girth, and reproductive status.
fat of females emerging from dens after six months of fast-
Linear models (mixed analysis of variance and covari-
ing are two times higher than in the previous autumn. The
ance) were used to describe and account for the effects of
net effect of this distribution is to create a band of lower val-
measured covariates, and geographic comparisons were
ues, spreading east from Alaska along the continental coast
then made with data corrected for age and sex. The linear
into the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, Baffin Bay, and west-
models showed that there were significant relationships be-
ern Hudson Bay, surrounded by higher values in areas in the
tween residue levels and Region (16 regions, Table 6ท16
north and south, eastern Greenland, and Svalbard (Figure
and Annex Table 6ทA20), Sex (three categories ญ females,
6ท40). PCB levels were similar (20.3-24.3 g/g lw) in bears
females with cubs, and males), Age as a continuous vari-
from Svalbard (R16), East Greenland (R15), and the Arctic
able, and Ageclass (two categories; subadults, 0- 4 years,
Ocean near Prince Patrick Island in Canada (R3), and signif-
and adults, 5-31 years). However, model R2 values were
icantly higher than most other areas. There were few other
still low (R2 being the fraction of variation in the data ex-
significant differences in PCB levels apart from some be-
plained by the linear model), ranging from 0.27 for CHL
tween R5 and R13 and the Regions with the lowest mean
to 0.57 for PCB, suggesting that many factors besides
levels: R2, R6, R7 and R8. There were no significant trends
the ones considered in the study were important in deter-
in geographical distribution of PCB levels within the band
mining OC levels. Some of the unexplained variability is
of Regions across the North American coast and the Cana-
believed to be due to seasonal effects (fasting, lactation),
dian Archipelago which had the lowest levels of PCB (R2,
dietary factors (individual preferences, food web structure),
R4, R6-R12, R14; Figure 6ท40). Nevertheless, average levels
and physical condition.
in this band were higher in Baffin Bay and Hudson Bay
To compare OC levels among regions for the circumpo-
(6.27
0.631 g/g lw; R9-12, R14), than in the western
lar study (Norstrom et al. 1998 in press), differences in the
Regions (3.97 1.03 g/g lw; R2, R4, R6-8), indicating a
age and sex of bears sampled had to be taken into account.
slightly increasing west-east gradient.
To do this, only the 345 adult bears were considered, and
The high PCB levels in Arctic Ocean (R3) bears may be
values of most OCs were standardized to represent levels in
influenced by a different food web structure in a permanent
mature males, using coefficients from the linear models. For
ice environment, or by some as yet unknown feature of at-
CHL, data were age-standardized to males of age of 11.
mospheric or oceanic transport. There is anecdotal informa-
Actual means and standardized geometric means for HCH,
tion that bearded seal may be more abundant in this area,
CHL, DDT, PCB, and dieldrin are summarized in An-
and there is a possibility that the base of the ringed seal food
nex Table 6ทA20. Median (range) levels for the whole data
web is more epontic than pelagic compared to areas farther
set were as follows: PCB, 7119 (1228-70 421) ng/g lw;
east (Welch et al. 1992).
CHL, 1988 (207-15 013) ng/g; DDE, 190 (24-2821) ng/g;
Significant differences in CHL occurred mainly between
and dieldrin, 149 (7-835) ng/g.
southern Hudson Bay (R13, highest) and Wrangel Island, East
Levels of PCB were 46% higher in males than females,
Siberian Sea (R1, lowest) and other Regions (Figure 6ท40).
and there was no trend with age. Levels of CHL were
Levels were about 50% higher than average in the three Re-
30% lower in males than females and there was a negative
gions which had highest PCB concentrations, but the high-
trend with age in both sexes: loge[ CHL] = ญ 0.02 Age + k.
est level was found in southeastern Hudson Bay (R13), which
The age effects described for DDT are more complex.
also had the highest DDE and dieldrin levels among the Re-
Although the overall age effect was not significant, the
gions. CHL was the most uniformly distributed of the OCs.
Age
Region effect was, suggesting that there were differ-
Mean CHL concentrations in bears from Svalbard (3.29
ent age effects within regions, or that there were age effects
g/g lw) were similar to mean concentrations in subadult
in some regions and not in others. CHL and PCB levels
and adult female bears observed by Bernhoft et al. (1996).
decreased in subadults from about twice the levels in their
DDE levels in R2, R4, R6, and R8 were significantly low-
mothers at birth to adult levels around age 4-5. The mini-
er than most other Regions (Annex Table 6ทA20). DDE levels
mal age effect thereafter suggests that the whole-body half-
were higher in the eastern Regions, with peaks in R1 and R3
life of these persistent OCs in non-pregnant females and
in the west and R13 in the east. As suggested for PCB, the
males may be of the order of a year, based on the calculated
high DDE in R1 may be because this group of samples was
time to approach greater than 90% steady state with the diet.
biased towards fasting females. The high DDE in R10 is prob-
Levels of various OCs in polar bear are plotted by Region
ably spurious, because it is driven by one bear out of the five
as bars in Figure 6ท40 (next page). In general, OC levels
sampled from this area. Dieldrin levels displayed a more pro-
were significantly different among regions (P 0.05). One
nounced west-east increasing gradient than the other OCs
of the most important findings was the relatively uniform
(Annex Table 6ทA20). Levels in the Bering/Chukchi Regions
distribution of the levels of some OCs over much of the study
(R1 and R2) were significantly lower than for most other
area. This is a clear indication of extensive transport and de-
Regions. The dieldrin distribution, as well as that of CHL
position of OCs to all areas of the Arctic and subarctic.
and DDE, strongly suggests an influence from North Ameri-
The geographical distribution of PCB is notable for
can sources, although ecological factors cannot be ruled out.
higher levels occurring at McLure Strait and the adjacent
Total chlorobenzene levels were very uniform across the
Arctic Ocean (R3), the east coast of Greenland near Scores-
entire study area, with the exception of a peak in R6 (Figure
bysund (R15), and Svalbard (R16) (Annex Table 6ทA20, Fig-
6ท40). HCH levels were also similar among areas, but, un-
ure 6ท40). The mean PCB levels found by Norstrom et al.
like all other OCs, the highest levels were found in the west-
(1997) in 14 fat samples from Svalbard (22.7 g/g lw) were
ern regions, especially the Bering and Chukchi Seas (R2)
similar to the mean PCB of 21.9 g/g lw for combined
(Figure 6ท40). This is a clear indication of ongoing contribu-
adult males and females found by Bernhoft et al. (1996).
tions from Asian and southeast Asian sources (Barrie et al.
The higher PCB levels at Wrangel Island in the East
1992). The relatively high level of both HCH and total
Siberian Sea (R1) compared to other samples in the same
chlorobenzenes in R8 compared to nearby regions was also
region may have been because this group was almost en-
noted in 1984 (Norstrom et al. 1988).

272
AMAP Assessment Report
ตg/g lw
PCB
ตg/g lw
CHL
30
15
20
10
10
5
0
0
R2
R2
R1
R1
R4
R4
Arctic
Fox
R3
R3
R6
R5
R5
R6
Arctic
Fox
R12
R12
R7
R7
R11 R8
R9
R11 R8
R9
R13
R13
R10
R16
R10
R16
R14
R14
R15
R15
ตg/g lw
HCH
ตg/g lw
CBz
0.6
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.2
0
0
R2
R2
R2
R2 R1
R1
R4
R4
R3
R3
R6
R6
R5
R5
R12
R12
R7
R7
R11 R8
R9
R11 R8
R9
R13
R13
R10
R16
R10
R16
R14
R14
R15
R15
R1
Wrangel Island (Russia), Chukchi Sea
R10
Southern Baffin Bay and Northern Davis Strait
R2
Bering Sea and Bering Strait south of the Arctic Circle,
(between the Arctic Circle and 72ฐ N)
Chukchi Sea and Goodhope Bay, Alaska Coast to 155ฐ W
R11
Foxe Basin and Hudson Strait west of 72.5ฐ W
R3
McLure Strait and the adjacent Arctic Ocean
R12
Western Hudson Bay (Cape Churchill area)
R4
Amundsen Gulf and Beaufort Sea to 135ฐ W
R13
Eastern Hudson Bay (Belcher Islands)
R5
Viscount Melville Sound west of 100ฐ W
R14
Davis Strait (below the Arctic Circle)
R6
Queen Maud Gulf and Larsen Sound
and Hudson Strait east of 72.5ฐ W
R7
Barrow Strait and Cornwallis Island
R15
East coast of Greenland near Scoresbysund
R8
Gulf of Boothia
R16
Svalbard (Norway)
R9
Baffin Bay north of 72ฐ N, Lancaster Sound,
Jones Sound, Kane Basin, Thule and Ellesmere Island
Figure 6ท40. Organochlorine levels in polar bear adipose tissues (ตg/g lw), adjusted to levels expected in 11-year-old males (after correction for age and
sex), for PCB, CHL, HCH, and CBz, and in Arctic fox from Svalbard for PCB and CHL. Data are given in Annex Table 6ทA20 and the 16
regions are described in Table 6ท16.
Methylsulfone-PCB and -DDE metabolites were found in
lyzed for HCH and total chlorobenzenes. They found the
polar bear fat at levels similar to those of HCH, total
geographical distribution to be very similar to that of PCBs
chlorobenzenes, DDE, and dieldrin (Bergman et al. 1994b).
(Figure 6ท40). Concentrations of MeSO2-PCB were 4-8%
Letcher et al. (1994) determined MeSO2-PCB levels and
of PCB. The ratio of MeSO2-PCB to PCB decreased
PCBs in the same composite polar bear fat samples ana-
from west to east, due to an increase in the proportion of

Chapter 6 ท Persistent Organic Pollutants
273
higher chlorinated PCB congeners. Most of the PCBs which
late matter, tissues of planktonic and benthic invertebrates,
form methylsulfone metabolites have 4-6 chlorines.
and abyssal and coastal marine fish. The Resolute site also
In addition to the OC residues listed above, several oth-
permitted an assessment of transfer of contaminants to sea-
ers have been identified in polar bear tissues, but there is
birds, ringed seals, and belugas which were sampled in near-
much more limited information on their geographical distri-
by Lancaster Sound/Barrow Strait (Annex Tables 6ทA16 and
bution, and none on temporal trends. These OCs include
6ทA18). These measurements were also complemented with
PCDD/Fs (Norstrom et al. 1990), tris(p-chlorophenyl)me-
information on likely predator-prey linkages higher in the
thanol (Jarman et al. 1992), photoheptachlor (Zhu et al.
food web (see Figure 6ท2).
1994), and toxaphene (Zhu and Norstrom 1994).
As has been discussed in sections 6.6.4.4 and 6.6.4.5, tox-
PCDD/F levels in subcutaneous fat from polar bears in
aphene, PCBs, and DDT-related compounds, especially DDE,
the Canadian Arctic sampled in 1983-1984 ranged from 2-
were the predominant OCs measured in epontic particulate
23 pg TEQ/g ww (Norstrom et al. 1990). Newer data are
matter, in all size classes and taxa of pelagic and benthic zoo-
available on PCDD/F, nPCB, and mono-ortho PCB levels in
plankton and amphipods, and in tissues from Arctic cod and
polar bear liver collected in 1992-1994 from Canada (Let-
anadromous char (Annex Tables 6ทA15 and 6ทA17). In fish,
cher 1996, Letcher et al. 1996). Expressed as TCDD TEQs,
chlordane-related compounds were present in slightly lower
levels of PCDD/Fs were 27 pg/g lw, nPCBs were 29 pg/g lw,
amounts than toxaphene and PCBs, while concentrations of
and mono-ortho PCBs were 172 pg/g lw. Data on mono-
HCH isomers and HCB were lowest. The most abundant
ortho PCBs (CB 105, 118, 156, 157) in subcutaneous fat
compounds in air and seawater samples, HCH and HCB,
are available for polar bears from Svalbard (Bernhoft et al.
are the least prominent in Arctic marine biota from all tro-
1996). TEQs ranged from 82-256 pg/g lw. Oehme et al.
phic levels.
(1995a) determined PCDD/Fs and nPCBs in polar bear milk
Figure 6ท41 (next page) illustrates the bioaccumulation
from Svalbard. OCDD and OCDF were the major congen-
of the major OC groups at different trophic levels in the ma-
ers with concentrations ranging from 4-149 pg/g and 0.2-
rine food webs of Lancaster Sound and Svalbard. The tro-
5.7 pg/g lipid, respectively (Annex Table 6ทA19). Low (<1
phic levels were assigned based on the nitrogen (15N/14N)
pg/g) concentrations of 2,3,7,8-substituted tetra- to hepta-
stable isotope ratio results of Hobson and Welch (1992).
CDD/Fs were also detected. TCDD TEQs ranged from 1.0
These data were not available for the Svalbard animals,
to 3.5 pg/g lw. nPCBs were present at higher levels than the
therefore, they were assumed to be at the same trophic levels
tetra- to hepta-CDD/Fs. TCDD TEQs attributable to nPCBs
as those from the Canadian Arctic. A few organisms for
ranged from 3.0-9.2 pg/g lw.
which stable isotope data were not available, e.g., benthic
amphipods, Greenland halibut and redfish, were assigned a
trophic level value consistent with their known feeding rela-
6.6.4.9. Arctic fox (Svalbard)
tionships. Significant correlations were found between PCB
The Arctic fox does not migrate in the true sense of the
and trophic level (TL) at both Lancaster Sound (log PCB =
word, however, some populations feed in very different
ญ 0.64 + 0.99TL; r2 = 0.70; p < 0.001) and Svalbard (log PCB
habitats at different times of the year. The coastal popula-
= ญ 0.62 + 1.06 TL; r2 = 0.62; p < 0.001). Correlations for
tions primarily scavenge the leavings from other predators
CHL and TL were also significant for both food webs.
on the ice in the winter, and feed on small mammals, mainly
Slopes for PCB and CHL versus TL of approximately 1.0
lemmings, on land in the summer.
and 0.72, respectively, indicate a ten-fold increase for PCB
Arctic fox from Svalbard are mainly carnivorous, feeding
and a five-fold increase for CHL at each level of the food
on leftover kill from polar bears in winter, and on small
web. DDT concentrations at Svalbard and Lancaster Sound
mammals and birds in summer. Very high concentrations of
were also significantly correlated with trophic level if polar
PCB are observed in Arctic fox liver (0.5-15 g/g ww),
bear was omitted. DDT does not biomagnify between seals
among the highest concentrations observed in liver of any
and polar bears.
Arctic mammal (Wang-Andersen et al. 1993). CHL levels
A more detailed analysis of this data would show that
are also very high (Annex Table 6ทA20). If lipid weight con-
strong relationships are observed for other individual recal-
centrations are estimated from the liver wet weight concen-
citrant components of each OC group, such as CB 153
trations in Annex Table 6ทA20 (Skaare unpubl.), by assum-
(2,2',4,4',5,5'-hexachlorobiphenyl) (Norstrom 1996) and
ing that liver lipid content is 10% or lower, then the PCB
nonachlors, but other components, for example, trichloro-
levels (8.6-208 g/g lipid) are in the same ranges as for polar
biphenyls, would show no trend. Biomagnification of vari-
bear, and comparable or higher than other marine mammals.
ous OCs thus depends on structural properties of individual
Wang-Andersen et al. (1993) reported that CB 153 and
components. For example, in the case of PCBs, marine mam-
CB 180 dominated in samples, just as in polar bears. Sig-
mals, especially pinnipeds and polar bears, are capable of
nificantly higher levels of PCBs were found in older animals
metabolizing congeners with vicinal unsubstituted meta-,
(older than three years) with less than 2 cm of fat on the
para- positions, as well as ortho-, meta-positions (Boon et
rump, compared to young animals (1-2 years) with more
al. 1994). In general, the more highly chlorinated, less water
than 2 cm of fat. No data are available on OCs in Arctic
soluble compounds are preferentially accumulated because
fox from other circumpolar regions.
of a lower degree of metabolism. Similarly, for the complex
mixture of toxaphene, which contains compounds with 6-10
chlorine molecules, the heavier Cl
6.6.4.10. Specific examples of food web transfer ญ
8 and Cl9 bornanes accu-
mulate in Arctic zooplankton and benthic amphipods when
marine environment
compared to those present in seawater (Bidleman et al. 1993).
A series of studies undertaken since 1986 (Hargrave et al.
Biological factors are also important in modifying ob-
1989a, 1989b, 1993, Hargrave 1994), have investigated the
served biomagnification factors (BMF) values. For example,
transfer of persistent OCs in the marine food web. The stud-
in marine mammals, there is a positive correlation between
ies were conducted using facilities on the Canadian Ice Is-
tissue concentrations and age. Comparisons with lower tro-
land (79-81ฐN) and more recently at Resolute Bay (75ฐN,
phic levels and fish also show that more short-lived species
95ฐW). OCs were measured in epontic (under-ice) particu-
may have lower concentrations (Hargrave et al. 1992, 1993).

274
AMAP Assessment Report
ng/g lw
ng/g lw
100 000
100 000
Guillemots
Black-legged
Glaucous
PCB
kittiwake
gull
DDT
Glaucous gull
Polar
10 000
bear
10 000
Narwhal
Narwhal
Beluga
Black-legged kittiwake
Thick-billed murre
Beluga
Thick-billed
Greenland
Ringed seal
murre
halibut
1 000
1 000
Greenland
Common
halibut
Ringed seal
eider
Redfish
Benthic
Common
Redfish
amphipods
eider
Polar bear
Benthic
100
Guillemots
100
amphipods
Arctic char
Arctic cod
Pelagic
amphipods
Arctic char
Pelagic
Arctic cod
amphipods
10
10
Zooplankton
Zooplankton
1
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
5.5
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
5.5
Trophic level
Trophic level
ng/g lw
ng/g lw
10 000
10 000
Benthic
amphipods
Narwhal
Glaucous
gull
HCH
Polar
CHL
Beluga
bear
Glaucous gull
1 000
Thick-billed
Guillemots
murre
Narwhal
1 000
Greenland halibut
Black-legged kittiwake
Polar
Greenland
Pelagic
halibut
bear
Common
Ringed seal
amphipods
Arctic
Benthic
eider
Arctic
char
char
100
amphipods
Guillemots
Redfish
Beluga
100
Thick-billed murre
Pelagic
Zooplankton
Ringed seal
Arctic
amphipods
Arctic cod
cod
Common
eider
10
Zooplankton
10
Redfish
Black-legged
kittiwake
1
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
5.5
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
5.5
Trophic level
Trophic level
Lancaster
Sound
Dark circles represent values for Svalbard, light circles values for Lancaster Sound.
Svalbard
Figure 6ท41. Correlations between concentrations (lw) of major persistent OCs and trophic level in the marine food web for Svalbard and Lancaster Sound.
Trophic level data were assigned based on Hobson and Welch (1992). Trophic level of Greenland halibut and redfish were assumed to be 3.5, that is, higher
than cod, but lower than seals. Data for invertebrates are from Hargrave (1994). Other results are from Annexes 6งA3, 6งA15, 6งA17, and 6งA20.
Zooplankton and pelagic amphipods generally have a one-
could be explained if carcasses of marine mammals are a
to two-year long life cycle and these species, feeding on mi-
major component of their diet. In this case, lysianassid am-
croalgae and suspended particulate matter, accumulate less
phipods function as top predators in the Arctic marine food
of the most abundant OCs than do more long-lived fish and
web. In shallow water, smaller-sized amphipods in pelagic
benthic amphipod species.
and epontic populations are an important food resource for
The combined importance of life span and food source in
fish and seals. E. gryllus is restricted in its distribution to
affecting OC body burdens was evident in data for the large
deep water where there is a refuge from predation due to the
benthic lysianassid amphipod Eurythenes gryllus, which
low abundance of fish.
can contain concentrations that equal or exceed those in
BMFs were calculated for the marine food webs of Sval-
marine mammals. The life span of these organisms is not
bard and Lancaster Sound (Canadian Archipelago) using in-
well known, but it may exceed ten years, which is much
formation on likely predator-prey linkages in the Arctic ma-
greater than annual values for pelagic crustaceans (Har-
rine food web combined with OC concentrations (Table
grave et al. 1992). The food of these scavengers is thought
6ท17). The data for OCs and fraction lipid in biota used for
to be tissues of dead animals, and the high levels of OCs
these calculations are presented in the Annexes. BMFs for

Chapter 6 ท Persistent Organic Pollutants
275
Table 6ท17. Biomagnification of persistent organochlorines in Arctic marine food chains.
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Biomagnification factor (lipid/lipid basis for biota)
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Compound/
Zooplankton/
Arctic cod/
Seal/
Gull (eggs)/
Kittwake(eggs)/
Beluga/
Polar bear/
location
water
water
Arctic cod
Arctic cod
Arctic cod
Arctic cod
seal
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Svalbard a
CBz
2bญ b
5.0 104
3.3
32
17
ญ
3.6
HCH
ญ
5.8 105
7.8
12
2.1
ญ
4.1
CHL
ญ
3.6 107
3.9
24
4.5
ญ
10
DDT
ญ
1.2 106
36
172
37.1
ญ
0.3
PCB
ญ
4.3 106
48
525
214
ญ
14
Lancaster Sound c
CBz
1.4 106
2.7 106
1.7
40
8.8
18
2.2
HCH
2.6 104
1.0 104
7.6
17
1.2
1.9
0.9
CHL
2.3 106
6.2 106
5.8
49
5.7
25
3.7
DDT
1.0 107
8.9 107
3.9
208
15
36
0.3
PCB
5.5 105
8.5 106
7.0
313
68
38
7.2
Toxaphene
7.7 106
1.1 107
0.3
ญ
ญ
15
ญ
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
a. Results for Svalbard: Bernhoft et al. 1996 (polar bear); Oehme et al. 1988 (ringed seal, except for CBz and CHL results taken from `west ice' harp
seals (Skaare 1996)); Savinova et al. 1995b (seabirds); Killie and Dahle 1996a (Arctic cod); Chernyak et al. 1995 (seawater).
b. No results for zooplankton available in the Svalbard area.
c. Results for seawater from Bidleman et al. (1995b) and Falconer et al. (1995a); Lancaster Sound invertebrate data from Hargrave (1994); marine mam-
mal data from Annex Table 6ทA18; polar bear data from Norstrom et al. (1997 in press); seabird data from Annex Table 6ทA16.
various pairs of biota at Svalbard and Lancaster Sound are
Table 6ทA10), that they are difficult to reconcile with data
quite similar in most cases. For example, BMFs for Arctic
from other studies (e.g., Hargrave et al. 1988, Iwata et al.
cod to glaucous gull (eggs) were 525 for PCBs at Svalbard
1993), however, they are consistent with measurements
and 313 at Lancaster Sound. BMFs for PCBs and DDT
based on suspended particulate matter in seawater and with
between beluga/narwhal and their prey, are similar to those
reports of elevated DDT and PCBs in suspended sediments
reported for cetaceans in the North Sea (Duinker and Hille-
of some Russian rivers (e.g., the Ob River). If confirmed by
brand 1983) and in the northwest Pacific Ocean (Tanabe et
future measurements, this would imply major inputs of
al. 1984).
DDT and PCB to the Arctic Ocean from Russian sources.
The seal/bear BMF for HCH is lower at Lancaster Sound
The PCB levels in seawater are elevated when examined
than Svalbard, consistent with higher HCH concentra-
from the perspective of environmental quality guidelines.
tions in seal blubber at the former site. In general, the BMFs
For example, PCB concentrations exceed the guideline limit
for HCH were much lower than for the other OC groups.
for protection of freshwater aquatic life of 17 pg/L (USEPA
HCH concentrations also showed no correlation with tro-
1995) and guidelines of 1 ng/L (OMEE 1993) for total PCB
phic level. The lower bioaccumulation of HCH isomers is
concentrations in surface waters.
consistent with the more rapid rate of elimination and low-
Highest levels of HCH in the world's oceans are found
er bioconcentration factors reported for these compounds
in the Arctic Ocean, especially in the Beaufort Sea and Cana-
in laboratory studies with freshwater fish (Niimi 1987). Ta-
dian Arctic Archipelago. HCH levels measured in the late
nabe et al. (1984) observed a BMF of 3.7
104 for HCH
1980s to early 1990s appear to increase in a smooth gradi-
from water to striped dolphin in the northwestern Pacific
ent with latitude from the tropical western Pacific Ocean to
Ocean, which is close to the BMF calculated for water to
the Arctic Ocean. Wania and Mackay (1996) have suggested
beluga (6.3
104). Low seal-to-bear BMFs for DDT at
that this is evidence of the `cold-condensation' effect. Other
both locations reflect the capacity of polar bears to metabo-
less volatile OCs (e.g., chlordanes, PCB, DDT) were present
lize DDT-related compounds.
at lower concentrations in the Bering/Chukchi Seas than at
There are large uncertainties in the BMFs between lower
more temperate latitudes.
food web organisms, such as zooplankton and Arctic cod.
The transport of these contaminants by sea ice either in
The BMFs are based on mean concentrations and, there-
ice and overlying snow or associated with sediment particles
fore, have uncertainties of at least a factor of 2, but less
embedded in sea ice could result in their release in marginal
than a factor of ten. With data presently available, however,
ice areas. Pfirman et al. (1995) make an interesting case that
the observed patterns of biomagnification between organ-
the release of these particulates following melting in the mar-
isms and for various compounds are sufficient to account
ginal ice areas in the Greenland and Barents Seas may be an
for high OC levels observed in marine fish and mammals.
important mechanism for focusing contaminants from a wide
area of the Arctic into these regions. Higher PCB levels east
of Greenland and especially in the Svalbard area in polar
6.6.4.11. Summary and conclusions: Marine environment
bears and several marine mammal species (e.g., ringed seals,
6.6.4.11.1. Abiotic environment
harp seals) may be due to a combined influence of long-range
The information now available on POPs in seawater, ice,
atmospheric transport from North America and Europe plus
snow, suspended sediment, and bottom sediments is now
the melting of ice transported from the Laptev/Kara Seas.
far superior to that which was available for previous assess-
There is insufficient evidence to confirm this and clearly it
ments of marine pollution in the Arctic (Muir et al. 1992b).
should be a priority for future work.
Recent data confirm that the relative abundance in pelagic
While evidence for transfer of OCs via ice may be lacking,
Arctic seawater is -HCH > HCB > -HCH toxaphene >
there is evidence that the elevated concentrations of HCH,
chlordanes PCBs > DDTs, as described by Bidleman et al.
DDT, and PCB in Russian rivers (on SPM or in whole
(1990). An exception seems to be the Russian Arctic seas,
water) and nearshore seawaters has given rise to higher con-
where the order is reversed, PCBs > DDT > HCH >
centrations of these POPs in surficial sediments, particularly
CHL > chlorobenzenes. PCB concentrations in some sea-
in the Baydaratskaya, Ob, Pechora, and Khatanga Gulfs.
water samples are so high, for example, 15 ng/L (Annex
Circumpolar coverage of OCs in surface grab samples of

276
AMAP Assessment Report
marine sediments is relatively good in Norwegian and Rus-
pounds to the Arctic Ocean are roughly in balance. There
sian waters, especially in the Barents Sea. In general, con-
are numerous uncertainties in the modeling of toxaphene.
centrations of all OCs in marine sediments are extremely
For example, there appear to be no data on toxaphene in
low in comparison with freshwater sediments. Most sites
marine sediments and inputs from rivers are also largely un-
have PCB concentrations less than 1 ng/g dw. These sedi-
known. Other factors, such as limitations in icecover data,
ment concentrations are generally low from an environmen-
compound the uncertainty in the toxaphene loading calcula-
tal quality point of view. They do not exceed sediment ERL
tions, therefore, at present, it is unlikely that atmospheric
values for PCBs (Table 6ท14) associated with low probability
loadings of toxaphene can be estimated to better than an
of effects (Long et al. 1995).
order of magnitude. Further measurements, especially of
A distinct difference between offshore and nearshore sedi-
concentrations in the European Arctic Ocean waters, are
ments is evident at locations along the coast of Norway be-
critical to making more accurate budgets for toxaphene.
tween Bergen and Troms๘ and along the Russian coast. Re-
There are also large uncertainties in the inputs and out-
latively high levels of HCH, PCB, and HCB were found
puts of PCBs to the Arctic Ocean. However, it is clear that
at some sites on the Norwegian coast compared to open ocean
riverine inputs and sedimentation are much more important
sites in the Norwegian Sea. Data are lacking on OCs in ma-
input and removal processes, respectively, for PCBs than for
rine sediments from the Canadian and Alaskan Arctic, except
HCH and toxaphene. Using average concentrations of 5 ng/L
for a limited number of samples from the southern Beaufort
PCBs in Eurasian rivers, fluxes of 15 tonnes/y are estimated.
Sea, the Cambridge Bay area, and the Bering/Chukchi Seas.
These inputs represent 24% of the total inputs estimated for
Levels of PCDD/Fs have been determined in marine sedi-
PCBs. Although the 5 ng/L concentration is highly uncertain,
ments from northern Norway (near Kirkenes), in the Mac-
levels one-tenth as large (that is, equivalent to North Ameri-
kenzie River Delta area, and in the Barents Sea. PCDD/Fs in
can rivers) would still give rise to significant inputs. Thus,
the Barents Sea were 10 to 20 times lower than those in the
knowledge of riverine inputs from Eurasian sources is criti-
northern North Sea. There was no evidence of direct conta-
cal for accurate estimates of PCB loadings to the Arctic Ocean.
mination of nearshore Barents Sea sediments by PCDD/Fs
By comparison, ocean current inputs are less significant be-
emitted from a smelter on B๘kfjord near Kirkenes in north-
cause of low surface water PCB concentrations.
ern Norway. PCDD/F isomer patterns were very similar for
both the Barents Sea and North Sea samples and indicative
6.6.4.11.3. Biota
of combustion sources. PCDD/F homologue patterns in es-
tuarine sediments from the Mackenzie River Delta region of
Recent studies of contaminants in Arctic anadromous and
Canada differed from those in freshwater sediments upstream
marine fish, seabirds, and marine mammals have greatly ex-
and also from typical North American patterns in which
panded the information available on levels of persistent OCs.
OCDD predominates. The sources of PCDD/Fs at the Mac-
Geographic coverage of important species identified in the
kenzie Delta location are unknown. TCDD TEQ levels in
AMAP monitoring plan, such as Arctic cod, ringed seal, and
most marine or estuarine sediments exceeded Canadian en-
polar bear, is good in the western hemispheric Arctic (Alaska,
vironmental quality guidelines for protection of aquatic life
Canadian Archipelago, West and East Greenland, and the
of 0.09 pg/g dw, but did not exceed the Norwegian Envi-
Norwegian and Barents Seas). There is limited information
ronmental Authority `background' levels of 30 pg/g TEQs.
on OCs in marine biota from the Kara and Laptev Seas.
Measurements made in coastal regions of northern Nor-
Most of the persistent organic pollutants originally identi-
way show sediment contamination by TBT in several har-
fied for monitoring in biota in the AMAP plan have been de-
bors (Berge 1995). TBT concentrations are highly variable,
termined. Typically, data are available for HCB, HCH iso-
as they are elsewhere, and are probably related to shipping
mers, major chlordane and DDT-related compounds, and at
activities and local rates of flushing and sedimentation.
least seven PCB congeners. Information on toxaphene, espe-
cially in biota from the Eurasian Arctic Ocean, is much more
limited. Toxaphene was found to be the major OC contami-
6.6.4.11.2. Modeling
nant in muscle of Arctic cod from the Canadian Arctic. Very
Results of mass balance modeling of HCH suggest that the
limited information from analyses of anadromous char and
Arctic Ocean is in steady state with respect to -HCH inputs
whitefish from Russian locations suggests that toxaphene may
and is exporting -HCH. Inputs and outputs of HCHs are
also be an important contaminant in these areas.
dominated by ocean current advection, with about a 15%
Data on nPCBs and PCDD/Fs is very limited compared to
contribution by atmospheric processes, largely air-sea gas
that for OC pesticides and ortho-substituted PCBs. Where
exchange (Figure 6ท30). In the future, we can expect to see a
non-ortho-substituted PCBs and PCDD/Fs have been mea-
decline in the large pool of -HCH in the Canada Basin due
sured in the same sample of marine biota, TCDD TEQs are
to drainage out through the Canadian Archipelago and to a
mainly due to the PCBs. This is the case for fish, marine mam-
lesser extent by sea-to-air volatilization. Outgassing will also
mals, and polar bears. No PCDD/F or nPCB data were avail-
result in a slow decline of both HCH isomers in waters of
able for seabirds in the Arctic.
the Eurasian Basin and the regional seas, assuming that at-
In general, lipid weight PCB levels in freshwater fish are
mospheric concentrations continue their downward trend.
very similar to levels in anadromous and marine fish, with
The fugacity ratios for HCH measured in the Canadian
the major differences being related to trophic level. For ex-
Archipelago (1992-1994), the Bering/Chukchi Seas, and on
ample, predatory fish, such as lake trout and burbot (fresh-
the transpolar cruise in 1994 were greater than 1.0 at most
water) and marine gadiformes (cod-like fish), have higher
stations. This implies that northern waters are now oversat-
OC levels than other fish.
urated and outgassing HCHs to the atmosphere. Toxaphene
Although circumpolar coverage for any one species is poor,
and HCHs which are trapped under the polar cap are thus
and sample numbers very limited in many key locations, the
`ghosts of the past' and will be slowly drained, largely through
results for OCs in marine invertebrates and fish indicate gen-
the Canadian Archipelago, on a time scale of decades.
erally higher levels of PCBs and DDT in biota from Russian
Although the modeling results for toxaphene are highly
waters. Evidence for this includes higher PCB, DDT, and
uncertain, they suggest that inputs and outputs of the com-
chlorobenzene levels in bivalve mussels from the Ob and

