54
Chapter 4
Assessment of Human Exposure
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
The exposure of different Arctic populations to anthro-
required the application of extensive countermeasures.
pogenic radionuclides was addressed during the first
The effect was to dramatically reduce the ratio between
AMAP assessment (AMAP, 1998). However, several is-
the wholebody 137Cs content of people and 137Cs depo-
sues have since arisen which together justify further as-
sition in areas where countermeasures were applied,
sessment: 1) data have become available for the Faroe Is-
compared to areas in which they were not.
lands, 2) the Canadian population group selected to rep-
Estimates of doses to the public, based on measure-
resent Arctic caribou herders has been criticized, 3) more
ments or model predictions, frequently generalize varia-
detailed information has become available for some
tions in environmental conditions, either owing to the
population groups in northwest Russia; and 4) owing to
limited availability of data or to an inadequately detailed
the increased releases of 99Tc and 129I from Sellafield
knowledge of conditions in the environment that influ-
and 129I from Cap de la Hague, interest in the resulting
ence exposure. Such generalizations mask considerable
doses has increased. No estimates of the uncertainties
variability in the distribution of dose, both in space and
associated with the dose estimates are given, as the in-
time, even if the rate of input of radionuclides to the en-
formation needed for this was not available.
vironment is essentially uniform. While this is of little con-
sequence to the calculation of collective dose, variations
in individual doses resulting from variations in vulnera-
4.1. Atmospheric sources
bility can be masked and locations and populations re-
The first AMAP assessment concluded that: `The vulner-
ceiving comparatively high doses may not be identified.
ability of Arctic terrestrial ecosystems results in a five-
Allowing for these variations in the calculation and pre-
fold higher exposure to radioactive contamination com-
diction of individual dose enables improved insights into
pared to that in temperate areas'. Many post-Chernobyl
the doses that would occur in the event of accidental re-
studies have demonstrated that the highest exposures do
lease. This is particularly valuable for the Arctic because
not necessarily occur in the most contaminated areas, es-
of the comparatively heavy reliance on locally produced
pecially in the mid- to long-term after an accident. The
foods and semi-natural foods in some populations.
reasons for this vary but can depend, for instance, on
137Cs deposition, kBq/m2
4.2. Faroe Islands
Wholebody content, Bq
100 000
Sufficient data are now available for the Faroe Islands to
Deposition
enable a similar analysis to that carried for the other
Wholebody
10 000
Arctic countries in the first AMAP assessment (AMAP,
1998).
1000
4.2.1. Food consumption
100
There have been two extensive nutritional investigations
10
in the Faroe Islands; the first in 1936 (Knudsen, 1940)
and the second in 1981 to 1982 (Vestergaard and Za-
1
chariassen, 1987; see Table 4ท1). Most of the mutton is
Russia
Norway (Saami)
Norway (Saami)
Chernobyl-affected
Global fallout
lamb meat; about 18 kg/yr/cap according to unpublished
(countermeasures applied)
information (Joensen pers. comm., 2002). Reliable food
consumption rates are not available for the Faroe Is-
Figure 4ท1. Wholebody content of 137Cs for population groups in
lands as much of the food is acquired privately, particu-
areas of different 137Cs deposition in 1996 (Strand et al., 2002).
larly mutton and fish (mainly cod and haddock).
variable plant uptake from different soil types or on the
It is likely that the relative proportions of the differ-
application of countermeasures. An example of the ef-
ent food groups have changed over time. Milk has been
fects of countermeasures is shown in Figure 4ท1. This
produced locally for the last 15 to 20 years but most
shows the dose contribution from global fallout and
other dairy products are imported, mainly from Den-
Chernobyl fallout to two Saami populations in mid-
mark. It is also likely that the relative proportions of the
Norway and to Russians living in the Novozybkov dis-
different food groups vary across the country, but the
trict. The Chernobyl fallout in both areas was high and
available data are insufficient to confirm this.
Table 4ท1. Annual mean consumption of foodstuffs (kg/yr/cap) in the Faroe Islands, 1981 to 1982
(Vestergaard and Zachariassen, 1987).
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Dairy
Faroese
Marine
Grain
Whale
Whale
products
mutton
fish
Potatoes
products
Vegetables
meat
blubber
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
142
25
26
70
78
12
4.4
2.6
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ

---

55
137Cs intake 1990-1995, Bq/yr
4.2.2. Dose estimation
60 000
Internal doses resulting from the dietary intake of 137Cs
Goat cheese
Freshwater fish
in the Faroe Islands since 1950 were calculated on the
Mushrooms, berries
basis of activity concentrations in foodstuffs and con-
Other
sumption rates (Table 4ท1). Activity concentrations in
50 000
Lamb meat
milk were used to represent dairy products, those in
Reindeer, game
lamb to represent mutton, and those in white bread to
represent grain. Activity concentrations of 137Cs in
40 000
whale meat and vegetables were not available. The cal-
culation method was similar to that used in the first
AMAP assessment. Annual values based on actual 137Cs
measurements were collated to yield 5-year means since
30 000
the beginning of the 1960s. Owing to gaps in the data
set, values for 1950 to 1960 were obtained by linear in-
terpolation. Estimates of doses since 2000 were made
20 000
using an effective ecological half-life (Teff; Box 3.1) for
137Cs of 10 yr. The modelled integrated calculated dose
for the average Faroese population through the nuclear
age was 3.5 mSv, which is consistent with the estimated
10 000
value of 3.3 mSv in the first AMAP assessment. The
foodstuffs contributing the major part of the 137Cs dose
(approximately 60%) were milk and lamb.
0
Canada Green- Norway Sweden
Fin-
Russia, Russia,
land
land
west
east
4.3. Canadian Arctic
Figure 4ท2. Intakes by the selected groups in the period 1990 to
Some reservations were expressed about the effective in-
1995 (AMAP Data Centre).
dividual internal dose commitments due to 137Cs intake
calculated in the first AMAP assessment. These con-
groups for other Arctic countries. The Canadian selected
cerned the high rates of caribou meat consumption as-
group described in the first AMAP assessment was
sumed for the Canadian selected (Gwich'in) population
therefore not directly comparable with the selected
group, which appeared much higher than for selected
groups for other Arctic countries. Consequently, the
high consumption groups in other Arctic countries.
Canadian 137Cs internal dose was re-evaluated in the
Since then, new dietary information for Canadian north-
present assessment using the new dietary data. The out-
ern population groups has become available (Berti et al.,
come is described in the rest of this section (Figure 4ท2).
1998; Kuhnlein et al., 2000; Van Oostdam et al., 1999).
Berti et al. (1998) report on a dietary survey per-
This indicates that the caribou consumption estimate ap-
formed in five regions (16 communities) of Denendeh in
plied to the Gwich'in selected group in the first AMAP
1994. During the study 1012 individuals completed a
assessment pertains to an extreme (high consumption)
24-hr dietary recall. Results were subdivided according
group in the population, and does not represent an `av-
to sex, age (20 to 40 yr, and 40+ yr), and (five) regions.
erage' consumption estimate for relatively large popula-
The Gwich'in and Saht๚ are groups with a high con-
tion groups, as was the case for the selected population
sumption of caribou meat (Table 4ท2).
Table 4ท2. Caribou consumption (g/d/cap) for the Gwich'in and Saht๚ (three communities sur-
veyed for each group) averaged over four seasons (Berti et al., 1998).
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Female (mean ฑ SD)
Male (mean ฑ SD)
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Gwich'in
20 - 40 yr
40+ yr
20-40 yr
40+ yr
(n = 19,32)*
(n = 8,35)
(n = 17,29)
(n = 22,33)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Fresh meat
122 ฑ 73
178 ฑ 113
163 ฑ 81
224 ฑ 127
Dried meat**
15.8 ฑ 9.7
7.8 ฑ 4.6
34.8 ฑ 23.9
12.9 ฑ 7.3
Liver
0.8 ฑ 0.8
7.4 ฑ 7.2
4.4 ฑ 4.9
7.2 ฑ 7.0
Kidney
0.7 ฑ 0.3
1.5 ฑ 0.6
5.0 ฑ 1.5
1.8 ฑ 0.8
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Saht๚
20-40 yr
40+ yr
20-40 yr
40+ yr
(n = 24,22)
(n = 26,17)
(n = 18,31)
(n = 29,13)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Fresh meat
126 ฑ 67
227 ฑ 129
135 ฑ 85
250 ฑ 132
Dried meat**
15.7 ฑ 8.7
63 ฑ 41.5
44.1 ฑ 28.8
44.2 ฑ 27.8
Liver
1.2 ฑ 1.2
12.8 ฑ 13.1
0.47 ฑ 0.49
11.2 ฑ 12.2
Kidney
0.8 ฑ 0.3
5.9 ฑ 2.3
2.8 ฑ 1.0
4.9 ฑ 2.4
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
*first number represents 24 hr diet recalls in the late winter and food frequency questionnaires for
the winter, second number represents 24 hr diet recalls in the autumn and food frequency ques-
tionnaires for the summer;
**dry weight basis, all other values fresh weight.

---

56
AMAP Assessment 2002: Radioactivity in the Arctic
Table 4ท3. Average daily intakes (g ฑSE) of caribou in Arctic Canada (after Kuhnlein et al., 2000).
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
15-19 yr
n
20- 40 yr
n
41- 60 yr
n
61+ yr
n
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Inuvialuit ญ males
Meat
88
24
132
100
114
32
72
14
Dried meat*
ญ
24
22
100
12
32
18
14
Ribs
ญ
24
7
100
27
32
16
14
Bone marrow
ญ
24
1
100
4
32
ญ
14
Liver
ญ
24
ญ
100
4
32
ญ
14
Heart
ญ
24
ญ
100
4
32
ญ
14
Kidney
ญ
24
ญ
100
4
32
ญ
14
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Kivalliq ญ males
Meat
428
7
259
87
365
33
440
15
Fat
ญ
7
12
87
ญ
33
56
15
Ribs
ญ
7
3
87
ญ
33
5
15
Dried meat*
ญ
7
4
87
ญ
33
7
15
Bone marrow
ญ
7
2
87
23
33
ญ
15
Tongue
ญ
7
ญ
87
ญ
33
14
15
Intestine
ญ
7
1
87
ญ
33
ญ
15
Stomach contents
ญ
7
2
87
ญ
33
ญ
15
Stomach
ญ
7
1
87
ญ
33
ญ
15
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Baffin ญ males
Meat
204
24
106
112
164
82
235
20
Fat
ญ
24
4
112
10
82
ญ
20
Dried meat*
2
24
3
112
6
82
ญ
20
Intestine
ญ
24
ญ
112
6
82
ญ
20
Stomach
ญ
24
ญ
112
10
82
ญ
20
Bone marrow
ญ
24
ญ
112
10
82
ญ
20
Liver
ญ
24
ญ
112
6
82
ญ
20
Kidney
ญ
24
2
112
0.1
82
ญ
20
Cartilage
ญ
24
2
112
ญ
82
ญ
20
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Labrador ญ males
Meat
142
18
148
80
135
68
74
21
Dried meat*
ญ
18
13
80
2
68
ญ
21
Heart
ญ
18
6
80
ญ
68
25
21
Ribs
ญ
18
6
80
ญ
68
ญ
21
Tongue
ญ
18
ญ
80
ญ
68
6
21
Bone marrow
ญ
18
ญ
80
0.5
68
ญ
21
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
n = number of 24 hr diet recalls and food frequency questionnaires in the autumn and late winter;
*dry weight basis, all other values fresh weight.
The Canadian Inuit also exhibit high intakes of cari-
Although this new information indicates that the con-
bou meat and other caribou products. Average daily
sumption rates for caribou meat in the selected Gwich'in
consumption data for four Inuit regions are presented
population group, for which exposure calculations were
in Table 4ท3. These data are based on 24 hr dietary re-
performed in the first AMAP assessment, may have
calls for individuals that had eaten caribou within the
been substantially overestimated, it appears that there
previous 24 hours (Kuhnlein et al., 2000). The data re-
are individuals within the Canadian Arctic that period-
veal a high degree of variability in the frequency and
ically have consumption rates of a comparable mag-
amount of caribou consumed. Table 4ท3 shows the av-
nitude.
erage consumption for the groups as whole. Within
The selected groups from the other Arctic countries
each of these groups it is evident that the heaviest con-
represent `average consumers' among larger groups in-
sumers had a fresh caribou meat intake of around 500
volved in caribou/reindeer herding. The values for cari-
to 850 g/d on the days that they ate caribou during au-
bou/reindeer consumption were therefore lower than
tumn and winter. Adding the consumption of other
those used for Canada. The first AMAP assessment con-
caribou products, especially dried meat, meant the total
cluded that `It cannot be ruled out that there are small
individual caribou product consumption rates could
numbers of individuals within other Arctic countries
exceed 1 kg/d on certain days. Obviously, these high
having similar dietary habits as the selected Canadian
consumers represent a limited proportion of the popu-
community. Accordingly, comparable or higher doses
lation as a whole. Average consumption rates in the Can-
than those calculated for the Canadian selected group
adian north are more typically around 100 to 400 g/d
may exist within the Arctic'.
(Kuhnlein et al., 2000; Table 4ท3). These new data do
Figure 4ท2 shows a revised comparison of 137Cs in-
not support the average consumption rate of 1000 g/d
take among selected groups using the new Canadian in-
used in the first AMAP assessment, which would imply
take data (Berti et al., 1998). The data for the selected
that individuals were consuming 1000 g of caribou
Canadian group are now more comparable with those
meat per day seven days a week throughout the year.
for the selected groups in other Arctic countries.

