Arctic Pollution 2002
Persistent Organic Pollutants
Heavy Metals
Radioactivity
Human Health
Changing Pathways
Contents
Preface
iii
Statement prepared by
the Indigenous Peoples Secretariat v
Executive Summary
vii
Setting the Stage
1
Persistent Organic Pollutants
7
Heavy Metals
37
Radioactivity 59
Human Health 77
Changing Pathways 97
AMAP
Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme
Oslo 2002
Arctic Pollution 2002
isbn 82-7971-015-9
© Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme, 2002
Published by
AMAP, P.O. Box 8100 Dep., n-0032 Oslo, Norway
The AMAP assessment reports can be ordered through the address above.
The AMAP assessment reports are also made available as electronic documents on the AMAP website at www.amap.no.
AMAP Working Group:
Helgi Jensson (Chair, Iceland), Yuri Tsaturov (Vice-chair, Russia), David Stone (Canada), Lars Moseholm (Denmark), Outi Mähönen
(Finland), Gunnar Futsæter (Norway), Cynthia de Wit (Sweden), John Calder (USA), Jan-Idar Solbakken (Permanent Participants of
the Indigenous Peoples Organisations)
AMAP Secretariat:
Lars-Otto Reiersen, Vitaly Kimstach, Simon Wilson, Inger Utne
A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T S
Authors:
Annika Nilsson, Henry Huntington
Scientific and technical editing:
Simon Wilson
Graphical production:
Kai Olsen
Contributing experts:
Abryutina, L
Crane, K.
Gobeil, C.
Johansen, P.
Marcy, S.
Pacyna, J.
Svavarsson, J.
Allen-Gil, S.
Crump, J.
Goodsite, M.
Jones, K.
Matthews, K.
Pálsson, S.E.
Tittlemier, S.
Almeida, M.
Dahle, S.
Gordeev, V.
Jørgensen, E.
Matz, A.
Petersen, H.
Travnikov, O.
Amirova, Z
Dahlgaard, H.
Green, N.
Kalhok, S.
McClelland, V.
Puckett, K.
Tremblay, N.
Asplin, L.
Dam, M.
Gusev, A.
Kallenborn, R.
Meakin, S.
Reiersen, L.-O.
Tsaturov, Y.S.
Ayotte, P.
Darnerud, P.O.
Halsall, C.
Kimstach, V.A.
Meijer, S.
Reistad, O.
Tsibulski, V.
Barrie, L.
Dasher, D.
Hangvelt, H.
Kleivane, L.
Melnikov, S.
Riget, F.
van Bavel, B.
Beauchamp, G.
Dauvalter, V.
Hansen, J.C.
Klepikov, A.
Messner, T.
Rissanen, K.
Van Oostdam, J.
Becke, P.R.
de Wit, C.
Harding, K.
Klopov, V.
Meyers, T.
Roach, P.
Verta, M.
Beckmen, K.
Dehn, L.A.
Hargrave, B.
Koerner, F.
Middaugh, J.P.
Robertson, A.
Villeneuve, D.
Berg, T.
Derome, J.
Harner, T.
Koerner, R.
Mork, K.A.
Ross, P.
Vlasov, S.
Berge, J.
Deutch, B.
Hassi, J.
Konoplev, A
Mueller, K.
Rudjord, A.L.
Vos, J.
Bergman, R
Dewailly, E.
Hay, B.
Korhonen, M.
Muir, D.
Ryan, A.
Wang, B.
Berner, J.E.
Dietz, R.
Hedlund, B.
Krahn, M.
Munro Jensen, B. Sakshaug, E.
Wania, F.
Bewers, M.J.
Divoky, G.
Heinrich, A.
Kucklick, J.
Murray, T.
Salbu, B.
Wassmann, P.
Bidleman, T.
Dock, L.
Henttonen, H.
Kuhnlein, H.
Mussola, H.
Sandau, C.
Watson, M.
Bignert, A.
Duffy, L.K.
Hermanson, M.
Kwan, M.
Naidu, S.
Savinov, V.
Weber, J.P.
Bjerregaard, P.
Dutchak, S.
Herzke, D.
Lahermo, P.
Nance, K.
Savinova, T.
Weihe, P.
Blanchard, P.
Elberling, B.
Hickie, B.
Landers, D.
Nieboer, E.
Shimmield, G.
Weingartner, T.
Bolton, J.
Elkin, B.
Hirvi, J.-P.
Larsen, E
Nikitin, A.
Short, J.
Westerberg, C.
Bonefeld-
Elling, H.
Hoar Zahm, S.
Lean, D.
Nordberg, G.
Shotyk, W.
Westerlund, S.
Jørgensen, E.
Evans, M.
Hobbs, K.
Leppänen, S.
Norstrom, R.
Sickel, M.
Willetto, C.
Borg, H.
Evans, T.
Hoekstra, P.
Letcher, R.
Notter, M.
Skotvold, T.
Wilson, S.J.