Chapter 6 ท Persistent Organic Pollutants
277
Baydaratskaya Gulfs (southern Kara Sea) than in samples
are also higher in samples from Svalbard, Horn๘ya, and the
from Iceland or Greenland; higher PCB levels in zooplank-
Kola Peninsula compared to samples from the High Arctic
ton in waters of the European Arctic than at the highest lat-
and eastern lower Arctic sites of Canada. However, HCH
itudes in the Canada/Eurasian Basins; highest levels of PCBs
levels are higher in thick-billed murre from Canada than
in Coregonus sp. from Russian rivers compared to Canadian
from Norwegian sites.
rivers; and, higher PCBs in Arctic cod from the southern
All POPs, organochlorines as well as brominated organ-
Novaya Zemlya area compared to Arctic cod from the Green-
ics, that have been detected in tissues of marine biota in tem-
land Sea. While sample numbers from Russian waters are
perate waters (that is, the Baltic Sea, the North Sea, the Gulf
generally too small, especially for anadromous species, to
of St. Lawrence, the Mediterranean) have also been detected
make general conclusions about spatial variations of OC
in Arctic pinnipeds and cetaceans. Data are available for
levels in Russian waters, the results are consistent with high-
concentrations of major PCB congeners (all studies have de-
er levels of PCBs and DDT reported in surface sediments
termined CB 28/31, 52, 101, 118, 153, 138, 180, and most
and seawater from this region.
have determined more congeners), DDT and chlordane-re-
Although bivalve mussels are widely used for monitoring
lated compounds, HCH isomers, and HCB. Less frequently
POPs in marine environments, there are insufficient data in
measured are the chlorobornanes (toxaphene components)
Arctic waters with which to discern spatial trends. This is
and cyclodienes (dieldrin, endrin). There are very few data
particularly the case with TBT.
on toxaphene in Arctic marine mammals from Greenland,
The levels of OCs in Atlantic cod liver from the Barents
Norwegian, or Russian waters. PCDD/Fs have been deter-
Sea were lower than the levels found in cod from Halten-
mined, along with non-ortho-substituted PCBs, in seals from
banken in the Norwegian Sea and cod from the northern
Arctic Canada, northeast Greenland and Svalbard, but in-
parts of the North Sea. The lowest OC concentrations were
formation on their spatial trends is limited. Brominated di-
found in livers of cod from different stocks in Icelandic and
phenyl ethers and brominated biphenyls were also identified
Faeroese waters.
in ringed seal blubber from Svalbard, but no comparable
Relatively high levels of OCs were found in Greenland
data are available for other locations.
halibut liver and muscle. Levels in muscle are three to five
A west to east increase in some OC levels, from North
times higher than wet weight levels in sea run char muscle
America to western Russia, is indicated in blubber of harp
and 15-20 times higher than Arctic cod (whole fish). Lower
seals and possibly in ringed seals. PCBs and DDT levels
PCB levels were found in Greenland halibut muscle from
in harp seals from northeastern Greenland (`west ice' north
the Norwegian and Barents Sea. PCB concentrations in
of Jan Mayen Island) were found to be about two- to three-
Greenland halibut muscle do not exceed guidelines of 2
fold lower than those from northern Norway (Jarfjord, Skjๅ-
g/g for import of fish in the European community.
nes) and western Russian waters (`east ice'). Highest levels
Berg et al. (1996) provided the first data on OCs in a
of PCBs and DDT in Arctic ringed seals were found in
number of important deep sea fish. OC levels in liver of
samples from the Yenisey Gulf. PCB levels in (female) harp
these deep sea Arctic species were similar to or slightly
seals collected at Salluit in Hudson Strait were similar to lev-
higher than concentrations in Atlantic cod caught at the
els in females from northeastern Greenland, but 2.5-fold
same depth in the northwest Atlantic (off Newfoundland/
lower than mean levels in females from the southern Barents
Labrador). They concluded that predatory fish were dis-
Sea in western Russia.
tinguished from shallow depth pelagic feeders, such as
The large number of ringed seal populations studied has
Arctic cod, by lower levels of more water soluble OCs,
revealed the large degree of complexity of geographic trends
such as HCH, and higher proportions of highly chlori-
for this species. Ringed seals from Hudson Bay had higher
nated PCB congeners. This reflects the fact that more
concentrations of PCB and DDT than those in the central
highly chlorinated PCBs are preferentially sorbed to sink-
Canadian Archipelago and western Greenland. However,
ing particles, whereas HCH in seawater is mainly in the
ringed seals from eastern Greenland (Scoresbysund), Sval-
dissolved phase with much lower dissolved concentrations
bard, and northern Norway had similar PCB levels to those
at depth.
in Hudson Bay. The high levels in seals from Russian waters,
Surveys of OC levels in eggs and tissues of Arctic seabirds
compared with other Arctic locations, are consistent with
show that seabirds breeding in the High Arctic are contami-
observations of higher PCB levels in seabirds, marine fish,
nated with a similar suite of organic contaminants as those
river water SPM, and some nearshore marine sediments in
breeding in temperate regions. Glaucous gull, herring gull,
the western and central Russian Arctic. Additional samples
black-legged kittiwake, cormorant, and puffin generally
are needed from the Russian Arctic to confirm this trend.
have the highest lipid weight OC levels. DDE concentra-
An exception to this geographic trend in most OCs is the
tions were highest in glaucous gulls from the Canadian
higher level of HCH in Canadian Arctic ringed seals than
High Arctic (1580 ng/g ww) and herring gull from western
in the same species from Greenland and Svalbard. In Arctic
Finnmark, Lofoten, and Troms๘ (440, 530, and 1000 ng/g
cod, samples from the Canadian Arctic Archipelago had
ww, respectively) and Br�nnich's guillemot from Svalbard.
about two to three-fold higher levels of HCH (46 ng/g lw)
These levels are higher, on a lipid weight basis, than concen-
than Arctic cod from the Barents Sea (14-36 ng/g lw). A sim-
trations in seals from the same areas.
ilar situation is seen for thick-billed murre. The elevated lev-
Although circumpolar coverage is incomplete, the picture
els of HCH are consistent with higher HCH in seawater
that emerges from the results of OC analyses in Arctic sea-
in the Canadian Archipelago and Beaufort Sea.
birds is that the Barents Sea may be more contaminated with
Norwegian and Canadian data suggest that levels of PCBs
PCB and DDT than the Canadian High Arctic. There is no
in blubber of ringed seals and harbour seals decline from
information on OC contaminant levels in seabirds from the
south to north. The two seal species are relatively sedentary
Alaskan Arctic or the Chukchi/East Siberian Seas with which
and, therefore, better indicators than migratory species such
to assess the geographic extent of this trend. Lipid weight
as harp seal. The large data set on OCs in ringed seal blub-
levels of most OCs in black-legged kittiwake eggs from Sval-
ber offers the possibility of more rigorously establishing cir-
bard are higher than in eggs from a site in the High Arctic
cumpolar geographical trends of OCs after adjusting for age,
in Canada. DDT and PCB levels in thick-billed murre eggs
sex, blubber thickness, and other factors.

278
AMAP Assessment Report
Decreasing PCB concentrations with increasing north lati-
tude are also observed for harbour seal when results for the
Norwegian Arctic are combined with data for seals from the
Wadden Sea and the coast of England. PCB concentrations
in harbour and grey seal blubber may be slightly higher in
Jarfjord near the Russian border than along the Norwegian
Jarfjord
Sea coast of Norway.
-1SD
mean
+1SD
Svalbard
Fewer analyses of kidney, liver, and muktuk than of blub-
ber of marine mammals have been conducted. This reflects
Thule
the fact that OC concentrations are uniformly lower in these
Inukjuaq
Ringed seal
tissues than in blubber, corresponding to their lower lipid
Baltic
content. However, from the point of view of dietary expo-
sure of indigenous peoples, there is a need for information,
Salluit
especially for muktuk (skin plus some fat), which is con-
Newfoundland
sumed as part of the traditional whale hunt. There are ap-
Harp seal
parently no data on OC levels in muktuk from Greenland.
N.E. Greenland (`West Ice')
Levels of persistent OCs in polar bear tissues have been
W. Russia (`East Ice')
the focus of detailed studies at Svalbard and in the Canadian
Jarfjord
Harbour seal
Arctic. Extremely high PCB levels (up to 80 g/g in fat of
males and up to 36.7 g/g in females) were found in some
Baltic
adults from Svalbard. PCB levels found in adult males were
Skagerrak
significantly higher than in young and adult female bears.
Oslofjord
The highest CHL levels were found in young (3.38 g/g
in fat) and subadult bears (3.44 g/g). Levels of CHL were
N.W. Pacific
significantly lower in adult (7-15 year) and old males (16-22
Fur seal
years) than in subadults, which suggests an increased capa-
0.3
1.0
3.0
10
30
100
300
city with age to metabolize chlordane-related compounds.
PCB ตg/g blubber
Indeed, the metabolite oxychlordane constituted 72% of
Figure 6ท42. Comparison of PCB concentrations in seal blubber from
CHL in all polar bear fat samples that were analyzed.
various Arctic regions with results from the same species in temperate
Considerable amounts of OCs are transferred to polar
waters. Vertical bars represent means and the horizontal bars the stan-
dard deviation, where available. Results are generally for females except
bear offspring via milk. Correlations of OCs in subcutane-
where a combined result for males and females was reported. Data are
ous fat with levels in plasma and milk were significant for
from Annex 6งA18.
most OC compounds, indicating a more efficient OC trans-
North-south differences in levels of PCB in seals are
fer between subcutaneous lipid depot and circulatory lipids,
summarized in Figure 6ท42. Female adult ringed seals from
than from the circulatory system to milk, particularly for the
the Baltic Sea have about 40 times higher levels of PCBs
most lipophilic compounds.
than ringed seals from Svalbard and 100 times higher than
PCDD/F levels in Canadian polar bear fat sampled in
seals from Thule in western Greenland. Harbour seals from
1983-1984 ranged from 2-23 pg TEQ/g ww (Norstrom et
Jarfjord have about 20 times lower PCB levels than the
al. 1990). More recent Canadian data from 1992-1994 gave
same species in the Baltic or Skagerrak Seas. Female fur
PCDD/F, nPCB, and mono-ortho PCB levels in liver of 27 pg
seals from the northwest Pacific coast of Japan (Tanabe et
TEQ/g lw, 29 pg/g lw, and 172 pg/g lw, respectively (Letcher
al. 1994a, 1994b) have similar PCB levels to harbour seals
1996, Letcher et al. 1996). TEQs from mono-ortho PCBs
in Jarfjord and harp seals in the southern Barents Sea.
(CB 105, 118, 156, 157) in subcutaneous fat from Svalbard
Slightly higher PCB and toxaphene levels are observed in
polar bears ranged from 82 to 256 pg/g lw (Bernhoft et al.
the Baffin Bay and southeast Baffin beluga compared to
1996), which is in the same range as for the Canadian polar
those from the Chukchi/Bering Seas and from the western
bears. Oehme et al. (1995a) determined PCDD/Fs and nPCBs
Canadian Arctic (southern Beaufort Sea). A single beluga
in polar bear milk from Svalbard. TEQs from PCDD/F were
blubber sample from the White Sea had the highest levels of
1.0-3.5 pg/g lw, and for nPCBs 3.0-9.2 pg/g lw.
all persistent OCs found in Arctic beluga. Unfortunately, no
The circumpolar study of OCs in polar bear fat by Nor-
other samples of beluga from Russia have been analyzed.
strom et al. (1998 in press) shows generally increasing OC
North-south comparisons can also be made with beluga
concentrations from west to east, similar to that observed in
because of the presence of isolated populations in the St. Law-
several other marine species. Higher PCB levels were found
rence estuary and Cook Inlet (Alaska). PCB concentra-
in bears from eastern Greenland and Svalbard, in agreement
tions, in beluga blubber from the eastern Canadian Arctic
with results of Bernhoft et al. (1996) from the Svalbard popu-
(about 6 g/g lw in male belugas, and 4 g/g in females)
lation. This trend, which is also seen in ringed seals and harp
were about 12-times lower (in males) than in blubber of dead
seals, as well as in seabirds such as glaucous gull, may be due
belugas from the St. Lawrence estuary. Levels of PCB in
to the combined influence of long-range atmospheric trans-
belugas from Cook Inlet on the Pacific coast of Alaska were
port from North America and Europe. Another possible fac-
about two-fold lower than in the Beaufort Sea population.
tor is transport of contaminants in sea ice and overlying snow
Harbour porpoise from northern Norway had the highest
or associated with sediment particles embedded in sea ice de-
levels of PCBs and DDT of any cetacean in Arctic waters.
rived from the Russian continental shelf. Pfirman et al. (1995)
Like other odontocetes in the Canadian Arctic, the porpoises
have suggested that release of these particulates, following
had higher proportions of lower chlorinated PCBs, and high-
melting in the marginal ice areas in the Greenland and Ba-
er concentrations of chlordane and dieldrin than animals
rents Seas, may be an important mechanism of focusing cont-
from southern Norway. PCB concentrations in blubber of har-
aminants from wide areas of the Arctic into these regions.
bour porpoise from northern Norway are lower than levels
CHL and HCB in polar bears were more uniformly dis-
in animals from the west coast and southern coast of Norway.
tributed over the study area. This result is consistent with the

Chapter 6 ท Persistent Organic Pollutants
279
finding of lower geographical variation of CHL and HCB in
The high degree of variability of contaminant levels in tis-
air and seawater in the northern latitudes than in tropical areas
sues makes it difficult to identify and statistically confirm
(Iwata et al. 1993). The lower CHL levels in polar bears from
temporal trends. As discussed previously (section 6.6), nu-
Wrangel Island and the Alaskan Beaufort Sea area indicate that
merous factors including an organism's size, age, fitness, re-
CHL loading is less in the Chukchi and Bering Seas than in
productive status, individual food preferences or habits, and
the rest of the Arctic. This is consistent with results in seawa-
many environmental factors influence OC levels in biota.
ter, for which high CHL levels are found in the Canadian
Environmental factors that differ between years, particularly
Archipelago and Barents Sea compared with the Chukchi Sea.
temperature, unusual climatic conditions, and productivity,
Concentrations of PCB and CHL observed in Arctic
are a major cause of variation, making it even more difficult
fox liver are among the highest observed in liver of any
to detect temporal trends.
Arctic mammal. On a lipid weight basis, assuming that liver
Ice cap records are potentially very useful for elucidating
lipid content is 10% or lower, the PCB levels (8.6-208 g/g
long-term temporal trends in POP deposition. Unlike lakes,
lw) are in the same range as observed in polar bear, and
the ice cap receives snow directly, and there are no terrestrial
comparable or higher than in other marine mammals.
processes that must be considered when interpreting the re-
BMFs estimated for various pairs of biota in the marine
cord. Information about short-term (less than 50 year) tem-
food webs at Svalbard and Lancaster Sound are quite simi-
poral trends of OCs are also available from lake sediment
lar in most cases. Highest BMFs were found between glau-
cores and from biota in the terrestrial, freshwater, and ma-
cous gull/kittiwake (eggs) and Arctic cod. BMFs of some
rine environments.
OCs were lower at higher trophic levels, reflecting increased
Observations about temporal trends in contaminant lev-
biotransformation in top predators. For example, the BMFs
els in both the abiotic and biotic Arctic often coincide with
for DDT from ringed seal to polar bear and from Arctic
temporal trends in biological effects. These trends are dis-
cod to ringed seal were less than one, as was the BMF for
cussed in section 6.8.
toxaphene for Arctic cod to ringed seal.
Significant correlations were found between PCB and
6.7.1. Air and precipitation
CHL concentrations and trophic level for the marine food
6.7.1.1. Temporal trends of OCs in air
webs of Svalbard and Lancaster Sound. The slopes of the
relationships were very similar implying a similarity in the
Concentrations of HCH in Arctic air have been measured
pathways of transfer of these persistent contaminants in
in the Bering/Chukchi Seas and at several locations in the
both regions. The results indicate an increase of ten-fold for
Canadian Arctic Archipelago since 1979, generally in the
PCB and five-fold for CHL at each level of the food web.
summer months. Declining concentrations of HCH were
DDT also increased about seven-fold with each level of
observed, from more than 900 pg/m3 in the early 1980s to
the food web, except between seals and bears.
100 pg/m3 in the early 1990s (Figure 6ท43) (Jantunen and
Bidleman 1995, Bidleman et al. 1995b). The results suggest
HCH in air
6.7. Temporal variation in POP levels
pg/m3
1 000
The accurate monitoring of temporal trends in both the
abiotic and biotic environments is necessary in order to de-
termine the correlation between contaminant inputs and
800
risk to biota in an area. It must be determined whether re-
medial actions reduce inputs of contaminants into the envi-
600
ronment. Temporal trends measured in biota can also serve
as warning signals if contamination levels increase, or if lev-
els do not change over time in response to remedial actions.
400
In addition, the verification of many models depends on in-
formative time trend measurements.
200
A critical question in the assessment of persistent organic
pollutants in the Arctic is, therefore whether concentrations
in both abiotic and biotic media are increasing or decreas-
0
1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993
ing. Consequently, we have considered temporal trends sep-
arately from the discussion of prevailing concentrations and
Toxaphene in air
pg/m3
spatial trends. With a few exceptions, assessment of tempo-
ral trends of OCs in the Arctic is very difficult because most
50
measurements are recent. The Arctic was long regarded as a
clean, remote area, removed from the pollution of the ur-
40
banized parts of the world. For this reason, studies in which
contaminants were measured seldom lasted more than a
30
few years; many involved sampling in only a single year and
samples were not archived. Also, up until the early 1980s,
analytical methods for OCs used packed column GC and
20
different methods of quantification, for example, PCBs as
Aroclor or Phenochlor equivalents compared with current
10
congener-specific analyses. Adjustments can be made for the
different methodologies, however, some comparisons still
0
have a high degree of uncertainty. Archived samples have
1979 1980 1981 1982
1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990
1991 1992 1993
provided some information about temporal trends in conta-
Figure 6ท43. Temporal trends in concentrations of HCH and toxaphene
minant levels, but samples are limited.
in Arctic air.

280
AMAP Assessment Report
a nine-fold decline over 14 years. This decline in airborne
Mono-/di-/tri-CBs
concentrations has been paralleled by a significant, but much
Tetra-nona CBs
smaller decline in HCH in surface seawater of about 3%
Agassiz Ice Cap
per year (Bidleman et al. 1995b).
Air monitoring from 1984 to 1992 on Svalbard also
1992-1993
showed a consistent decline in HCH. Oehme et al. (1995b)
1990-1991
found lower mean concentrations for -HCH in spring
1992 at Ny-ลlesund compared to results from the same
months in 1984. When concentrations for 1984 and 1992-
1994 are considered, the decline may be as much as two-
1985-1986
fold. Oehme et al. (1995b) also observed declines in -HCH
at two sites in mainland Norway between 1984 and 1992.
However, -HCH levels were higher in 1992 at all three Nor-
1980-1981
wegian air-monitoring sites than in 1984, reflecting the in-
creased use of lindane and declining use of -HCH as use of
technical HCH products ceased in Europe during the 1980s.
1975-1976
Although the number of samples from the 1980s was
small, recent atmospheric measurements suggest that a de-
cline in toxaphene has also taken place. A direct compari-
1970-1972
son between summertime measurements in 1986-1988 (Ice
Increasing depth of the snow core
Island, Canada and the Bering/Chukchi Seas) and 1992-
1993 (Resolute Bay, Canada and the Bering/Chukchi Seas)
1965-1966
suggests that toxaphene levels decreased by a factor of 3
over this time period (Figure 6ท43). In these studies, toxa-
phene was sampled by the same method (filter-polyurethane
0
200
400
600
800
1 000
foam), the same air pumps and volume calibration proce-
Flux (ng/m2/y)
dures were used, and the analysis of all samples was done
Figure 6ท44. Deposition of PCBs, as mono/di/trichloro- and tetra-nona-
by GC-NIMS using the total peak area method of quantifi-
chlorobiphenyls) in snow cores from the Agassiz Ice Cap (northern Elles-
cation. A second comparison can be made between the 1980s
mere Island, Canada) (Gregor et al. 1995). Combined light and dark
NIMS measurements and the 1992-1994 adjusted values
shaded sections of each bar indicate PCB flux.
from Tagish and Alert (Table 6ท6). This comparison suggests
that the recent toxaphene levels are 1.5-2.5 times lower.
The minimum for the period of record was 91 ng/m2/y in
1980/81. The maximum annual deposition for the period of
record was 930 ng/m2/y in 1967/68. Subsequently, PCB de-
6.7.1.2. Long-term trends in OCs in precipitation ญ
position rose again with a local maximum of 848 ng/m2/y in
the Agassiz Ice Cap
1989/90. The mean annual flux for the last three years of
Gregor et al. (1995) examined a 30-year record of PCB
record (1990/91, 1991/92, and 1992/93) is 465 ng/m2/y,
residues in the Agassiz Ice Cap (80ฐ49'50''N, 72ฐ56'30''W)
which is not significantly different but moderately higher
on Ellesmere Island in Canada. Winter is an important pe-
than the period of record mean flux (406 ng/m2/y). This in-
riod for the atmospheric transport of contaminants into the
dicates the absence of any overall temporal trend for the
north due to the strong Siberian anticyclone which causes
time period from 1964/65 to 1992/93. The fluxes of lower
winds to flow mainly from the Eurasian continent into the
chlorinated PCB congeners dominated with only infre-
Arctic. Snow is an effective scavenger of contaminants, prob-
quent detections of congeners with eight or more chlorines
ably even of hydrophobic compounds at low temperature.
(Gregor et al. 1995).
In addition, the Agassiz Ice Cap is believed to provide a
credible record of pollutant deposition for the following
6.7.2. Terrestrial environment
reasons: (i) average summer melt affects only about 3% of
6.7.2.1. Temporal trends of PCBs in moss across Norway
the winter snow layer, resulting in negligible redistribution
of ions between layers (Barrie et al. 1985); and (ii) annual
Lead et al. (1996a) analyzed samples of the epigeic moss
snow accumulation at this latitude and elevation represents,
Hylocomium splendens collected in 1977, 1985, and 1990
on the average, more than 75% of the total annual precipi-
from 46 remote sites across Norway for 37 PCB congeners
tation (Woo et al. 1983). The seasonal specific conductance
(Annex Table 6ทA3). PCB concentrations decreased with
record of the firn reflects the trace constituent composition
time in all samples from all locations, reflecting the global
of the atmospheric aerosol (Barrie et al. 1985), which un-
decline in the manufacture and use of these compounds. In
dergoes a strong seasonal variation with maximum ion con-
the north of Norway, mean PCB concentrations in coastal
centrations and therefore specific conductance during the
areas fell from 21.2 ng/g dw in 1977 to 6.9 ng/g in 1990,
Arctic winter (Rahn and Shaw 1982, Hoff and Barrie 1986).
and in inland areas from 27.7 ng/g to 7.9 ng/g. Over the
The PCB (60 congeners) flux (ng/m2/y) profiles from
same time period, PCB in the south of the country de-
samples representing 30 years of deposition are shown in
creased from 52.1 ng/g to 9.5 ng/g. As moss depends entirely
Figure 6ท44. PCB concentrations over the period of the
on the atmosphere for delivery of nutrients and lacks both
record ranged from 1.2 to 6.7 ng/L. Mean annual PCB
cuticle and internal transport mechanisms, this reduction is
deposition ( 1 standard deviation) to the ice cap over the
indicative of a decrease in atmospheric PCB concentrations.
30 years was 406 ( 187) ng/m2/y. The general temporal
A latitude-dependent change in the congener profile was
pattern of deposition is a period of high deposition prior to
noted. Although the relative importance of the higher chlori-
1968/69; in 1968/69 there was a significant decrease in
nated PCBs increased at all sites, it did so most in samples
deposition followed by a slow, consistent increase until
from the north of Norway (Annex Table 6ทA3). Lead et al.
1979/80 when a further decrease in deposition occurred.
(1996a) tentatively interpret this as evidence for differences

Chapter 6 ท Persistent Organic Pollutants
281
in PCB congener cycling in the environment according to
6.7.2.3.1. The North American peregrine falcon
volatility. They believe that this is consistent with the cold
condensation hypothesis (Wania and Mackay 1993).
Johnstone (1994) reported that there has been an overall de-
Lead et al. (1996b) also reported temporal trends for the
crease of contaminant levels in plasma from peregrine falcons
PCB content of United Kingdom soils between 1951 and
at Rankin Inlet since the early 1980s (Annex Table 6ทA5).
1993. They found increasing PCB concentrations up to
Mean p,p'-DDE levels in peregrine falcon eggs declined from
the late 1960s / early 1970s, after which there was a substan-
7.6 g/g (ww) in the 1980s to 4.5 g/g in the 1990s. PCB
tial decline. There was an increase in the relative importance
(as Aroclor 1254 : 1260, 1 : 1) showed no significant change
of the heavier, more highly chlorinated, homologue groups
(means of 8.7 g/g ww in 1981-1985 and 8.31 g/g ww in
over this time period. The authors believe that PCBs are be-
1991-94). Dieldrin, oxychlordane, and HCB also showed no
ing lost by volatilization from temperate soils. There is then
change in concentration over the 10-13 year period.
an accumulation of the heavier compounds in colder regions.
A review by Peakall et al. (1990) of measurements of OCs
For the less chlorinated groups, however, temperatures seem
in falcon eggs from northern Canada from the mid-1960s to
to be high enough, even in the north of Norway, for revola-
1987 suggests that DDT levels in both Falco peregrinus
tilization to occur. A latitudinal fractionation, driven main-
anatum and F. tundrius eggs remained constant at levels near
ly by lower summer temperatures, particularly in the Arctic
12-13 g/g ww (Annex Table 6ทA5), over the period 1966 to
regions of Norway, is thus thought to be occurring.
1987. Levels of heptachlor epoxide (heptachlor is a major
component of technical chlordane) increased in all peregrine
eggs from the Canadian north, coinciding with increased use
6.7.2.2. Temporal trends of OCs in reindeer in Sweden
of chlordane in the 1970s and 1980s (Peakall et al. 1990)
A study at Abisko, Sweden, on a reindeer herd with a de-
(Annex Table 6ทA5). These temporal trends generally matched
fined spatial range, provided information on temporal
those in gyrfalcon (Falco rusticolus) eggs from northern Can-
trends of POPs in the terrestrial environment. Muscle sam-
ada except that one gyrfalcon egg sample from 1966 had
ples from three-year-old male reindeer (n = 10 per year)
more than 20 times as much DDE as samples obtained in the
were collected annually before the rut (Odsj๖ et al. 1996
mid-1970s (Annex Table 6ทA5). This may have been a reflec-
unpubl.). The study started in 1983 following measures
tion of use in southern Canada, where DDT was used for
taken in Europe during the 1970s to stop the use of DDT
black fly and mosquito control until 1970.
and PCB. Slopes for the rate of decline of levels of PCB con-
gener 138, -HCH, and HCB in the reindeer were negative
6.7.2.3.2. Eurasian birds of prey
and significantly different from zero at p < 0.05 (Figure
6ท45). However, substantial between-year variation existed.
The Fennoscandian population of peregrine falcon (Falco pe-
The trends are similar to those seen in freshwater fish from
regrinus) inhabits both Arctic and southern areas of Fenno-
Swedish Arctic lakes (section 6.7.3.2).
scandia. The population declined from 2000-3500 pairs pre-
1950 to about 65 known pairs in 1975 (Lindberg 1995a),
ng/g lw
ng/g lw
ng/g lw
however, in 1994, 360-410 pairs were found. Concentra-
3
CB-138
6
6
D
DDT
tions of DDE, PCB, and dieldrin have declined in both the
northern and southern populations between 1984 and 1994
2
4
4
(Lindberg 1995a). Studies on the Swedish Arctic population
of peregrine falcon revealed a decline in concentrations of
1
2
2
DDE and PCB since 1972. Lindberg et al. (1985) and Lind-
berg (1995a) compared egg material (n = 201) collected dur-
0
0
0
ing 1972-1981 and 1991-1994 (n = 30), and found a de-
1983
1987
1989
1990
1993
1983 1983
1985 1985
1987 1987
1988 1988
1989 1989
1990 1990
1992 19
crease in concentrations from 22.8 and 12 g/g ww of PCB
and p,p'-DDE, respectively, to 14.5 and 2.9 g/g ww. Con-
ng/g lw
ng/g lw
ng/g lw
ng/g lw
centrations of DDTs and PCB were not significantly differ-
70
-HCH
20
-HCH
ent between eggs from the northern and the southern popu-
70
60
-HCH
20
-HC
60
lations. Factors explaining this are the importance of the
50
15
50
15
wintering areas on egg contaminant concentrations, the more
40
40
10
aquatic-based diet of the northern population, as well as the
30
10
30
fact that the prey of the northern population largely consists
20
20
5
5
10
of migratory species (Lindberg et al. 1985, Lindberg 1995b).
1000
0
1983
1985 1987
1988
1989
1990
1992
1994
1983 0 1985
1987
1988
1989
1990 1992
1994
1983
1985 1987
1988
1989
1990
1992
1994
1983
1985
1987
1988
1989
1990 1992
6.7.2.3.3. Gyrfalcon in Iceland
Figure 6ท45. Temporal trends in OC levels (ng/g lw) in reindeer from Abi-
าlafsd๓ttir et al. (1995) compared contaminant levels in
sko, Sweden. Levels are usually based on a pool of ten samples (M. Ols-
gyrfalcon in early (1966-1973) and later (1979-1993) sam-
son unpubl. data).
ples. Taking the effects of age into account, the levels of
PCB and DDT appear very similar over the period of
about 15 years. However, the sample size is small in view of
6.7.2.3. Temporal trends of OCs in birds of prey
the fact that sex, age, and annual variation are sources of
The decline of populations of birds of prey in both tempe-
variability in the data.
rate and Arctic regions of the world since the introduction
of OC pesticides is well-documented (Ratcliffe 1967, Peak-
6.7.2.4. Temporal trends of OCs in mustelids in Sweden
all 1976a, Newton 1979, Peakall et al. 1990). Their recov-
ery after the ban of DDT and the reduced use of PCBs has
Median values for DDT and PCB concentrations in 123
also been reported. Examples of these studies are described
otter muscle samples from northern Sweden, including Arc-
below.
tic areas, collected during the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s, were

282
AMAP Assessment Report
ตg/g lw
ตg/g lw
2.6, 1.0, and 0.14 g/g lw for DDT and 38, 25, and 7.5 for
4
DDT
100
PCB
PCB g/g lw, respectively (Olsson et al. 1996a, 1996b). This
Northern Sweden
80
Northern Sweden
3
decline is illustrated in Figure 6ท46.
60
A study of the Norwegian coastal otter population, in-
2
40
habiting predominantly the northern coastal areas of the
1
20
Fennoscandian Peninsula, could not reveal any temporal
0
0
trend when studying the time period 1978-1990. The mater-
1970-1979
1980-1990
1990-1994
1970-1979
1980-1990
1990-1994
ial used comprised 38 juvenile otter (older than two years)
(Christensen 1995a, 1995b, Christensen and Heggberget
ตg/g lw
ตg/g lw
1995).
4
250
PCB
DDT
200
Southern Sweden
3
Southern Sweden
6.7.3. Freshwater environment
150
2
100
Information about temporal trends of OCs in the freshwater
1
50
environment comes from freshwater sediments and from fish
0
0
data.
1970-1979
1980-1990
1990-1994
1970-1979
1980-1990
1990-1994
Figure 6ท46. Temporal trends in PCB and DDT levels (ตg/g lw ฑ 95%
confidence limits) of otter muscle in Sweden. Levels are based on means
of 26, 16, and 28 samples (northern Sweden) and 29, 9, and 15 samples
Total PCBs in ng/g dw
(southern Sweden).
Trichloro-PCBs in ng/g dw
Median age of each slice
Trichloro-PCBs in ng/g dw
1990
1984
1987
1984
1975
1980
1975
1960
1971
1965
1949
1958
1951
1936
1942
1941
1923
1923
Lake Belot
Far Lake
Hawk Lake
1928
1910
1904
66ฐ55N 126ฐ16' W
63ฐ42'N 90ฐ40' W
63ฐ38'N 90ฐ42' W
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
0
5
10
15
20
25
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
1990
1989
1990
1987
1985
1983
1982
1981
1978
1973
1974
1978
1968
1963
1972
1964
1968
1959
Great Slave Lake
1962
1964
1955
61ฐ28'N 114ฐ25' W
1949
1960
1938
1941
Ste Therese
Kusawa Lake
1955
1931
1921
60
64
ฐ20'N 136ฐ22' W
1949
ฐ20'N 121ฐ20' W
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
1988
1988
1982
1978
1978
1968
1967
1964
1951
1950
1926
1933
1938
Amituk Lake
Hazen Lake
1906
1920
Sophia Lake
75ฐ03'N 93ฐ46' W
81ฐ45'N 71ฐ30' W
75ฐ07'N 93ฐ35' W
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
0
1
2
3
4
5
1992
1991
1988
1988
1986
1982
1980
1974
1976
1970
1965
1971
1955
Lake Sierram
1964
1955
1944
69ฐ11'N 26ฐ54' E
1956
1931
1945
Schrader Lake
1940
1920
1934
Pahtajไrvi
69ฐ22'N 144ฐ06' W
1909
1924
68ฐ10'N 24ฐ07' E
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0
1
2
3
4
0
1
2
3
4
g.
Figure 6ท47. Historical profiles of PCBs (trichloro- and all other) in slices from dated sediment cores in Alaska, Canada, and Finland. Median age of
each slice is given on the vertical axis. The green line indicates the source function of PCBs in the USA and in Europe, that is, the approximate duration
and relative amount used (no units). Source function data is from Rapaport and Eisenreich (1988).