---

Chapter 4 ท Assessment of Human Exposure
57
Ust'-Kara
Amderma
Pechora Sea
Barents Sea
Nenets Autonomous Okrug (NAO)
Nelmin Nos
Murmansk
Krasnoye
Nar'yan-Mar
Murmansk Oblast
Lovozero
Kola Peninsula
Umba
Dolgoshelye
Mezen
Arkhangelsk
Severodvinsk
Arkhangelsk Oblast
200 km
Figure 4ท3. Settlements included in the
1998 to 2001 dietary study, and the
larger cities.
Nenets dominate the indigenous population and are
4.4. Northwest Russia
largely occupied with reindeer herding. A nomad camp
Several datasets concerning radionuclide transfer to
of reindeer herders, who have owned the land along the
foodstuffs, dietary habit, and wholebody measurements
Kara Sea between Ust'-Kara and Amderma for many
associated with studies of ingested radiation dose in
years, was also included.
northwest Russia have become available since the first
A questionnaire was used to obtain information
AMAP assessment. Data for the Kola Peninsula and the
about the local population and the consumption and
Nenets Autonomous Okrug (NAO) were collected
origin of the eight most important foodstuffs in the diet.
under the European Union and the RussianญNorwegian
Together with information on the levels of 137Cs and
bilateral project `AVAIL', which involved five expedi-
90Sr in different foodstuffs, the dietary data were used to
tions to northwest Arctic Russia between 1998 and
assess which foodstuffs contributed most to the radionu-
2001 (Borghuis et al., 2002; see Annex Tables A4ท1 and
clide intake of each population group. The 137Cs whole-
A4ท2).
body contents of individual local inhabitants were also
The purpose of the expeditions was to assess con-
measured.
temporary levels of environmental contamination by
the long-lived radionuclides, 137Cs and 90Sr, and to de-
4.4.1. Dietary preferences
termine site-specific characteristics for estimating cur-
rent internal doses in the different population groups of
4.4.1.1. Group I
northwest Russia.
The diet of reindeer herders in the Mezen district of the
Three population groups were considered: indige-
Arkhangelsk Oblast and the NAO was similar to that
nous peoples, mainly reindeer herders and members of
of the Saami and Komi reindeer herders on the Kola
their families (Group I); rural populations and inhabi-
Peninsula, both in terms of the consumption of reindeer
tants of small villages and settlements having mixed
meat, and fish from local lakes and rivers, and the con-
diets (Group II); and the populations of big ports and
sumption of milk of local origin. Some differences oc-
cities whose inhabitants mainly consume imported food-
curred in the consumption of mushrooms and berries
stuffs (Group III).
(Table 4ท4).
The expeditions thus aimed to include a variety of
The most significant differences occurred in the con-
different types of Arctic inhabitant. Surveys were under-
sumption of vegetables and fruit. This is primarily ex-
taken in the areas shown in Figure 4ท3, namely:
plained by 84% of the reindeer herders on the Kola
Lovozero village on the Kola Peninsula where Saami
Peninsula having kitchen gardens compared to only
and Komi are occupied in reindeer herding. The Slavic
16% in the NAO. However, the contribution of vegeta-
population of the area is not directly connected with
bles and fruit to internal dose is negligible. Since the
reindeer herding but does consume reindeer meat. Umba
was also included although its inhabitants do not con-
Table 4.4. Consumption of natural products by Group I inhabitants
sume much reindeer meat;
of northwest Russia (kg/d, mean ฑSE) (Borghuis et al., 2002).
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Dolgoshelye village and Mezen town in the Mezen
Mushrooms
Berries
district of the Arkhangelsk Oblast. The Nenets nomad
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
camp located by the mouth of the River Perechnaya was
Kola Peninsula
0.021 ฑ0.005
0.045 ฑ0.012
also included; and
Mezen district
0.036 ฑ0.009
0.042 ฑ0.008
Nenets AO
0.014
Khongurey, Ust'-Kara, Nelmin Nos, and Krasnoye
ฑ0.002
0.026 ฑ0.003
Average
0.024 ฑ0.011
0.038 ฑ0.015
villages, and Nar'yan-Mar town in the NAO. Here,
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ

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58
AMAP Assessment 2002: Radioactivity in the Arctic
Table 4ท5. Consumption of basic food products (kg/d; mean ฑ SE) by Group I inhabitants of the northern European part of Russia in 1998 to
2001 (Borghuis et al., 2002).
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Milk
Reindeer meat
Other meat
Potato
Fish
Mushrooms
Berries
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Local produce
0.086 ฑ0.013
0.310 ฑ0.011
0.007 ฑ0.001
0.110 ฑ0.015
0.130 ฑ0.009
0.024 ฑ0.011
0.038 ฑ0.015
Imported products
0.005 ฑ0.003
ญ
0.006 ฑ0.001
0.078 ฑ0.009
ญ
ญ
ญ
Total consumption
0.091 ฑ0.013
0.310 ฑ0.011
0.013 ฑ0.002
0.190 ฑ0.014
0.130 ฑ0.009
0.024 ฑ0.011
0.038 ฑ0.015
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Table 4ท6. Consumption of basic food products (kg/d; mean ฑ SE) by Group II inhabitants of northwest Russia (Borghuis et al., 2002).
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Milk
Reindeer meat
Other meat
Potato
Fish
Bread
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Kola Peninsula
Lovozero (1998) n = 25
Local produce
0.206 ฑ0.052
0.083 ฑ0.011
0.004 ฑ0.004
0.323 ฑ0.040
0.109 ฑ0.024
ญ
Imported products
0.079 ฑ0.029
ญ
0.072 ฑ0.013
0.049 ฑ0.021
ญ
ญ
Total consumption
0.285 ฑ0.066
0.083 ฑ0.011
0.076 ฑ0.013
0.376 ฑ0.033
0.109 ฑ0.024
0.302 ฑ0.031
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Nenets AO
Ust'-Kara (2000) n = 41
Local produce
ญ
0.084 ฑ0.016
0.056 ฑ0.009
ญ
0.155 ฑ0.014
ญ
Imported products
0.014 ฑ0.008
ญ
0.022 ฑ0.004
0.173 ฑ0.012
ญ
ญ
Total consumption
0.014 ฑ0.008
0.084 ฑ0.016
0.078 ฑ0.011
0.173 ฑ0.012
0.155 ฑ0.014
0.382 ฑ0.045
Nar'yan-Mar (2000) n = 37
Local produce
0.206 ฑ0.056
0.169 ฑ0.028
0.040 ฑ0.014
0.239 ฑ0.042
0.087 ฑ0.011
ญ
Imported products
0.021 ฑ0.015
ญ
0.036 ฑ0.010
0.061 ฑ0.021
ญ
ญ
Total consumption
0.227 ฑ0.056
0.169 ฑ0.028
0.076 ฑ0.019
0.300 ฑ0.039
0.087 ฑ0.011
0.292 ฑ0.019
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Mezen district
Dolgoshelye (1999) n = 13
Local produce
0.497 ฑ0.162
0.032 ฑ0.009
0.051 ฑ0.005
0.333 ฑ0.040
0.125 ฑ0.020
ญ
Imported products
ญ
ญ
0.004 ฑ0.007
ญ
ญ
ญ
Total consumption
0.497 ฑ0.162
0.032 ฑ0.009
0.055 ฑ0.003
0.333 ฑ0.040
0.125 ฑ0.020
0.324 ฑ0.025
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
n = number in survey.
Table 4ท7. Consumption of basic food products (kg/d; mean ฑSE) by Group III inhabitants of northwest Russia (Borghuis et al., 2002).
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Milk
Reindeer meat
Other meat
Potato
Fish
Bread
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Kola Peninsula
Umba (1998) n = 58
Local produce
0.128 ฑ0.041
0.002 ฑ0.002
0.021 ฑ0.005
0.334 ฑ0.026
0.113 ฑ0.011
ญ
Imported products
0.038 ฑ0.015
ญ
0.058 ฑ0.008
0.037 ฑ0.013
ญ
ญ
Total consumption
0.166 ฑ0.044
0.002 ฑ0.002
0.077 ฑ0.009
0.370 ฑ0.023
0.113 ฑ0.011
0.332 ฑ0.020
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Mezen district
Mezen (1999) n = 22
Local produce
0.414 ฑ0.110
0.012 ฑ0.005
0.024 ฑ0.007
0.420 ฑ0.055
0.073 ฑ0.014
ญ
Imported products
ญ
ญ
0.101 ฑ0.066
ญ
ญ
ญ
Total consumption
0.410 ฑ0.110
0.012 ฑ0.005
0.125 ฑ0.066
0.420 ฑ0.055
0.073 ฑ0.014
0.423 ฑ0.009
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
n = number in survey.
consumption of mushrooms and berries by this group
are comparatively stable, and Lovozero, Ust'-Kara and
makes a relatively small contribution to dose, the data
Nar'yan-Mar have shops selling reindeer meat.
for the reindeer herders for the entire northern European
Rural inhabitants, except inhabitants of Ust'-Kara,
part of Russia can be combined (Table 4ท5).
exceed the milk consumption rates of Group I by a fac-
tor of 2.5 to 5.5 and potatoes by a factor of 1.5 to 2.
Ust'-Kara is on the shore of the Kara Sea, there is no
4.4.1.2. Group II
agricultural production, and kitchen gardens are rare.
A comparison of reindeer consumption by reindeer
Almost all foodstuffs, except reindeer meat and fish, are
herders (Table 4ท5) and typical rural inhabitants of small
thus imported. Group II inhabitants have similar fish
towns and villages (Table 4ท6) shows that, on average,
consumption rates to reindeer herders.
rural inhabitants consume two to four times less rein-
deer meat than reindeer herders, with almost an order of
4.4.1.3. Group III
magnitude lower consumption in Dolgoshelye in the
Mezen district. This is explained by the gradual decline
Inhabitants of large villages and towns in the European
of reindeer herding in the Mezen district. In contrast,
part of Arctic Russia do not consume significant
reindeer farms on the Kola Peninsula and in the NAO
amounts of reindeer meat (Table 4ท7). However, milk

---

Chapter 4 ท Assessment of Human Exposure
59
consumption exceeds that of Group I by a factor of 1.8
90Sr concentration in products, Bq/kg ww (dw for grasses and lichen)
to 4.5 and potato consumption by a factor of 2.
1000
Kola
Mezen
4.4.1.4. All Groups
Nenets AO
Average consumption rates of mushrooms and berries
by Group II and Group III inhabitants of northwest
100
Russia, i.e. individuals unconnected with reindeer herd-
ing, are shown in Table 4ท8. Fish consumption rates
were similar in all the population groups surveyed.
Rates of bread consumption were also similar, at 290 to
10
350 g/d.

Table 4ท8. Consumption of mushrooms and berries (kg/d; mean ฑ
SE) by Group II and Group III inhabitants of northwest Russia
(Borghuis et al., 2002).
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
1
Mushrooms
Berries
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Kola Peninsula
0.025 ฑ 0.010
0.045 ฑ 0.012
Dolgoshelye
0.036 ฑ 0.010
0.052 ฑ 0.010
Mezen district
0.042 ฑ 0.007
0.071 ฑ 0.011
Ust'-Kara
0.012 ฑ 0.002
0.028 ฑ 0.004
0.1
Nar'yan-Mar
0.024 ฑ 0.004
0.026 ฑ 0.005
Average
0.028 ฑ 0.006
0.044 ฑ 0.009
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
4.4.2. Radionuclides in the diet
0.01
The highest 137Cs activity concentrations currently oc-
Milk
cur in reindeer meat, mushrooms, freshwater fish, and
Potato
Bilberry
Lichen
Cowberry
berries (Figure 4ท4). The 137Cs level in reindeer meat is
Mushrooms
Reindeer meat
around two orders of magnitude higher than in locally
Natural grasses
produced agricultural foodstuffs. As expected, there are
Figure 4ท5. Activity concentrations of 90Sr in products collected in
northwest Arctic Russia 1998 to 2001 (Borghuis et al., 2002).
137Cs concentration in products, Bq/kg ww (dw for grasses and lichen)
1000
significantly higher 137Cs concentrations in lichen and
Kola
Mezen
fungi compared with grasses and agricultural products
Nenets AO
(potato, milk, and beef). Relatively high 137Cs activity
concentrations in Arctic freshwater fish are probably due
to low mineralization (low dissolved potassium and other
100
ions) of water and thus an elevated accumulation of
137Cs. Activity concentrations of 137Cs in marine fish are
an order of magnitude lower than in freshwater species.
Activity concentrations of 137Cs (Figure 4ท4) and 90Sr
(Figure 4ท5) in locally produced milk and potatoes and
10
the corresponding Tag values are similar to those ob-
served in mid-latitudes.
For almost all foodstuffs, 137Cs and 90Sr activity con-
centrations were higher on the Kola Peninsula than in
1
the other regions, with the differences more pronounced
for 137Cs.
4.4.3. Dose estimation
0.1
Ingestion doses (E int) were estimated from the dietary
intake data for the different population groups and the
radionuclide activity concentrations in the various food-
stuffs according to the formula:
0.01
E int = 30 ท (dki ท Ii),
Sv/month Eqn. 4.1
Milk
Beef
where dki is the dose factor for ingestion of the i th radio-
Potato
Berries
Lichen
nuclide in the body of an adult; dki is equal to 1.3 10ญ2
Marine fish
Mushrooms
and 2.8
10ญ2
Sv/Bq for 137Cs and 90Sr, respectively
Natural grasses Freshwater fish
Reindeer, winter
Reindeer, summer
(ICRP, 1993); Ii is the daily intake of the i th radionuclide
Figure 4ท4. Activity concentrations of 137Cs in products collected in
in the body with food in Bq/d; and 30 is the number of
northwest Arctic Russia 1998 to 2001 (Borghuis et al., 2002).
days in a month.