Borgå, K.
Evenset, A.
Hosker, P.
Levesque, B.
Nriagu, J.
Skaare, J.U.
Wirtz, J.
Braune, B.
Fairbrother, A.
Howard, B.
Li, Y.F.
Nygaard, T.
Soininen, L.
Wolkers, H.
Brooks, S.
Falkner, K.K.
Hoydal, K.
Lie, E.
Nyman, M.
Solbakken, J.-I.
Wong, X.
Brown, J
Fenge, T.
Hung, H.
Lin, J.
Nørrevang
Sorensen, M.
Woshner, V.
Burkow, I.C.
Fisk, A.
Huntington, H.
Lindberg, S.
Jensen, J.
Steenhuisen, F.
Yefimenko, A.
Bush, E.
Forbes, B.
Hylland, K.
Lithner, G.
Odland, J.Ø.
Steig, E.
Ylitalo, G.
Calder, J.
Ford, J.
Hölemann, J.A.
Lockhart, L.
O'Hara, T.M.
Steinnes, E.
Yngvadóttir, E.
Carlsen, A.
Fyfe, J.
Håkonsson, H.
Loeng, H.
Olafsdóttir, K.
Stensrud, H.
Zdanowicz, C.M.
Chashchine, V.
Gabrielsen, G.
Ikonomu, M.
MacDonald, C.
Olsen, J.
Stern, G.
Chen, P.S.
Garrett, R.
Iosjpe, M.
Macdonald, R.W. Oughton, D.
Stirling, I.
Christensen, G.
Gilman, A.
Jantunen, L.
Magnúsdóttir, E.V. Outridge, P.
Strachan, W.
Christensen, J.
Givelet, N.
Joensen, H.P.
Mannio, J.
Pacyna, E.G.
Strand, P.
Indigenous peoples organizations, AMAP observing countries, and international organizations:
Aleut International Association (AIA), Arctic Athabaskan Council (AAC), Gwitch'in Council International (GCI), Inuit Circumpolar
Conference (ICC), Russian Association of Indigenous Peoples of the North (RAIPON), Saami Council.
France, Germany, Netherlands, Poland, United Kingdom.
Advisory Committe on Protection of the Sea (ACOPS), Association of World Reindeer Herders (AWRH), Circumpolar Conservation
Union (CCU), European Environment Agency (EEA), International Arctic Science Committee (IASC), International Arctic Social
Sciences Association (IASSA), International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES),
International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFFCRCS), International Union for Circumpolar Health (IUCH),
International Union for the Concervation of Nature (IUCN), International Union of Radioecology (IUR), Nordic Council of Ministers
(NCM), Nordic Council of Parliamentarians (NCP), North Atlantic Marine Mammal Commission (NAMMCO), Northern Forum
(NF), OECD Nuclear Energy Agency (OECD/ NEA), Oslo and Paris Commissions (OSPARCOM), Standing Committee of Arctic
Parliamentarians (SCAP), United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UN ECE), United Nations Environment Programme
(UNEP), World Health Organization (WHO), World Meteorological Organization (WMO), World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF).
AMAP data centers:
International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES), Norwegian Institute for Air Research (NILU), Norwegian Radiation
Protection Authority (NRPA), University of Alaska Fairbanks (UAF).
Graphical production of Arctic Pollution 2002
Photographers, graphics designers, color reproduction, printing and binding firms are listed on page 112.
iii
Preface
The Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme
AMAP would like to express its appreciation to all of
(AMAP) is a group working under the Arctic Council.
these experts, who have contributed their time, effort,
The Arctic Council Ministers have requested AMAP to:
and data; especially those who were involved in the fur-
ther development and implementation of the AMAP
· produce integrated assessment reports on the status and
Trends and Effects Monitoring Programme, and related
trends of the conditions of the Arctic ecosystems;
research. A list of the main contributors is included in the
· identify possible causes for the changing conditions;
acknowledgements on the previous page of this report.
· detect emerging problems, their possible causes, and the
The list is based on identified individual contributors to
potential risk to Arctic ecosystems including indigenous
the AMAP scientific assessments, and is not comprehen-
peoples and other Arctic residents; and to
sive. Specifically, it does not include the many national
· recommend actions required to reduce risks to Arctic
institutes, laboratories and organizations, and their staff,
ecosystems.
which have been involved in the various countries. Apol-
These assessments are delivered to Ministers at appropri-
ogies, and no lesser thanks, are given to any individuals
ate intervals in the form of `State of the Arctic Environ-
unintentionally omitted from the list.
ment Reports'. These reports are intended to be readable
and readily comprehensible, and do not contain extensive
Special thanks are due to the lead authors responsible
background data or references to the scientific literature.
for the preparation of the scientific assessments that
The complete scientific documentation, including sources
provide the basis for this report. Special thanks are also
for all figures reproduced in this report, is contained in a
due to the authors of this report, Annika Nilsson and
series of five related reports: the AMAP Assessment 2002
Henry Huntington. The authors worked in close coop-
reports, which are fully referenced. For readers interested
eration with the scientific experts and the AMAP Sec-
in the scientific background to the information presented
retariat to accomplish the difficult task of distilling the
in this report, we recommend that you refer to the
essential messages from a wealth of complex scientific
AMAP Assessment 2002 reports.
information, and communicating this in an easily-
understandable way.