Chapter 6 ท Persistent Organic Pollutants
283
Median age of each slice
Median age of each slice
Median age of each slice
1991
1992
1989
1986
1988
1975
1980
1975
1947
1976
1915
1971
1957
1964
1942
1889
1956
1917
1863
1945
1895
1850
1934
1860
1837
1924
Pahtajไrvi
Lake Sierram
1820
Lake 222
1912
1827
68o10'N 24o00'E
69o11'N 26o54'E
68o27'N 29o10'E
1900
1800
1803
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
0
100
200
300
400
0
20
40
60
80
100 120 140 160
pg/g dw
pg/g dw
pg/g dw
Median age of each slice
Median age of each slice
1990
1986
1985
1981
Great Slave Lake
1981
Great Slave
1975
Median age of each slice
Median age of each slice
Lake - 19D
1976
1970
1990
1986
1972
61o25'N
1964
1985
114o25'W
1981
Lake 222
1968
1959
Great Slave Lake
Sierram
1981
Great Slave
1975
Pahtajไrvi
1964
Lake - 19D
1955
1976
1970
1960
1950
1972
61o25'N
1964
Great Slave
1955
114o25'W
1945
Lake 222
1968
1959
Lake - 23A
Sierram
1949
1940
Pahtajไrvi
1964
1955
61o30'N 114o05'W
1941
1934
1960
1950
Total PCDD/Fs
Great Slave
1955 0
20
40
60
80
100
1945 0
10
20
30
40
50
Lake - 23A
pg/g dw
pg/g dw
1949
1940
OCDD
61o30'N 114o05'W
Figure 6ท48. Concentration (pg/g dw) profiles for octachlorodioxin (OCDD) and total PCDD/Fs in dated sediment cores from Arctic Canada and Fin-
land. PCDD/Fs = sum of 2,3,7,8-substituted tetra- to octachloro-DD/Fs plus non-2,3,7,8-substituted congeners. Median age of each slice is given on
the vertical axis.
mum inputs in the 1970s and early 1980s, corresponding to
6.7.3.1. Lake sediments
maximum PCB use in industrialized areas. Results from three
6.7.3.1.1. Historical profiles of PCBs in lake sediments
dated sediment cores collected in northern Finland also show
Analysis of dated sediment cores has been used to infer the
post-1950 deposition of PCBs with maxima in the 1970s
depositional history of PCBs and current inputs (fluxes in
and 1980s (Vartiainen et al. 1997). Low concentrations of
ng/m2/y) in the Great Lakes region of North America (Swack-
PCB are also seen in older slices from these cores (and in
hamer et al. 1988, Eisenreich et al. 1989, Jeremiason et al.
Pahtajไrvi, Sierram, Far, Kusawa, and Hawk Lakes). They
1994) and in lakes in western Europe (Sanders et al. 1992,
are generally less than 20% of maximum concentrations and
1993, Vartiainen et al. 1997). The sediment records from
lie within the intrinsic time resolution of the core, or may be
Arctic lakes, therefore, could provide information on tem-
explained by diffusion or by smearing of higher concentra-
poral trends of deposition of these hydrophobic contami-
tions downward during sampling.
nants in the Arctic. However, interpretations of sediment
The cores from Amituk, Sophia, and Hazen Lakes in the
records can be complicated by direct input from non-at-
Canadian High Arctic islands, as well as Schrader Lake in
mospheric sources and dynamic lake processes, including
Alaska, differ from the others. Onset of PCB inputs in these
bioturbation, sediment focusing, and resuspension. Factors
latter cores appears to be in the 1950s, although low con-
unique to Arctic lakes, such as long periods of ice cover and
centrations can be seen in older slices. Profiles of DDT in
low sedimentation rates, may limit inputs to bottom sedi-
the same lakes also show a later onset of appearance of this
ments and make them a less significant reservoir for hydro-
contaminant compared to mid-continental lakes at 49ฐN
phobic organics than temperate lakes (Diamond 1994).
and 63ฐN (Muir et al. 1995a).
Sediment core profiles of PCBs for 12 lakes are shown in
Figure 6ท47 in which concentrations (ng/g dw) are plotted
6.7.3.1.2. Historical profiles and fluxes of PCDD/Fs
against median age of each sediment slice. The green line in
in lake sediments
Figure 6ท47 represents the atmospheric input function of
PCBs derived by Rapaport and Eisenreich (1988) from PCB
Historical profiles of total PCDD/Fs and OCDD in two cores
accumulation rates in peat cores taken in the mid-latitudes
from Great Slave Lake and in three Finnish lakes are presented
of eastern North America. The USA and British sales curves
in Figure 6ท48. Two of three cores from northern Finland, from
of PCBs also follow this function, although results are avail-
Lakes L222 and Sierram, show recent declines in PCDD/F de-
able only as far back as the mid-1950s (Brinkman and De-
position following major increases since the 1940s. In the lake
Kok 1980, Sanders et al. 1992). Most of the subarctic (60-
Pahtajไrvi, a subsurface maximum for PCDD/Fs is discernible
70ฐN) lakes show the appearance of PCBs in the 1940s, in
in slices dated to the mid-1970s along with an elevated con-
reasonable agreement with the source function. Profiles in
centration in the surface slice. The preindustrial contribution
the sediment cores from Belot, Great Slave, Kusawa, Hawk,
of PCDD/Fs, presumably due to combustion sources such as
and Far Lakes show subsurface maxima suggesting maxi-
forest fires and wood burning, is evident in these Finnish

284
AMAP Assessment Report
Table 6ท18. Mean concentrations of OCs (ตg/g lw) and 95% confidence limits of the geometric mean (in brackets) in the last year of study (usually 1994
or 1995), in muscle tissue of pike and Arctic char in three lakes in Sweden, and the mean annual rate of change in levels.
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Location and species
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Lake Storvindeln (northern Sweden)
Lake Bolmen (southern Sweden)
Lake Abiskojaure (northern Sweden)
Organochlorine
Pike
Pike
Arctic char
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Annual
Annual
Annual
Mean and 95% CI
change, %
Mean and 95% CI
change, %
Mean and 95% CI
change, %
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
DDT
0.068 (0.053-0.088)
ญ 12
0.4
(0.289-0.547)
ญ 9.9
0.025 (0.016-0.038)
ญ 10.
PCB
0.87 (0.68 -1.11)
ญ 4.2
1.611 (1.32-1.97)
ญ 5.3 0.12 (0.108-0.221)
ญ 6.5
-HCH
0.005 (0.004-0.007)
ญ 13
0.009 (0.005-0.015)
ญ 9.4
0.005 (0.004-0.007)
ญ 17.
-HCH
0.005 (0.001-0.022)
ญ 14
0.015 (0.011-0.020)
ญ 13.4
0.003 (0.001-0.007)
ญ 17.
HCB
0.013 (0.008-0.021)
0.2 ns a
0.012 (0.006-0.023)
ญ 3.9 ns
0.019 (0.015-0.025)
ญ 5.3
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
a. `ns' implies the rate of change was not significantly different from zero.
cores, particularly in Lake L222. Both cores from Great
been collected since 1980. For comparison with the Arctic
Slave Lake are from the west basin, which is influenced by
regions, pike have also been sampled in Lake Bolmen, a lake
inputs of sediment from the Slave River, and both show core
of 184 km2 in southwest Sweden that receives minor amounts
maxima for total PCDD/Fs and OCDD in the late 1950s.
of industrial and agricultural pollution.
The appearance of elevated levels of PCDD/Fs in these cores
Declines in levels of DDT (DDT + DDD + DDE), PCB
coincides with the start-up of two chlorine-bleached kraft
(CBs 10, 138, and 153), - and -HCH, lindane ( -HCH),
pulp mills within the drainage basin, with the use of pen-
and HCB, were noted in most species and locations, including
tachlorophenol and other PCDD/F-containing pesticides, and
the Arctic locations (Olsson and Reutergๅrdh 1986, Olsson et
with increased industrial activity in the region to the south.
Recent fluxes of OCDD in Great Slave Lake range from 6 to
ตg/g lw
ตg/g lw
0.6
7
10 ng/m2/y compared with 0.5 to 5.4 ng/m2/y in the lakes
PCB
PCB
from northern Finland. By comparison, PCDD/F fluxes of
6
0.5
5
230 ng/m2/y in Siskiwit Lake (Isle Royale in Lake Superior;
0.4
4
Czuczwa et al. 1984) and 375 ng/m2/y in Green Lake in
0.3
northern New York (Smith et al. 1993b) have been reported.
3
0.2
2
The core profiles of OCDD in Pahtajไrvi and Sierram
0.1
Lakes in Finland, and in Core 23A from Great Slave Lake,
1
0
0
are similar to observations for cores from the Laurentian
1968 1972
1976 1980
1984 1988 1992
1996
1968 1972 1976 1980 1984 1988 1992 1996
Great Lakes by Czuczwa and Hites (1984, 1986), who
found maxima in the 1940s-1960s. Smith et al. (1993b)
ตg/g lw
ตg/g lw
found OCDD was the predominant PCDD/F congener (ap-
3.5
0.20
DDT
DDT
proximately 60% of PCDD/F) in Green Lake. The histori-
3
0.16
cal records for OCDD in these cores differ from that found
2.5
0.12
in a Baltic Sea core which had highest concentrations in the
2
most recent slices (1970s-1980s) (Kjeller and Rappe 1995).
1.5
0.08
1
0.04
0.5
6.7.3.2. Temporal trends of OCs in fish
0
0
in northern Scandinavia
1968
1972 1976
1980 1984 1988 1992 1996
1968 1972 1976 1980 1984 1988 1992 1996
In 1967, after the Baltic environment was found to be con-
ตg/g lw
ตg/g lw
taminated by DDT and PCB, a Swedish program to monitor
0.12
-HCH
0.06
-HCH
DDT and PCB pollution trends was initiated in areas with
0.10
0.05
little or no known local discharges spanning from northern
0.08
0.04
to southern Sweden (Olsson and Reutergๅrdh 1986, Olsson
0.03
et al. 1997). This program has yielded a comprehensive se-
0.06
ries of temporal trends for various species at different loca-
0.04
0.02
tions. Compounds analyzed included DDTs, PCB (total as
0.02
0.01
well as congener specific), HCB, and HCHs. Samples con-
0
0
1968 1972 1976
1980 1984 1988 1992
1996
1968 1972 1976 1980 1984 1988 1992 1996
sisted of Arctic char, pike, herring, cod, and also guillemot
eggs which were collected annually and were selected for con-
ตg/g lw
ตg/g lw
sistency in sex, age, size, and sampling season. Each annual
0.09
0.05
sample at a site was represented by 10-25 specimens, thus,
HCB
HCB
0.08
within-year variation could be estimated. Overall, the study
0.07
0.04
has so far comprised 3685 samples analyzed individually.
0.06
0.03
0.05
Lake Storvindeln, a forest lake near the Swedish alps,
0.04
0.02
occupying an area of 55 km2, was one of two Arctic sam-
0.03
pling sites. Muscle samples from twenty pike, Esox lucius,
0.02
0.01
collected in the spring, have been analyzed each year since
0.01
0
0
1967, giving an unbroken time trend study based on annual
1968
1972 1976
1980 1984 1988 1992 1996
1968 1972 1976 1980 1984 1988 1992 1996
samples covering a period when DDTs and PCBs, as well as
other OCs were in common use. The other Arctic site was
Figure 6ท49. Temporal trends in levels of PCB, DDT, -HCH, and HCB in
muscle from Lake Storvindeln pike and Lake Abiskojaure char in Sweden.
Lake Abiskojaure, 200 km north of the Arctic Circle, where
Mean levels (ตg/g lw) and 95% confidence intervals of the mean are repre-
muscle samples of Arctic char (Salvelinus alpinus) have
sented by dark points, while hollow points represent one pooled sample.

Chapter 6 ท Persistent Organic Pollutants
285
pg/g lw
pg/g lw
centration) versus time regressions for various species and
50
7
OCs were examined and compared. Slopes represented the
40
6
5
rates of decline, and the onsets of the decline were estimated
30
4
visually. Olsson et al. (1997) found that the annual rate and
20
3
2
the onset of the decline (1971-1972) in concentrations of
10
PCB TEQ
1
PCDD/F TEQ
DDT compounds did not differ between the Arctic and re-
0
0
1968
1976
1984
1992
1968
1976
1984
1992
mote areas of northern Sweden or between the southern
parts of the Baltic Sea and lakes in the southern part of the
250
350
Swedish mainland. HCHs showed similar trends and levels.
300
200
250
However, the concentrations of both DDT and HCHs are
150
200
150
considerably lower in the Arctic areas.
100
100
50
The onset of the declines coincides with measures taken
50
CB77
CB126
0
0
to reduce the environmental input of these OCs. Also, the
1968
1976
1984
1992
1968
1976
1984
1992
sudden decline in the Russian economy at the end of the
1980s and the confirmed reduction of pesticide production
25 000
100 000
as well as imports of pesticides in Russia (Libert 1995) can
20 000
80 000
15 000
60 000
easily be followed not only in the Baltic Proper, but also in
10 000
40 000
the remote Arctic regions of Sweden. The onset of the de-
5 000
20 000
cline in concentrations of DDT and HCH is seen simulta-
CB105
CB118
0
0
neously in both predatory fish and birds, and in eggs of these
1968
1976
1984
1992
1968
1976
1984
1992
birds. Besides a decline in total concentrations of HCH, -
Figure 6ท50. Levels of PCB congeners and PCDD/Fs (pg/g lw) in Lake Stor-
HCH has also declined at a similar rate both in the Arctic
vindeln pike muscle between 1968 and 1992.
and more southerly areas of Sweden.
al. 1997). Rates of decline of several OCs in Lakes Storvin-
A sudden use of DDT in former East Germany in the sum-
deln, Bolmen, and Abiskojaure are given in Table 6ท18, and
mer of 1983 and in 1984 can be detected in the Swedish mon-
the decline of the same compounds in Lakes Storvindeln and
itoring program in most studied locations, both with respect
Abiskojaure in Figure 6ท49. The char data can be expected to
to the ratio DDT/ DDT as well as in total concentrations of
provide a more accurate temporal trend since the species has
DDT (Bignert et al. 1990).
a higher concentration of fat, making the analysis more reli-
PCB levels also declined at all locations examined. The on-
able (M. Olsson pers. comm.). HCH isomers showed signifi-
set of the decline, approximately 1975-1978, occurred simul-
cant declines in fish muscle over the 24-year period. PCB
taneously in the Swedish Arctic and in the areas close to urban-
and especially DDT also show significant declines over the
ized regions. The rates of decline of most OCs were generally
period. Much of these declines occurred in the period 1970-
similar in all locations. However, the overall decline for PCBs
1980. More recent changes in PCB and DDT concentra-
was lower than for the OC pesticides studied. This is believed
tions have been small (Figure 6ท49). The ongoing decline in
to indicate continued release of PCBs to the environment.
recent times is seen in the Arctic char time series starting at the
beginning of the 1980s. Levels of PCBs in pike in boreal Fin-
6.7.3.3. Temporal trends of OCs in freshwater fish
nish lakes decreased similarly from 5-15 g/g lw in the early
in the North American Arctic
1970s to 0.5-3 g/g lw in recent years (Korhonen et al. 1997).
Trends in PCDD/F TEQs, nPCBs 77 and 126, mono-ortho
Information on temporal trends of POPs in freshwater fish
CB congeners 105 and 118, and PCB TEQs in muscle from
in the Canadian Arctic is very limited. Early monitoring by
Lake Storvindeln pike are shown in Figure 6ท50 (M. Olsson
Reinke et al. (1972) on OC pesticides in Arctic char and
and C. de Wit unpubl. data). Figure 6ท50 demonstrates the
lake trout is difficult to compare with present day levels be-
correlation between the various congeners and compounds
cause of the use of packed column gas chromatographic
and also the large between-year variation. Overall, the de-
analysis and the associated 10- to 100-fold higher detection
clines of PCDD/F and PCB TEQs have paralleled the decline
limits. Results for OCs in burbot liver from Fort Good Hope
in PCBs. PCB TEQs declined about four-fold from 0.05-0.06
on the Mackenzie River are available for an eight-year per-
ng/g in 1968-1970 to 0.01-0.02 ng/g in 1990-1992, while
iod, from 1986 to 1994. Mean (lipid normalized log trans-
the decline in PCDD/F TEQ (0.05-0.08 to 0.015-0.03 ng/g)
formed) concentrations of major OCs in burbot liver are
was smaller and more variable over the 24-year period.
compared in Figure 6ท51. Toxaphene and chlordane levels
With the volume of data in the Swedish study, it was
have undergone significant declines over the eight-year inter-
possible to make generalizations about rates of decline in
val. No significant declines were observed for DDT, PCBs,
northern Europe. Specifically, the parameters of the log (con-
chlorobenzenes, or dieldrin.
ng/g lw
1 000
100
10
1986 1988 1994
1986 1988 1994
1986 1988 1994
1986 1988 1994
1986 1988 1994
1986 1988 1994
1986 1988 1994
CBZ
HCH
CHL
DDT
PCB
Toxaphene
Dieldrin
Figure 6ท51. Concentrations, as geometric means, of major organochlorine groups in burbot liver at Fort Good Hope, NWT, Canada (1986-94). Vertical
lines denote standard errors.

286
AMAP Assessment Report
No other comparable data sets of temporal trends of OCs
Mean PCB
exist for freshwater or anadromous fish in Alaska, Arctic
ตg/g ww
Canada, or Greenland. This is in contrast to the very detailed
5
Black-legged kittiwake
Northern fulmar
temporal trend information available for fish in the Great
Thick-billed murre
Lakes (Borgmann and Whittle 1991, De Vault et al. 1995).
4
3
6.7.4. Marine environment
6.7.4.1. Sediments
2
As far as we are aware, there have, as yet, been no dated
1
marine sediment cores from the Arctic Ocean analyzed for
OC contaminants. Cores have been collected, however, in
0
the Beaufort/Chukchi Seas, Hudson Bay, and Barents Sea,
1975-1977
1987-1988
1993
and will undoubtedly be analyzed in the near future. Iwata
et al. (1994b) analyzed OCs in a sediment core from Bristol
Mean DDE
ตg/g ww
Bay in the eastern Bering Sea. The OC profile in this core
showed no significant trends with depth, possibly because
0.8
Black-legged kittiwake
the sediment surface had been disturbed. The same authors
Northern fulmar
Thick-billed murre
also analyzed an undisturbed core from the northern Gulf
of Alaska (55ฐ44'N, 156ฐ14'W) which showed maximum
0.6
HCB, CHL, and DDT fluxes in slices dated to the period
1970-1980. Maximum PCB and HCH fluxes were ob-
served in surface slices (1980-1990).
0.4
6.7.4.2. Temporal trends of OCs in seabirds
0.2
Several studies described below, which examined temporal
trends in contaminant levels in seabird eggs in the Arctic,
show downward trends in levels of OC contaminants in re-
0
cent years. The declines are generally attributed to the re-
1975
1976 1977
1987
1988
1993
duction in use of contaminants at both southern and north-
ern latitudes.
Figure 6ท52. Temporal trends in PCB and DDE levels in Arctic seabird
eggs from Prince Leopold Island, Canada (1975-1993). Number of eggs
Barrett et al. (1996) reported significant declines since
analyzed for respective bars are: PCBs 10, 10, 32; 3, 6, 20; and 15, 15,
1983 in levels of PCBs, p,p'-DDE, HCB, -HCH, -HCH,
15 and DDE 10, 12, 10, 11, 10; 3, 6, 10, 10; and 15, 15, 15.
and oxychlordane in six of the seabird species breeding in
northern Norway. The reported OC levels in seabirds were
OC residues have been monitored in eggs and livers of
at the low end of the scale of recently published data from
several species of seabirds at the Canadian High Arctic col-
Britain, Canada, and the Mediterranean Sea (Noble and
ony of Prince Leopold Island since the mid-1970s (Braune
Burns 1990, Walker 1990). An earlier study had not re-
1994a, 1994b). Levels of PCB and DDT in the eggs of
vealed changes in the ten-year time period between 1970
black-legged kittiwake, northern fulmar, and thick-billed
and 1980 (Barrett et al. 1985). The highest concentrations
murre declined during the period between 1975 and 1993
were found in the gulls, Larus spp., but the levels were con-
(Figure 6ท52). This trend is confirmed by several other lim-
siderably lower than earlier data from the south and west
ited Canadian data sets. Residue levels measured in livers of
coast of Norway (Bergstr๘m and Norheim 1986, Moksnes
adult northern fulmars in the mid-1970s (Nettleship and
and Norheim 1986). The one exception was herring gulls in
Peakall 1987) and again in 1987 and 1993 also indicate a
the south Troms/north Nordland region in which concen-
decline in residue levels. PCBs have also declined in eastern
trations of PCB, p,p'-DDE, -HCH, oxychlordane, and
Canadian Arctic breeding fulmars, kittiwakes, and thick-
HCB increased. However, in general, a large decrease was
billed murre (Br�nnich's guillemot) since 1987 (Elliott et al.
observed in levels in herring gulls, with declines of 60, 85,
1992). There was, however, a 50% increase in PCB levels
and 78% for HCB, DDE, and PCB, respectively, compared
and a two-fold increase in chlordane-related compounds in
to levels found in 1979-1981 by Moksnes and Norheim
ivory gull eggs. The ivory gull is a resident Arctic species
(1986). The decline corresponded to similar declines docu-
and, therefore, the increase probably reflects the effects of
mented in marine fish in a Norwegian fjord (Skaare et al.
long-range transport to the Arctic, even though levels appear
1985).
to be going down in the North Atlantic where most other
Similar declines were seen in the Barents Sea (Savinova
species overwinter.
et al. 1995b). Recent DDT and PCB levels in kittiwake
Studies from more temperate areas of North America and
were in general lower than levels reported from the Canadian
Eurasia showed similar downward trends. Included among
Arctic (Nettleship and Peakall 1987), Bear Island (Bj๘rn-
these are declines in levels of DDE and PCB in guillemot
๘ya) (Bourne 1976) and the coast of Murmansk (Savinova
eggs since 1985 (Olsson and Reutergๅrdh 1986, Olsson et
1991) in the 1970s. Present levels of OCs in glaucous gulls
al. 1997), DDT in storm petrels, rhinocerous auklets, great
from the Barents Sea are low when compared to correspond-
blue herons, and pelagic cormorants in British Columbia,
ing levels from the same area published earlier (Bourne and
Canada since the 1970s (Elliott and Noble 1993), and PCB
Bogan 1972, Norheim and Kjos-Hansen 1984). Bourne and
in puffins in the Bay of Fundy, Nova Scotia, Canada since
Bogan (1972), Norheim and Kjos-Hansen (1984), and Ga-
the 1970s and 1980s (Elliott et al. 1992). However, levels in
brielsen et al. (1995) collected birds in early spring, while
eggs of double-crested cormorants, herring gulls, and razor-
Daelemans et al. (1992) and the present Barents Sea study
bills from the St. Lawrence estuary in Canada did not change
report results collected during the breeding season.
(Noble and Burns 1990).

Chapter 6 ท Persistent Organic Pollutants
287
ng/g blubber
with the major decline occurring in the 1970s. DDT concen-
trations also declined slightly over the same interval. Most of
1 750
DDT
the decline occurred during the 1980s rather than the 1970s.
Time trends in OC concentrations are also available for
1 500
PCB
other sites in the eastern Canadian Arctic and at Svalbard,
but only for the period 1984 to 1994. Daelmans et al. (1993)
compared PCB levels in ringed seal blubber at Svalbard
1 000
(1990) with results from earlier studies of samples collected
in 1986 (Oehme et al. 1988) and 1984 (Carlberg and B๘ler
1985). PCB levels in 1990 were half of those found in the
500
1986 study and p,p'-DDE levels were similar for both years.
However, the 1990 results were higher than those found in
the 1984 study. No data were available on the age or sex of
0
these latter animals, making comparison difficult.
1972
1981
1991
In the eastern Canadian Arctic, trends in OC levels over a
Figure 6ท53. Temporal trends of PCB and DDT in blubber of female
6-10 year period (1983-1993) have recently been examined
ringed seals from Holman Island in the western Canadian Arctic (Addison
in female ringed seals from three locations (Figure 6ท54).
1995b). Vertical lines represent one SD.
Concentrations of DDT, PCB, CHL, and toxaphene
have not declined significantly in female ringed seal blubber
6.7.4.3. Temporal trends of OCs in pinnipeds
from Cumberland Sound (E. Baffin Island), Barrow Strait in
and cetaceans
Lancaster Sound, or Admiralty Inlet (N. Baffin Island). The
6.7.4.3.1. Pinnipeds
results are reasonably consistent with those for PCBs and
There are relatively few long-term (multi-decade) studies of
DDT at Holman Island (Addison 1995a, 1995b, Figure
OCs in Arctic marine mammals. The longest running study
6ท53) because most of the decline in PCB concentrations
of temporal trends in marine mammals is at Holman (NWT)
there appears to have occurred during the 1970s.
in the western Canadian Arctic. A population of ringed
Results for walrus from Thule (W. Greenland) show simi-
seals at Holman has been studied since the late 1960s to
lar trends to those for seal blubber in the eastern Canadian
provide information about Arctic seal population dynamics,
Arctic. DDT levels in walrus blubber are very similar in
and since the early 1970s to measure OC concentrations in
samples from females from 1975/76 (50 50 ng/g blubber,
the seal blubber. Addison et al. (1986) showed that between
n = 20; Born et al. 1981) and those from 1988 (70 39 ng/g
1972 and 1981, PCB concentrations in the Holman ringed
blubber n = 10; Muir and Born 1996). PCB levels are also
seals fell by about 40%. DDT concentrations in this po-
similar (1975/76, 180 ng/g blubber versus 1988, 244 ng/g),
pulation did not fall significantly over that interval. Further-
however, the PCB results from earlier packed column GC
more, p,p'-DDE represented the same proportion of the DDT-
work may not be directly comparable to more recent analy-
group as it had in the early 1970s, implying continued in-
ses of individual congeners.
puts of p,p'-DDT to the Canadian Arctic.
A further analysis of the Holman ringed seal population
6.7.4.3.2. Cetaceans
was carried out in 1989-91, and compared with the 1972
and 1981 analyses. The results, which are summarized in
Male narwhal and beluga from the Canadian Arctic also
Figure 6ท53, are only for females, to avoid confounding ef-
show little change in concentrations of major OCs over a
fects of age and sex on trends in levels. Addison (1995a,
10-year period (Figure 6ท55). Males were selected for tempo-
1995b) and Addison and Smith (1996) concluded that be-
tween 1972 and 1991, PCB concentrations in blubber de-
ng/g blubber
ng/g blubber
clined about five-fold or to about 20% of their initial value
10 000
3 000
Narwhal
8 000
PCB
Narwhal
Beluga
2 500
CHL
ng/g blubber
ng/g blubber
Beluga
2 000
6 000
600
Toxaphene
600
CHL
1 500
4 000
500
1 000
500
2 000
400
500
400
0
0
300
300
200
200
Pond Inlet
1982 Pond Inlet
1994
Pond Inlet
1982 Pond Inlet
1994
1983
Husky Lakes
1989
1972
1983
Husky Lakes
1989
Mackenzie Delta
Mackenzie Delta
1993-94
Mackenzie Delta
Mackenzie Delta
1993-94
Mackenzie Delta
100
100
1993
1986 1992
1993
1983 1993
1986 1992
1984 1993
0
0
ng/g blubber
ng/g blubber
Admiralty
Cumberland
Barrow
Admiralty
Cumberland
Barrow
Inlet
Sound
Strait
Inlet
Sound
Strait
20 000
Toxaphene
12 000
Narwhal
Narwhal
DDT
ng/g blubber
ng/g blubber
10 000
15 000
Beluga
8 000
700
PCB
800
DDT
Beluga
10 000
600
6 000
600
500
4 000
5 000
400
2 000
400
0
300
0
200
200
Pond Inlet
1982 Pond Inlet
1994
Pond Inlet
1982 Pond Inlet
1994
100
1983
Husky Lakes
1989
1972
1983
Husky Lakes
1989
Mackenzie Delta
1993-94
Mackenzie Delta
Mackenzie Delta
Mackenzie Delta
1993-94
Mackenzie Delta
1983 1993
1986 1992
1984 1993
1983 1993
1986 1992
1984 1993
0
0
Admiralty
Cumberland
Barrow
Admiralty
Cumberland
Barrow
Figure 6ท55. Trends in PCB, DDT, CHL, and toxaphene over a ten
Inlet
Sound
Strait
Inlet
Sound
Strait
year period (20 years for DDT in the Mackenzie Delta) for male narwhal
Figure 6ท54. Trends in concentration of major organochlorines in blubber
and beluga blubber samples from the Canadian Arctic (N = 8-26). Data
of female ringed seals over six to ten years at three sites in the eastern
for beluga from 1972 are from Addison and Brodie (1973) and data for
Canadian Arctic (N = 10-14 animals for each year/site).
narwhal are from Muir (1994, 1996).