---

60
AMAP Assessment 2002: Radioactivity in the Arctic
Table 4ท9. Average daily intake of 137Cs and 90Sr in summer 1998 for Group I inhabitants of Lovozero
village (Borghuis et al., 2002).
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Activity concen-
Intake,
tration, Bq/kg
Bq/d
-------------------------
Consump-,
Food pro-
-----------------------
137Cs
90Sr
tion, kg/d
cessing factor
137Cs
90Sr
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Milk
0.39
0.15
0.10
1.0
0.04
0.015
Reindeer meat
70
ญ
0.30
1.0
20.9
ญ
Mushrooms
58
0.13
0.021
0.5
0.61
0.0014
Berries
19
3.4
0.045
1.0
0.86
0.153
Potatoes
0.12
0.25
0.31
0.8
0.03
0.062
Fish
20
ญ
0.10
1.0
2.1
ญ
Total
24.5
0.23
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Table 4ท10. Average daily intake of 137Cs and 90Sr in summer 1998 for Group II inhabitants of Lovo-
zero village (Borghuis et al., 2002).
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Activity concen-
Intake,
tration, Bq/kg
Bq/d
-------------------------
Consump-,
Food pro-
-----------------------
137Cs
90Sr
tion, kg/d
cessing factor
137Cs
90Sr
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Milk
0.39
0.15
0.28
1.0
0.11
0.042
Reindeer meat
70
ญ
0.083
1.0
5.8
ญ
Mushrooms
58
0.13
0.025
0.5
0.73
0.002
Berries
19
3.4
0.045
1.0
0.86
0.153
Potatoes
0.12
0.08
0.38
0.8
0.04
0.024
Freshwater fish
20
ญ
0.085
1.0
1.7
ญ
Total
9.2
0.22
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Table 4ท11. Average daily intake of 137Cs and 90Sr in summer 1998 by Group III inhabitants of Umba
(Borghuis et al., 2002).
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Activity concen-
Intake,
tration, Bq/kg
Bq/d
-------------------------
Consump-,
Food pro-
-----------------------
137Cs
90Sr
tion, kg/d
cessing factor
137Cs
90Sr
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Milk
0.49
0.17
0.128
1.0
0.063
0.022
Mushrooms
59
ญ
0.021*
0.5
0.62
ญ
Berries
3.7
ญ
0.045*
1.0
0.17
ญ
Potatoes
0.12
0.18
0.33
0.8
0.032
0.048
Fish
2.- 20** ญ
0.11
1.0
0.22-2.2
Total
1.1-3.1
0.07
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
** consumption assumed to be the same as at Lovozero village;
** first number corresponds to the average 137Cs activity concentration in marine fish and the second
to freshwater fish.
The daily radionuclide intake is estimated by com-
the effective dose rate; kd137 = 6.3
10 ญ3 ( Sv/kg per
bining the intake of different foodstuffs:
Bq/d) (ICRP, 1993).
Ii = p (Cip ท Vip ท Kip), Bq/d
Eqn. 4.2
where (Cip(t) is the concentration of the ith radionuclide
4.4.3.1. Group I
in the pth foodstuff in Bq/kg; Vip is the daily consump-
Table 4ท9 shows the average daily 137Cs and 90Sr intakes
tion rate of the pth foodstuff in kg/d; and Kip is the food
from local foodstuffs in reindeer herders from Lovozero
processing factor accounting for the loss of the ith radio-
village. The consumption of reindeer meat in summer
nuclide during cooking of the pth foodstuff.
provides 83% of the 137Cs internal dose. Fish and mush-
The internal dose to inhabitants from 137Cs may also
rooms and berries are also significant sources (at 8%
be assessed on the basis of measured activities in the hu-
and 9%, respectively). The average monthly internal
man body. The mean monthly effective dose through in-
dose from 137Cs in summer 1998 was 10 Sv/month.
ternal exposure in adult inhabitants from 137Cs (E137),
The diet of the reindeer herders was the same in
based on wholebody measurements, was calculated using
spring as in summer. This is to be expected as the food
the formula:
supply of the indigenous population is generally stable
E137 = 30 ท kd137 ท Q/M, Sv/month Eqn. 4.3
throughout the year. Again, the major contributor to the
where Q is the 137Cs activity in the body of a person
internal dose was reindeer meat, at 88%, with the rest
under investigation in Bq; M is the mass of the body of
from local freshwater fish, and mushrooms and berries.
the person in kg; kd137 is the dose rate coefficient con-
As in summer, the contribution from milk was small.
verting the specific activity of 137Cs in the body, Q/M, to
The average daily intake of 137Cs by reindeer herders in