This report is the second `State of the Arctic Environment
Report' that has been prepared by AMAP in accordance
The support from of the Arctic countries is vital to the
with its mandate. It presents the results of work conduct-
success of AMAP. AMAP monitoring work is essentially
ed during AMAP's second phase (1998-2002) in relation
based on ongoing activities within the Arctic countries,
to five priority areas: persistent organic pollutants, heavy
and the countries also provide the necessary support for
metals, radioactivity, human health, and pathways of
most of the experts involved in the preparation of the
contaminants. The assessment described in this report
assessments. However, this assessment could not have
builds upon the previous AMAP assessment that was pre-
been delivered without the additional financial support
sented in two volumes, the comprehensive Arctic Pollu-
received from Canada, Denmark, Finland, Norway,
tion Issues: A State of the Arctic Environment Report
Sweden and the United States; and from the Nordic
and its related scientific background document AMAP
Council of Ministers and the Netherlands. These finances
Assessment Report: Arctic Pollution Issues, published
also support the participation of indigenous peoples
by AMAP in 1997 and 1998, respectively.
organizations in the work of AMAP.
A large number of experts from the Arctic countries
The AMAP Working Group, who are responsible for the
(Canada, Denmark/Greenland/Faroe Islands, Finland,
delivery and content of the AMAP State of the Arctic En-
Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden, and the United States),
vironment Reports, are pleased to present their second
from indigenous peoples organizations, from other organ-
assessment for the consideration by governments of the
izations, and from Germany, the Netherlands, and the
Arctic countries. This report is prepared in English and
United Kingdom, have participated in the preparation of
translated into several other languages. The English lan-
this assessment.
guage version constitutes the official version.
Rovaniemi/Ivalo, October 2002.
Helgi Jensson
Lars-Otto Reiersen
AMAP Chair
AMAP Executive Secretary
v
A Statement prepared by the Indigenous Peoples Secretariat
on behalf of Arctic Council Permanent Participants:
A Call for Further Action
The Arctic is our homeland. Places that others call re-
the need for a detailed and comprehensive examination
mote are central to our existence and have been for mil-
of the issue as a prelude to doing something about it.
lennia. We, the Indigenous Peoples of the Arctic, wish to
Since the release of the 1997 AMAP assessment report,
protect a way of life based on a unique economic and
three more Indigenous Peoples' organizations have joined
spiritual relationship to the land. Yet, because the wild
the Arctic Council the Aleut International Association,
foods we eat and water we drink are inextricably linked
the Arctic Athabaskan Council, and the Gwich'in
to the overall health of the northern biosphere, our long-
Council International. These groups share the concerns
term health and survival as cultures and societies depends
about the long-term impact of contaminants.
upon Arctic nation states acting as responsible stewards
The Indigenous Peoples of the Arctic acknowledge the
of the Arctic environment.
instrumental role AMAP has played in a number of inter-
While enjoying the benefits of wage-based employment
national processes that have a direct effect on our ability
in the modern economy, Arctic Indigenous Peoples con-
to remain on the land and continue to use its resources in
tinue to use and occupy huge areas of land and ocean
ways of our own choosing.
for hunting, fishing, trapping, herding, and gathering.
It has raised significantly the profile of environmental
The extent and intensity of this land use, including spe-
contamination in the Arctic as a public policy issue. But
cies harvested, is well documented. Indeed, many Arctic
it is not the reports alone that account for this. The inclu-
Indigenous Peoples have legally recognized and enforce-
sive manner in which they were developed over a number
able rights to the land they use. Even so, the intercon-
of years by scientists from many countries, and consensus
nectedness of Arctic ecosystems makes multi-lateral coop-
decision-making by the programme ensured that the
eration for the protection of the environment a necessity
reports and resulting recommendations were well
for both Indigenous Peoples and Arctic nation states.
received and considered seriously by Arctic governments.