288
AMAP Assessment Report
ral trend comparison because (unlike seals) they show little
Bering/Chukchi Seas and at several locations in the Canadian
trend in PCB concentrations with age (Stern et al. 1994).
Arctic Archipelago. Air monitoring from 1984 to 1992 on
Male narwhal from the Lancaster Sound region (Pond Inlet)
Svalbard also showed a decline of up to two-fold in -HCH.
show no significant decline in concentrations of DDT,
However, -HCH levels were higher in 1992 at all three Nor-
CHL, or PCB over a 12-year period. Toxaphene levels
wegian air-monitoring sites than in 1984, reflecting the in-
are higher in 1994 than in 1982 in comparable samples;
creased use of lindane ( -HCH) and declining use of -HCH
this may be due to changes in the method of quantitation
as use of technical HCH products ceased in Europe during
and the results are being reevaluated. Three sets of samples
the 1980s. Long-term monitoring of OCs in air, as has been
of male beluga (n = 8-26) from the Mackenzie Delta region
done at Ny-ลlesund on Svalbard and on ocean cruises in the
have been analyzed since 1983 using identical methodology.
Bering/Chukchi Seas by several groups, has the advantage of
Results for DDT levels from this stock were also available
detecting changes in concentrations of inputs without the
from 1972 (Addison and Brodie 1973). No significant de-
confounding effects of selective transformation of some OCs
cline was observed in any of the four major OC groups over
in the food web or selective removal during sedimentation
the 10-year period, and over 20 years in the case of DDT.
and burial in profundal sediments.
Evidence for the decline of airborne PCBs in the Euro-
pean Arctic comes from a study of mosses in northern Nor-
6.7.4.4. Temporal trends of OCs in polar bear
way. This study, although flawed because of the use of air-
Average PCB levels in bears from the Canadian Arctic in
drying which may have introduced PCB contamination,
the 1989-1993 circumpolar study (section 6.6.4.8) were
showed a consistent three-fold decline of PCB concentra-
similar to those in 1982/84, while average CHL and DDE
tions in mosses from both coastal and inland areas over the
levels were 35-44% lower, and dieldrin levels were 90%
period 1977-1990. Over the same time period, PCB in
lower (Norstrom et al. 1988). However, the significance of
southern Norway declined about four-fold. As moss depends
the temporal trends during the 1980s, derived using these
entirely on the atmosphere for delivery of nutrients and
data, is not conclusive because of problems of comparabil-
lacks both cuticle and internal transport mechanisms, this
ity. The 1982/84 samples were not controlled for age or sex,
reduction is indicative of a decrease in atmospheric PCB
and were composites (equivalent to an arithmetic mean).
concentrations. The decline of PCBs in Arctic mosses is con-
Archived samples of polar bear fat collected from R6, R7,
sistent with observations in the nearby Swedish Arctic of de-
R9, and R14 for 1984, and 1990, and R11 for 1969, 1984
clining PCB levels (about a three- to four-fold decrease
and 1990, are being reanalyzed to study temporal trends.
over 26 years) in pike and char muscle.
Results from this study are not yet available.
Other evidence of declines or leveling off of OC inputs
comes from the analysis of dated lake sediment cores. Most
of the subarctic (60-70ฐN) lakes show the appearance of
6.7.4.5. Temporal trends of OCs in Arctic fox (Svalbard)
PCBs and DDT in the 1940s, in reasonable agreement with
Wang-Andersen et al. (1993) examined concentrations of
the known source functions for these compounds. Sediment
PCBs in Svalbard Arctic fox fat and liver samples collected
profiles in subarctic lakes in Canada (Belot, Great Slave, Ku-
in 1983-84, and compared these with earlier samples col-
sawa, Hawk, Far) and Finland (Pahtajไrvi, Sierram) show
lected in 1973-1974. PCB, based on seven selected congen-
subsurface maxima suggesting maximum inputs in the 1970s
ers, did not differ significantly between sampling periods.
and early 1980s, corresponding to maximum PCB use in in-
dustrialized areas.
The cores from the Canadian High Arctic island lakes
6.7.5. Summary and conclusions ญ
Amituk, Sophia, and Hazen, as well as Schrader Lake in
temporal trends
Alaska, differ from the others. Onset of PCB inputs in
The results of a number of temporal trend studies of Arctic
these latter cores appears to be in the 1950s, although low
biota indicate that PCB and DDT levels in the Arctic
concentrations can be seen in older slices.
have declined over the past 20-25 years since the first con-
This later appearance of PCBs is in agreement with the
trols on DDT and open use of PCBs began. Evidence from
global fractionation model, which predicts that persistent,
dated sediment and snow cores indicates leveling off, if not
semi-volatile organics will be more prominent in polar re-
actual declines, in inputs to the Arctic. With the exception
gions and temporal trends in deposition will be delayed and
of studies in Swedish biota, the results in support of this
prolonged relative to temperate regions (Wania and Mackay
conclusion are limited for several reasons. Temporal trend
1993). Unfortunately, there are no analyses of sediment cores
monitoring in the Canadian, Greenlandic, Norwegian, and
from the Eurasian High Arctic (e.g., Spitsbergen and Bear Is-
Finnish Arctic has been limited to small and infrequently
land) which could confirm whether observations in the Cana-
collected samples (2-4 times over 25 years, compared to
dian High Arctic are a generalized circumpolar phenomenon.
yearly for several species in the Swedish Arctic). Combined
Recent declines in PCDD/F deposition following major
with high intrasite variability in OC levels, statistically sig-
increases since the 1940s are discernible in two of three cores
nificant trends are difficult to discern from a small number
from northern Finland. These cores, which are from rela-
of sampling times. Furthermore, there have been changes in
tively undisturbed lakes receiving atmospheric inputs of con-
analytical methodology, which made comparison with older
taminants, provide good evidence of historical inputs of
results problematic in some cases (e.g., ringed seals from
PCDD/Fs in Arctic Scandinavia. They show a major prein-
Holman Island in the western Canadian Arctic).
dustrial contribution of PCDD/Fs, presumably due to com-
Less is known about the temporal trends of many other
bustion sources such as forest fires and wood burning, as
persistent OCs, including HCH, HCB, CHL, toxaphene,
well as sources coinciding with chlorine-based chemical pro-
dieldrin, and PCDD/Fs.
duction starting in the 1930s. Both cores from Great Slave
There is convincing evidence for declines of some persis-
Lake in Canada provide evidence for industrial inputs to the
tent OCs in the atmospheric and terrestrial Arctic environ-
west basin of the lake because the appearance of elevated
ments. A nine-fold decrease in concentrations of HCH in
levels of PCDD/Fs in these cores coincides with the start up
Arctic air has been observed, based on measurements in the
of two chlorine-bleached kraft pulp mills within the drain-

Chapter 6 ท Persistent Organic Pollutants
289
age basin, and with the use of pentachlorophenol and other
is available on long-term trends of OCs in fish from Russia,
PCDD/F-containing pesticides. Kjeller and Rappe (1995)
Alaska, or Greenland.
also found increased PCDD/F concentrations in the period
The declining concentrations of persistent OCs in pike
1970-1985 and a change in congener pattern from a core in
and char muscle from Scandinavia parallels observations in
the Baltic Sea which they attributed to increased use or emis-
lake trout in the Great Lakes (DeVault et al. 1995). The de-
sions of chlorophenols. The profiles for PCDD/Fs in the
cline in concentrations of DDT and PCBs in Lake Ontario
Finnish and Canadian lakes are also similar to observations
lake trout was greater during the 1970s immediately follow-
by Czuczwa and Hites (1984, 1986) for cores from the
ing bans on use of DDT and open use of PCBs, than during
Laurentian Great Lakes with maxima in the 1940s-1960s.
the 1980s (Borgmann and Whittle 1991).
The time trend study of Swedish reindeer from Abisko,
The declines of PCDD/F and PCB TEQs observed in fish
based on annual samples, showed a significant change in -
in the Swedish Arctic have been paralleled by declines in
HCH over the time period 1983-1994. A ten-fold decline
PCBs over the 24-year period. These declines are not con-
was found which is quite close to the decline observed in air
sistent with other observations in fish. For example, concen-
over the Bering/Chukchi Seas. Other OCs studied, such as
trations of 2,3,7,8-TCDD in Lake Ontario lake trout did not
PCB, DDT, and -HCH, did not change significantly in
decline significantly over the period 1980-1992 (DeVault et
reindeer, but the between-year variation was substantial,
al. 1995). The many sources of PCDD/Fs to the environment
implying that the time period was probably too short to
(e.g., chlorine bleached kraft mills, chlorophenols, and com-
allow a proper evaluation. Pike and char from Swedish
bustion) may mean that declines in TCDD TEQs may be very
Arctic lakes show -HCH concentration decreases similar
site specific in comparison to trends for PCBs and semi-vola-
to those found in reindeer.
tile OC pesticides.
Declining concentrations of PCB and DDT and in-
The Swedish time-trend studies provide a proven design
creases in chlordane-related compounds in eggs of peregrine
on which future AMAP monitoring programs for temporal
falcons and other birds of prey have been observed in both
trends could be developed. The program is sufficiently long-
the European and North American Arctic, consistent with
term and detailed (annual sampling) that it has been able to
changes in the use of these OCs. Mean p,p'-DDE levels in
demonstrate changes in inputs in source regions. For exam-
peregrine falcon eggs declined from 7.6 g/g in the 1980s
ple, the sudden decline in the Russian economy at the end of
to 4.5 g/g in the 1990s. PCB (as Aroclor 1254 : 1260, 1 : 1)
the 1980s and the confirmed reduction of pesticide produc-
showed no significant change (means of 8.7 g/g ww in
tion, as well as imports of pesticides in Russia (Libert 1995)
1981-1985 and 8.31 g/g ww in 1991-94). Dieldrin, oxy-
can be easily followed not only in the Baltic Sea, but also in
chlordane, and HCB also showed no change in concentra-
the remote Arctic regions of Sweden. The onset of the de-
tion over the 10-13 year period. Levels of heptachlor epox-
cline in concentrations of DDT and HCH is seen simulta-
ide actually increased over the period 1966 to 1987, but
neously in both predatory fish and birds, and in eggs of these
may have declined significantly during the late 1980s.
birds. A sudden use of DDT in former East Germany in the
The best evidence for declining OC concentrations in
summer of 1983 and in 1984 was detected in the Swedish
Arctic birds of prey comes from the study of Lindberg et al.
monitoring program at most study locations, both with re-
(1985) and Lindberg (1995b), who compared eggs collected
spect to the ratio DDT/ DDT as well as in total concentra-
during 1972-1981 and in 1991-1994, and found declines in
tions of DDT (Bignert et al. 1990).
concentrations of about two-fold for PCBs and five-fold for
Results from monitoring of marine biota provide good
p,p'-DDE.
evidence for declining concentrations of major OCs in both
A problem with utilizing contaminant levels in eggs of
the European and North American Arctic. Significant de-
migratory birds of prey to assess temporal trends in the Arc-
clines were found over the period 1983-1993 in levels of
tic is that the levels in eggs may also reflect exposure at win-
PCBs, p,p'-DDE, HCB, -HCH, -HCH, and oxychlordane
tering areas. Food for carnivorous birds may also largely
in six of the seabird species breeding in northern Norway. A
consist of migratory species in some cases. Nevertheless, the
large decrease was also observed in levels in herring gulls,
egg monitoring programs enable an assessment of regional
previously examined in 1979-1981 by Moksnes and Nor-
or hemispheric changes in inputs of bioaccumulating conta-
heim (1986), where levels of HCB, DDE, and PCB dropped
minants to terrestrial and aquatic environments.
by 60, 85, and 78%, respectively. The decline corresponded
Monitoring of fish in Lake Storvindeln and Abisko-
to similar declines documented in marine fish in a Norwe-
jaure in northern Sweden has provided some of the strong-
gian fjord (Skaare et al. 1985). Present levels of OCs in glau-
est evidence for declining inputs of persistent OCs to the
cous gulls from the Barents Sea are also low when compared
aquatic environment in northern Scandinavia. Declines in
to corresponding levels from the same areas published ear-
levels of DDT, PCB, and HCB were noted in these Arc-
lier (Bourne and Bogan 1972).
tic locations. For DDT and PCB, a sudden decline oc-
Levels of PCBs and DDTs in the eggs of black-legged kit-
curred immediately after European measures to reduce
tiwake, northern fulmar, and thick-billed murre from the
the discharges of DDT in the beginning of the 1970s and
High Arctic colony on Prince Leopold Island, Canada have
PCB in the middle of the 1970s (Olsson and Reutergๅrdh
also declined during the period between 1975 and 1993.
1986, Bignert et al. 1995, Olsson et al. 1997). After the
Most of the decline was observed in the 1970s and early
initial decline, the annual change in concentration con-
1980s. These are migratory species and, thus, declines may
tinued and there is still an annual decline of DDT and
reflect an overall reduction in the OC levels of the North
PCB of 3-8% a year (Olsson et al. 1997). While these re-
Atlantic where many of these birds overwinter. In one of the
cent changes in PCB and DDT have been small, there
few examples of increasing concentrations, there was a 50%
is no indication that concentrations are leveling off. Levels
increase in PCB levels and a two-fold increase in chlordane-
of PCBs in pike in subarctic Finnish lakes also decreased
related compounds in ivory gull eggs.
5- to 10-fold from the early 1970s to the early 1990s.
In general, OC levels in Canadian Arctic seals and whales
Toxaphene, HCH, and chlordane levels underwent sig-
do not show the same steep decline in concentrations ob-
nificant declines in burbot liver from the lower Mackenzie
served in seabirds from eastern Canada (Addison and Smith
River in Canada over the period 1986-94. No information
1974, 1996, Elliot et al. 1988). There are relatively few long-

290
AMAP Assessment Report
term (multi-decade) studies of OCs in Arctic marine mam-
mals. The longest running study of temporal trends in ma-
High ecological
rine mammals is at Holman (NWT) in the western Cana-
relevance
dian Arctic, where Addison (1995a, 1995b) concluded that,
Population and
between 1972 and 1991, PCB concentrations in blubber de-
Community
clined about five-fold, while DDT declined about three-
fold, with most of the decline occurring during the 1980s.
DDT results for beluga from the southern Beaufort Sea show
reproduction
Bioenergetics
no significant decline over the same period.
In the eastern Canadian Arctic and Greenland, temporal
ent and
Histopathology
trends in marine mammals can only be examined over a
Short-term
Long-term
10-12 year period. No significant declines have been ob-
response
response
served in concentrations of DDT, PCB, CHL, and tox-
evelopm Immunology
D
aphene in female ringed seals at three locations or in male
Physiology
narwhal blubber from Lancaster Sound from the mid-1980s
to early 1990s. Results for walrus from Thule (West Green-
Detoxification
land) show similar trends to those for seal blubber in the
Molecular
High toxicological
eastern Canadian Arctic. These results are reasonably con-
relevance
sistent with those for PCBs and DDT in ringed seals at
Holman Island.
There is insufficient information at present to discern
Figure 6ท56. The relationship between response levels of biological organ-
ization and the toxicological relevance and time scale of responses.
temporal trends in marine mammals from Svalbard, north-
ern Norway, and Russia. Although limited OC data are
ing levels of OCs in Arctic species of interest to known detri-
available for marine mammals from the European Arctic
mental levels, this knowledge coming from laboratory tests
during the 1970s and 1980s, there is, in some cases, insuf-
or from observations on affected animals in the wild. These
ficient information on key covariates, such as the age, sex,
types of comparisons have inherent weaknesses. Laboratory
or season of collection of the animals to enable correct
animals are most often exposed to single OCs or technical
comparisons. Similarly, there are problems with compara-
products at high doses for short periods of time, and it is
bility of samples of polar bear tissues collected in the 1970s
difficult to extrapolate the toxic effects seen at high acute
and early 1980s in the Canadian Arctic which has made
doses to possible adverse effects at lower, but chronic expo-
assessment of temporal trends problematic. At present,
sures. Wild animals are generally exposed to lower concen-
there are no long-term data on temporal trends in polar
trations of OCs, but they are exposed to mixtures of POPs
bears from Svalbard.
and other stressors, and they are exposed over their entire
In conclusion, temporal trends for PCBs and DDT in Arc-
lifetime. Also, species vary in their sensitivities to the effects
tic biota show declining concentrations from maximums
of OCs, which can make it difficult to know which of the
observed in the 1970s. Data from sediment cores and ar-
tested species best represents those in the Arctic. For exam-
chived moss samples also support this observation. How-
ple, several Arctic species have delayed implantation (mink,
ever, considering all of the POPs of interest, the information
otter, other mustelids, seals, walrus, polar bears), which may
on temporal trends in the Arctic is very limited. Continuous
make them more sensitive to the reproductive effects of OCs
monitoring over the past 30 years of the Baltic Sea and the
than tested laboratory animals without delayed implantation
northern areas of Sweden have shown that between-year
(Sandell 1990).
variation is large, and individual variation within this, even
The second approach studies biological effects by exam-
larger. These observations reinforce the importance of judi-
ining subtle indicators of biological responses (biomarkers)
cious sampling and archiving programs, which would allow
to contaminants. Examination of the animals for responses
continuous monitoring of key populations and retrospective
known to be associated with the contaminants found in
analysis for new contaminants.
them is perhaps the only way to make a convincing case ei-
ther for or against the hypothesis that trace contaminants
are acting biologically on the animals. Almost any biological
change, from molecular to ecological, can serve as a bio-
6.8. Biological effects
marker, however, the term most often refers to changes at
Biological effects can be measured at different levels of bio-
sub-cellular levels (McCarthy and Shugart 1990, Huggett et
logical organization, from the molecular to the ecosystem
al. 1992, Peakall 1992). Biomarkers typically are measures
level (Figure 6ท56). Biomarkers measurable at a molecular
of normal processes which take on abnormal values as a re-
level respond early, but are not readily interpreted ecologi-
sult of exposure to chemicals of interest. Most of the bio-
cally, while measures with established ecological relevance,
markers studied have established sensitivities (in laboratory
such as population declines or reduced reproductive rates,
animals) to some of the same contaminants measured in
respond too late to have diagnostic or preventative value.
Arctic marine mammals and fish, notably several PCB con-
Although Arctic biota contain a range of organic and in-
geners, PCDD/Fs, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in-
organic contaminants, there is relatively little knowledge of
cluding petroleum oil.
the biological effects of these chemicals in Arctic species.
The mixed function oxidase (MFO) cytochrome P450
Unlike the situation in the Baltic or the Great Lakes, there
system, a ubiquitous enzyme system common to mammals,
is currently little evidence to support or refute arguments
birds, fish, and microorganisms, has probably been one of
that chemical contaminants are present in sufficient quanti-
the most widely used biomarkers to date, with numerous
ties to have detrimental effects on any species.
laboratory and field cases of responses established (Payne et
Two approaches have generally been taken in identifying
al. 1987, Rattner et al. 1989, Goks๘yr and F๖rlin 1992,
possible effects. The first involves extrapolation and com-
Haasch et al. 1993, Beyer et al. 1996, Hylland et al. 1996).
parison. Researchers determine possible effects by compar-
The preferred field study design has been the comparison of

p
Chapter 6 ท Persistent Organic Pollutants
291
an exposed group of individuals with similar groups not ex-
TCDD equivalents
posed to the same source. Another design, less commonly
pg TEQ/g lw
encountered, is the comparison of individuals within a group
1 000
to search for linkages between biomarker values and expo-
sure as indicated by chemical residues. This is a valuable
approach for those contaminants stable enough to remain
identifiable as residues.
In the following assessment, results from studies of bio-
209 PCDD/F, moPCB, nPCB
markers in Arctic biota are presented first if these have been
140 moPCB
performed. Where possible, levels of OCs in Arctic biota
100
are also compared to no-adverse-effect-levels (NOAEL) or
69 PCDD/F, nPCB
no-effect-levels (NOEL) and lowest-adverse-effect-levels
51 nPCB
(LOAEL) or lowest-effect-levels (LOEL) known to cause
subtle effects in sensitive species. An attempt has also been
made to compare OC levels in the diet of selected Arctic
18 PCDD/F
biota to known dietary no-adverse-effect-concentrations
(NOAEC) or no-effect-concentrations (NOEC) and lowest-
10
adverse-effect-concentrations (LOAEC) or lowest-effect-
concentrations (LOEC) or to environmental quality crite-
ria/guideline values for protecting aquatic biota in various
countries (Table 6ท14). There are considerable limitations in
this latter approach as there is a general lack of knowledge
of the diet of many Arctic organisms. It is also assumed that
predators eat only one type of food, and even where food
1
preferences are known, there may not be analytical data for
these particular food items.
6.8.1. Terrestrial environment
6.8.1.1. Caribou and reindeer
0.1
Information on potential or actual biological effects of envi-
ronmental contaminants in Arctic terrestrial mammals is
Otter
Seals
Beluga
virtually non-existent (Elkin and Bethke 1995). The levels
Narwhal
of OCs ( -HCH, HCB, sum of 43 PCB congeners, chlor-
alrus (Akulivik)
danes, DDT, PCDD/Fs, and dieldrin) in caribou (Rangifer
alrus (Inukjuak)
alrus (Inukjuak)
W
Reindeer (Stilla)
Caribou (Canada)
W
W
Reindeer (Jarfjord)
tarandus spp.) from across the Yukon and Northwest Terri-
Polar bear (Canada)
Reindeer (Sweden)
Polar bear (Svalbard)
Polar bear (Canada)
tories were very low, and in general, were substantially low-
er than the levels found in Arctic marine mammals. The
Figure 6ท57. Body concentrations of PCDD/Fs and non-ortho and mono-
ortho PCBs as TCDD equivalents (pg/g lw) in Arctic mammals compared
same is true for reindeer and caribou from Norway, Swe-
to thresholds for immunosuppression in harbour seal for the same combi-
den, and Russia (Annex Table 6ทA4). The OC levels found
nations of substances analyzed (Ross et al. 1995).
are several orders of magnitude lower than those expected
to lead to subtle biological effects.
chicken (Figure 6ท59). Mean PCB levels in pintail (2.11
PCDD/F, nPCB (CB 77, 126, 169), and mono-ortho
g/g ww) also exceed these NOEL and LOEL levels. Old-
(CB 105, 118) PCB levels are low in reindeer fat, withcom-
squaw have even higher PCB levels of 6.88 g/g ww
bined TEQ values of 0.92-1.9 pg TEQ/g lw in Sweden and
(range 2.88-18.9), which overlap or exceed most NOEL
0.3-3.29 pg TEQ/g lw in Canada (Annex Table 6ทA22) (C.
and LOEL values for reproductive effects in several other
de Wit unpubl., Hebert et al. 1996). PCDD/F levels in rein-
bird species.
deer fat from two sites in Norway vary from 0.7-1.2 pg
Analytical results are available for some waterfowl from
TEQ/g lw at Stilla to 8.6-14.7 pg TEQ/g lw at Jarfjord
Russia, but it is difficult to assess these as the tissue analyzed
(near a smelter) (Schlabach and Skotvold 1996a, 1996b).
was liver (Annex Table 6ทA16).
These levels are below those associated with immunosup-
pression in harbour seal (Figure 6ท57) and reproductive
6.8.1.3. Birds of prey
effects in mink.
The decline of populations of birds of prey in both temper-
ate and Arctic regions of the world since the introduction of
6.8.1.2. Waterfowl
organochlorine pesticides is well documented (Ratcliffe 1967,
No biological effects studies have been performed on Arc-
Peakall 1976a, Newton 1979, Helander et al. 1982, Odsj๖
tic waterfowl. Levels of DDT and PCB in most Cana-
and Sondell 1982, Peakall et al. 1990, Lindberg 1995a). A
dian species analyzed are below those expected to lead to
large number of species suffered from high concentrations of
reproductive effects if it is assumed that levels in whole
OCs with associated eggshell thinning and lowered repro-
body or breast muscle are similar to those in eggs on a wet
ductive capacity during the 1950s-1970s. The decline in en-
weight basis (Annex Table 6ทA4; Table 6ท9). However,
vironmental concentrations of DDT and PCB after being
there are a few exceptions. For PCB, some molluscivores
banned in most countries has been followed by the recovery
and piscivores from the eastern Canadian Arctic (Table 6ท9)
of most populations of predatory birds (Lindberg 1995b,
and some individuals of semipalmated plover (Charadrius
Helander 1996, Odsj๖ and Sondell 1996). Other than repro-
semipalmatus) have levels that exceed most NOEL and
ductive effects, no other biological endpoints have been stud-
LOEL values for reproductive effects in white leghorn
ied in birds of prey.

292
AMAP Assessment Report
6.8.1.3.1. Peregrine falcon
Eggshell thickness
mm
ท Reproduction
0.375
Pre-DDT average for Nearctic
In the 1970s, populations of the North American Arctic
0.350
breeding peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus tundrius) de-
0.325
clined to 35% of their numbers prior to the introduction
0.300
of DDT (Kiff 1988, Schempf 1989). Perhaps because they
0.275
were not exposed to high levels of contaminants all year
0.250
round, populations of the tundrius race did not appear to
suffer such extreme effects as the more southerly Falco
0.225
1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995
peregrinus anatum populations (Ratcliffe 1967, Peakall
Figure 6ท58. Shell thickness (mm) of peregrine falcon eggs representing
1976b, Newton 1979). Thomas et al. (1992) concluded
109 clutches produced in Rankin Inlet, NWT, Canada from 1981 to 1986
that DDT levels in F. p. tundrius had peaked in the mid-
(Court et al. 1990) and from 1990 to 1994 (Johnstone 1994).
1970s, but decreased by the early 1980s.
Court et al.'s (1990) studies of the tundrius population
1990s. For Fennoscandia as a whole, the population of per-
from the Keewatin area of the Canadian Arctic, near Ran-
egrine falcon is now increasing and the number of nesting
kin Inlet, NWT, between 1981 and 1986, concluded that,
pairs has increased from 65 known pairs in 1975 to 360-
while remaining a productive population, significant amounts
410 pairs in 1994 (Lindberg 1995a).
of organochlorine pesticides and PCB residues were still ac-
Studies of peregrine falcons from the Kola Peninsula,
cumulated. Eggs collected from 1981-1986 were 16% thin-
Russia, in 1977 and again in 1987-1991 indicate that the
ner than eggs collected prior to the introduction of DDT.
population there is also recovering (Henny et al. 1994). In
About 10% of breeding attempts failed due to egg break-
1987-1991, nestling production was 1.94 young per nest
ages. DDE levels in eggs were negatively correlated with
and the number of breeding pairs had increased from four to
eggshell thickness. Eggshell thinning, levels of DDE resi-
ten. Mean eggshell thickness was found to be 0.310 mm,
dues in eggs, and levels of contaminants found in prey items
corresponding to eggshell thinning of 11.4% as compared to
were all considered to be close to the levels considered to
Swedish peregrine falcon eggs from 1861-1946, which had
result in decreased production in this species (Peakall and
pre-DDT egg shell thicknesses of 0.350 mm (Lindberg
Kiff 1988, Court et al. 1990, Peakall et al. 1990). All but
1975).
one of 11 prey species measured showed measurable levels
of OCs. According to Court et al. (1990), reproductive suc-
ท Levels and intake assessment
cess was still reasonably high because the highly contami-
In several recent review articles (Bosveld and van den Berg
nated prey species were not as available on summer breed-
1994, Giesy et al. 1994b, Barron et al. 1995), the no-effect
ing grounds, and clean prey was eaten before laying. Court
and low-effect levels for eggs and adults as well as dietary
et al. (1990) concluded that about 10% of all breeding at-
intakes associated with no or low effects have been compiled
tempts between 1981 and 1985 failed due to pesticide con-
from the literature for PCB and dioxin-like compounds.
tamination.
For eggs of fish-eating and predatory birds (bald eagle, her-
Johnstone (1994), in later studies of the same popula-
ring gull, caspian tern, double-crested cormorant, common
tion, concluded that there has not been any improvement in
tern, Forster's tern, great blue heron, black-crowned night
eggshell quality since the early 1980s for this population of
heron) the following ranges were found. For reproductive
tundra peregrines (Figure 6ท58). There was no difference in
success, the NOEL range for PCB was 1.3-11 g/g ww in
mean eggshell thickness between the sample collected by
eggs. The LOEL range for various endpoints of reproductive
Johnstone (1994) and that collected by Court et al. (1990)
success (hatching success, egg morality, deformities, parental
between 1982 and 1986. Peregrine eggshell fragments col-
attentiveness) ranged from 3.5-22 g PCB/g ww in eggs.
lected since 1991 are on average 15% thinner (mean 0.306
For adults, PCB concentrations in brain tissue higher than
0.022 mm, n = 54) than those laid in the Nearctic prior to
300 g/g ww are associated with mortality. Dietary LOEC
the introduction of pesticides (0.360 mm; Berger et al.
levels for PCB range from 2 to 50 g/g ww food for repro-
1970, Anderson and Hickey 1972, Walker et al. 1973). Of
ductive endpoints in a number of different bird species.
the 54 clutches in Johnstone's (1994) sample, 28% showed
For HCB, results from Vos et al. (1972) indicate a NOEL
thinning equal to or greater than levels associated with re-
in kestrels (Falco tinnunculus) of 40-49 g/g ww in liver and
productive failure and population decline in this species,
a dietary NOEC of 100 g/g ww in food. Lindane concen-
that is, 17% of average pre-DDT shell thickness (Peakall
trations of 100-200 g/g ww in eggs of quail and chickens
and Kiff 1988).
are associated with decreased egg production (Whitehead et
Johnstone (1994) believes that although DDE levels ap-
al. 1972a, 1972b, 1974).
pear to be decreasing in the population of F. p. tundrius
It has been concluded that peregrine falcon eggs with
nesting around Rankin Inlet, the changes are small. Levels
DDE residues of 15-20 g/g ww would experience repro-
of PCB show little change over the same time period. Also,
ductive failure (Peakall et al. 1975). The mean DDE concen-
Johnstone (1994) believes that eggshell thickness and resi-
trations in Canadian peregrine eggs range from 4.5 to 13
due levels in peregrine eggs, blood plasma, tissue samples,
g/g ww (Annex Table 6ทA5), lower than this critical thresh-
and prey species are within the range that a portion of re-
old for reproductive failure. However, two clutches (10%) in
productive attempts will fail each year due to contamina-
the 1991 sample contained eggs with residue levels exceed-
tion by organochlorine pesticides and PCBs.
ing threshold levels, indicating that the potential for repro-
Just as in other countries, peregrine falcon populations in
ductive failure still exists.
Sweden declined dramatically after the 1940s. It is estimated
Mean PCB levels in Canadian peregrine eggs (both races)
that about 350 breeding pairs existed in Sweden in the mid-
are 5.6 to 9.8 g/g ww for the 1980s and 1990s (Annex
1940s. In 1965, there were 35 pairs, which declined to nine
Table 6ทA5), which exceed NOEL and LOEL levels for
pairs by 1974 (Alsberg et al. 1993). The Swedish Arctic po-
hatching success, deformities, and egg production in white
pulation increased to about 25 pairs in the beginning of the
leghorn chicken (Figure 6ท59). These levels also overlap or