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Chapter 4 ท Assessment of Human Exposure
61
late winter was 39 Bq and the monthly internal dose was
Table 4ท12. Current average internal doses (ตSv/yr) in northwest
15 Sv. This is 1.5 times higher than in summer and con-
Russia (Borghuis et al., 2002).
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
sistent with a factor of 1.6 between the 137Cs activity
Group
Monthly dose
Annual
concentration in reindeer meat after the winter slaughter
(n)
summer winter
dose
and in summer. To estimate the annual internal dose, ap-
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Kola Peninsula (Lovozero, Umba)
propriate weightings were assigned to the winter (seven
I (43)
10
19
183
months with snow) and summer periods.
II (25)
4.5
6.9
71
If wholebody measurements are used for dose esti-
III (58)
1.2
1.2
14
mation (the average 137Cs content in the body of rein-
Mezen district (Dolgoshelye, Mezen)
I (8)
5.3
8.6
87
deer herders in winter 1999 was 3250 ฑ 250 Bq), the cal-
II (13)
1.5
1.8
20
culated dose is 8.8 Sv/month. This is only 10% higher
III (22)
1.2
1.4
16
than the estimate for the summer period and 1.7 times
Nenets AO (Ust'-Kara, Nar'yan Mar)
lower than that estimated on the basis of 137Cs intake
I (63)
4.9
8.2
82
using food product data. The contribution of 90Sr to the
II (41)
1.6
2.5
26
II (37)
2.9
4.7
47
total internal dose to reindeer herders is about 1-3%.
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Table 4ท13. Current average internal doses due to the intake of
4.4.3.2. Group II
137Cs and 90Sr normalized to the specific activity per unit soil sur-
face in northwest Russia (Borghuis et al., 2002).
Estimated average daily intakes of 137Cs and 90Sr in key
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
foodstuffs for inhabitants of Lovozero village not di-
Annual dose, ตSv/yr per kBq/m2
137
rectly connected with reindeer herding are given in Table
Cs
90Sr
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
4ท10. Reindeer meat still contributes the most to internal
Kola Peninsula
dose (63%), although the average daily consumption
Group I
100
2.8
(0.08 kg) is 3.5 times lower than for reindeer herders.
Group II
37
2.6
Group III
6.6
2.2
The next most important contributions are from fish
Mezen district
(18%), and mushrooms and berries (17%). The average
Group I
31
2.6
monthly internal dose from 137Cs to Lovozero rural in-
Group II
6.3
3.1
Group III
4.6
3.2
habitants is 3.6 Sv. The contribution of 90Sr to the total
Nenets AO
internal dose of village inhabitants is about 5%.
Group I
30
1.9
Group II
13.0 (9.2 - 17)
1.1 (0.7 - 1.5)
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
4.4.3.3. Group III
Similar dose assessments were performed for inhabi-
In Umba, inhabitants rarely consume reindeer meat and
tants of the Mezen district in the Arkhangelsk Oblast
so their intake of radionuclides is considerably lower
and the NAO. Estimated doses are summarized in Table
than at Lovozero. Instead, the greatest contribution to
4ท12. The calculations were based on the intake of 137Cs
internal dose is from local mushrooms and berries.
and 90Sr with food.
Based on Table 4ท11, the internal dose from 137Cs and
Current doses to inhabitants of the Russian Arctic
90Sr ranges from 0.5 to 1.2 Sv/month.
are <200 Sv/yr, much lower than during the 1960s
when global fallout was at its highest. Doses on the Kola
Peninsula are higher than in the Mezen district and the
4.4.3.4. All Groups
NAO. The highest doses occur among reindeer herders.
The contribution of 90Sr to total internal dose is lowest
Doses to reindeer herders on the Kola Peninsula are
for Group I (reindeer herders) at 2.4 to 3.4% and high-
twice those in other regions.
est for Group III (urban inhabitants) at 16 to 20%. This
A direct comparison of different areas is achieved by
reflects the considerable difference in reindeer meat con-
normalizing the internal doses due to 137Cs and 90Sr in-
sumption by the two groups. Reindeer meat is the main
take to the 137Cs and 90Sr activity concentrations per
dose-contributing foodstuff for Group I (through 137Cs
unit soil surface (Table 4ท13). This shows that doses to
intake rather than 90Sr). In Group II (rural inhabitants),
Groups I, II, and III per unit deposition are higher on the
the contribution of 90Sr to total dose varies from 3.8 to
Kola Peninsula than in the other areas. This presumably
5.0%. Only for inhabitants of Dolgoshelye does it reach
reflects the higher transfer to foodstuffs in the Kola re-
15% and this reflects the comparatively low reindeer
gion. Table 4ท14 shows the contributions of different
meat consumption (only 0.032 kg/d).
foods to effective internal dose in northwest Russia.
Table 4ท14. Percentage contribution of different foodstuffs to effective internal dose in northwest Russia (Borghuis et al., 2002).
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Kola Peninsula
Mezen district
Nenets AO
Group I
Group II
Group III
Group I Group II
Group III
Group I
Group II
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Dairy products
0.14
0.88
2.7
0.54
13
14
0.21
0.86
Beef
0.02
0.03
0.88
0.07
2.3
1.4
0.08
1.3
Reindeer meat
89
63
7.4
90
40
19
95
86
Mushrooms
2.5
7.9
39
4.8
21
31
0.84
2.4
Berries
2.5
6.6
32
2.8
15
26
2.8
7.4
Potato
0.15
1.1
5.7
0.22
2.8
4.5
0.14
0.52
Freshwater fish
5.1
20
11
1.3
5.5
4.1
0.67
1.7
Marine fish
0.09
0.04
1.8
0.14
0.57
0.42
0.19
0.47
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ

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62
AMAP Assessment 2002: Radioactivity in the Arctic
Currently, the annual effective dose from external ex-
4.5. European spent nuclear fuel
posure to anthropogenic gamma radiation (137Cs of
reprocessing plants
global and Chernobyl fallout origin) varies from 1 to 10
Sv/yr. The highest values correspond to reindeer her-
The first AMAP assessment addressed discharges from
ders and the lowest to urban inhabitants.
the Sellafield and Cap de la Hague spent nuclear fuel re-
Reindeer meat consumption is important to all
processing plants in Western Europe, the transport of re-
groups, with the exception of the coastal community at
leased radionuclides into the Arctic, and the associated
Umba, and dominates intake for reindeer herders. For
doses to Arctic inhabitants. This assessment focuses on
rural inhabitants, fish, mushrooms, berries, and dairy
99Tc and 129I, two radionuclides released from these
products are also important. For urban dwellers, dairy
sources which were not discussed in detail in the previ-
products, mushrooms, berries, and freshwater fish can
ous assessment and about which concern has recently
be important contributors to internal dose.
been raised.
This assessment of communities in northwest Russia
has shown that some of the current variations in food
4.5.1. Technetium-99
product contribution and total dose are explained by the
following factors:
Technetium-99 has two isomers, 99Tc and 99mTc. The
latter has a short half-life (T
ท the rate of reindeer meat consumption;
1/2 = 6 hr) and is used in med-
ical applications. It is of little concern outside the area of
ท the higher transfer of radiocesium to foodstuffs on the
medical health physics. The former, however, is a long-
Kola Peninsula than in areas further east;
lived fission product (T
ท the location of the community ญ coastal communities
1/2 = 212 000 yr) that has gener-
ated increased interest since the first AMAP assessment.
receive the lowest doses;
The main sources of 99Tc are nuclear weapons tests and
ท land use ญ communities on the Kola Peninsula culti-
the nuclear fuel cycle. The most important sources for
vate their own crops and buy local produce in shops to
western Scandinavia and Arctic environments are the
a greater extent than communities further east; and
European nuclear fuel reprocessing plants at Sellafield
ท the rate of mushroom and berry consumption.
and Cap de la Hague (Dahlgaard et al., 1997). Releases
of 99Tc from Sellafield have increased substantially in re-
cent years (Section 2.2.1). As a result, a steep increase has
4.4.4. Comparison of past and present estimates
been observed in the levels of 99Tc in some marine biota,
of internal dose
particularly crustaceans and seaweeds (Section 3.3.1).
Table 4ท15 compares the internal doses estimated for the
Owing to its long half-life and conservative behavior in
1990s in the first AMAP assessment (AMAP, 1998) with
seawater, 99Tc is now of concern to some European na-
those of the present assessment (based on the data in Sec-
tions (especially Ireland and the Nordic countries) as ev-
tions 4.4.1. to 4.4.3.). Because the recent data were ob-
idenced by discussions at the Ministerial Meeting of the
tained after those considered in the first AMAP assess-
OSPAR Commission in 1998 (OSPAR, 1998).
ment, the annual values of internal dose for `average'
The contribution of 99Tc to average individual doses
and `selected groups' (reindeer herders) for the period
to members of the local critical group of seafood con-
1990 to 1994 (Tables 8ท13 to 8ท16 in AMAP, 1998) were
sumers for Sellafield discharges during the period 1994
corrected to allow for the expected decline in activity
to 1996 are estimated at 18 to 42 Sv/yr (Uranium Insti-
with time. For reindeer meat and freshwater fish the Teff
tute, 1998).
for 137Cs was taken as 12 yr. For other foodstuffs, the
An assessment of 99Tc in the marine environment,
corresponding physical half-lives of 137Cs and 90Sr were
around Ireland which included an estimate of doses to
used as the effective ecological half-lives.
members of the Irish population, was developed in
The two dose estimates for the average population
preparation for the 1998 Ministerial Meeting of the
agree well. However, the effective internal dose esti-
OSPAR Commission (Pollard et al., 1998). This con-
mated for the reindeer herders in the first AMAP as-
cluded that the individual (committed effective) doses to
sessment is approximately twice that of the present es-
average seafood consumers were 0.053 Sv in 1996 and
timate. This is mainly due to the lower average ra-
0.068 Sv in 1997, reflecting a moderate increase asso-
dionuclide activity concentrations in the data used in
ciated with the increased concentrations in seafoods re-
the present assessment, and is despite the slightly
sulting from the increased discharges of 99Tc from Sella-
higher intakes of reindeer meat used in the present as-
field that began in 1993. For heavy seafood consumers
sessment.
(presumably corresponding to a critical group), the cor-
responding values were 0.21 Sv in 1996 and 0.27 Sv
Table 4ท15. A comparison of annual internal effective doses (ตSv)
in 1997. However, it should be noted that there are no
due to the intake of 137Cs and 90Sr for the average population and
estimates of the uncertainties associated with these dose
reindeer herders in western Arctic Russia in the late 1990s esti-
mated during the first AMAP assessment (AMAP, 1998) and the
estimates. In a follow-up to this work, Smith et al.
present assessment.
(2001) extended the calculations to 1998, a period when
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
99Tc activity concentrations in the marine biota of West-
AMAP (1998)
Present assessment
ern Europe were still increasing. The values quoted for
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Average
Reindeer
Average
Reindeer
average and heavy consumers of seafood for the years
population
herders
population
herders
1996 and 1997 were identical to those quoted by Pol-
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
lard et al. (1998). The doses for 1998 were estimated at
137Cs
14
280
12
80 -180
0.062 Sv for average consumers and 0.25 Sv for
90Sr
1
5.6
1.5 - 2.2
1.3- 2.0
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
heavy consumers of seafood. As stated by Smith et al.