Recognition of the circumpolar dimension of the
Participation of the Arctic Indigenous Peoples has been
Arctic environmental issues remains the central political
an important part of this process.
reality for both Arctic nation states and Indigenous
Arctic Indigenous Peoples influenced the global POPs
Peoples organizations. The need for Arctic international
negotiations out of all proportion to their numbers. They
cooperation is most clearly evident in matters relating to
were able to do so, in part, because they had learned
preserving and protecting Indigenous Peoples' traditional
much through AMAP about transboundary contaminants
food and diet. The species harvested and eaten vary wide-
in the Arctic.
ly. They include the domestic reindeer and fish-rich diets
Indigenous Peoples of the Arctic continue to support
of Nenets or Saami, the marine mammal-rich diet of the
AMAP's efforts to assess levels of contamination in the
Inuit, to the importance of wild caribou and salmon to
part of the world that includes our homelands. Indigen-
the Athabaskan and Gwich'in peoples. The central and
ous Peoples will continue to be involved in projects in
most distinguishing feature of the modern Arctic indige-
their regions. We are also pleased that the inclusive
nous economy continues to be its dependence on wildlife
model of working with Indigenous Peoples' organizations
and the habitat that supports it.
that was developed in the first AMAP assessment has
To Arctic Indigenous Peoples persistent organic pollu-
been adopted by the Arctic Climate Impact Assessment.
tants, heavy metals and radioactivity in traditional food
The Indigenous Peoples of the Arctic continue to see
is not just an environmental or public health issue.
contaminants and climate change variability as a major
As one Inuit Leader recently observed, the process of
threat to our collective survival as Peoples. We call on the
hunting and fishing, followed by the sharing of food and
Arctic States to continue supporting the work of AMAP
the communal partaking of one animal, is a time hon-
and, through financial and other support, ensure the
oured ritual which links Indigenous Peoples to their
active involvement of the Arctic's Indigenous Peoples.
ancestors and to each other. The power of this connec-
We also expect the success of the Stockholm POPs
tion holds Indigenous Peoples together as peoples and
Convention, where Indigenous Peoples and AMAP data
gives them the spiritual strength and physical energy to
played a significant role, to be repeated with the global
survive the challenges they face. To discover that the food
mercury assessment now underway, and in other process-
which for generations has nourished them and kept them
es in the future.
whole physically and spiritually is now poisoning them is
To that end, Arctic Indigenous Peoples call upon the
profoundly disturbing and threatens Indigenous Peoples'
nations of the world to increase efforts to develop inter-
cultural survival.
national instruments to deal with the effects of mercury
Having learned of transboundary contamination prob-
and other heavy metals that the threaten the human and
lem in the Arctic through what were essentially recon-
environmental health of the Arctic and the world.
naissance studies, the Inuit Circumpolar Conference,
Saami Council, and the Russian Association of
The Indigenous Peoples' Secretariat works on behalf of
Indigenous Peoples of the North became staunch sup-
the six Arctic Indigenous Peoples Organizations that are
porters of and participants in AMAP. They appreciated
Permanent Participants at the Arctic Council.
vii
Executive Summary
of the AMAP 2002 assessment of Arctic pollution issues,
as adopted by the AMAP Working Group, May 3, 2002.
The Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Pro-
the Arctic Marine Environment (PAME), and
gramme (AMAP) was established in 1991 to
adopted by the Arctic Council in 1998.
monitor identified pollution risks and their
After the first assessment, AMAP was asked
impacts on Arctic ecosystems. In 1997 the first
to continue its activities and provide an up-
AMAP report, Arctic Pollution Issues: A State of
dated assessment on persistent organic pollu-
the Arctic Environment Report * was published.
tants (POPs), heavy metals, radioactivity, human
The assessment showed that the Arctic is
health, and pathways in 2002. Five scientific
closely connected to the rest of the world, re-
reports and a plain-language report have been
ceiving contaminants from sources far outside
prepared. This Executive Summary provides
the Arctic region. The report was welcomed by
the main conclusions and recommendations of
the Arctic Council Ministers, who agreed to
the 2002 AMAP assessments.
increase their efforts to limit and reduce emis-
sions of contaminants into the environment
and to promote international cooperation in
International Agreements
order to address the serious pollution risks re-
and Actions
ported by AMAP.
The AMAP information greatly assisted the
As described above, the LRTAP Convention
negotation of the protocols on persistent or-
protocols and the Stockholm Convention
ganic pollutants (POPs) and heavy metals to
are essential instruments for reducing conta-
the United Nations Economic Commission for
mination in the Arctic. However, they cannot
Europe's Convention on Long-range Trans-
have any effect until they are ratified and
boundary Air Pollution (LRTAP Convention).
implemented.
They also played an important role in estab-
It is therefore recommended that:
lishing the need for a global agreement on
· The UN ECE LRTAP Protocols on Heavy
POPs, which was concluded in 2001 as the
Metals and POPs be ratified and imple-
Stockholm Convention. Persistence, long-
mented.
range transport, and bioaccumulation are
· The Stockholm Convention on POPs be rati-
screening criteria under both the POPs pro-
fied and implemented.
tocol and the Stockholm Convention, to be
applied to proposals to add substances to the
Specific recommendations for monitoring
agreements. Information from AMAP will be
activities in support of these agreements are
useful in this context in showing whether per-
included in subsequent sections.
sistent substances are accumulating in the Arc-
tic and are therefore candidates for control,
and also in assessing the effectiveness of the
Persistent Organic Pollutants
agreements.