Chapter 6 ท Persistent Organic Pollutants
293
plover. Heptachlor epoxide, DDT, hexachlorobenzene, and
PCB ตg/g ww in eggs
mirex were also detected in some of the prey samples, but not
20
in levels high enough to affect reproduction in peregrines (Ba-
ril et al. 1990)
The population of F. p. tundrius nesting around Rankin
Inlet has shown no recent overall improvement in the aver-
age thickness of eggshells. Thus, Arctic populations of Cana-
dian peregrine falcon are still at risk from high levels of DDT
and PCB in eggs and in their food.
For Fennoscandian peregrine falcons, arithmetic means of
DDE, PCBs, and dieldrin for 1991-1994 (32 clutches) were
2.9, 12, and 0.14 g/g ww, respectively. The DDE and diel-
15
drin levels are below those expected to cause effects, but
PCB levels exceed most of the NOEL and LOEL levels for
reproductive effects in other bird species (Figure 6ท59). Based
on a study conducted in the 1970s (Lindberg et al. 1985), no
peregrine prey species had DDT or PCB levels that ex-
10.9 NOEL reproduction,
black-crowned night heron. 1
10
8.0 LOEL reproduction, common tern. 1
7.6 LOEL hatching success,
common tern. 3
5.7 LOEL deformities,
double-crested cormorant. 3
5
5.0 LOAEL egg mortality deformities,
herring gull. 1. 2
4.0 LOAEL egg mortality bald eagle. 1. 2
3.5 LOAEL egg mortality,
double-crested cormorant. 1.2
2.3 NOEL hatching success,
Forster's tern. 3
1.5 LOEL hatching success,
white leghorn chicken. 1
0.36 NOEL hatching success,
white leghorn chicken. 1
0
0.29 LOAEL deformities,
)
)
fin
white leghorn chicken. 2
Eiders
Shag
Murre
Puf
Fulmar
Merlin
Kittiwake
anatum
tundrius
Herring gull
Glaucous gull
Black guillemot
Kola peregrine
Common guillemot
Fennoscandian peregrine
Kola white-tailed sea eagle
Canadian peregrine (
Canadian peregrine (
Figure 6ท59. Concentrations of PCB (ตg/g ww) in Arctic bird eggs com-
Norwegian white-tailed sea eagle
pared to thresholds for avian effects (1. Barron et al. 1995, 2. Giesy et al.
1994b, 3. Bosveld and van den Berg 1994).
exceed NOEL and LOEL levels for reproductive endpoints
ceed the LOEC for reproductive effects. As OC levels seem
in a number of wild bird species. HCB levels in peregrine
to have decreased in northern Sweden since the 1970s, this
falcons are several orders of magnitude below the NOEL
is probably still the case.
found in kestrels and lindane has not been detected in the
Peregrine falcon eggs collected from the Kola Peninsula,
few samples analyzed.
Russia, in 1991 had a geometric mean of 3.5 g DDE/g ww
Baril et al. (1990) concluded that only three residues in
(Henny et al. 1994), which is well below levels expected to
prey species ญ DDE, PCBs, and dieldrin ญ are likely to af-
cause effects. The geometric mean for dieldrin was 0.059
fect reproduction in peregrines. Dietary LOEC levels for
g/g ww, which is also below effect levels. However, concen-
PCBs (5 g/g ww) were exceeded in oldsquaw and pintail.
trations of PCB ranged between 3 and 21 g/g ww (geo-
Dietary LOEC levels for DDE (5 g/g ww) were exceeded
metric mean of 7.3 g/g ww). These PCB levels exceed
in oldsquaw, water pipit (Anthus spinoletta), and semipal-
most of the NOEL and LOEL levels for reproductive effects
mated plover. Dietary LOEC levels for dieldrin (0.1 g/g
in other bird species (Figure 6ท59). The PCDD/F levels found
ww) were exceeded in oldsquaw, pintail, and semipalmated
(14-95 pg TEQ/g ww) are above some NOAEL and LOAEL

294
AMAP Assessment Report
TCDD equivalents
ท Levels and intake assessment
pg TEQ/g ww in eggs
Merlin studied after 1990 still suffer from about 10% egg-
10 000
shell thinning. The mean concentration of DDT was 26.8
g/g ww, and for PCB 1.82 g/g ww, in merlin eggs col-
lected from Alta, Norway. The DDT levels are above those
expected to cause reproductive failure in peregrine falcons,
2 200 LD for pheasant embryo. 2
50
but the degree of eggshell thinning is less than expected from
LOAEL hatching success in Forster's tern. 5
the DDE levels. This may mean that merlin are less sensitive
1 000
750 LD caspian tern embryo. 6
to the effects of DDT than peregrine falcon. Mean PCB
50
550 LD double-crested cormorant embryo. 7
50
levels are in the range of NOEL and LOEL levels for repro-
ductive effects in white leghorn chicken (Figure 6ท59). No
information is available on OC levels in merlin prey.
200 NOAEL reproduction, Forster's tern. 5
147 LD white leghorn chicken embryo. 3
50
100
115 LD white leghorn chicken embryo. 4
50
6.8.1.3.3. White-tailed sea eagle
ท Reproduction
White-tailed sea eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla) populations in
Lapland and along the coast of the Baltic Sea were studied
between 1965-1978 for reproductive success (Helander et al.
20 LOAEL reproduction, wood duck. 1
1982, Helander 1983). Both populations showed reduced
10
10 LOAEL embryo deformities, white leghorn chicken. 1
breeding success during this period. Reproduction was stud-
NOAEL reproduction, herring gull. 1
ied in relationship to DDE, PCB (total), dieldrin, HCB, and
4.6 NOAEL reproduction, double crested cormorant. 1
mercury concentrations in eggs from both populations. Re-
production was found to be significantly negatively corre-
lated with egg residue levels of DDE and total PCB in the
1.5 NOAEL reproduction bald eagle,
Baltic population. After the introduction of DDT (and PCB)
white leghorn chicken. 1
1
during the 1940s, the average number of fledglings per nest
of the white-tailed sea eagle declined from 1.7 a year to 1.2
in the 1980s (Helander 1990).
In 1995, the number of nesting pairs of the Baltic popula-
tion of white-tailed sea eagle and the total number of fledg-
lings had increased to pre-1940 levels (Helander 1996). At
the same time, the northern population partly inhabiting the
Arctic regions increased slightly, from about 20 pairs to more
than 30 pairs. The increase was most probably explained by
better protection.
New data from the 1980s and 1990s show that the repro-
Peregrine (Russia)
Sea eagle (Russia)
ductive success seems to be primarily linked to the residue
Sea eagle (Sweden)
levels of DDE in the eggs (Helander 1994). The DDE con-
Figure 6ท60. Concentrations of PCDD/Fs and non-ortho and mono-ortho
centrations have declined such that no eggs collected during
PCBs as TCDD equivalents (pg/g ww) in Arctic bird eggs compared to
the 1980s and 1990s had DDE concentrations exceeding
thresholds for avian effects (1. Giesy et al. 1994b, 2. Nosek et al. 1992,
600 g/g lipid. During the 1960s and 1970s, two-thirds of
3. Verrett 1976, 4. Henschel 1993, 5. Kubiak et al. 1989, 6. Ludwig et
al. 1993, 7. Tillitt et al. 1992).
the eggs exceeded this concentration. The reductions in DDE
concentrations have in turn led to an improvement in pro-
levels for reproductive effects in other bird species (Figure
ductivity. During the 1960s and 1970s, only 8% of the ea-
6ท60). However, if the planar CB congeners 77, 126, 169,
gles had a productivity of 1.0. For the 1980s and 1990s, this
105, and 118 are included in the TEQ calculations (72-545
figure has risen to 27%.
pg TEQ/g ww), the combined TEQ levels (86-640 pg TEQ/
The mean reproductive rate for white-tailed sea eagles from
g ww) exceed most NOAEL and LOAEL levels for repro-
several populations along the Norwegian coast showed no
ductive effects in birds, and exceed the LD50 for white leg-
correlation with OC concentrations in the eggs (Nygๅrd and
horn chicken and double-crested cormorant embryos.
Skaare 1996). Significant correlations were found between
eggshell thickness and concentrations of DDE, PCB, and
HCB. However, the degree of eggshell thinning in the 1990s
6.8.1.3.2. Merlin
was only 2-5%, well below that considered to be critical.
ท Reproduction
The Fennoscandian population of merlin (Falco columbar-
ท Levels and intake assessment
ius aesalon) started to decline during the 1950s, and was
Previous studies of white-tailed sea eagle populations in the
very low around 1960. The population has recovered to a
Swedish Arctic (Lapland) and the Baltic Sea coast have re-
certain extent since then (Wallin 1984), and in 1991, the
lated DDE, PCB, dieldrin, HCB, and mercury concentra-
breeding population in Norway was estimated to be 2000-
tions in eggs to reproductive success. Critical ranges were
6000 pairs (Gjershaug 1991). From 1947 up to 1990, eggs
estimated to be 500-600 g DDE/g lipid (25-29 g/g ww)
were on average 15% thinner than normal, and some eggs
and/or 800-900 g PCB/g lipid (39-44 g/g ww). The Lap-
were 20-30% thinner than normal during the 1960s and
land eagle population had DDE concentrations of 117 g/g
1970s. After 1990, the thinning has been close to 10%. The
lw (5.7 g/g ww) and PCB concentrations of 263 g/g lw
number of merlins on autumn migrations in southern Swe-
(13 g/g ww) during the period 1965-1978, which are well
den and Norway were depressed during the years of thin-
below these critical concentrations. The decline in breeding
ning (Wallin 1984, Nygๅrd et al. 1994).
success in the Lapland population was found to be due to

Chapter 6 ท Persistent Organic Pollutants
295
food shortages and human disturbance. The decline in
in the North Atlantic. None of the fish species analyzed had
DDT levels in northern Sweden from the 1970s to the pre-
DDT levels that exceeded the International Joint Commis-
sent indicates that Lapland sea eagles are not currently at
sion guideline of 1000 ng/g ww (Figure 6ท62). For PCB,
risk from the reproductive effects of DDT.
the species that exceeds Canadian, International Joint Com-
The PCDD/F levels found in Swedish sea eagle eggs col-
mission, and USEPA guidelines is Atlantic cod (liver) from
lected in 1989 (7.5-8.4 pg TEQ/g ww) (Annex Table 6ทA22)
the Barents Sea (Figure 6ท61).
are above some NOAEL levels for reproductive effects in
No information is available on OC levels in white-tailed
other bird species (Figure 6ท60). However, if the planar
sea eagle prey from the Kola Peninsula, Russia.
PCBs (CBs 77, 126, 169, 105, 118) (50-110 pg TEQ/g ww)
are included in the TEQ calculations, the combined TEQ
6.8.1.3.4. Gyrfalcon
levels exceed most NOAEL and LOAEL levels for repro-
ductive effects in birds, and approach the LD50 for white
No biological effects studies have been conducted on gyrfal-
leghorn chicken embryo.
con. DDE and PCB levels in Canadian gyrfalcon eggs from
Mean DDE and PCB levels in Norwegian white-tailed
the 1980s are several orders of magnitude lower than those
sea eagle eggs from the coastal population between 66 and
considered to cause reproductive effects. Analytical results
69ฐN (Annex Table 6ทA5) are in the same range as those for
are available for gyrfalcon from Iceland, but it is difficult to
peregrine falcons (Figure 6ท59). However, sea eagles seem to
assess these, as the tissue analyzed was muscle (Annex Table
be less sensitive to the effects of PCB and DDT than per-
6ทA5). Based on dietary LOEC levels for PCB, HCB, DDE,
egrine falcons. These concentrations are also below the lev-
and dieldrin in peregrine falcon prey, levels in gyrfalcon prey
els found to reduce breeding success in the Swedish popula-
(hare, lemming, ptarmigan) in NWT Canada are several
tion of white-tailed sea eagles. On the other hand, popula-
orders of magnitude below those expected to cause effects.
tions at more southerly latitudes along the Norwegian coast
have higher concentrations, some of which exceed these lev-
6.8.1.4. Wolf and red fox
els. Levels of mirex, dieldrin, and HCB were not considered
to be of biological significance (Nygๅrd and Skaare 1996).
No biological effects studies have been conducted on wolf or
However, the mean PCB levels in the northerly population
red fox. Concentrations of PCB in these species from the
do exceed or overlap most NOEL and LOEL levels for sub-
Canadian Arctic are several orders of magnitude lower than
tle reproductive effects.
those expected to result in effects on reproduction. The lev-
Results of OC analyses in one white-tailed sea eagle egg
els in caribou/reindeer are also much lower than the dietary
from the Kola Peninsula, Russia are available (Henny et al.
concentrations expected to cause such effects.
1994). The DDE level was 0.7 g/g ww, well below the ef-
fect level given above. The PCB level was 2.0 g/g ww,
6.8.1.5. Mustelids
which exceeds a few NOEL and LOEL levels for reproduc-
tive endpoints in other bird species (Figure 6ท59). Levels of
Mink, and probably other mustelids, are extremely sensitive
PCDD/Fs were 5 pg TEQ/g ww and nPCBs (CBs 77, 126, 169)
to the effects of PCB. Aside from observations on population
and mono-ortho PCBs (CBs 105, 118), 12 pg TEQ/g ww.
changes associated with decreased reproduction, no other
The combined TEQs for PCDD/Fs and planar PCBs exceed
biological effects have been studied in Arctic mustelids.
some NOAEL and LOAEL values for reproductive effects
in other bird species (Figure 6ท60).
6.8.1.5.1. Mink
Based on mean OC levels in reindeer and fish from the
Swedish Arctic (Annex Tables 6ทA4 and 6ทA9), dietary con-
ท Reproduction
centrations of DDT and PCB are much lower than those
Population indices derived from age and sex ratios of the
estimated to lead to reproductive effects. The DDT and
mink harvest (Strickland and Douglas 1987) suggest light
PCB levels in freshwater fish in the Swedish Arctic are also
harvest pressure and healthy reproductive performance in
below the various environmental quality guidelines estab-
mink from the Northwest Territories in Canada. These in-
lished to protect fish-eating wildlife (Figures 6ท61 and 6.62;
dices, coupled with the comparatively low levels of contami-
next page). PCDD/F and planar PCB levels in burbot liver
nants, suggest little or no effects on reproduction or popula-
(23 pg TEQ/g ww) exceed all the guidelines (Table 6ท13).
tion health of NWT mink as a result of these contaminants.
Norwegian sea eagles prey mainly on deep-water marine
The American mink (Mustela vison) was introduced to
fish species (Staven 1994). Based on dietary LOEC levels
Scandinavia in the 1940s, after which there was a rapid in-
for PCB (5000 ng/g ww), HCB (100 000 ng/g ww), DDE
crease in numbers followed by a leveling-off in the 1960s
(5000 ng/g ww), and dieldrin (100 ng/g ww) in peregrine
(Gerell 1967, 1971). The species was spread over the entire
falcon prey, levels in Arctic marine fish are several orders of
country, including the remote Arctic areas, and the develop-
magnitude below those expected to cause effects. However,
ment of the population has been similar in various parts of
PCB and DDT levels in a range of fish species from many
the country. At the end of the 1970s, the population sudden-
Arctic sites do exceed some, and in a few cases for PCB,
ly started to increase rapidly and mink are now more com-
all of the environmental quality guidelines for protecting
mon than during the 1960s (Alsberg et al. 1993). The increase
fish-eating wildlife given in Table 6ท13 (Figures 6ท61 and
followed a more than 50% reduction in environmental con-
6ท62). This implies that dietary intakes of DDT and PCB
centrations of PCB between 1975 and 1978 (Olsson and Reu-
in sea eagles may be high enough to lead to effects. PCDD/F
tergๅrdh 1986).
levels have been analyzed in Atlantic cod (Annex Table
6ทA19) from northern Norway (Schlabach and Skotvold
ท Levels and intake assessment
1996a, 1996b) and the levels were below guidelines.
Platonow and Karstad (1973) reported that 1230 ng/g ww
For DDT, the fish species around Norway that exceed
of Aroclor 1254 in mink liver tissue corresponded to im-
both Canadian and USEPA guidelines are Arctic cod (liver)
paired reproductive success. Reduced growth and survival of
from some Barents Sea sites, Atlantic cod (liver) from all
mink kits were observed in female mink with 2000 ng/g ww
sites in the Barents Sea, and redfish (liver) from most sites
Aroclor 1254 in liver tissue (Wren et al. 1987a, 1987b).

296
AMAP Assessment Report
PCB ng/g ww
DDT ng/g ww
10 000
10 000
NOEC peregrine falcon. 1
5 000
NOEC peregrine falcon. 1
5 000
IJC guideline. 2
1 000
1 000
1 000
160
US EPA guideline. 2
100
100
100
IJC guideline. 3
72
NOAEC mink. 4
US EPA guideline. 3
39
10
10
Canadian freshwater guideline. 5
7.6
Canadian guideline. 4
6.3
Canadian marine guideline. 5
6.0
1
1
0.1
0.1
Freshwater
Marine
Freshwater
Marine
Pike
Pike
Sculpin
Sculpin
Lake trout
Lake trout
Arctic char
Arctic char
Dab (liver)
Arctic char
Arctic char
Dab (liver)
Burbot (liver)
Burbot (liver)
Lake whitefish
Redfish (liver)
Navaga (liver)
Seabird eggs
Lake whitefish
Redfish (liver)
Navaga (liver)
Seabird eggs
Broad whitefish
Broad whitefish
Arctic cod (liver)
Arctic cod (liver)
Greenland halibut
Atlantic cod (liver)
Greenland halibut
Atlantic cod (liver)
Long rough dab (liver)
Ringed seal (blubber)
Long rough dab (liver)
Ringed seal (blubber)
Diverse Greenland fish (liver)
Diverse Greenland fish (liver)
Figure 6ท61. PCB (ng/g ww) in Arctic animals as food items compared to
Figure 6ท62. DDT (ng/g ww) in Arctic animals as food items compared to
no-effect-concentrations (NOAEC) and environmental quality guidelines for
no-effect-concentrations (NOAEC) and environmental quality guidelines for
protecting fish-eating/aquatic wildlife (1. Baril et al. 1990, 2. USEPA 1995,
protecting fish-eating/aquatic wildlife (1. Baril et al. 1990, 2. USEPA 1995,
3. De Vault et al. 1995, 4. Giesy et al. 1994a, 5. Environment Canada 1996).
3. De Vault et al. 1995, 4. Environment Canada 1996).
Olsson and Sandegren (1991a, 1991b) proposed an EC50 of
food, respectively. For heptachlor epoxide, the dietary
50 000 ng total PCB/g lw and Kihlstr๖m et al. (1992) pro-
NOAEC for adult mink was 50 000 ng/g ww food (Aulerich
posed an EC50 of 65 000 ng/g lw and a no-effect-level of
et al. 1990) and the LOAEC for kit growth was 6250 ng/g
9000 ng/g lw for litter size in mink, based on muscle con-
ww (Crum et al. 1993). No information on the sensitivity of
centrations.
mink to toxaphene is available, however, a NOAEC of 4000
In a recent reassessment of all reproductive studies of
ng toxaphene/g ww food for thyroid effects has been esti-
PCB on mink, the EC50 in adult females for litter size was
mated from studies in rats and dogs (Chu et al. 1986).
calculated to be 40 000-60 000 ng total PCB/g lw (ca. 1200
The mean values of PCB (43 congeners) found in mink
ng total PCB/g ww) and 2400 ng/g ww for kit survival in
liver from the western Canadian Arctic range from 5.3 ng/g
muscle (Leonards et al. 1995). Similarly, the EC50 for diox-
to 92 ng/g ww (93-1670 ng/g lw) (Poole et al. in press). These
in-like compounds was calculated to be 160 pg TEQ/g ww
values are considerably lower than the EC50's for kit survival
for litter size and 200 pg TEQ/g ww for kit survival (Leo-
and litter size and the NOEL for kit survival (Figure 6ท63).
nards et al. 1995). In experiments, Heaton (1992) found
PCB levels in mink from Grand Baleine, Quebec, Canada
the LOAEL for kit survival to be 490 pg TEQ/g ww.
are considerably higher, 160-350 ng/g ww (2700-8000 ng/g
Giesy et al. (1994c) have estimated the dietary no-ad-
lw), and, on a lipid weight basis, are just below the NOEL
verse-effect-concentration (NOAEC) of PCB, dioxin-like
for litter size in mink. Recent assessments based on subtle
compounds, dieldrin, and DDT for reproductive effects in
neurobehavioral effects in offspring of rhesus monkeys
mink to be 72 ng PCB/g ww food, 2 pg TEQ/g ww food,
treated with PCBs and human mothers eating PCB-contami-
5000 ng dieldrin/g ww food, and 100 000 ng DDT/g ww
nated fish have resulted in an estimated LOAEL for effects

Chapter 6 ท Persistent Organic Pollutants
297
PCB ng/g lw
1 000 000
120 000
100 000
EC
80 000
50 kit survival, mink muscle. 1
77 000 Poor reproductive success, ringed seal. 7
60 000
EC
40 000
50 litter size, mink muscle. 1
25 000 Poor reproductive success, harbour seal blood. 5
21 000 LOAEL immune effects, Rhesus monkey blood. 2
10 000
9 000 NOEL mink kit survival, muscle. 3
7 500 NOEL otter reproduction, muscle. 4
1 000
1 000
NOAEL visual memory,
Human offspring cord blood serum. 6
LOAEL short-term memory,
500
Human offspring cord blood serum. 6
However, in some lakes, levels of PCDD/Fs, planar PCBs, and
PCB seem to be more problematic. For Canada, dietary
100
NOAEC levels for dioxin-like compounds in mink, and pre-
sumably for other mustelids such as marten and ermine, are
exceeded in some samples of walleye (whole body) and bur-
bot liver from the Slave River as well as char and lake trout
muscle from several other Canadian lakes (Annex Table 6ทA22).
Dietary PCB NOAEC levels in tissues from a number of
10
fish species are also exceeded. These include whitefish muscle
from Lake Laberge; burbot liver from Lake Laberge, Atlin
Lake, Schwatka Lake, Teslin Lake, several other lakes in the
Yukon, and Great Slave Lake; lake trout muscle from Peter
Lake, Kusawa Lake, Lake Laberge, and several Yukon lakes;
pike muscle from Lake Laberge; and, Arctic char muscle
from Amituk Lake and Char Lake (Annex Table 6ทA9).
1
Levels of DDT and PCB in most freshwater fish spe-
Terrestrial
Marine
cies from across the Arctic approach or exceed Canadian
olf
W
environmental quality guidelines (Figures 6ท61 and 6ท62,
alrus
Caribou
Beluga
W
Narwhal
Table 6ท14). In the few fish analyzed for dioxin-like sub-
Mustelids
Harp seal
Ringed seal
Minke whale
stances, these levels also exceed the Canadian guidelines.
When compared to the USEPA assessment as well as that of
Harbour porpoise
the International Joint Commission, PCB and DDT levels
Polar bear (Svalbard)
Arctic fox (Svalbard)
Polar bear (Circumpolar)
in most fish fall below the guidelines, except for dioxin-like
substances on a TEQ basis. PCB and DDT levels exceed-
ing these guidelines are found primarily in fish from lakes
Figure 6ท63. PCB (ng/g lw) in Arctic mammals compared to thresholds
known to have been contaminated.
for mammalian effects (1. Leonards et al. 1995, 2. Tryphonas 1994, 3.
Kihlstr๖m et al. 1992, 4. Olsson et al. 1996a, 5. Boon et al. 1987, 6.
Ahlborg et al. 1992, 7. Helle et al. 1976b).
6.8.1.5.2. Otter
on short-term memory of 500-1000 ng/g lw and a NOAEL
ท Reproduction
for effects on visual memory of 1000 ng/g lw in blood serum
The otter (Lutra lutra) populations in Sweden, which in-
(Ahlborg et al. 1992). Only mink from Fort Providence and
habit both the southern parts as well as the Arctic parts of
Grand Baleine exceed these values.
Sweden, declined suddenly in the entire country during the
PCDD/F levels in the few mink liver samples analyzed
1950s-1970s (Erlinge 1980, Olsson et al. 1996a, 1996b).
range from 0.2-0.5 pg TEQ/g ww, which are several orders
PCBs have been suggested to have caused the decline (Sande-
of magnitude lower than the EC50 for litter size and kit sur-
gren et al. 1980, Olsson and Sandegren 1991a, 1991b). In
vival in mink (160-200 pg TEQ/g ww).
the 1980s, the species was only found in southern Sweden in
Based on mean OC levels in fish from sampled lakes in
some very restricted areas and in the Arctic north, inventory
the Canadian and Swedish Arctic (Annex Table 6ทA9), and as-
studies clearly showed that the species was found only in
suming that mink only eat fish, concentrations of dieldrin,
isolated groups (Olsson et al. 1988, Olsson and Sandegren
DDT, and heptachlor in fish are generally lower than those
1991a, 1991b). A sudden increase of the northern popula-
estimated to lead to reproductive effects in mink, and toxa-
tion was seen at the end of the 1980s and in the 1990s (Ols-
phene levels are below those associated with thyroid effects.
son et al. 1996a).

298
AMAP Assessment Report
ท Levels and intake assessment
Table 6ท19. Mixed function oxidase enzyme activity in liver from fish in
Median values for total PCB concentrations in otter muscle
Lake Laberge and Kusawa Lake.
samples from the northern and Arctic areas of Sweden dur-
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Location/
TEQ
ing the 1990s were 7500 ng/g lw (Olsson et al. 1996a). The
Species
Sex
N
EROD
AHH
(pg/g) a
available data from time trend studies in otter, comparing
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Lake Laberge
PCB concentrations and reproductive success, suggest that
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
7500 ng/g lw is approximately the NOEL for reproductive
Lake trout
M
5
0.0130ฑ0.0040
0.0442ฑ0.0247
47ฑ42
effects. This is also close to the estimated NOEL of 9000
F
2
0.0085
0.0350
11
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ng/g lw given above for mink. Thus, otters from the Swed-
Burbot
M 10
0.0095ฑ0.0040
0.0077ฑ0.0040
255ฑ130
ish Arctic and Norwegian Arctic coast seem to have PCB
F
10
0.0041ฑ0.0020
0.0061ฑ0.0036
83ฑ14
levels at or below the NOEL for reproductive effects. How-
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Whitefish
F
6
0.0132ฑ0.0061
0.0373ฑ0.0142
ever, they exceed the NOAEL and LOAEL levels for subtle
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
neurobehavioral effects (Figure 6ท63). Levels of PCDD/Fs
Kusawa Lake
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
and nPCBs (1.5-12 pg TEQ/g ww) are also below the LOAEL
Lake trout
M 12
0.0226ฑ0.0139
0.0547ฑ0.0234
and EC50 values for mink reproduction given above. How-
F
8
0.0134ฑ0.0107
0.0359ฑ0.0185
ever, the lipid weight levels of PCDD/Fs and nPCBs (100-
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
a. Results from Muir (1993).
270 pg TEQ/g) are above those associated with immuno-
suppression in harbour seals (Figure 6ท57).
from several locations in northern Canada. Two collections
For Sweden, current PCB and DDT levels in fish do
from the Great Lakes are also included. The collection from
not pose a threat to mink or otter. The dietary PCDD/F and
Lake Ontario shows higher levels than any of the Arctic col-
planar PCB NOAEC levels for mink, and presumably for
lections. It is assumed that this is due to the fact that these
otter as well, (on a TEQ basis) are exceeded only in burbot
fish are exposed to higher amounts of a variety of chemical
liver from Pajala, along the River Torneไlv. The OC levels
contaminants.
in fish are also just below the various guidelines for protect-
Muir and Lockhart (1993b) examined mixed function
ing fish-eating wildlife, except for PCDD/F and planar PCB
oxidase enzyme activity in liver from fish in Lake Laberge
levels in burbot liver (23 pg TEQ/g ww) which exceed all
and Kusawa Lake in the Yukon. Liver samples were assayed
the guidelines.
for two cytochrome-P-450 1A-related activities, ethoxyre-
sorufin-O-deethylase (EROD), and AHH levels (Table 6ท19).
EROD activities in lake trout liver from both lakes were
6.8.2. Freshwater environment
similar despite higher PCB levels in the Lake Laberge fish.
6.8.2.1. Fish
Higher levels of TEQs were found in burbot (Lota lota) liver
ท Cytochrome P450 activities
than in lake trout muscle from Lake Laberge, but EROD
A variety of studies examining mixed function oxidase en-
and AHH activities were lower in burbot. EROD activities
zyme activity in freshwater fish, including studies with dif-
in male lake trout from Lake Laberge are about two-fold
ferent species, at different latitudes, and in systems with dif-
higher than those in Buchanan Lake (79ฐN, Canadian High
ferent known degrees of contamination have been performed.
Arctic) Arctic char (Salvelinus alpinus), but similar to levels
In general, results show that, in various comparisons, higher
observed in char from Amituk Lake (75ฐN, eastern Cana-
levels of enzyme induction relate to 1) more southerly lati-
dian Arctic). (Lockhart and Stewart 1992). There appeared
tudes, 2) higher trophic levels, 3) polluted systems, and in one
to be no correlation between TCDD equivalents (TEQ) for
case, 4) an inferior consumable product for human beings.
planar PCBs and enzyme activity.
Figure 6ท64 shows liver microsomal AHH (aryl hydro-
Lockhart et al. (in press) examined liver of burbot from
carbon hydroxylase) activities in collections of lake trout
western and northern Canada for four mono-ortho PCB
congeners (CBs 105, 114, 118, and 156) and for EROD and
AHH. Collections ranged from a small lake in northwestern
Ontario (51ฐN, 96ฐW) to the Peel River in the Northwest
Territories (67ฐN, 135ฐW). Congeners varied among sites,
but there was no consistent correlation between congeners,
nor was there a geographic pattern.
Lake Belot
Inferior fish quality has been linked with hydrocarbon-
Lake Colville
Hawk Lake
induced stress, which is also linked with induction of liver
Saturday Night Lake
P & N
mixed function oxidase enzymes (Muir et al. 1990a). Coin-
Fishing Lake
Lake
cident with oil field expansion at Norman Wells, NWT, fish-
Far Lake
ermen in downstream communities complained that the
Kusawa Lake
Lake Laberge
quality of fish had deteriorated. Specifically, the liver of bur-
Gordon Lake
bot was reported to have become small and dark in color,
and the flesh of whitefish `watery'. Examination of the bur-
0.25
bot revealed that the liver condition was associated with a
0.20
Lake Ontario
low content of fat, and analysis of the whitefish revealed
some of the highest tissue water contents on record.
0.15
Lake 375
Lake 625
Lake Superior
Roddy Lake
ท Bone collagen and hydroxyproline
0.10
Trout Lake
Bone hydroxyproline has been shown to be depressed in fish
0.05
during exposure to toxaphene (Mayer et al. 1977). Lake trout
collected in 1992 from Lake Laberge had significantly lower
0.00
AHH activity
levels of hydroxyproline than lake trout from Kusawa Lake
ตmol/mg protein/min at 25ฐ C
or from northwestern Ontario (Lake 260) (Lockhart and
Figure 6ท64. AHH induction in lake trout from Canada (Muir et al. 1997).
Muir 1996). To further identify causes of this depression,

