Mekong River Commission
Freshwater Aquaculture in the
Lower Mekong Basin
MRC Technical Paper
No. 7
October 2002

Published in Phnom Penh in October 2002 by the
Mekong River Commission
This document should be cited as:
Phillips, M. J. 2002. Fresh water aquaculture in the Lower Mekong Basin. MRC Technical Paper
No. 7, Mekong River Commission, Phnom Penh. 62 pp. ISSN: 1683-1489
This paper was compiled by M.J. Phillips, with contributions from those listed in the
Acknowledgements. The opinions and interpretations expressed within are those of the
contributors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Mekong River Commission.
Editor: Ann Bishop
Layout: Boonruang Song-ngam
© Mekong River Commission
P.O. Box 1112, 364 M.V. Preah Monivong Boulevard
Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Telephone: (855-23) 720-979 Fax: (855-23) 720-972
E-mail: mrcs@mrcmekong.org
Website: www.mrcmekong.org

Acknowledgements
The material presented here was initially gathered for the MRC Fisheries Sector Review, and
subsequently edited into this MRC Technical Paper. The paper is based on contributions of
aquaculture and rural development specialists working in the Mekong basin. A meeting of some
of these experts, hosted by NACA in Bangkok in May 2001, prepared a first draft that was
developed through further consultation, including during the NACA/ACIAR workshop on "Feeds
and Feeding Constraints in Inland Aquaculture: Research and Extension Priorities" hosted by the
Government of Cambodia in Siem Reap, Cambodia on 24th-26th June 2002. The contributions of
the following individuals are gratefully acknowledged: Graham Haylor (STREAM), Simon Funge-
Smith (FAO), Rohana Subasinghe (FAO), Hans Guttman (MRC), Sten Sverdrup Jensen (MRC
Sector Review coordinator/editor), Melba Reantaso (NACA), Don Griffiths (READ Component,
MRC), Jorgen Jensen (MRC), Chris Barlow (MRC), Khamchai Lawonyawut (DOF, Thailand),
Xaypladeth Choulamany (LARReC, Lao PDR), Srum Lim Song (DOF, Cambodia), Simon Bush
(Australian Mekong Resource Centre, University of Sydney), Nguyen Thanh Phuong (Can Tho
University, Viet Nam), Peter Edwards (AIT, Thailand) and Sena De Silva (Deakin University,
Australia).

Abbreviations and Acronyms
ACIAR
Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research
AIMS
Aquaculture of Indigenous Mekong Species
AIT
Asian Institute of Technology
DfID
Department for International Development (of the United Kingdom)
DOF
Department of Fisheries
FAO
Food and Agriculture Organization (of the United Nations)
IPM
Integrated Pest Management
Lao PDR
Lao People's Democratic Republic
LARReC
Living Aquatic Resources Research Centre
MRC
Mekong River Commission
NACA
Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia-Pacific
NGO
Non-governmental organisation
READ
Rural Extension for Aquaculture Development
STREAM
Support to Regional Aquatic Resources Management
VAC
Vietnamese words vuon (garden or orchard), ao (fish pond) and chuong (pig sty or
poultry shed).

Table of Contents
Summary - English...........................................................................................................1
Summary - Khmer ............................................................................................................5
Summary - Lao .............................................................................................................. 11
Summary - Thai .............................................................................................................17
Summary - Vietnamese ...................................................................................................23
1- STATUS OF AQUACULTURE IN THE LOWER MEKONG BASIN ...............................29
1.1 Background ..............................................................................................................29
1.2 Aquaculture production in the Lower Mekong Basin ...................................................29
1.3 The producers and role of aquaculture in food security and livelihoods ........................30
1.4 The aquaculture systems and species ..........................................................................31
1.5 Consumers and markets ............................................................................................37
1.6 Institutional support to aquaculture ............................................................................38
1.7 Aquaculture and the environment ..............................................................................40
2 - AQUACULTURE SUB-SECTOR ANALYSIS ................................................................43
2.1 Developments, opportunities and threats ....................................................................43
2.2 What support services are required? ...........................................................................48
2.3 Information needs and gaps to be filled for aquaculture ...............................................50
2.4 The need for integrated planning and regulation .........................................................51
2.5 Threats to aquaculture and possible solutions .............................................................52
3 - RECOMMENDATIONS FOR AQUACULTURE WITHIN THE CONTEXT OF
MEKONG FISHERIES AND THE BASIN'S DEVELOPMENT ......................................53
3.1 Planning and implementation approach ......................................................................53
3.2 Supporting small-scale aquaculture ............................................................................54
4 - REFERENCES AND READING ....................................................................................59