The Arctic Council also decided to take co-
The POPs assessment addresses several chemi-
operative actions to reduce pollution of the Arc-
cals of concern, including both substances that
tic. As a direct follow up of the AMAP reports,
have been studied for some time and chemicals
the Arctic Council Action Plan to Eliminate
that have only recently been found in the envi-
Pollution of the Arctic (ACAP) was created to
ronment.
address sources identified through AMAP.
The 1997 AMAP assessment concluded that
ACAP was approved in 2000 and several pro-
levels of POPs in the Arctic environment are
jects have begun. The AMAP information was
generally lower than in more temperate re-
also used in establishing priorities for the Arctic
gions. However, several biological and physi-
Regional Programme of Action to Prevent Pol-
cal processes concentrate POPs in some species
lution from Landbased Sources (RPA), devel-
and at some locations, producing some high
oped by the working group on Protection of
levels in the Arctic.
* AMAP, 1997. Arctic Pollution Issues: A State of the Arctic Environment Report. Arctic Monitoring and Assessment
Programme (AMAP), Oslo, Norway, xii+188 pp.
AMAP, 1998. AMAP Assessment Report: Arctic Pollution Issues. Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme
(AMAP), Oslo, Norway, xii+859 pp.
viii
The present AMAP assessment has found
rates vary in extent, location and media or
that the conclusions and recommendations of
species being studied. The decreases can be
the first assessment remain valid. In addition:
related to reduced release to the environment.
For example, declines in alpha-HCH in air
It has clearly been established that:
closely follow decreases in global usage, but
Certain Arctic species, particularly those at the
declines in marine biota are much slower due
upper end of the marine food chain as well as
to a huge reservoir of the substance in the
birds of prey, carry high levels of POPs. Mar-
global oceans.
ine mammals, such as polar bear, Arctic fox,
For other POPs, declines are minimal and
long-finned pilot whale, killer whale, harbor
some levels are actually increasing, despite low
porpoise, minke whale, narwhal, beluga, harp
current emissions. This illustrates the long per-
seal and northern fur seal, some marine birds
iod that may pass between the introduction of
including great skua, great black-backed gull
controls and the resulting decrease in levels in
and glaucous gull, and birds of prey such as
biota, as has been observed for PCBs, toxa-
peregrine falcon, tend to carry the highest
phene, and beta-HCH.
body burdens.
Most of the total quantity of POPs found in
It is therefore recommended that:
the Arctic environment is derived from distant
· AMAP be asked to continue trend monitor-
sources. The POPs are transported to the Arc-
ing of POPs in key indicator media and biota.
tic by regional and global physical processes,
This will enable assessment of whether the
and are then subjected to biological mecha-
measures taken in the LRTAP Protocol and
nisms that lead to the high levels found in cer-
the Stockholm Convention are being effec-
tain species. Several potential source regions
tive in driving down POPs levels in the
have now been identified within and outside of
Arctic.
the Arctic. A better understanding of local re-
distribution mechanisms has also emphasized
There is evidence that:
the important potential role of local processes
POPs substances other than those included in
and sources in determining observed geograph-
the LRTAP Protocol and Stockholm Conven-
ical variability.
tion may be at or approaching levels in the
Arctic that could justify regional and global
There is evidence that:
action. For example, levels of the brominated
Adverse effects have been observed in some of
flame retardants such as polybrominated di-
the most highly exposed or sensitive species in
phenyl ethers (PBDEs), polychlorinated naph-
some areas of the Arctic. Several studies have
thalenes (PCNs), and some current-use pesti-
now been completed on a number of Arctic
cides such as endosulfan have been monitored
species, reporting the types of effects that have
in Arctic air and biota. PBDEs are increasing
been associated in non-Arctic species with
in the Canadian Arctic.
chronic exposure to POPs, of which there are
several examples. Reduced immunological
It is therefore recommended that:
response in polar bears and northern fur seals
· AMAP be asked to maintain a capacity to
has led to increased susceptibility to infection.
detect current-use POPs in the Arctic. This
Immunological, behavioral, and reproductive
will help ensure that Arctic States have an
effects as well as reduced adult survival has
early opportunity to respond to a trend indi-
been found in glaucous gulls. Peregrine falcons
cating Arctic accumulation, thus allowing a
have suffered from eggshell thinning and re-
proactive approach to minimize the contami-
productive effects. Reproductive effects in dog-
nation rather than having to respond to a
whelks are associated with exposure to tribu-
more serious situation later.
tyltin.
It is therefore recommended that:
Heavy Metals
· AMAP be asked to further enhance studies
aimed at detecting effects in Arctic species
The heavy metals assessment focuses on mer-
relating to exposure to high levels of POPs
cury, lead, and cadmium.
and to integrate this information with an
understanding of general population effects
It has clearly been established that:
and health. Without this understanding,
In the Arctic, mercury is removed from the
it will not be possible to assess whether
atmosphere and deposits on snow in a form
proposed and existing controls can be ex-
that can become bioavailable. Enhanced de-
pected to afford the necessary protection
position occurs in the Arctic. This recently
(e.g., under the LRTAP and Stockholm
discovered process is linked to polar sunrise,
agreements).
and is unique to high latitude areas. The re-
sulting enhanced deposition may mean that
There is evidence that:
the Arctic plays a previously unrecognized
The levels of some POPs are decreasing in
role as an important sink in the global mer-
most species and media in the Arctic, but the
cury cycle.