Chapter 6 ท Persistent Organic Pollutants
299
toxaphene levels that are not far from those expected to af-
Kusawa Lake
fect bone development and mortality during spawning, indi-
Laberge Lake
Fox Lake
cating that some individuals may possibly exceed these. Be-
Peter Lake
Lake 260
sides Lake Laberge, these include several lakes in the Yukon
Bone collagen
(Bennett, Tagish, and Marsh Lakes), Atlin Lake in northern
ng/g
British Columbia, and Great Slave Lake in the NWT (Annex
600
Table 6ทA9). Information on toxaphene levels in fish from
other parts of the Arctic is limited relative to other OCs.
500
6.8.3. Marine environment
6.8.3.1. Invertebrates
400
Exposure to TBT in harbors with significant boat moorage
is responsible for the development of imposex in females of
300
the common whelk (Buccinum undatum) in Kongsfjorden,
Svalbard, dog whelks (Nucella lapillus) in Norway and Ice-
land, and a marine snail (Nucella lima) in Alaska (Short et
200
al. 1989, Harding et al. 1992, Brick and Bolte 1994, Berge
1995, Berge et al. 1995, Svavarsson and Skarph้dinsd๓ttir
et al. 1996). The banning of TBT use on small boats has re-
100
sulted in some signs of recovery for invertebrate species near
marinas and other heavy-use areas. Some recovery from im-
0
posex in populations of whelks has been observed in the
Pacific northwest (Tester et al. 1996), but it is probably still
too early to have an overall view of the environmental re-
Laberge 1993
sponse to this partial regulation (Stewart and Thompson
Fox Lake 1993
Peter Lake 1994
Lake 260-control
Lake 260-treated
1994). The difficulty in evaluating the environmental re-
Laberge Lake 1992
Kusawa Lake 1992
Kusawa Lake 1993
sponse is that 1) imposex is initiated by extremely low con-
Figure 6ท65. Comparison of bone collagen in lake trout from Peter Lake,
centrations of TBT making it difficult to relate cause and ef-
NWT and from Yukon lakes, and in toxaphene-treated and control fish
fect below analytical detection limits, 2) many of the indica-
from Lake 260 (Delorme 1995).
tor species live for more than six years, therefore, since ef-
fish in Lake 260 were treated with a single intraperitoneal
fects are irreversible, observed responses may be indicative
dose of 7000 ng/g toxaphene, tagged and returned to the
of past rather than current exposure and, 3) other com-
lake (Delorme 1995). No differences were seen in mean lev-
pounds or environmental circumstances may also produce
els of hydroxyproline or calcium between treated and con-
imposex (Evans et al. 1995, Ellis 1991), although if so, none
trol fish from L260. A repeat analysis of trout bone col-
have yet been identified.
lected in 1993 from Lake 260 also showed lower, but not
No information on the biological effects of OCs is avail-
significantly different, bone collagen than from Kusawa
able for Arctic marine invertebrates.
Lake and very similar levels to those for trout from Fox
Lake. Lake trout from Peter Lake, NWT had higher bone
6.8.3.2. Fish
collagen and lower toxaphene concentrations than the trout
from Yukon lakes (Figure 6ท65). No correlation was ob-
No studies of biological effects have been carried out on
served between toxaphene levels and collagen or hydrox-
Arctic anadromous or marine fish. As was stated under sec-
yproline in 19 trout from Peter Lake. Thus, bone collagen
tion 6.8.2.1 on freshwater fish, effect levels for toxaphene in
did not prove to be a strong indicator of toxaphene expo-
channel catfish fry were 3400 ng/g ww for growth and 600
sure in lake trout in contrast to results for fathead minnows
ng/g ww for bone development, and for brook trout, 870
(Pimephales promelas) in the laboratory.
ng/g ww for mortality during spawning. Based on mean
toxaphene levels in muscle (Annex Table 6ทA17), only Green-
ท Levels and intake assessment
land halibut (turbot) from the Canadian Arctic have levels
Mayer et al. (1977) found that adult fathead minnows and
close to the effect levels for bone development and mortality
channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) exposed to toxaphene
during spawning (570-670 ng/g ww).
had no decreases in hydroxyproline levels, but levels in ex-
posed offspring were significantly decreased. Toxaphene
6.8.3.3. Seabirds
concentrations of 3400 ng/g ww in channel catfish fry tis-
sues were associated with decreased growth and 600 ng/g
ท Levels and intake assessment
led to altered bone development (Stickel and Hickey 1977),
In general, PCB levels in seabirds analyzed from the Cana-
identifying offspring as being more sensitive than adults to
dian and Norwegian Arctic approach or exceed reproductive
toxic effects. Mayer et al. (1975) exposed brook trout to
NOEL and LOEL levels at the low range of the scale com-
toxaphene in water and found higher mortality during
pared to peregrine falcons (Figure 6ท59). However, no stud-
spawning. A 50% mortality was associated with toxaphene
ies of biological effects have been carried out on Arctic sea-
concentrations of 870 ng/g ww in muscle and 2400 ng/g
birds. Mean PCB levels in eider eggs are below those ex-
ww in whole body. Delorme et al. (1993) found decreased
pected to result in reproductive effects (Figure 6ท59). PCB
survival in lake trout treated with 7000 ng/g body weight,
levels in shag (a species of cormorant) and fulmar are at or
which was extrapolated to be equivalent to a whole body
exceed the LOAEL for embryo deformities and the lower
concentration of 4800 ng/g ww.
NOEL for hatching success in white leghorn chicken. In ad-
Mean toxaphene levels in freshwater fish do not exceed
dition to the above, mean PCB levels in puffin, murre,
effect levels. However, fish in a number of lakes have mean
common guillemot, black guillemot, and kittiwake exceed

300
AMAP Assessment Report
the upper NOEL for hatching success in white leghorn
levels in these seabird species' eggs also do not exceed any
chicken (Figure 6ท59).
environmental guidelines for protecting aquatic wildlife.
Mean PCB levels in glaucous gull and herring gull eggs
However, DDT levels in these species from these sites ex-
are somewhat higher and approach or exceed the LOEL for
ceed Canadian and USEPA guideline levels (Figure 6ท62),
hatching success in white leghorn chicken and the NOEL for
and PCB levels exceed all guideline levels (Figure 6ท61).
hatching success found for Forster's tern. None of the Arc-
tic seabirds studied appear to have PCB levels high enough
6.8.3.4. Cetaceans
to be associated with egg mortality. However, it is difficult
6.8.3.4.1. Beluga
to assess the situation for Russian seabirds and for several
seabird species at some Norwegian sites as other body tis-
ท Cytochrome P450 activity
sues were analyzed rather than eggs. Mean DDT, HCH,
The principal biomarker that has been used is the microso-
dieldrin, and HCB levels in all seabirds studied are several
mal cytochrome P450 system since it has been associated
orders of magnitude below those expected to cause effects.
both with exposures to planar aromatic compounds and
Based on dietary LOEC levels for PCB (5000 ng/g ww),
with a cascade of other biological responses. The cytochrome
HCB (100 000 ng/g ww), DDE (5000 ng/g ww), and dield-
P450 system in beluga whale from the Canadian Arctic has
rin (100 ng/g ww) in peregrine falcon prey, levels in anadro-
been characterized (White et al. 1994). EROD, PROD, and
mous and marine fish are several orders of magnitude be-
AHH activities were found to correlate with one another
low those expected to cause effects. Mean dieldrin levels in
and to correlate with cytochrome P450 1A levels. The cy-
Arctic anadromous and marine fish from Canadian, Nor-
tochrome P450 1A levels were also correlated with the con-
wegian, Greenlandic, Icelandic, and Russian waters (Annex
centrations of non-ortho and mono-ortho PCBs found in
Table 6ทA17) do not exceed any of the guidelines for pro-
blubber. Little cytochrome P450 2B activity was found.
tecting fish-eating wildlife (Table 6ท14). However, PCB
There is a strong correlation between liver microsomal
and DDT levels in a range of fish species from many Arc-
EROD or AHH activities and blubber residues of several
tic sites do exceed some, and in a few cases for PCB, all of
PCB congeners in a group of beluga whales from the west-
the environmental quality guidelines for protecting fish-eat-
ern Canadian Arctic (Figure 6ท66) (Lockhart and Stewart
ing wildlife given in Table 6ท14 (Figures 6ท61 and 6ท62).
1992, White et al. 1994). AHH activity in liver of beluga
This implies that dietary intakes of DDT and PCB in
whales from the Mackenzie Delta was found to be corre-
fish-eating seabirds may be high enough to lead to effects if
lated with the sum of mono-ortho and nPCB congeners,
seabirds prey on these fish species. PCDD/F and/or nPCB
which probably carry most of the TCDD TEQs, since PCDD
levels have been analyzed in a few anadromous and marine
levels are low in Arctic marine mammals (Norstrom et al.
fish (Annex Table 6ทA19) from Canada and northern Nor-
1990). These particular whales entered a freshwater lake
way. Sculpin from Cambridge Bay and anadromous Arctic
system during the open-water season and became trapped
char from several Canadian sites have PCDD/F or nPCB
there by ice at the onset of winter. Breathing holes in the ice
levels (1.1-4.5 pg TEQ/g ww) that exceed the guidelines.
became smaller and smaller and native hunters decided to
For DDT, the fish species that exceed both Canadian
take the whales in mid-winter. They were about 200 kg low-
and USEPA guidelines are short-horned sculpin from Sco-
er in body weight than typical for whales of their length
resbysund, Greenland; Greenland halibut from Cumberland
should have been. The hypothesis suggested by this informa-
Sound, Beaufort Sea and Davis Strait; Arctic cod (liver)
tion is that the whales mobilized blubber fats during the pe-
from some Barents Sea sites and southern Novaya Zemlya;
riod of poor feeding in freshwater and concomitantly mobi-
Atlantic cod (liver) from all sites in the Barents Sea, around
Iceland, Halten Banken, and the Faeroe Islands; long-rough
Microsomal AHH
dab (liver) around Iceland; dab (liver) from some Icelandic
nmol/mg protein/min
sites; redfish (liver) from most sites in the North Atlantic as
0.5
well as Davis Strait (West Greenland); navaga (liver) from
the east Pechora Sea; and liver from tusk, blue hake, black
dogfish, roughhead grenadier, and smalleyed rabbit fish from
0.4
Davis Strait. None of the fish species analyzed had DDT
levels that exceeded the International Joint Commission
guideline of 1000 ng/g ww (Figure 6ท62).
For PCB, the species that exceed Canadian, International
0.3
Joint Commission, and USEPA guidelines are four-horned
sculpin from Cambridge Bay, Greenland halibut from Cum-
berland Sound and the Beaufort Sea, Atlantic cod (liver)
from the Barents Sea and Halten Banken, redfish (liver)
0.2
from Halten Banken, navaga from the eastern Pechora Sea,
and tusk, blue hake, black dogfish, roughhead grenadier,
and smalleyed rabbit fish (liver for all species) from Davis
0.1
Strait (Figure 6ท61). Many of these fish species are deep sea
or bottom predators that are probably not generally avail-
able for seabirds, except possibly if brought up by commer-
cial fishing.
0.0
Herring and glaucous gulls prey on eggs, chicks, and
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
even adult seabirds. Based on OC levels found in eggs from
Sum of mono- and non-ortho PCB congeners (ng/g blubber)
guillemots, puffin, cormorant, and fulmar from the Cana-
dian and Norwegian Arctic (Annex Table 6ทA16), dieldrin,
Figure 6ท66. Aryl hydrocarbon hydroxylase (AHH, nmol/mg microsomal
protein/min) activities in liver microsomes of beluga taken from the Eski-
HCB, DDT, and PCB levels are below dietary LOEC lev-
mo Lakes area of the Mackenzie Delta, as a function of PCB congener
els for reproductive effects in peregrine falcon. Mean dieldrin
concentrations in blubber (White et al. 1994).

Chapter 6 ท Persistent Organic Pollutants
301
lized fat-soluble contaminants which then acted to produce
analyzed for nPCBs and, at one of these sites, for PCDD/Fs.
the correlations. While this is not a proof of a causal relation-
The nPCB TEQs range from 10-19 pg/g ww in blubber, which
ship between the PCBs and the bioindicators, it is probably
is about 90% lipid. PCDD/F TEQ levels were less than 1 pg/g
the closest we can come to connecting residues and responses
ww. These levels are considerably lower than those associ-
in animals that are not available for experimental study.
ated with immunosuppressive effects (Figure 6ท57).
These observations on the beluga whales indicate that
Narwhal eat squid, Arctic cod, shrimp, and Greenland
current body burdens of contaminants in an Arctic species
halibut (Muir et al. 1988a, 1992a). Mean dieldrin levels in
can be associated with subtle effects on the animals. Clearly,
Arctic cod and Greenland halibut (Annex Table 6ทA17) do
they point to a possible interaction between diet and the
not exceed any of the guidelines for protecting fish-eating
pharmacology of organochlorines and suggest that existing
wildlife (Table 6ท14). DDT levels in marine fish do not
body burdens may be sequestered effectively when blubber
exceed the NOEC for reproductive effects in mink. Mean
reserves are high, but may become a significant problem
PCB levels exceed the NOEC for reproductive effects in
during a poor feeding season.
mink in Greenland halibut from Cumberland Sound, the
For obvious logistical reasons, this observation on whales
Beaufort Sea, and Davis Strait and Arctic cod (liver) from
cannot be reproduced. Nevertheless, the effect has also been
some Barents Sea sites and southern Novaya Zemlya. For
demonstrated in fish in the laboratory. Arctic char received
DDT, Canadian and USEPA guidelines are exceeded in
an initial low dose of PCB congener 126 and were then main-
Greenland halibut from Cumberland Sound, the Beaufort
tained at different feeding rates for several months. Fish re-
Sea, and Davis Strait and Arctic cod (liver) from some Ba-
ceiving the low rations responded by increased cytochrome-
rents Sea sites and southern Novaya Zemlya. For PCB,
P-450 catalytic activities (L. Lockhart unpubl. results).
Canadian, International Joint Commission, and USEPA
guidelines are exceeded in Greenland halibut from Cum-
ท Levels and intake assessment
berland Sound and the Beaufort Sea (Figure 6ท61).
The mean PCB levels range from 1880-6263 ng/g lw,
which exceed the NOAEL and LOAEL for subtle neurobe-
6.8.3.4.3. Minke whale
havioral effects in offspring of rhesus monkeys and humans,
but are below the NOEL for otter reproduction and mink
ท Levels and intake assessment
kit survival (Figure 6ท63). Belugas from three Canadian sites
No biological effects studies have been carried out on minke
have been analyzed for nPCBs and, at one of these sites,
whale. DDT and PCB levels are only available from indi-
for PCDD/Fs (Annex Table 6ทA19). Experiments in harbour
viduals from northern Norway (southern Barents Sea). Mean
seals fed Baltic herring, indicated immunosuppression at
PCB levels exceed the NOAEL and LOAEL for subtle neu-
total TEQ levels of around 210 pg/g lw in blubber. Of
robehavioral effects, but are below the NOEL for otter re-
these, PCDD/Fs accounted for 18 pg TEQ, nPCBs for 51 pg
production and mink kit survival (Figure 6ท63).
TEQ, and mono- and di-ortho PCBs for 140 pg TEQ (Ross
Based on the dietary NOAECs and LOAECs given for
et al. 1995). The combined TEQs in beluga range from 4.2-
mink, mean levels of dieldrin, DDT and chlordanes in ma-
25.3 pg/g ww in blubber, which is usually about 90% lipid.
rine crustaceans and fish are several orders of magnitude
These TEQ levels are considerably lower than those associ-
below those expected to result in effects on reproduction in
ated with immunosuppressive effects (Figure 6ท57).
minke whale. Toxaphene levels in marine fish are below
Based on the dietary NOAECs and LOAECs given for
those associated with thyroid effects. Assuming that marine
mink, mean levels of dieldrin, DDT, and chlordanes in
mammals are as sensitive as mink, mean levels of PCB in
marine fish are several orders of magnitude below those ex-
tissues from several fish species exceed the dietary NOAEC
pected to result in effects on reproduction in beluga whale.
for reproduction of 72 ng/g ww (Figure 6ท61). These are the
Toxaphene levels in marine fish are below those associated
same as given for beluga (section 6.8.3.4.1).
with thyroid effects. Assuming that marine mammals are as
The assessment for dietary intake of dieldrin, PCB, DDT,
sensitive as mink, mean levels of PCB in tissues from sev-
and PCDD/F is the same as given for seabirds (section 6.8.3.3).
eral fish species exceed the dietary NOAEC for reproduc-
tion of 72 ng/g ww (Figure 6ท61). These include fourhorn
6.8.3.4.4. Harbour porpoise
sculpin from Cambridge Bay, short-horn sculpin (liver)
from Scoresbysund, Greenland, Greenland halibut (muscle
ท Levels and intake assessment
and/or liver) from Cumberland Sound, the eastern Beaufort
No biological effects studies have been carried out on har-
Sea and Davis Strait, Arctic cod (liver) from several sites,
bour porpoise. The mean PCB levels in animals from West
Atlantic cod (liver) from all sites, redfish (liver) from several
Greenland are 2600 ng/g ww in blubber and 24 500 ng/g
sites, navaga (liver) from the eastern Pechora Sea, tusk, blue
ww in blubber of animals from the southern Barents Sea.
hake, black dogfish, roughhead grenadier, and smalleyed
The NOAEL and LOAEL for subtle neurobehavioral effects
rabbit fish (liver for all species) from Davis Strait (Annex
are exceeded in harbour porpoise from both sites (Annex
Table 6ทA17).
Table 6ทA18). PCB levels in the southern Barents Sea por-
The assessment for dietary intake of dieldrin, PCB, DDT,
poises also exceed the NOEL for otter reproduction and
and PCDD/F is the same as given for seabirds (section 6.8.3.3).
mink kit survival and the levels associated with immunosup-
pression, and approach the levels associated with poor re-
productive success in harbour seal (Figure 6ท63).
6.8.3.4.2. Narwhal
Based on the dietary NOAECs and LOAECs given for
ท Levels and intake assessment
mink, mean levels of dieldrin, DDT, and chlordanes in ma-
No biological effects studies have been carried out on nar-
rine fish are several orders of magnitude below those ex-
whal. OC levels are available from individuals from only
pected to result in effects on reproduction in harbour por-
one site in Baffin Bay. Mean PCB levels exceed the NOAEL
poise. Toxaphene levels in marine fish are below those asso-
and LOAEL for subtle neurobehavioral effects, but are be-
ciated with thyroid effects. Assuming that marine mammals
low the NOEL for otter reproduction and mink kit survival
are as sensitive as mink, mean levels of PCB in tissues from
(Figure 6ท63). Narwhal from two Canadian sites have been
several fish species exceed the dietary NOAEC for reproduc-

302
AMAP Assessment Report
tion of 72 ng/g ww (Figure 6ท61). These are the same as
havioral effects are exceeded in walrus from eastern Baffin
given for beluga (section 6.8.3.4.1).
Island (1990 ng/g lw), eastern Hudson Bay (5800-13 600
The assessment for dietary intake of dieldrin, PCB, DDT,
ng/g lw), northeastern Hudson Bay (220-1400 ng/g lw), and
and PCDD/F is the same as given for seabirds (section 6.8.3.3).
Svalbard (11 500 ng/g lw) (Annex Table 6ทA18). PCB levels
in walrus from eastern Hudson Bay (Inukjuak) and Svalbard
also exceed the NOEL for otter reproduction and mink kit
6.8.3.5. Pinnipeds
survival (Figure 6ท63). However, no walrus exceed PCB
6.8.3.5.1. Seals
levels associated with immunosuppression or poor reproduc-
ท Cytochrome P450 system
tive success in harbour and ringed seal (Figure 6ท63).
EROD, AHH, and APND activities and cytochrome P450
Walrus from two sites in eastern Hudson Bay (Inukjuak,
levels were measured in 52 ringed seals (Phoca hispida)
Akulivik) have also been analyzed for PCDD/Fs and/or nPCBs
from Arviat, Canada and compared to organochlorine con-
(Annex Table 6ทA19). The PCDD/F and nPCB TEQs for the
centrations in blubber (Lockhart and Ferguson 1994).
samples from Akulivik combined are 22 pg/g ww in blubber
EROD, AHH, cytochrome P450 levels, and APND were
(about 80% lipid). These levels are lower than the sum of
found to correlate with each other and were all significantly
PCDD/F and nPCB TEQs (69 pg TEQ/g lw) associated with
correlated with dieldrin concentrations, also after correct-
immunosuppressive effects in harbour seal (Figure 6ท57).
ing for age, sex, and lipid content. No relationship was
The combined levels in female walrus from Inukjuak are
found between APND activity and DDT or chlordane
higher, 44 pg/g ww. Only nPCBs were analyzed in male wal-
concentrations. Some association was seen in female seals
rus from Inukjuak, but these levels (104 pg TEQ/g ww) were
between APND activity and toxaphene concentrations. As-
higher than the combined TEQs from females. These nPCB
sociations were also seen between EROD, AHH and
TEQ levels exceed the combined PCDD/F and nPCB TEQ
PCB. A significant correlation was observed between PCB
levels associated with immunosuppression in harbour seals.
levels in blubber and EROD levels in liver of hooded seal
Based on the dietary NOAECs and LOAECs given for
from the West Ice (Goks๘yr and Skaare unpubl.).
mink, mean levels of dieldrin, DDT, and chlordanes in ma-
rine invertebrates are several orders of magnitude below
ท Levels and intake assessment
those expected to result in effects on walrus reproduction.
The mean PCB levels in Arctic harp, ringed, harbour, and
PCB and PCDD/F levels are also below effect levels in in-
grey seals range from 241-5700 ng/g ww in blubber (85-
vertebrates. Levels of DDT, PCB, and PCDD/Fs in inver-
95% lipid), which exceed the NOAEL and LOAEL for sub-
tebrates are also below the various environmental guidelines.
tle neurobehavioral effects, but are below the NOEL for
However, some walrus are known to prey on ringed seal.
otter reproduction and mink kit survival (Figure 6ท63).
Mean levels of dieldrin, DDT, and chlordanes in ringed
These levels are also considerably lower than those associ-
seal blubber are below those expected to result in effects in
ated with poor reproductive success in harbour and ringed
walrus. Based on the NOAEC (4000 ng/g ww) for rats and
seal (Figure 6ท63). Ringed seal and harp seal have been ana-
dogs, toxaphene levels in ringed seal are below those associ-
lyzed for PCDD/Fs or nPCBs from Svalbard, the Barents Sea,
ated with thyroid effects. Assuming that marine mammals
the Greenland Sea, and several sites in Canada (Annex Table
are as sensitive as mink, mean levels of PCB in ringed seal
6ทA19). Both groups of substances were analyzed at only
blubber from all sites exceed the dietary NOAEC concentra-
two sites (Greenland Sea West Ice and Broughton Island,
tion for reproduction of 72 ng/g ww. Mean levels of DDT
western Baffin Bay) (total TEQ of 29 and 21 pg/g ww, re-
in ringed seal from most sites exceed both Canadian and
spectively), with the nPCBs comprising at least half of the
USEPA guidelines for protecting aquatic organisms (Table
combined TEQ value. The PCDD/F or planar PCB TEQs
6ท14, Figure 6ท62). The International Joint Commission
for all other sites range from 2.4-38 pg/g ww in blubber
guidelines are exceeded in ringed seal from Svalbard, the
(about 90% lipid). These levels are somewhat lower than
southern Barents Sea, Scoresbysund, Hudson Bay, northern
the sum of PCDD/F and nPCB TEQs (69 pg TEQ/g lw) as-
Baffin Island, and southwestern Ellesmere Island. For PCB
sociated with immunosuppressive effects in harbour seal
and dioxin-like substances expressed as TEQs, ringed seal
(Figure 6ท57).
blubber from all sites exceed all environmental guidelines
Based on the dietary NOAECs and LOAECs given for
for protecting aquatic wildlife (Figure 6ท61).
mink, mean levels of dieldrin, DDT, and chlordanes in
marine fish and crustaceans are several orders of magnitude
6.8.3.6. Polar bear
below those expected to result in effects on seal reproduc-
tion. Based on the NOAEC for rats and dogs, toxaphene
ท Reproduction
levels in fish are below those associated with thyroid effects.
Reproductive success for ten female polar bears on Svalbard
PCB levels are also below effect levels in crustaceans.
was followed by satellite telemetry (Skaare et al. 1994a).
However, assuming that marine mammals are as sensitive
Their success was examined in relation to PCB concentra-
as mink, mean levels of PCB in tissues from several fish
tions (sum of 22 congeners) in blood. Eight of the ten fe-
species exceed the dietary NOAEC concentration for repro-
males had cubs, but no correlation was found between re-
duction of 72 ng/g ww (Figure 6ท61). These are the same as
productive success and PCB concentrations.
given for beluga (section 6.8.3.4.1).
Bernhoft et al. (1996) found no difference in the OC lev-
The assessment for dietary intake of dieldrin, PCB, DDT,
els between females available for mating that became preg-
and PCDD/F is the same as given for seabirds (section 6.8.3.3).
nant and those that did not become pregnant. However, the
sample sizes for this comparison were very small. The repro-
ductive success of adult female polar bears at Svalbard is
6.8.3.5.2. Walrus
about 0.75, which is similar to values found in other Arctic
ท Levels and intake assessment
populations (Wiig 1995). However, Wiig (1995) found a
No studies of biological effects have been carried out in wal-
very high mortality of young polar bears at Svalbard. Poli-
rus. The mean PCB levels range from 111-13 600 ng/g lw
schuk et al. (1995) found higher levels of the lipophilic per-
in blubber. The NOAEL and LOAEL for subtle neurobe-
sistent contaminants in polar bear cubs-of-the-year than in

Chapter 6 ท Persistent Organic Pollutants
303
yearlings. High intake of OCs occurs at a crucial period of
activity was found, although there was an indication of in-
growth and development of the young polar bears. This
duced cytochrome P450 2B1 levels (Norstrom et al. 1994c).
could adversely influence the early development of cubs and
lead to a higher mortality.
ท Thyroid and retinol effects
During field research conducted in the spring of 1996,
Concentrations of retinol, total and free thyroxine (T4) and
researchers at the Norwegian Polar Institute and the Uni-
total and free triiodothyronine (T3) were measured in plasma
versity of Oslo captured two female siblings accompanied
from polar bears from Svalbard (Skaare et al. 1994a). These
by their 11-year-old mother on Svalbard. During field ex-
concentrations were related to the plasma concentrations of
aminations, the two siblings were both noted to have ab-
organochlorines. A significant negative correlation was found
normal external genitalia (J. Skaare pers. comm.). Photo-
between retinol and PCB concentrations (sum of 22 con-
graphs were taken and examined by Dr. Marc Cattet (DVM)
geners) in the plasma (r = 0.37, p = 0.003) and in subcuta-
at the University of Saskatchewan and he concurred that
neous fat (r = 0.46, p = 0.0003). A negative correlation be-
the two females were either pseudo-hermaphrodites or her-
tween thyroid hormone concentrations and PCB concen-
maphrodites. Causes of the abnormal development are un-
trations was also found, but was not statistically significant.
known, but possible causes are: a natural but rare event
known as the freemartin effect; occurrence of excessive ma-
ท Levels and intake assessment
ternal androgens, likely from a tumor; or a consequence of
Standardized PCB levels in polar bears from 16 areas across
toxic substances. Samples collected from the bears are un-
the Arctic range from 2763-24 316 ng/g lw. All PCB levels
dergoing analysis.
exceed the NOAEL and LOAEL levels found for subtle neu-
robehavioral effects in offspring if polar bear are as sensitive
ท Cytochrome P450 activity
as offspring of rhesus monkeys and humans (Figure 6ท63).
Studies of cytochrome P450 activity in polar bears or in ur-
The PCB levels also exceed the NOEL for kit survival in
sids are very recent. The cytochrome P450 enzyme system
mink in four of the areas ญ Svalbard, East Greenland, Mc-
of the polar bear was characterized by Bandiera et al. (1995).
Clure Strait, and eastern Hudson Bay (Figure 6ท63). PCB
EROD, pentoxyresorufin (PROD) and benzyloxyresorufin
levels are close to the kit survival NOEL in several other
(BROD) activities in polar bears were found to increase
areas. The LOAEL for immunosuppression is 21 000 ng
with cytochrome P450 1A content, and did not correlate
PCB/g lw in rhesus monkeys. PCB levels in polar bear
with cytochrome P450 2B content, suggesting that all three
from three areas are at or above this LOAEL ญ Svalbard,
activities were primarily cytochrome P450 1A-mediated
East Greenland, and McClure Strait.
(Letcher et al. 1996).
In the PCB results presented for different groups of
EROD and PROD activities, hepatic microsomal P450 1A1,
Svalbard polar bears based on age and sex (Annex Table
1A2 and 2B1 protein levels, as well as organochlorine and
6ทA20) for 1990-1994, all groups exceed the NOAEL and
MeSO2-metabolite concentrations were determined in 13
LOAEL for offspring neurobehavioral effects, as well as the
adult male polar bears collected near Resolute, Northwest
NOEL for kit survival. Some individuals in all groups over
Territories, Canada (Letcher 1996, Letcher et al. 1996). Cy-
three years of age exceed the LOAEL for immunosuppression.
tochrome P450 1A1, 1A2, and 2B1 were found to be induced.
Some individuals also exceed the levels known to be corre-
The mean cytochrome P450 content in polar bear liver, mea-
lated with poor reproductive success in harbour seals, as well
sured as EROD activity, was about two-fold higher than in
as those correlated with poor reproductive success in ringed
beluga liver (White et al. 1994) and 10-fold higher than ac-
seal and the EC50 for reduced litter size in mink (Figure 6ท63).
tivity in male hooded seals (Cystophora cristata) (Goks๘yr
Levels of PCDD/Fs in Canadian polar bears sampled in
et al. 1985). Assuming that the interlaboratory activities are
1983-1984 range from 2-23 pg TEQ/g ww in adipose tissue
comparable, this means that the cytochrome P450 1A-medi-
(58-73% lipid; Ramsay et al. 1992). The mean levels of
ated activity was elevated in polar bear. P450 1A1 protein
PCDD/Fs, nPCBs, and mono-ortho PCBs in polar bear liver
levels were ten-fold higher than 1A2 levels.
from bears collected near Resolute Bay, Canada in 1992-
Cytochrome P450 1A1 and 1A2 content in male polar
1994 were 27, 29, and 172 pg TEQ/g lw, respectively (Let-
bear hepatic microsomes was correlated with levels of pla-
cher 1996, Letcher et al. 1996). The combined TEQs exceed
nar PCBs (non-ortho and mono-ortho-substituted) as equi-
those associated with immunosuppression in harbour seal
valents of 2,3,7,8-TCDD (TEQ). EROD activities in polar
(210 pg TEQ/g lw). Mono-ortho PCB levels (CBs 105, 118,
bear liver correlated with total TCDD-equivalents (TEQs)
156, 157) were measured in polar bears from Svalbard
to a concentration of 350 pg/g lipid (Letcher et al. 1996).
(Bernhoft et al. 1996). The levels ranged from 42-102 pg
EROD activity remained relatively constant above this TEQ
TEQ/g ww (82-256 pg TEQ/g lw). These levels are compa-
concentration. Thus, EROD activity was not significantly
rable to or higher than the mono-ortho PCB TEQs (140 pg
correlated with TEQ or PCB for the data set as a whole.
TEQ/g lw) associated with immunosuppressive effects in
The non-linear response is probably due to inhibition of
harbour seal (Figure 6ท57). Oehme et al. (1995a) analyzed
enzyme activity by increasing levels of organochlorines.
PCDD/Fs and nPCBs in polar bear milk from Svalbard. The
Immunoquantitated cytochrome P450 1A protein concen-
combined TEQs for both groups of substances ranged from
trations remained highly correlated with TEQs, even at
5.5-12.7 pg TEQ/g lw. These levels are lower than those as-
high TEQ levels, indicating that maximal induction had not
sociated with immunosuppression.
occurred. Cytochrome P450 2B content in male polar bear
In a study by Polischuk et al. (1995), samples from fe-
hepatic microsomes was significantly correlated (r2 = 0.784)
male polar bears (Churchill, Manitoba) taken before and
with concentrations of total chlordane (mainly oxychlordane
after a fasting period, and from cubs-of-the-year and year-
and nonachlor) and total ortho-substituted PCBs in liver.
ling cubs were analyzed for OC levels. PCB concentrations
The strong positive correlation of cytochrome P450 1A
(lipid weight basis) in females with or without cubs were
with nPCBs and mono-ortho PCBs in polar bear liver sug-
about twice as high after the fasting period, and in some in-
gests that these compounds may be responsible for the ac-
dividuals, the fasting concentrations approached the NOEL
tivity. PCDD/Fs contributed only a small fraction of the
for kit survival in mink. PCB concentrations in yearling
total TCDD-toxic equivalents in polar bear liver. No PROD
cubs were above the NOAEL and LOAEL for neurobehav-