---

Chapter 4 ท Assessment of Human Exposure
63
(2001), these doses are of negligible radiological signifi-
uncertainty with respect to human dose assessment. Fi-
cance when compared to the annual dose limit of 1000
nally, although technetium forms the highly soluble
Sv for members of the public from practices involving
pertechnetate ion in oxygenated seawater and can there-
controllable sources of radiation (ICRP, 1991). The au-
fore be modelled using hydrodynamic models, little at-
thors also noted that doses to the same seafood con-
tention has been given to the field behavior of 99Tc
sumer groups associated with 210Po, a natural radionu-
under anoxic conditions, as occur in some Norwegian
clide for which doses through marine pathways are usu-
fjords, for example. In reality, little is known about the
ally dominant, were 32 Sv and 148 Sv, respectively,
environmental transfer and biological uptake of reduced
for average and heavy seafood consumers.
forms of this radionuclide.
Since conservative radionuclides discharged from
Sellafield can be transported with the prevailing marine
4.5.2. Iodine-129
currents into Arctic waters it is appropriate to consider
the biogeochemical behavior of 99Tc, and associated im-
Iodine-129 is a long-lived fission product (T1/2 =
pact in terms of human doses, in northern marine envi-
17 000 000 yr) released from the nuclear fuel cycle. The
ronments. Although human doses in Arctic regions are
release of 129I to the European marine environment has
likely to be significantly below those observed in areas
increased in recent years primarily due to increased re-
close to discharge points, differences in biological up-
lease rates from the Cap de la Hague fuel reprocessing
take and human dietary patterns may offset lower ambi-
plant (Yiou et al., 1995). Owing to its long physical and
ent contamination levels caused by dilution. In other
environmental half-life 129I is globally dispersed. The
words, uncertainties associated with the fate of 99Tc in
total global release from the civilian nuclear fuel cycle
Arctic marine environments require attention.
(reactors and reprocessing operations) is 14.8 TBq. This
Within the context of estimating human exposure in
corresponds to a collective dose commitment, truncated
northern marine environments based on analyses of
at 10000 years, of 295 manSv (UNSCEAR, 2000). The
99Tc activity concentrations in foodstuffs derived from
maximum individual dose from globally dispersed 129I is
the sea, the Norwegian Radiation Protection Authority
0.005 Sv/yr (UNSCEAR, 2000). Thus, current individ-
(Brown et al., 1998) observed that: `Individual radiation
ual dose rates are of little significance and a virtually in-
doses from human consumption of seafood from Nor-
significant source of risk to human health.
wegian waters are probably low due to the present low
levels of contamination and the low dose conversion fac-
4.6. Conclusions
tor of 99Tc'.
The Uranium Institute (1998) has estimated the dose
This chapter presents some dose assessments based on
in relation to the quantities of specific seafoods con-
newly available information. The main outcome is as
sumed in Norway on the basis of reported 99Tc activity
follows.
concentrations in seafood (Brown et al., 1998). The Ura-
Doses to the Faroe Islands' population were consis-
nium Institute calculated that the consumption of Nor-
tent with the outcome of the preliminary assessment
way lobster (Nephrops norvegicus), containing 99Tc in
during the first AMAP assessment.
the range 11.2 to 42 Bq/kg, would give rise to an indi-
The consumption of caribou by the indigenous peo-
vidual dose to the consumer of < 0.03 Sv/kg ingested.
ples in Arctic Canada has been reassessed and the doses
The corresponding value for mussels and shrimps, with
to critical groups are now shown to be lower.
99Tc in the range 0.54 to 0.68 Bq/kg, is 0.5 nSv/kg.
There is good agreement between the present dose
These are very low dose/mass consumption ratios. Even
rates estimated for the average population in northwest
an extreme seafood consumer eating 1 kg/d of Norway
Russia in this assessment and those of the first AMAP
lobster would receive an annual dose of <11 Sv.
assessment. However, the effective internal dose esti-
Thus, it can be argued that discharges of 99Tc from
mated for reindeer herders in the first AMAP assessment
Sellafield, even at rates close to the authorized release
has now been halved. This is mainly due to data report-
rate of 200 TBq/yr, as in 1995, lead to levels in Arctic
ing lower average radionuclide activity concentrations in
marine waters that are of no radiological significance for
reindeer meat, and is despite slightly higher intakes of
human populations. However, there is much uncertainty
reindeer meat.
regarding the biogeochemical behavior of 99Tc in the
Although doses to the Arctic population from the re-
marine environment, which undermines the ability to
lease of 99Tc and 129I are very low, because these radio-
make prospective human impact assessments with any
nuclides behave conservatively in seawater, have very
great conviction. It is notable that uptake levels under
long half-lives, and because 99Tc accumulates strongly
field conditions for some crustaceans (Brown et al.
in certain species, more work should be done to assess
1999; Busby et al. 1997) were largely unstudied before
their effects on marine biota.
the recent discharges from the Enhanced Actinide Re-
The doses to populations from a number of nuclear
moval Plant (EARP) caused environmental levels to in-
power plants within or near the Arctic were assessed
crease dramatically (Section 2.2.1), although laboratory
during the first AMAP assessment. As this situation is
studies had indicated that uptake rates could be high in
not known to have changed significantly since then, that
these groups and that large inter-species variability ex-
assessment has not been updated.
isted. Technetium uptake by many Arctic species re-
Further work should be carried out to assess the un-
mains largely unstudied and thus an additional area of
certainties for calculated internal doses.

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64
AMAP Assessment 2002: Radioactivity in the Arctic
Annex. Tables
Table A4ท1. Activity concentrations of 137Cs (Bq/kg ww) in products from northwest Arctic Russia 1998-2001
(Borghuis et al., 2002).
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Kola Peninsula
Mezen district
Nenets AO
---------------------------
---------------------------
---------------------------
n
mean ฑ SD
n
mean ฑ SD
n
mean ฑ SD
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Reindeer meat
summer
10
70 ฑ14
3
58 ฑ33
21
34 ฑ38
winter
44
146 ฑ68
ญ
ญ
30
64 ฑ73
Fish marine
8
0.56 ฑ0.43
4
0.39 ฑ0.23
8
0.51 ฑ0.29
Fish freshwater
19
31 ฑ20
9
3.8 ฑ3.2
20
1.8 ฑ1.9
Mushrooms
57
93 ฑ70
35
47 ฑ43
26
19 ฑ14
Berries
22
16 ฑ10
7
8.7 ฑ5.2
34
17 ฑ16
Milk
34
0.32 ฑ0.23
9
0.51 ฑ0.40
9
0.22 ฑ0.15
Beef
18
1.3 ฑ2.3
5
1.9 ฑ1.6
ญ
ญ
Potatoes
12
0.12 ฑ0.07
3
0.060 ฑ0.013
4
0.08 ฑ0.04
Lichen*
20
164 ฑ80
8
100 ฑ28
23
23 ฑ18
Natural grasses*
3
9.7 ฑ3.2
4
4.6 ฑ2.5
8
6.6 ฑ4.0
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
*dry matter.
Table A4ท2. Activity concentrations of 90Sr (Bq/kg ww) in products from northwest Arctic Russia 1998-2001
(Borghuis et al., 2002).
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Kola Peninsula
Mezen district
Nenets AO
---------------------------
---------------------------
---------------------------
n
mean ฑ SD
n
mean ฑ SD
n
mean ฑ SD
(range)
(range)
(range)
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
Reindeer meat
10
0.36 ฑ0.18
3
0.42 ฑ0.1
4
0.44 ฑ0.13
(0.10-0.65)
(0.30-0.63)
(0.31-0.61)
Mushrooms 19
1.30 ฑ0.80
ญ
ญ
4
0.90 ฑ0.38
(0.50-2.70)
(0.42-1.30)
Berries
8
2.80 ฑ2.40
8
1.61 ฑ0.44
7
1.00 ฑ0.51
(0.80-11.0)
(0.70-4.00)
(0.40-1.90)
bilberry
3
4.61 ฑ5.20
3
2.20 ฑ1.62
2
1.40 ฑ0.64
(1.0-11.0)
(1.10-4.00)
(1.00-1.90)
cowberry 5
2.12 ฑ1.10
3
1.62 ฑ0.61
2
1.20 ฑ0.45
(0.80-3.40)
(1.00-2.10)
(0.86-1.50)
Milk
5
0.15 ฑ0.09
4
0.30 ฑ0.21
5
0.094 ฑ0.018
(0.05-0.21)
(0.10-0.54)
(0.07-0.11)
Potatoes
12
0.25 ฑ0.11
9
0.18 ฑ0.08
5
0.090 ฑ0.034
(0.05-1.00)
(0.11-0.27)
(0.05-0.13)
Lichen*
14
62 ฑ56
9
61ฑ27
16
38 ฑ22
(5.2-187)
(27-99)
(8-83)
Natural grasses*
3
11ฑ7
6
16 ฑ3.7
6
16 ฑ12
(5-19)
(12-21)
(4.2-35)
ญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญญ
*dry matter.

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