There is evidence that:
These risks include subtle neurobehavioral
ix
Some of the deposited mercury is released to
effects.
the environment at snowmelt, becoming bio-
available at the onset of animal and plant
It is therefore recommended that:
reproduction and rapid growth. Although
· In view of the fact that reducing exposure to
poorly understood, this process may be the
mercury can only be addressed by regional
chief mechanism for transferring atmospheric
and global action to reduce worldwide emis-
mercury to Arctic food webs.
sions, and acknowledging the assessment for
global action undertaken by UNEP and its
It is therefore recommended that:
resulting proposals, the Arctic Council take
· The Arctic Council encourage expanded and
appropriate steps to ensure that Arctic con-
accelerated research on critical aspects of the
cerns are adequately addressed and to pro-
mercury cycle and budget in the Arctic. Such
mote the development of regional and global
research should include long-range trans-
actions.
port, mercury deposition mechanisms, pro-
cesses leading to biological exposure and
It has clearly been established that:
effects, and the influence of climate variabil-
Dramatic reduction in the deposition of atmos-
ity and change on these processes.
pheric lead has occurred in Arctic regions
where the use of leaded gasoline is banned.
There is evidence that:
Arctic-wide elimination of leaded gasoline
Despite substantial mercury emission reduc-
use will reduce lead exposure in other regions
tions in North America and Western Europe
of the Arctic. Although levels in wildlife and
during the 1980s, global mercury emissions
fish have not measurably declined, likely re-
may, in fact, be increasing. Mercury emissions
flecting continued uptake from the large re-
from waste incineration are likely underesti-
servoir of lead deposited in soils and sedi-
mated. The burning of coal in small-scale
ments, lead levels in the environment are ex-
power plants and residential heaters, princi-
pected to diminish over time if current trends
pally in Asia, are major potential sources of
continue.
current mercury emissions. These emissions
are likely to increase significantly due to eco-
It is therefore recommended that:
nomic and population growth in this region.
· The Arctic Council support continued efforts
to eliminate the use of leaded gasoline in all
It is therefore recommended that:
Arctic regions.
· The Arctic Council promote efforts at glo-
bal, regional, and national levels to quantify
It has clearly been established that:
all sources of mercury and report results in a
Certain regions of the Arctic contain elevated
consistent and regular manner to improve
lead levels in the environment because of past
emission inventories. Particular efforts should
or current use of lead shot by hunters. Even
focus on measuring contributions made by
though lead shot is banned in Alaska, for ex-
the burning of coal for residential heating
ample, lead blood levels in endangered US po-
and small-scale power plants as well as by
pulations of Steller's eiders are above known
waste incineration.
avian toxicity thresholds for lead poisoning,
which may be responsible for observed re-
There is strong evidence that:
duced breeding success. In Greenland, lead
There is a trend of increasing mercury levels in
shot appears to be a significant source of
marine birds and mammals in the Canadian
human dietary exposure to lead.
Arctic, and some indications of increases in
West Greenland. The effects of these levels are
It is therefore recommended that:
not well understood. However, there are also
· The Arctic Council encourage a complete
examples of stable or decreasing levels in other
ban on the use of lead shot in the Arctic, and
regions, perhaps indicating the importance of
that enforcement be improved.
local or regional processes.
There is evidence that:
It is therefore recommended that:
Cadmium levels in some seabirds is high
· AMAP be asked to continue temporal trend
enough to cause kidney damage. Monitoring
monitoring and the assessment of effects of
data on cadmium in the abiotic and biotic
mercury in key indicator media and biota.
environment to date provide no conclusive
This will enable assessment of whether the
evidence of trends or effects. However, cad-
measures taken in the LRTAP Protocol are
mium accumulates in birds and mammals and
being effective in driving down mercury lev-
not enough is known about possible effects.
els in the Arctic.
It is therefore recommended that:
There is evidence that:
· The monitoring of cadmium in the Arctic be
Current mercury exposures pose a health risk
continued to support human exposure esti-
to some people and animals in the Arctic.
mates.
x
There is evidence that:
sources such as contaminated sediment in the
Levels of platinum, palladium, and rhodium
Irish Sea and the Baltic Sea will be observed in
have increased rapidly in Greenland snow and
the Arctic.
ice since the 1970s. These elements are used in
automobile catalytic converters to reduce hy-
It is therefore recommended that:
drocarbon pollution. The toxicity and bioac-
· The Arctic Council support a more detailed
cumulation potential of these elements are
study on the remobilization of radionuclides
largely unknown, which prevents assessment
from sediment and its potential effect on the
of their potential impact in the Arctic.