304
AMAP Assessment Report
ioral effects and the NOEL for mink kit survival, and con-
not focused specifically on effects of contaminants. There-
centrations in cubs-of-the-year were highest (approximately
fore, at the present time, it is very difficult to link contami-
11000-15 000 ng/g lw), also exceeding these NOAEL, LOAEL,
nant levels or biochemical indicators of effects to effects on
and NOEL levels. Thus, some polar bear populations may
Arctic animals at the individual or population level. Such as-
be at risk for the immunosuppressive effects of PCB and
sessments are also complicated by the fact that the thresholds
dioxin-like substances as well as the reproductive and devel-
for effects of many contaminants are not well known and
opmental effects of PCB.
very little is known about effects of contaminant mixtures.
Based on mean OC levels in ringed seal blubber from vari-
As far as organochlorines are concerned, Arctic marine
ous sites in the Arctic (Annex Table 6ทA18), dieldrin, chlor-
mammals are often regarded as controls for much more con-
danes (heptachlor epoxide), and DDT levels are below the
taminated members of their populations or related species in
dietary NOAEC levels for reproductive effects in mink. Based
temperate regions. However, biological effects studies on
on the NOAEC (4000 ng/g ww) for rats and dogs, toxaphene
Arctic animals do show some subtle responses that may be
levels in ringed seal are below those associated with thyroid
related to current levels of OC contaminants. Based on the
effects. Assuming that marine mammals are as sensitive as
results of the few biological effects studies that have been
mink, mean levels of PCB in ringed seal blubber from all
carried out, the following can be concluded.
sites exceed the dietary NOAEC concentration for reproduc-
tion of 72 ng/g ww. Mean DDT levels in ringed seal exceed
6.8.4.1. Observed effects
Canadian and USEPA guidelines for protecting aquatic wild-
life, and in some cases (Svalbard, Barents Sea, Scoresbysund,
ท Reproduction
northern Baffin Bay, Ellesmere Island, Hudson Bay), Interna-
Studies in Canadian, Swedish, and Russian peregrine falcon
tional Joint Commission guidelines are also exceeded (Figure
still indicate that egg-shell thinning occurs due to high DDT
6ท62). For PCB and dioxin-like substances expressed as
levels in the eggs. For Canadian peregrines, these levels are
TEQs, ringed seal blubber from all sites exceed all environ-
high enough to still be causing reproductive failure in some
mental guidelines for protecting aquatic wildlife (Figure 6ท61).
cases. For Norwegian white-tailed sea eagle, correlations
were found between eggshell thinning and concentrations of
DDE, PCB, and HCB, but the degree of thinning was be-
6.8.3.7. Arctic fox
low that affecting reproduction. No correlations could be
ท Levels and intake assessment
found between PCB concentrations and reproductive suc-
No studies of biological effects have been performed on
cess in a study of female polar bears, however, the sample
Arctic fox. Levels of OCs have only been determined for in-
size was small. There is some evidence of reduced cub sur-
dividuals on Svalbard. On a wet weight basis, OC concen-
vival on Svalbard, however. Imposex has been observed in
trations in Arctic fox liver are similar in specimens collected
invertebrates in Kongsfjorden, Svalbard and is probably due
in 1983-1984 and 1993-1994. Assuming a lipid content of
to TBT exposure.
6%, PCB levels in Arctic fox liver from 1993-1994 range
from 2250-236 700 ng/g lw with means in the range 30 100-
ท Cytochrome P450 activity
63 600 ng/g lw (Annex Table 6ทA20). These mean PCB
Liver enzyme induction (EROD) seems to be correlated with
levels exceed the NOAEL and LOAEL for subtle neurobe-
concentrations of PCBs in burbot from the Canadian Arc-
havioral effects in offspring of rhesus monkeys and humans,
tic. A clear relationship has been seen between non- and
the NOEL for kit survival in mink, levels known to cause
mono-ortho PCB levels and liver enzyme induction (EROD,
poor reproductive success in harbour seals, and the EC50 for
AHH) in starved beluga whales from the western Canadian
reduced litter size (Figure 6ท63). Some individuals exceed the
Arctic. A relationship has also been seen between EROD
levels associated with poor reproductive success in ringed
and AHH activities and PCB and dieldrin concentrations
seals and the EC50 for kit survival in mink as well (80 000-
in ringed seals from Arviat and between EROD activity and
120 000 ng/g lw). The lowest-adverse-effect-level for immu-
PCB concentrations in hooded seal from the West Ice. Cy-
nosuppression is 21 000 ng PCB/g lw in rhesus monkeys.
tochrome P450 1A activities in polar bear seem to be ele-
Mean PCB levels in Arctic fox from 1993 and 1994 are
vated and are correlated with concentrations of non-ortho
above this LOAEL. No information is available for PCDD/Fs
and mono-ortho PCBs. Cytochrome P450 2B activities in
or planar PCBs in Arctic fox. However, these can also be
polar bear liver seem to be correlated with chlordane levels.
suspected to be at or above the levels found in polar bears.
As Arctic fox from Svalbard also eat ringed seal, the di-
ท Bone development
etary intake assessment given above for polar bear is prob-
It is still not clear if toxaphene is the cause of depressed bone
ably also valid, i.e., PCB levels in ringed seal blubber from
hydroxyproline levels in fish from Lake Laberge.
all sites exceed the dietary NOAEC for reproductive effects
as well as all guidelines for protecting aquatic wildlife (Fig-
ท Thyroid and retinol effects
ure 6ท61). Levels of DDT and dioxin-like substances ex-
A significant negative correlation was found between retinol
pressed as TEQs (Annex Table 6ทA19) in Svalbard ringed
concentrations and PCB concentrations in polar bear
seal exceed all of the guidelines for protecting aquatic
plasma. A similar trend was found for thyroid hormones,
wildlife (Table 6ท13). Arctic fox from Svalbard are, there-
but was not statistically significant.
fore, at risk for the immunosuppressive effects of PCB and
probably also dioxin-like substances, as well as the repro-
6.8.4.2. Assessment of current levels in biota
ductive and developmental effects of PCB.
Current concentrations of some OCs in several Arctic spe-
cies are at or above the known thresholds associated with
6.8.4. Summary and conclusions ญ
effects that have been seen in other species studied either in
biological effects
the laboratory or in the field. The current levels of DDE in
While studies of ecological relevance, such as species diver-
the Canadian population of tundra peregrines and the fact
sity or population size, are ongoing in the Arctic, they are
that there has not been any improvement in eggshell quality

Chapter 6 ท Persistent Organic Pollutants
305
since the early 1980s indicate that present DDE levels are
that exceed those associated with poor reproductive success
still causing effects. PCB levels in Canadian, Fennoscan-
in both harbour and ringed seals and decreased survival of
dian and Kola Peninsula peregrines are at or exceed most
young in mink. In support of this, some evidence exists indi-
NOELs and LOELs for reproductive endpoints in a wide
cating that young polar bears on Svalbard have higher mor-
range of wild bird species. PCDD/F and planar PCB TEQs
tality rates. Other populations have lower PCB levels, but
in Kola Peninsula peregrines exceed most threshold levels for
still exceed some threshold levels for reproductive effects as
reproductive endpoints in wild birds, indicating similar risks.
well as those associated with neurobehavioral effects in off-
The Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Can-
spring. Populations on Svalbard and at Resolute Bay are
ada (COSEWIC) downlisted the status of Falco peregrinus
also at risk for immunosuppression from current levels of
tundrius from `threatened' to `vulnerable' partly because
PCDD/Fs and planar PCBs expressed as TEQs.
the chemical threat did not appear to be as great as it once
PCB levels in Arctic fox from Svalbard are actually high-
was. The current studies suggest that this threat still exists.
er in some cases than in polar bear. Thus, some individuals
High DDE levels as well as significant eggshell thinning
may be at risk for reproductive and immunosuppressive ef-
are also still seen in Fennoscandian merlin and white-tailed
fects, as well as subtle neurobehavioral effects in offspring.
sea eagle in Arctic sites. The extent of eggshell thinning is
Consequently, based on known thresholds for effects, sev-
less than seen in peregrine falcons and the populations of
eral Arctic species appear to be at risk for, primarily, repro-
these species are recovering. However, PCB levels as well
ductive and/or immunosuppressive effects from current lev-
as PCDD/F and planar PCB TEQs in sea eagle exceed most
els of DDT, PCB, and/or dioxin-like substances. Those at
threshold levels for reproductive endpoints in wild birds,
greatest risk include peregrine falcon, white-tailed sea eagle,
indicating similar risks for this species.
glaucous and herring gulls, alcids, kittiwake, otter, harbour
Predatory seabirds, such as glaucous and herring gulls,
porpoise, some walrus populations, polar bears, and Arctic
exceed some threshold effect levels for PCB, indicating
fox. If the risk for subtle neurobehavioral effects from PCB
that they may be at risk for subtle reproductive effects. Pis-
in exposed offspring of mammals is included, then some
civorous seabirds such as guillemots, kittiwake, and puffin
mink populations, beluga, narwhal, minke whale, and seals
have somewhat lower PCB levels, but also exceed some
are also potentially at risk. Greenland halibut and lake trout
reproductive threshold levels.
from some sites have toxaphene levels high enough to affect
Mustelids, particularly mink, are very sensitive to the re-
fry bone development and increase mortality during spawn-
productive effects of PCB and dioxin-like compounds, and
ing. Some invertebrates may be at risk for the reproductive
populations of mink and otter in the Swedish Arctic have
effects of TBT, particularly those that are exposed in harbors.
increased as environmental levels of these compounds have
An assessment of risks from dietary intake has been at-
declined. Current PCB levels in otter from the Swedish
tempted, based on results from laboratory feeding experi-
Arctic and in mink, marten, and ermine from Canada do
ments, OC levels in prey items, and information on different
not put these species at risk for reproductive effects, but
species' food preferences. Based on low-effect-concentra-
possible risks do exist for subtle neurobehavioral effects in
tions in food, reproduction in Canadian peregrine falcons is
offspring. For otter, the PCDD/F and planar PCB levels ex-
likely to be affected by levels of DDE, PCB, and dieldrin in
pressed as TEQs are in the same range as those associated
their prey. Reproduction in mustelids in Canada and Sweden
with immunosuppression in harbour seals. Moderate im-
may be affected by dietary levels of, primarily, PCDD/Fs and
munosuppression may have little effect under normal con-
PCB in freshwater fish. Reproduction in beluga, narwhal,
ditions, but impaired immune function is thought to have
and seals may be affected by dietary levels of PCB in ma-
played a role in the morbillivirus-induced mass mortalities
rine fish. Walrus, polar bear, and Arctic fox that prey on
of harbour seal, grey seal, and striped dolphin populations
ringed seal have dietary intakes of PCB that may cause
in Europe in the period 1987-1991 (Hall et al. 1992, Agui-
reproductive effects.
lar and Borrell 1994, Ross et al. 1995, 1996).
When environmental quality guidelines for protecting
Harbour porpoises from the southern Barents Sea have
aquatic wildlife are used, dietary intakes of DDT, PCB,
PCB levels that exceed those associated with decreased
and dioxin-like substances are problematic for many marine
otter and mink reproduction, and with immunosuppression
and freshwater piscivorous species. The same is true for pre-
and poor reproductive success in harbour seal. Some walrus
datory seabirds feeding on bird eggs and for walrus, polar
populations, and most notably those individuals that feed
bear, and Arctic fox that consume ringed seal.
on ringed seal, have PCB levels that exceed NOELs for re-
The new data thus suggest that even the relatively low
productive effects in otter and mink. In at least one case (Inu-
levels of contaminants currently present in Arctic animals
kjuak, Hudson Bay), nPCB TEQ levels in walrus exceed
may not be without biological effects, especially during years
those associated with immunosuppression in harbour seals.
of poor feeding or during periods of fasting. When fat re-
PCB levels in most walrus studied, as well as in seals, belu-
serves decrease, OC concentrations in the remaining fat in-
ga, minke whale, harbour porpoise (from West Greenland),
crease, leading to levels that may exceed known effects thresh-
and narwhal exceed those associated with subtle neurobe-
olds. Exposure of offspring to high OC levels during lacta-
havioral effects in offspring of rhesus monkeys and humans.
tion is also problematic. The high fat content of milk in many
Biological marker studies in polar bear show significant
Arctic mammals leads to a transgenerational transfer of high
correlations between increased liver enzyme induction and
levels of OCs during early development, a period of the life
elevated planar PCB and chlordane levels, as well as be-
cycle that has been shown to be particularly sensitive to dis-
tween decreased retinol levels and elevated PCB levels.
ruption by some OC contaminants. A similar situation oc-
These correlations indicate that these substances may be the
curs in birds and fish when fat reserves are mobilized into
cause of the biological responses. Current PCB levels in
egg production.
polar bear from Svalbard, East Greenland, and McClure
As is usually the case with Arctic species, the lack of ex-
Strait indicate that these populations are at risk for repro-
perimental dosage/response data continues to limit the abil-
ductive and immunosuppressive effects as well as subtle
ity to interpret residues in Arctic animals. Food and water
neurobehavioral effects in offspring. PCB levels are high-
stress in combination with immunosuppressive chemical ex-
est in the Svalbard population, and some groups have levels
posure have been shown to affect the immune system, growth,

306
AMAP Assessment Report
and reproductive potential in mice (Porter et al. 1984). The
6.9.1.3. Sediments and suspended solids
possibility of immunosuppression in Arctic marine mam-
mals, especially polar bears, during times of food stress is
OC levels are higher in freshwater sediments than marine
therefore real, and warrants further study.
sediments. PCB levels in both freshwater and marine sedi-
ments generally do not exceed thresholds associated with
biological effects. Data are lacking on OCs in marine sedi-
ments from the Canadian and Alaskan Arctic except for a
6.9. Conclusions and recommendations
limited number of samples from the southern Beaufort Sea,
All POPs considered under the AMAP monitoring program
Cambridge Bay area, and the Bering/Chukchi Seas. TEQ lev-
have been found in air, snow, water, sediments, and/or bio-
els in most freshwater, marine, and estuarine sediments ex-
ta in the Arctic. In some cases, a number of Arctic species
ceed some guidelines for protection of aquatic life.
have POP levels high enough to cause effects. Therefore, the
PCB and DDT levels on suspended solids in the Ob and
authors of this chapter believe that we must continue to
Yenisey Rivers are higher than found in river water near in-
1) monitor levels of POPs in the abiotic environment and in
dustrialized areas in North America. Although there may be
biota with emphasis on temporal and spatial trends and im-
unidentified quality assurance problems with the PCB and
proved understanding of transport and fate processes, 2) re-
DDT data for Russian rivers, results from independent Rus-
fine and develop methods of determining subtle biological
sian and Norwegian studies of bottom surficial sediments
effects and relate POP levels to these effects, 3) improve our
from the Indigirka River delta and Pechora River support
ability to assess biological effects in organisms and health
these results. Thus, the data for PCBs and DDT in Russian
effects in humans, and 4) continue to promote measures to
rivers, while reflecting some sample contamination prob-
reduce levels of POPs in the environment.
lems, may in fact be extraordinarily high even compared
with surface waters of urban areas of North America and
western Europe. Unfortunately, there are no measurements
6.9.1. Levels and effects
of PCBs in the dissolved (including dissolved organic carbon-
6.9.1.1. Air and precipitation
associated) phase where the major fraction would be found.
Monitoring of air in the Arctic has shown that levels of lin-
Verification of the extent of PCB and DDT contamination
dane and chlordane are correlated with long-range trans-
of these rivers is needed.
port episodes from use areas in the mid-latitudes of North
America, Europe, and Asia. Higher concentrations of PCBs
are related to transport of air masses from industrialized
6.9.1.4. Biota
areas of western Europe and eastern North America in the
Levels of OCs in Arctic species and environments are gener-
mid-latitudes. Current and past uses of OCs in the mid-lati-
ally lower than in temperate areas. However, high levels do
tudes of the northern hemisphere are, therefore, the most
occur due to a combination of the following processes:
likely source of OC contaminants to the Arctic environ-
1) OCs are biomagnified in long food webs, particularly in
ment. Global transport from current use areas at low lati-
ones that are dominated by organisms with high lipid content,
tudes is also important for some OCs. Levels of PCB and
2) some abiotic-biotic interfaces, for example ice edges, may
DDT were up to ten times higher in snow from the Taimyr
be particularly conducive to transferring OCs into the food
Peninsula and Laptev Sea than in the Canadian Arctic.
web, and 3) some species, and/or their prey, have large conta-
Continued studies of OC levels in air, mechanisms of dry
minant burdens from their southern overwintering habitats.
and wet deposition, and scavenging by snow are needed in
Knowledge of effects of low tissue residue levels or body
order to understand and better model transport pathways,
burdens of POPs or low-level intakes is very limited and is
as well as to determine sources of OCs and their fate in the
most developed for PCDD/Fs, non-ortho PCBs, other PCBs,
Arctic. The high PCB and DDT levels in Russian samples
and DDT. Threshold levels have mainly been established in
need to be confirmed.
laboratory animals for effects on reproduction, neurobehav-
ioral development, and immunosuppression.
POP-related effects are seen in some Arctic biota. Current
6.9.1.2. Seawater and freshwater
concentrations in several Arctic species are at or above the
Highest levels of -HCH in the world's oceans are found in
known thresholds associated with, primarily, reproductive,
the Canada Basin and Canadian Arctic Archipelago due to
immunosuppressive, and neurobehavioral effects.
a combination of icecover conditions and circulation of older
Studies of POP levels at different trophic levels in terres-
water from the European Arctic. High PCB levels are found
trial, freshwater, and marine ecosystems confirm that consid-
in Russian seawaters. The PCB levels in Arctic seawater ex-
erable bioaccumulation and biomagnification occur. Bioaccu-
ceed some guidelines for protection of freshwater aquatic life.
mulation models exist and have been used for OCs in Cana-
There is little knowledge of OC concentrations in lake
dian Arctic lakes, but these do not consider the movement
waters, with the exception of studies in the Yukon River ba-
or runoff of contaminants in snowmelt and runoff from the
sin and the Northwest Territories in Canada and a few
terrestrial environment. The accumulation of PCBs with age
lakes from Taimyr Peninsula, Russia. Higher levels of HCH,
in beluga and seals has been predicted using a model that
DDT, and PCB were found in the Russian lakes. Concentra-
incorporates age-dependent uptake and elimination as well
tions of PCBs in lake waters in Canada and Russia exceeded
as transfer of contaminants in maternal milk. This model is
levels associated with negative biological effects.
not yet linked with bioaccumulation/biomagnification mod-
Exceptionally high HCH levels are found in Russian
els for the marine food chains leading to marine mammals.
river water, especially the Ob. Ratios of -HCH to -HCH
The existing database should be used, together with further
indicate use of lindane.
studies, to calibrate models and link chemical fate/distribu-
More research is needed on OC levels in Arctic lake waters.
tion model output to contaminant bioaccumulation. The role
The high OC levels found in lake and river waters in Russia
of abiotic-biotic interfaces at the base of food webs needs to
need to be verified.
be better understood in both marine and freshwater environ-

Chapter 6 ท Persistent Organic Pollutants
307
ments. The epontic component of the food web, ice edge ef-
Surveys of TBT in harbor sediments in the Arctic should be
fects, and the role of sediments and the benthic community
carried out to assess the extent of TBT contamination.
in the accumulation of OCs should be examined further,
Where possible, the survey should include investigations of
particularly in the marine environment.
the presence of imposex characteristics in indicator species
such as dogwhelk (Nucella lapillus) or whelk (Buccinium
Fauna in the terrestrial ecosystem, excluding migratory
undatum). The imposex bioindicator technique for geograph-
birds and birds which prey on them, are less contaminated
ical scale surveys is not likely to be universally applicable in
with OCs than in freshwater and marine systems, mainly
Arctic regions as the intertidal zone is often narrow (about
due to shorter food webs. The major concern in the terres-
1-2 meters), limited in its biodiversity, and probably does
trial environment is for migratory birds of prey and pisci-
not support a sufficient dogwhelk fauna for assessment sam-
vorous mammals, which have higher OC levels. Current
pling. However, whelks (Buccinum undatum) have a wider
PCB levels put otter from the Swedish Arctic and mink,
distribution and may be a useful indicator species (Ten Hal-
marten, and ermine from some sites in Canada at risk for
lers-Tjabbes et al. 1994). The risk exists that TBT biomagni-
subtle neurobehavioral effects in offspring. For otter, the
fies and analyses should also be made on bottom-feeding
PCDD/F and planar PCB levels expressed as TCDD TEQs
fish, waterfowl, and marine mammals, particularly as these
are in the same range as those associated with immunosup-
are components of the diet of Arctic peoples.
pression.
For predatory birds, lowest OC levels are found in the
Other major problems in the marine environment are seen in
non-migratory Icelandic gyrfalcon. Migratory species such
organisms at high trophic levels. These have the highest OC
as merlin, white-tailed sea eagle, and peregrine falcon have
levels due to long food chains. High levels are also found in
much higher DDT and PCB levels, reflecting accumula-
detritivorous invertebrates due to relatively high levels at the
tion of OCs at wintering grounds farther south as well as
base of their food webs.
from preying on migratory birds in the Arctic.
Correlations between concentrations of specific POPs
DDE levels in the Canadian population of tundra pere-
(PCB, dieldrin, non- and mono-ortho PCB, chlordane) and
grines and the lack of improvement in eggshell quality since
liver enzyme induction were found in ringed seals and starved
the early 1980s indicate that present DDE levels are still
beluga whales in the Canadian Arctic.
causing effects. PCB levels in Canadian, Fennoscandian,
Greenland halibut have toxaphene levels that may be
and Kola Peninsula peregrines are at or exceed most thresh-
high enough to affect fry bone development and increase
olds for reproductive effects. PCDD/F and coplanar PCB
mortality during spawning. Piscivorous seabirds (guillemots,
TEQs in Kola Peninsula peregrines exceed most threshold
kittiwake, puffin) and predatory seabirds (glaucous and her-
levels for reproductive endpoints in wild birds.
ring gulls) have PCB levels that exceed some reproductive
High DDE levels as well as significant eggshell thinning
effects thresholds.
are still seen in Fennoscandian merlin and white-tailed sea
Harbour porpoise from the southern Barents Sea have
eagle in Arctic sites. The extent of eggshell thinning is less
PCB levels that exceed those associated with reproductive
than seen in peregrine falcons and the populations of these
effects and immunosuppression. Some walrus populations,
species are recovering. However, PCB levels as well as
most notably those where some individuals feed on ringed
PCDD/F and planar PCB TEQs in Swedish white-tailed sea
seal, have PCB levels that exceed thresholds for reproduc-
eagle and in Kola Peninsula peregrine falcon exceed most
tive effects. In at least one case (Inukjuak, Hudson Bay),
threshold levels for reproductive endpoints in wild birds.
TCDD TEQ levels in walrus exceed those associated with
immunosuppression. PCB levels in most walrus studied, as
The `active transport' of contaminants to Arctic food chains
well as in harbour porpoise from West Greenland and the
by migrating waterfowl and other species merits more re-
southern Barents Sea, seals, beluga, minke whale, and nar-
search. The recovery of migratory birds of prey in the Arc-
whal exceed those associated with subtle neurobehavioral
tic should be followed.
effects in offspring.
High PCB levels were found in polar bear with highest
Freshwater ecosystems contain higher levels of OCs than ter-
levels in some individuals from the Svalbard population. No
restrial ecosystems, mainly due to longer and more complex
information is available on OC levels in polar bear from the
food webs. Lipid weight PCB levels in freshwater fish are
Russian Arctic except for Wrangel Island.
very similar to levels in anadromous and marine fish, with
Studies in polar bear show significant correlations be-
the major differences being related to trophic level. Concen-
tween biological markers and levels of specific OCs. The
trations of OCs within the benthic and pelagic invertebrate
PCB levels in some individuals of the Svalbard population
community, or in forage fish, have been examined in only a
may exceed those associated with poor reproductive success
few lakes. The major concern is high OC levels, particularly
and decreased survival of young, which is supported by indi-
toxaphene and PCB, in fish at higher trophic levels.
cations of higher mortality rates for young polar bear. Other
Additional surveys of contaminants in the food web are
populations have OC residue levels which exceed some
needed to understand the variability of persistent OCs such
threshold levels associated with potential risk for reproduc-
as PCBs and toxaphene in freshwater fish and the mecha-
tive and immunosuppressive effects, as well as subtle neu-
nisms of delivery of contaminants in meltwater to the water
robehavioral effects in offspring.
column and bottom sediments.
PCB levels in Arctic fox from Svalbard are actually high-
er in some cases than in polar bear, exceeding thresholds for
Results for TBT (tributyltin) in sediments are limited to a
reproductive and immunosuppressive effects, as well as sub-
few harbors in northern Norway and Iceland. There is very
tle neurobehavioral effects in offspring. It is not known if
little data on TBT levels in invertebrates or fish, and none
other Arctic fox populations have high OC levels, with con-
reported for marine mammal tissues. Imposex has been ob-
sequent risks for effects.
served in Arctic invertebrates in some harbors probably due
Thus, peregrine falcon, white-tailed sea eagle, glaucous and
to TBT exposure. Therefore, some invertebrates may be at
herring gulls, alcids, kittiwake, otter, harbour porpoise, some
risk for the reproductive effects of TBT.
walrus populations, polar bears, and Arctic fox appear to be

308
AMAP Assessment Report
at greatest risk for reproductive, immunosuppressive, and/or
threshold data are available for these. Although toxicity
neurobehavioral effects from current levels of DDT, PCB,
data are available for many of the OC pesticides, very little
and/or dioxin-like substances. Some mink populations, belu-
of this is usable for establishing threshold levels for effects in
ga, narwhal, minke whale, and seals may be at risk for subtle
wildlife. This has made it difficult to assess the significance
neurobehavioral effects from PCB in exposed offspring.
of current levels of other POPs found in biota.
Current OC levels in the prey of many top level preda-
More research into the toxicology of the major bioaccu-
tors may affect reproduction in these predators.
mulated components of toxaphene, MeSO2-PCB and
All the species at risk should be monitored directly for con-
-DDT metabolites, chlordanes, and less persistent, current
taminant levels and possible biological effects. Biological
use OC pesticides is required in species at risk, particularly
monitoring of the most heavily contaminated species should
fish and marine mammals, in order to be able to assess
be encouraged. High trophic level predators, such as polar
biological effects. Research to establish threshold data for
bear, should be studied in the Russian Arctic to determine
OCs, particularly for use in studies of wildlife, should be a
if OC levels here are higher than in East Greenland and
high priority.
Svalbard.
It is not clear whether animals having delayed implantation,
A large suite of biological effects indicators are available,
such as mustelids, seals, and polar bear, are more vulnerable
but only a few have been determined in Arctic animals.
to the reproductive effects of some POPs. The high fat con-
Most of these biomarkers have been developed for fish or
tent of milk in many Arctic mammals leads to a transgenera-
mammals. There are generally no biological effects data for
tional transfer of high levels of OCs during early develop-
Arctic seabirds and little laboratory data on immunosup-
ment, a period that has been shown to be particularly sensi-
pression in terrestrial birds or seabirds, or on other subtle
tive to disruption by some OC contaminants. A similar situ-
effects of OC levels in young birds. Thus, biomarkers for
ation occurs in birds and fish when fat reserves are mobi-
these types of effects in birds should be developed. The lack
lized into egg production. No studies of such detrimental ef-
of data on biological effects indicators, especially immuno-
fects have been performed in Arctic biota. All of these fac-
suppression and hormonally-based disturbances in mam-
tors combine to limit our ability to conduct proper ecotoxi-
mals at high trophic levels, is a major gap. At present, mea-
cological risk assessments.
surements of PCB congeners and other persistent OCs are
Research on reproduction in key Arctic species should be
seldom linked to biomarkers.
done, particularly with reference to the possible sensitivity
There is thus a need for refinement and development of sen-
of species with delayed implantation, including mustelids,
sitive biochemical or physiological level assays for use in
seals, and polar bear. In addition, more research into the
Arctic biota. Practical problems that must be overcome are
toxicology of known OC compounds is needed in order to
the difficulty of collection of biopsy samples from live ani-
fill the above knowledge gaps.
mals or fresh tissue from hunted animals in remote regions,
and problems in sample preservation and storage. Linkage
For all species living in the Arctic in which lipids play an
of the results for planar OCs to bioassays of cytochrome
important role as energy reserves during starvation peri-
P450 1A1 and 2B activity on sample extracts, a technique
ods, there is a risk of redistribution of lipid-soluble OCs
widely used in contaminant studies in the Great Lakes,
stored in the lipids. Detrimental effects of chemical conta-
should be considered for Arctic studies in order to explain
minants may be enhanced by environmental stresses that
the biological activity.
occur regularly or occasionally in Arctic ecosystems. In kit-
tiwake, beluga, harp seal, and polar bear, there is evidence
Little is known about the immunology of peregrine falcon,
that nutritional status affects the distribution of OCs in the
white-tailed sea eagle, polar bear, or Arctic fox (Svalbard),
body. After periods of fasting or starvation, OC levels in-
the species found to have the highest OC levels.
crease in remaining fat tissues and may redistribute to the
brain or liver. It is not known how Arctic animals respond
A research program directed at immunology and immuno-
to `below threshold' levels of contaminants which then rel-
suppression in the species identified as most at risk is a high
atively rapidly increase above thresholds. In polar bears,
priority, given the fact that these species have the highest
there is limited evidence that detrimental effects of OCs on
levels of PCBs and other OCs.
reproduction will occur if females are stressed by starva-
tion. Other stresses, such as occasional extreme weather,
Toxaphene, when measured, is observed to be a major OC
overhunting, habitat destruction, or human harassment
contaminant in air, seawater, fish, pinnipeds, and cetaceans
may affect behavior, reproduction, and social structures.
in the Canadian Arctic. There is no information available
Physiological stress caused by toxicants may worsen the
on toxaphene levels in terrestrial animals, waterfowl, sea-
effects of such environmental stressors.
birds, polar bear, or Arctic fox or in most other species out-
side of Canada. Very little information is available on the
More research into the effects of multiple stressors is required.
toxicity of toxaphene in animals and this is a major gap in
In particular, the effects of starvation and other environmen-
interpreting the levels found in Arctic birds and mammals.
tal stressors, combined with the effects of the mobilization
of lipid-associated OCs, may be important.
Toxaphene should be included in the suite of OC analyses
in continued AMAP monitoring in order to fill the existing
PBDEs, PCNs, and chlorinated paraffins have been de-
data gaps for parts of the Arctic and for additional species.
tected in biota from Svalbard. PCDEs have been found in
biota in northern Finland. PBDEs are of concern in view of
Polar bear contain DDT- and PCB-methylsulfone metabo-
expected future trends in production or release and poten-
lites, but no studies on their possible effects on the adrenal
tial toxic effects.
gland have been performed. Little is known about most
POPs' hormone-disrupting effects. Current risk assessments
Surveys should be carried out to determine the extent to
are focused primarily on DDT/PCB/PCDD/PCDF effects as
which these POPs occur in the Arctic.

Chapter 6 ท Persistent Organic Pollutants
309
Some of the less persistent chlorinated pesticides (endosul-
Numerous local sources of other POPs also exist, but
fan, methoxychlor, pentachlorophenol, trifluralin, atrazine,
have not been studied. The roles these sources play in
chlorpyrifos, and chlorothalonil) have been found in Arctic
loadings to the Arctic are not known. These include burn-
air, snow, water, and plants. These are currently not in-
ing of wastes in Arctic communities, smelter emissions of
cluded in the AMAP monitoring program. Although they
PCDD/Fs, industrial and community effluents, dumps,
are not expected to biomagnify in food webs, they may be
waste sites, etc.
accumulated by plants and phytoplankton at the base of the
Surveys of local sources of contamination by POPs within
food web (France et al. 1997, Chernyak et al. 1996). Some
the Arctic are needed to quantify the emissions and leakage.
(e.g., atrazine) are potent inhibitors of photosynthesis while
Where emissions are high, actions should be taken to reduce
others (e.g., methoxychlor) are known to have estrogenic
or remediate them.
activity. Little is known about the behavior of these chemi-
cals at low temperatures.
6.9.3. Budget modeling results
There is a need for research on environmental behavior, lev-
els, and effects of the less persistent OCs, which are still in
Mass balance modeling of HCHs suggests that the Arctic
use in most circumpolar countries.
Ocean is in steady state with respect to -HCH inputs and
is exporting -HCH.
There is a basic lack of knowledge for most Arctic species
Although the modeling results for toxaphene are highly
in terms of population sizes, geographical extent, and nat-
uncertain, they suggest that inputs and outputs to the Arctic
ural history, which limits interpretation of contaminant lev-
Ocean are roughly in balance. Assessment of water concen-
els. This is particularly the case for dietary information and
trations of toxaphene and HCHs suggests that they are
trophic status of the species.
trapped under the polar cap and are thus `ghosts of the past'
and will be slowly drained, largely through the Canadian
More research into Arctic ecology is required for interpreta-
Archipelago, on a time scale of decades.
tion of the contaminant data.
Mass balance modeling of PCBs, although confounded
A combination of contaminant monitoring, biomarker
by high uncertainties for many input parameters, suggests
studies, and population monitoring may prove to be the
that inputs exceed outputs by a factor of 1.5 and that up to
most powerful technique for assessing the impact of conta-
24% of inputs may be coming from Russian rivers. Knowl-
minants in the Arctic.
edge of inputs of OCs via rivers is very limited, both geo-
graphically and temporally. Lack of information on sea-
6.9.2. Sources
sonal and year-to-year variation of OCs, particularly PCB,
DDT and toxaphene, in these rivers constitutes a major
High HCH levels are seen in Russian lake water (Taimyr
knowledge gap.
Peninsula) and rivers, with high ratios of -/ -HCH indicat-
ing fresh use of lindane. High PCB and DDT levels are
More detailed measurements of riverine inputs should be
seen in snow, rivers, seawater, coastal sediments, and the
performed, especially in the Eurasian Arctic. The measure-
few invertebrates, fish, reindeer, lemming, seabirds, seal, and
ments of OCs in rivers must include both the dissolved and
beluga sampled in Russia. Some samples have higher rela-
particulate phases, and be conducted on at least a monthly
tive amounts of p,p'-DDT, indicating possible fresh releases.
basis in the largest rivers, for example, the Ob, Yenisey,
Although no single set of samples is large enough for statis-
Lena, Mackenzie, and Pechora, in order to more accurately
tical comparisons with biota from other Arctic countries,
estimate inputs to the Arctic Ocean.
the results indicate higher contamination with these com-
pounds, possibly through current use or improper disposal.
In seawater, little is known about concentrations of most
OCs in offshore areas within the Arctic Ocean and adjacent
These high levels must be verified and, if correct, actions
seas, especially for PCBs and toxaphene. Profiles of these
must be taken to reduce inputs to the Arctic.
contaminants with depth, which would allow estimation of
the total mass of these chemicals in the ocean, are lacking.
Significant PCB contamination is observed in the immedi-
The general lack of information on OCs in the Norwegian
ate vicinity and within a 20 km radius of abandoned and
coastal current and Greenland current is especially critical
recently active military radar (DEW line) sites in the Cana-
because of the importance of these currents for inputs to and
dian Arctic. PCB levels in nearshore areas of Cambridge
outputs from the Arctic Ocean. Knowledge of airborne OCs
Bay show that PCBs can be transported from dump sites to
is much more detailed, however, only a limited number of
the immediate marine environment. Transfer to the terres-
paired air and water measurements, which are required to
trial and aquatic food webs near these sites has been de-
assess the direction of gaseous flux, are available.
monstrated. PCB contamination has also been demon-
strated in marine sediments outside of landfills on Svalbard.
In order to make accurate estimates of loadings to the Arc-
Military and civilian sites and dump sites that contain sig-
tic Ocean, levels of HCH, toxaphene, and PCB in seawater
nificant amounts of electrical equipment in other circumpo-
should be determined at key locations and in ice and snow-
lar countries may have PCB-contaminated soils, and terres-
cover above it, as well as in paired air and water samples.
trial and marine mammals and birds could be contaminated
because of feeding, even infrequently, on plants or animals
There is no information on fluxes of OCs to marine sedi-
at these locations. Local PCDD/F contamination in the vici-
ment for any area of the Arctic Ocean. Knowledge of losses
nity of a smelter near Kirkenes, Norway has also been de-
via sedimentation and burial are critical to make accurate
monstrated.
budgets of PCBs and may also be important for some toxa-
phene components (e.g., nonachlorobornanes).
Surveys of other such sites within the Arctic should be
made to determine the circumpolar scope of the problem
Sediment cores should be collected at key locations in the
and remedial actions taken where high levels of contamina-
Arctic Ocean and analyzed (including dating) in order to
tion are found.
calculate these fluxes.

310
AMAP Assessment Report
The behavior of OCs in snow is a major knowledge gap.
rents Sea are: 1) meteorological conditions, including atmos-
Uptake and release of vapor-phase OCs, especially HCHs
pheric depressions moving northeast along the northern low-
and toxaphene, by snow and ice is expected to be signifi-
pressure belt meeting with cold Arctic air in the Barents Sea
cant, but was not included in the budget calculation be-
region, 2) hydrographical conditions, including warm Atlan-
cause of uncertainties over the ultimate fate of the sorbed
tic water meeting with cold Arctic water and forming the
chemicals. Much of the contaminants in snow may be re-
Polar Front, and 3) the movement and melting of sea ice, a
volatilized prior to melt and then deposited into the water
possible carrier of contaminants both deposited from the at-
column by gas absorption rather than in meltwater.
mosphere and associated with particles incorporated into
the ice in other areas. Riverine sources in western Russia
Research on the key processes of revolatilization and gas
may also play a role. The transport of contaminants either
absorption of OCs by snow is required to develop more ac-
in ice and overlying snow or associated with sediment parti-
curate models of chemical fate and OC delivery to marine
cles embedded in sea ice, and subsequent melting in mar-
and freshwater systems.
ginal ice areas, has been suggested as a significant pathway
for focusing contaminants from a wide area of the Arctic
6.9.4. Spatial trends
into these areas.
The most extensive spatial coverage of OC measurements in
Additional studies of oceanographic and atmospheric circu-
biota is found for polar bear, caribou/reindeer, ringed seal,
lation are needed to increase our knowledge about the phys-
seabird eggs, and Arctic char, but none of this sampling is
ical processes that deliver contaminants to the Arctic. High
truly circumpolar. Most spatial trends that have been iden-
priority should be given to studying the role of sea ice as a
tified are in Canada, and are no doubt due to the large land
pathway for focusing POPs, particularly at marginal ice
areas that differ in ecological characteristics, distances from
areas around Svalbard and in the Barents Sea.
pollution sources, and atmospheric deposition patterns.
Generally, west to east increases in PCB and DDT levels are
6.9.5. Temporal trends
seen in Canadian caribou, ringed seal, harp seal and polar
bear. This trend appears to extend to Greenland and Sval-
The accurate monitoring of temporal trends in contaminant
bard polar bear and possibly also to harp and ringed seal
levels in both the abiotic and biotic environments is neces-
from Svalbard, northern Norway, and/or western Russia.
sary in order to determine the correlation between contami-
HCH levels are higher in Canadian caribou, thick-billed
nant inputs and risks to biota in an area. It must also be
murre eggs, and ringed seals than from sites farther east
known whether remedial actions to reduce inputs of conta-
(Svalbard, northern Norway, and western Russia). No trends
minants are effective in reducing environmental contamina-
could be seen in the Arctic char data.
tion levels. Temporal trends can also provide warning sig-
Results of PCB and DDT analyses in Arctic seabirds indi-
nals if contamination levels increase, or if levels do not change
cate that the Barents Sea may be more contaminated than
over time in response to remedial actions. In addition, the
the Canadian High Arctic. There is no information on OC
verification of many models depends on informative time
contaminants levels in seabirds from the Alaskan Arctic or
trend measurements.
the Chukchi/East Siberian Seas with which to assess the
A nine-fold decline in concentrations of HCH in Arctic
geographic extent of this trend.
air, based on measurements in the Bering/Chukchi Seas and
Complete circumpolar coverage of contaminants in biota
at several locations in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, has
is lacking, particularly for Alaska and the Russian Arctic.
been observed. However, in the European Arctic at Sval-
Spatial coverage of lake sediments (both surface grab sedi-
bard, -HCH concentrations have only declined two-fold
ments and dated sediment cores) is very limited, especially
and -HCH concentrations appear to have increased during
in Russia, Alaska, Greenland, Iceland, and the High Arctic
the period 1984 to 1992. This may possibly be due to regio-
Islands of Canada, Norway, and Russia. Species coverage
nal differences in inputs of HCH isomers.
for cetaceans is limited. There is much less information on
Priority for future air monitoring should be to examine tem-
contaminant levels, and very limited geographic coverage,
poral trends at key locations, especially where data are avail-
for marine fish and invertebrates. The lack of circumpolar
able from past monitoring, for example, at Ny-ลlesund (Sval-
data limits our ability to understand sources, transport path-
bard) and at Alert (Canada). Also, additional air monitoring
ways, and mechanisms for focusing contaminants.
in the Bering/Chukchi Seas would be useful as this is where
There is a need for standardized measurement programs,
the longest time series for HCH and other OCs exist.
particularly in biota, adopted on the advice of experts. To
at least complete a general picture of the magnitude of con-
Studies of freshwater sediment cores show recent declines in
taminant levels on a circumpolar basis, properly sampled,
PCDD/F deposition following major increases after the 1940s.
complementary data for the best studied matrices are needed
Sediment cores from lakes in the North American High Arc-
from Alaskan and Russian sites. An alternative approach
tic show later onsets of PCB inputs (in the 1950s) compared
would be to carry out new spatial studies, properly designed
with cores from subarctic and mid-latitude lakes, which is in
and coordinated for simultaneous sampling at key circum-
agreement with the global fractionation model. There are no
polar sites. We believe that internationally organized stud-
analyses of sediment cores from the Eurasian High Arctic
ies, with one scientist or one scientific organization respon-
(e.g., Svalbard or Bear Island) which could confirm whether
sible for coordination on a circumpolar scale, have the great-
observations in the North American High Arctic reflect a
est chance of producing meaningful results. Such a study is
generalized circumpolar phenomenon.
demonstrated for polar bears.
Retrospective time trends derived from a snow core from
the Agassiz Ice Cap, Ellesmere Island, Canada showed no
Some data indicate that levels of some OCs in biota on and
significant changes in OC levels with time. This may be due
around Svalbard, the southern Barents Sea, and eastern
to different processes involved in scavenging and deposition
Greenland may be higher than in biota measured in other
of contaminants in snow and sediments, but this is currently
areas. Factors which influence the input of OCs to the Ba-
not understood. Interpretation of profiles of POPs in snow

Chapter 6 ท Persistent Organic Pollutants
311
and sediment cores can be problematic where melting or
series are started, appropriate guidelines (e.g., ICES) for set-
mixing has occurred. Although the time trends did not con-
ting up monitoring programs and criteria for selecting
cur, fluxes for PCB were found to be similar for freshwater
species should be used. Based on experience with previous
sediments and the ice core.
monitoring, new time series may require 10-15 years of
monitoring before temporal trends are apparent.
OC levels should be determined in peat cores from ombro-
trophic bogs (bogs formed by rain), to confirm deposition
Despite being banned for open use in the circumpolar coun-
fluxes of OCs predicted from snow and sediment cores.
tries, evidence from temporal trend studies in biota and sedi-
The analysis of additional dated sediment and/or glacial
ment cores indicates that PCB levels are not decreasing in
snow cores would be particularly useful in the High Arctic
the Arctic as quickly as other POPs.
(e.g., Svalbard, Taimyr Peninsula, Franz Joseph Land) for
inferring present and past inputs where peat cores may not
Due to the threat posed by PCBs in the Arctic, it is neces-
be available.
sary to reduce the inputs of PCB into the environment both
from the circumpolar countries as well as globally. Current
Long-term (greater than 15 years), standardized, temporal
sources within the circumpolar countries should be identi-
trend data for the Arctic, based on annually collected, well-
fied and remediated. International action is also needed to
defined samples, are only available for fish and reindeer
reduce global inputs of DDT and other persistent OCs that
from the Swedish Arctic and subarctic (up to 29 years),
are still in use.
and, based on longer intervals between sampling, for
seabird eggs in the Canadian Arctic (18-20 years). Based on
The experiences from the past 30 years of continuous moni-
these time series, PCB, PCDD/F, and DDT levels in biota
toring of the Baltic and the northern areas of Sweden have
declined between the 1970s and the 1980s, after many
shown that between-year variation of OC residue levels in
POPs were restricted or banned. Based on the more precise
biota is large, and individual variation within this, even
studies in Sweden, PCBs, DDT, PCDD/F, HCH, and HCB
larger. These observations reinforce the importance of judi-
levels have declined in biota in recent years. The decline
cious sampling and archiving programs which would allow
seems to be slower for PCB. This may indicate continued
regular monitoring of key populations and retrospective
low-level leakage of PCB to the environment from un-
analysis for contaminants, including newly detected contam-
known or poorly studied sources. From the Canadian
inants.
seabird data, it is not clear whether this decline continued
The monitoring of temporal trends should include the use
from the 1980s to the 1990s. OC levels did not decline in
of specimen banks for archiving abiotic and biotic samples.
peregrine falcon between the 1980s and 1990s.
The Lake Ontario and Swedish studies of contaminant
There is insufficient information at present to discern
trends were possible in part because tissue banks enabled a
temporal trends in POP levels in marine mammals from
retrospective analysis of samples using current methodology.
Svalbard, northern Norway, or Russia. Although limited
This has been done to a lesser extent for Arctic biota, for ex-
OC data are available for marine mammals from the Euro-
ample, the reexamination of eggshells of predatory birds,
pean Arctic during the 1970s and 1980s, there is insuffi-
and the analysis of archived moss samples from Norway.
cient information on key covariates such as the age, sex, or
Consideration should be given to the establishment of
season of collection to make reliable comparisons. Simi-
AMAP sample archive centers for various media, similar in
larly, there are problems with comparability of samples of
concept to the current situation with AMAP data centers for
polar bear tissues collected in the 1970s and early 1980s in
air, marine, and freshwater data. Within AMAP countries,
the Canadian Arctic, which has made assessment of tempo-
there is already notable specimen banking experience and
ral trends problematic. At present there are no long-term
knowledge (Olsson and Bignert 1997). Specimen banking
data on temporal trends in polar bears from Svalbard.
started in Sweden at the beginning of the 1960s. Recently,
Temporal trend data from other Arctic biota are very
several organizations have commenced work on specimen
limited for most OCs, because most are based on two, or at
banking for both contaminant and biological (e.g., genetic,
most three, sampling occasions, and the results are not
disease) studies. The marine mammal tissue archival pro-
equivocal. In many cases, sampling strategies and sampling
gram operated by the National Institute of Science and
techniques were not standardized and the data may not be
Technology (NIST) in Alaska may be another appropriate
comparable for the different sampling occasions.
model for other countries.
It is difficult to evaluate time trends for the High Arctic
region since properly designed monitoring programs have
generally not been performed with this as an objective. At
6.9.6. General monitoring
present, there is a lack of well designed temporal trend pro-
Many laboratories submitting analytical results used in the
grams monitoring biota, which could be used to establish
assessment have taken part satisfactorily in interlaboratory
trends of POPs in key species throughout the Arctic. It is
comparisons. However, some question remains as to possi-
not clear whether temporal trends in the High Arctic may
ble contamination during sampling as a source of high levels
be synchronized with those at more southern latitudes, or
of some POPs, particularly PCBs in Russian samples. In a
whether declines in the Arctic are slower, as predicted by
number of cases, analyses were performed on only single
the `cold condensation' model.
samples from a few sites, limiting the usefulness of the data
In view of the uncertainty as to whether or not OC levels
for comparisons. Quality assurance programs exist for air
are decreasing in the High Arctic, it is essential that tempo-
sampling of OCs, where sampling is carried out at fixed lo-
ral trends be monitored there in appropriate abiotic and bi-
cations with well-characterized media (polyurethane foam,
otic media at a few key locations. Existing trend series must
glass fiber filters), but are less well developed for the collec-
be reevaluated for their potential to provide the informa-
tion of sediments and water. Concern has been expressed
tion needed in the future. If programs are sufficiently pow-
that field sampling, especially from ships, results in contami-
erful, they should be continued. Programs generating poor
nation from OCs such as PCBs due to shipboard contami-
series should be discontinued, and new ones started. If new
nants.

312
AMAP Assessment Report
Future AMAP monitoring programs for POPs should in-
In the past, suites of species that could be used for monitor-
clude a quality assurance program with mandatory partici-
ing across the Arctic were identified. Such species were com-
pation of laboratories in interlaboratory comparisons for
mon, widespread, and not endangered. They were chosen
key matrices. The program could be part of other interna-
because they had similar food habitats across the entire Arc-
tional efforts. These are currently well developed in Europe,
tic. However, experiences with contributing scientists in inte-
but are not circumpolar in their coverage of analytical labo-
grating data for this report suggest that different species in
ratories. Quality assurance programs for sampling strategy
various taxonomic groups are more easily sampled in differ-
and sample collection should also be developed.
ent Arctic areas of the world. Species obviously differ in
abundance and economic importance in different areas of
Many current reference materials have relatively high levels
the world. In areas of low productivity, the desired species
of contaminants, which are not always appropriate for use
cannot be sampled or rigorous sampling programs could ac-
in analysis of low level samples from the Arctic, and can re-
tually put species or ecological communities at risk. Thus,
sult in cross-contamination during sample analysis.
the cost of sampling sufficient numbers of particular species
in some areas may be prohibitive. Regional opportunities for
There is a need for development of `made for the Arctic'
sampling should also be reflected in monitoring programs.
reference materials, especially for abiotic matrices, such as
sediments and plants, with low levels of POPs.
The `essential' species recommended in the AMAP monitor-
ing program should be reevaluated. We recommend that
PCDD/Fs, and non- and mono-ortho PCBs have been stud-
AMAP take the initiative to organize a meeting with experts
ied to a limited extent in freshwater and marine sediments
that have experience in temporal and spatial monitoring to
and a range of Arctic biota (freshwater fish, white-tailed sea
discuss and define objectives with the monitoring activities
eagle, peregrine falcon, mink, otter, caribou, ringed seal,
as well as to select some few optimal matrices in accordance
harp seal, walrus, beluga, narwhal, and polar bear). Levels
with these objectives. The aim is to discuss the monitoring
of PCDD/Fs in fish, caribou/reindeer, and beluga/narwhal are
activities that should be based on annually repeated measure-
low. Non-ortho PCBs were found in all samples that were
ments. However, during the discussions, it might also be pos-
analyzed and (along with mono-ortho PCBs) accounted for
sible to disclose monitoring activities that are most effective-
most of the TEQs. PCDD/F levels were higher in blubber of
ly carried out over other time periods. It is important that
pinnipeds (ringed seal, walrus) than in cetaceans and ac-
the aim of the meeting is to minimize the matrices to be used
counted for a greater proportion of TEQs. Initial surveys of
so that the outcome of the meeting will be realistic to fund.
ringed seals and polar bears, which showed higher PCDD/F
levels in the High Arctic, have not been followed up.
Some life stages may reflect environmental contamination
better than others. For example, experience shows that im-
It may be justifiable to limit future monitoring to non-ortho
mature stages of fish have less variability in OC levels com-
PCBs, along with mono-ortho PCBs, unless specific sources
pared to mature fish, and similarly for pelagic fish when
of PCDD/Fs are suspected or information is needed for
compared to benthic or littoral fish (Olsson et al. 1997).
human intake studies. Additional measurements of
Egg tissue from nesting birds, such as some alcidae that lay
PCDD/Fs may be justified in the case of seals, where
single eggs, have proven to have low variation compared to
PCDD/Fs account for up to 50% of TEQs and in order to
other bird tissue (Bignert et al. 1995). Egg tissue from nest-
verify the higher levels seen in the High Arctic.
ing birds is indicative of levels in adults, with levels in eggs
and female parent increasing as the parent ages. Similarly,
PCB results were often given as sums of as few as seven to as
OC levels in many species vary with age, season, and, in the
many as 90 congeners, making comparisons difficult. Most lab-
case of females, with reproductive status. Thus, ancillary
oratories determined at least seven CB congeners (CBs 31/28,
data on each sample is essential for proper interpretation.
52, 101, 118, 138, 153, and 180). However, the sum of the
above seven represented 11-65% of PCB in sediments, 50%
Biota should be sampled at a life stage that integrates conta-
in mosses, 50-66% in biota, and only 10-30% of PCB in air.
minant exposure. Also, the same tissue type should be ana-
The lack of more than 7-10 congeners in air samples made it
lyzed in a given species or sample type (e.g., muscle tissue in
difficult to use the results for source and pathway studies.
fish) in order to make comparisons possible. Lipid amounts
should always be reported. Other covariates, such as sex,
The number of CB congeners should be standardized and
age, size, condition, reproductive status, and time of year
future analyses should require, as a minimum, a somewhat
should also be determined and reported.
larger number of congeners to be determined, including toxi-
cologically important mono-ortho PCBs such as CB 105
In the marine environment, joint cruises, such as those con-
and 118. Determination of 30-40 congeners (the exact num-
ducted by Norway/Russia, Russia/USA, Canada/USA, and
ber would have to be assessed by careful consideration of
Germany, have been critical to the development of informa-
congener patterns in each matrix) should give results close
tion on POPs in seawater, ice, sediments, and some biota
to those for the sum of all possible congeners because the
(e.g., invertebrates).
remaining congeners contribute relatively little to PCB.
In the terrestrial environment, recent collaborations be-
tween Russian and USA scientists have developed a signifi-
Current methods of quantifying toxaphene may overesti-
cant amount of information on metal contamination in
mate levels in some samples, such as marine mammals, and
plants on the Kola Peninsula and near Norilsk. Similar col-
underestimate levels in others, such as air. The use of differ-
laborations should be encouraged for future measurements
ent quantification methods has limited the assessment of
of POPs in plants and other terrestrial fauna.
current atmospheric loadings of toxaphene to the Arctic
Ocean and is a matter that needs to be resolved.
Mechanisms should be found to continue to fund such coop-
erative projects.
Future monitoring should, therefore, include determination
of total toxaphene (by NIMS) for comparison with past work
as well as measurements of specific chlorobornane congeners.

Chapter 6 ท Persistent Organic Pollutants
313
1994. Toxic-equivalency factors for dioxin-like PCB's. Chemosphere
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Annex
Yamashita, N., T. Shimada, S. Tanabe, H. Yamazaki and R. Tatsukawa,
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
1992. Cytochrome P-450 forms and its inducibility by PCB isomers in
Contents
black-headed gulls and black-tailed gulls. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 24: 316-
321.
Table 6ทA1. Physical and chemical properties of organic contaminants 336
Yamashita, N., S. Tanabe, J.P. Ludwig, H. Kurita, M.E. Ludwig and R.
Table 6ทA2. Chemical structures of persistent organic pollutants . . 337
Tatsukawa, 1993. Embryonic abnormalities and organochlorine cont-
Table 6ทA3. Concentrations and ranges of organochlorine residues
amination in double-crested cormorants (Phalacrocorax auritus) and
in soils and plants in the Arctic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
Caspian terns (Hydroprogne caspia) from the upper Great Lakes in
Table 6ทA4. Concentrations of organochlorine residues in terrestrial
1988. Environ. Pollut. 79: 163-173.
herbivores, birds in the terrestrial food web in summer,
Youngbloed, R.H., B.J.W.G. Mensink, A.D. Vethaak and R. Luttik, 1995.
and perigrine falcon prey species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
Risk assessment of bioaccumulation in the food webs of two marine
Table 6ทA5. Concentrations of organochlorine residues in terrestrial
AMOEBE species: common tern and harbor seal. National Institute
carnivores, including birds of prey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
for Public Health and the Environment and National Institute for
Table 6ทA6. Concentrations of organochlorine pesticides in rivers
Coastal and Marine Management, The Netherlands, Report RIVM-
of Russia flowing to the Arctic Ocean . . . . . . . . . . . 345
719102040/RIKZ-95.036, 67p.
Table 6ทA7. Organochlorines in suspended sediment from major
Yufit, S.S. and M.V. Khotuleva, 1994. Assessment of dioxin contamina-
rivers in the Russian Arctic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
tion and revealing dioxin emission sources in Arkhangelsk and the
Table 6ทA8. Concentrations of major OC groups in freshwater
Arkhangelsk region. Report prepared by the Institute of Evolution
surface sediments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
Morphology and Ecology of Animals for the Russian Ministry of
Table 6ทA9. Mean levels of organochlorines in freshwater fish
Nature Protection and Natural Resources, Moscow, 173p.
and invertebrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Yunker, M. and R.W. MacDonald, 1995a. Composition and origins of
Table 6ทA10. Mean and range of concentrations of major organo-
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the Mackenzie River and on the
chlorine groups in seawater from the Russian Arctic 351
Beaufort sea shelf. Arctic 48: 118-129.
Table 6ทA11. Mean and range of concentrations of major organo-
Yunker, M.B. and R.W. Macdonald, 1995b. Composition and origins of
chlorine groups in suspended particulate matter
polycyclic distributions in the seasonally ice-covered Arctic Estuary of
from the Russian Arctic seas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
the Mackenzie Shelf. Organic Geochemistry 3-5: 651-670.
Table 6ทA12. Levels of organochlorines in the sea ice and snow cover
Yunker, M.B., R.W. Macdonald, B.R. Fowler, W.J. Cretney, S.R. Dalli-
of the coastal and offshore regions in the seas of the
more and F.A. McLaughlin, 1991. Geochemistry and fluxes of hydro-
Russian Arctic for the winter season of 1993 . . . . . 352
carbons to the Beaufort Sea shelf: A multivariate comparison of flu-
Table 6ทA13. Air-surface exchange processes, parameters, and envi-
vial inputs and shoreline erosion of peat using principal component
ronmental data used for mass balance modeling of
analysis. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 55: 255-273.
HCH, toxaphene, and PCBs in the Arctic Ocean . . . 353
Yunker, M.B., L.R. Snowdon, R.W. Macdonald, J.N. Smith, M.G. Fowler,
Table 6ทA14. Summary of major organochlorines in Arctic marine
D.M. Skibo, F.A. McLaughlin, A.I. Danyushevskaya, V.I. Petrova and
sediments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
G.I. Ivanov, 1996. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon composition and
Table 6ทA15. Mean concentrations and ranges of major organo-
potential sources for sediment samples from the Beaufort and Barents
chlorines in marine invertebrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
Seas. Environ. Sci. Technol. 30: 1310-1319.
Table 6ทA16. Mean levels of organochlorines in Arctic seabirds and
Zavon, M.R. and K.L. Stemmer, 1975. The effect of dieldrin ingestion on
shorebirds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
rhesus monkeys. A six-year study. Kettering Laboratory, Cincinnati,
Table 6ทA17. Mean concentrations of major organochlorines in ana-
Ohio.
dromous and marine fishes collected in 1990-1994 . 362
Zhu, J.P. and R.J. Norstrom, 1994. Identification of polychlorocam-
Table 6ทA18. Recent mean concentrations of organochlorines in
phenes (PCCs) in the polar bear (Ursus maritimus) food chain.
marine mammal samples from Arctic waters . . . . . . 365
Chemosphere 2: 1923-1935.
Table 6ทA19. Concentrations of non-ortho substituted PCBs and
Zhu, J., R.J. Norstrom, D.C.G. Muir, L.A. Ferron, J.-P. Weber and E.
PCDD/Fs in Arctic marine biota . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
Dewailly, 1994. Persistent chlorinated cyclodiene compounds in
Table 6ทA20. Mean concentrations and ranges of POPs in polar
Ringed seal, polar bear and human plasma from Northern Quebec,
bear and Arctic fox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
Canada: Identification and concentrations of photoheptachlor. Envi-
Table 6ทA21. Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and furans in
ron. Sci. Technol. 29: 267-271.
Arctic freshwater and marine sediments . . . . . . . . . . 370
Table 6ทA22. Concentrations of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins,
polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs) and non-ortho
substituted PCBs (nPCBs), as well as TCDD TEQs in
terrestrial and freshwater Arctic animals . . . . . . . . . . 371

Document Outline

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6.1. Introduction
- 6.1.1. Physical and chemical characteristics of persistent organic pollutants (POPs)
6.2. Sources of persistent organic pollutants
- 6.2.1. Pathways
- 6.2.2. Global sources
- 6.2.3. Sources in circumpolar countries
- 6.2.4. Local/regional sources within the Arctic
6.3. Characteristics of Arctic ecosystems related to POP accumulation
- 6.3.1. The relationship between food webs and POP accumulation
6.4. Bioaccumulation and biomagnification in terrestrial, freshwater, and marine environments … definitions and general principles
- 6.4.1. Terrestrial ecosystem bioaccumulation/ biomagnification
- 6.4.2. Freshwater ecosystem bioaccumulation/ biomagnification
- 6.4.3. Marine ecosystem bioaccumulation/ biomagnification
6.5. Toxicology
- 6.5.1. Toxicokinetics
- 6.5.2. Types of effects
- 6.5.3. Effects of specific POPs
6.6. Regional and circumpolar levels and trends in abiotic and biotic media
- 6.6.1. Air and precipitation
- 6.6.2. Terrestrial environment
- 6.6.3. Freshwater environment
- 6.6.4. Marine environment
6.7. Temporal variation in POP levels
- 6.7.1. Air and precipitation
- 6.7.2. Terrestrial environment
- 6.7.3. Freshwater environment
- 6.7.4. Marine environment
- 6.7.5. Summary and conclusions … temporal trends
6.8. Biological effects
- 6.8.1. Terrestrial environment
- 6.8.2. Freshwater environment
- 6.8.3. Marine environment
- 6.8.4. Summary and conclusions … biological effects
6.9. Conclusions and recommendations
- 6.9.1. Levels and effects
- 6.9.2. Sources
- 6.9.3. Budget modeling results
- 6.9.4. Spatial trends
- 6.9.5. Temporal trends
- 6.9.6. General monitoring
Acknowledgments
References