Arctic.
It is therefore recommended that:
It is apparent that:
· AMAP be asked to consider the need to
There is continuing uncertainty about the
monitor trends of platinum, palladium, and
amount of radionuclides present at a number
rhodium in the Arctic.
of sources and potential sources in the Arctic.
Access to information about civilian and mili-
tary sources continues to be a problem.
Radioactivity
It is therefore recommended that:
The radioactivity assessment addresses man-
· The Arctic Council promote more openness
made radionuclides and radiation exposures
of restricted information from any sources.
deriving from human activities.
It has clearly been established that:
It has clearly been established that:
Compared with other areas of the world, the
In general, levels of anthropogenic radionu-
Arctic contains large areas of high vulnerabil-
clides in the Arctic environment are declining.
ity to radionuclides. This is due to the charac-
Most of the radioactive contamination in the
teristics of vegetation, animals, human diets,
Arctic land environment is from the fallout
and land- and resource-use practices. On land
from nuclear weapons testing during the per-
in the AMAP area, there is considerable varia-
iod 1945 to 1980. In some areas, the fallout
tion in vulnerability due to differences in these
from the Chernobyl accident in 1986 is a
characteristics. In contrast, vulnerability asso-
major source. For the Arctic marine environ-
ciated with releases of radionuclides to the
ment, a major source of radionuclides is the
marine environment is relatively uniform and
releases from European reprocessing plants at
similar to that for other areas of the world.
Sellafield and Cap de la Hague.
Maps of vulnerable areas, when combined
However, releases from the reprocessing
with deposition maps, can be useful in an acci-
plants have resulted in increases in levels of
dent situation. The information on vulnerabil-
some radionuclides in the European Arctic
ity is of importance for emergency planning.
seas during recent years, in particular tech-
netium-99 and iodine-129. The present doses
It is therefore recommended that:
to the population are low but the present levels
· AMAP be asked to clarify the vulnerability
of technetium in some marine foodstuffs mar-
and impact of radioactivity on the Arctic
keted in Europe are above the EU intervention
environment and its consequences for emer-
levels for food to infants and are close to the
gency preparedness planning.
intervention level for adults.
It is apparent that:
The technetium information adds further
When performing risk reducing actions, close
weight to the recommendation made by
links to assessment programs are important
AMAP to the Arctic Council in Barrow in
and interventions should be prioritized in rela-
2000 that:
tion to the extent and magnitude of threats
· `The Arctic Council encourage the United
posed by nuclear activities, especially in re-
Kingdom to reduce the releases from Sellafield
spect to accidents. Interventions themselves
to the marine environment of technetium, by
can also have negative effects for humans and
implementing available technology.'
the environment, and careful judgments have
to be made together with environmental im-
There is evidence that:
pact assessments prior to carrying out a pro-
Radionuclides in sediments are now a source
ject. It is the view of AMAP that this has not
of plutonium and cesium-137 to the Arctic.
always been done in interventions adopted to
Earlier releases such as those from Sellafield
date.
that have deposited in sediments in the Irish
Sea, especially cesium-137 and plutonium,
It is therefore recommended that:
have been observed to remobilize so that these
· Risk and impact assessment programmes be
deposits are now acting as sources to the
performed prior to implementation of action
Arctic. Thus, even if operational releases of
to reduce risk.
these radionuclides from reprocessing plants
· Risk and impact assessments, including acci-
are reduced, releases from environmental
dent scenarios, be performed with regard to
the transport of nuclear waste and fuel with-
It is therefore recommended that:
xi
in the Arctic and nearby areas and with re-
· The monitoring of human exposure to mer-
gard to planned storage and reprocessing
cury, relevant POPs, including dioxins and
within the Arctic and nearby areas.
dioxin-like compounds and other chemicals
of concern, be continued in order to help es-
It is apparent that:
timate risk, further elaborate geographical
The protection of the environment from the
trends, and begin to establish time trends of
effects of radiation deserves specific attention.
exposure.
The current system of radiological protection
is entirely based on the protection of human
There is evidence that:
health. This approach can fail to address
Subtle health effects are occurring in certain
environmental damage in areas such as the
areas of the Arctic due to exposure to contami-
Arctic that have low human population den-
nants in traditional food, particularly for mer-
sities. Recently, an international consensus
cury and PCBs. The evidence suggests that the
has emerged that the rapid development of
greatest concern is for fetal and neonatal de-
a system and a framework for the protection
velopment. In the Arctic, human intake of sub-
of the environment needs further effort.
stances with dioxin-like effects is a matter of
The International Union of Radioecology
concern, confirmed by recent results from
(IUR), with support from AMAP, was one
Greenland. Increasing human exposure to
of the first international organizations to pro-
current-use chemicals has been documented,
mote and present such a system and frame-
for example for brominated flame retardants.
work.
Others such as polychlorinated naphthalenes
(PCN) are expected to be found in human tis-
It is therefore recommended that:
sues. Some of these compounds are expected
· AMAP be asked to take an active part in the
to add to the total dioxin activity in humans.
continued efforts to address environmental
The AMAP human health monitoring program
protection, with special responsibility for the
includes a number of measures of effects, rang-
Arctic. This should include the task of ad-
ing from biomarkers of effects at the molecular
ding the need for protection of the environ-
level to epidemiological outcomes.
ment into monitoring strategies and assess-
ment tools.
It is therefore recommended that:
· The human health effects program developed
It is noted that:
by AMAP be more extensively applied in
Since the previous AMAP assessment, nuclear
order to provide a better base for human risk
safety programmes have been implemented in
assessment especially concerning pre- and
Russia at some nuclear power plants and other
neonatal exposures.
nuclear installations relevant to the Arctic.
It has clearly been established that:
It is therefore recommended that:
In the Arctic, diet is the main source of expo-
· The Arctic Council continue its cooperation
sure to most contaminants. Dietary intake of
with Russia to improve the safety and safe-
mercury and PCBs exceeds established na-
guarding of nuclear installations and waste
tional guidelines in a number of communities
sites.
in some areas of the Arctic, and there is evi-
dence of neurobehavioral effects in children in
some areas. In addition, life-style factors have
Human Health
been found to influence the body burden of
some contaminants, for example cadmium ex-
The human health assessment considered
posure from smoking. In the Arctic region, a
health risks associated with exposure to con-
local public health intervention has success-
taminants in relation to other lifestyle factors
fully achieved a reduction of exposure to mer-
determining health. This assessment has ex-
cury by providing advice on the mercury con-
tended geographical coverage and confirmed
tent of available traditional foods. The physio-
the conclusions and recommendations from
logical and nutritional benefits of traditional
the first assessment.
food support the need to base dietary recom-
mendations on risk-benefit analyses. The health
It has clearly been established that:
benefits of breast-feeding emphasize the im-
The highest Arctic exposures to several POPs
portance of local programs that inform moth-
and mercury are faced by Inuit populations in
ers how adjustments within their traditional
Greenland and Canada. These exposures are
diet can reduce contaminant levels in their
linked mainly to consumption of marine spe-
milk without compromising the nutritional
cies as part of traditional diets. Temporal
value of their diet.
trends of human exposures to POPs have so
far not been observed. Exposure to mercury
It is therefore recommended that:
has increased in many Arctic regions while
· In locations where exposures are high, care-
exposure to lead has declined.
fully considered and balanced dietary advice
xii
that takes risk and benefits into account be
Changing pathways
developed for children and men and women
of reproductive age. This advice should be
The assessment of changing pathways provides
developed by national and regional public
an introduction to the types of changes on con-
health authorities in close consultation with
taminants pathways to, within, and from the
affected communities.
Arctic that might be expected as a result of
· Studies of the nutrient and contaminant con-
global climate change and variability.
tent of traditional food items be promoted in
order to assess their benefits and to estimate
There is evidence that:
exposures as a basis for public health inter-
The routes and mechanisms by which POPs,
ventions.
heavy metals, and radionuclides are delivered
· Breast-feeding continue to be recognized as a
to the Arctic are strongly influenced by climate
practice that benefits both mother and child.
variability and global climate change. These
Nonetheless, if contaminant levels increase
pathways are complex, interactive systems in-
or more information indicates increased risk,
volving a number of factors, such as tempera-
the potential need for restrictions should
ture, precipitation, winds, ocean currents, and
continue to be evaluated.
snow and ice cover. Pathways within food webs
and the effects on biota may also be modified by
It is noted that:
changes to climate. Studies using global change
From the Arctic human health perspective, it is
scenarios have indicated the potential for sub-
of utmost importance that considerations for
stantial changes in atmospheric and oceano-
global actions against POPs and mercury take
graphic pathways that carry contaminants to,
into account the concerns for Arctic human
within, and from the Arctic. These effects mean
health. The Stockholm Convention and the
that climate-related variability in recent decades
LRTAP protocols should be properly moni-
may be responsible at least in part for some of
tored in the Arctic to determine whether their
the trends observed in contaminant levels.
implementation is effective in protecting hu-
man health.
It is therefore recommended that:
· AMAP be asked to further investigate how
It is therefore recommended that:
climate change and variability may influence
· AMAP participate in the global monitoring
the ways in which POPs, heavy metals, and
of human exposure to be established under
radionuclides move with respect to the Arc-
the Stockholm Convention on POPs.
tic environment and accumulate in and affect
· The Arctic Council monitor proposals for
biota. This will enable Arctic States to better
global action on mercury being undertaken
undertake strategic planning when consider-
by UNEP, and contribute as necessary to en-
ing the potential effectiveness of present and
sure that Arctic concerns related to human
possible future national, regional, and global
health are adequately addressed.
actions concerning contaminants.