Freshwater Aquaculture in the Lower Mekong Basin
Summary
1. Background
The farming of fish and other aquatic animals and plants or aquaculture, is an increasingly important
rural activity and source of food and income for people living in the Lower Mekong Basin. This
paper reviews the status of inland aquaculture in the Lower Mekong Basin countries of Cambodia,
Lao PDR, Thailand and Viet Nam. It identifies key factors shaping aquaculture development and
provides recommendations to increase its future importance in food production and rural development
in the basin. The information contained in this report came through written contributions from and
consultations with Mekong aquaculture and rural development experts. An initial draft was prepared
in 2001 for the Mekong River Commission (MRC) Fisheries Sector Review, and subsequently edited
into this separate MRC Technical Paper on aquaculture. The paper provides a timely and important
review of aquaculture as a significant means of food production and a contributor to rural livelihoods
in the Lower Mekong Basin.
2. Status of aquaculture
Aquaculture in the Mekong Basin is a diverse activity. It encompasses breeding, rearing and sale of
fish fry and fingerlings, and growing of wild or artificially-reared fry and fingerlings in enclosed or
semi-enclosed water bodies, such as ponds, rice fields and fish cages. The products from aquacul-
ture are marketed, and often also used for home consumption. Supplying inputs for farming, such as
fish seed and feed, and handling, processing, marketing and consumption of aquaculture products
are important components in the livelihoods of men, women and children in many rural households
in the Mekong Basin.
There has been a steady growth in inland aquaculture production in all countries of the Lower
Mekong Basin over the past 10 years, from around 60,000 tonnes in 1990 to around 260,000 tonnes
in 1999/2000. This equates to 12-13 percent of the total freshwater aquatic animal production in the
Lower Mekong Basin (an estimated 2,036,000 tonnes). This does not include production of fish and
shrimp in the brackish waters of the Mekong Delta. The development of aquaculture in the Mekong
Basin has been uneven though. Most aquaculture production takes place in the Mekong Delta in
Viet Nam and on the Korat Plateau in Northeast Thailand, with much less production in Cambodia
and Lao PDR. Nevertheless, this review suggests that official government statistics probably under-
estimate the importance of small-scale aquaculture, and that it is increasingly widespread and of
growing importance as a source of food and income for rural households.
Government policy has contributed significantly to the recent growth in aquaculture. Over the past
10 years governments in all Mekong countries have increased investment in research, infrastructure,
education and extension. The governments of Thailand and Viet Nam have invested considerably
1

Freshwater Aquaculture in the Lower Mekong Basin
more resources in aquaculture, and Viet Nam has an ambitious plan for capacity building and
extension. Research support has traditionally focussed on technical issues, and less on formulating
and implementing farmer-driven research agendas, but recent shifts towards adaptive, farmer-needs-
driven aquaculture development are evident.
The sustainability of aquaculture is closely linked to the natural resource base in the Mekong Basin.
Small-scale aquaculture can contribute to environmental improvement, such as through dry season
water storage and recycling of agricultural wastes through aquaculture ponds. Environmental concerns
relate to water pollution from other sectors, such as agriculture, water shortages, spread of aquatic
animal diseases, adverse impacts of intensive cage fish farming, trematode infections and loss of
genetic diversity through poor breeding practice and ill-considered trans-boundary movement of
stocks. These problems can be mitigated by adoption of better farm management practices and
farming systems, and development strategies that integrate aquaculture into the farms and natural
ecosystems of the basin. Where the objective is poverty alleviation, support based around an
understanding of poor people's livelihoods can be a valuable development strategy.
3. Future of aquaculture
The future will see continuing expansion of aquaculture within the Mekong Basin. At the macro-
level, population trends for the basin suggest an additional 400,000 tonnes of aquatic animal product
will be needed in 10 years to maintain consumption at present levels. Aquaculture development will
have a critical role in contributing to this demand.
Throughout the rural areas of the basin, experience shows that small-scale farm households make
individually small but important contributions to aquaculture production. The potential for increasing
the impact of aquaculture on rural development in the Mekong Basin is substantial. In some areas
where wild fish supply is limited and there is serious food insecurity and poverty, such as the highland
areas of Lao PDR and Viet Nam, and away from the Tonle Sap-Mekong River corridor in Cambodia,
aquaculture can and should be used to improve food security. To increase the positive impacts of
aquaculture throughout the basin, targeted support needs to be provided to small-scale aquaculture
and to the special obstacles that poor people face, such as access to credit and extension support.
The technologies for small-scale aquaculture have been largely put in place over the past 10 years,
which is a significant achievement. The technologies for small-scale aquaculture that work for poor
rural households can be characterised as ones which require low investment, little risk and provide
quick returns. They also are simple, easy to copy, easy to extend, trainers can be easily trained and
they contribute to local fish supply. These aquaculture technologies may include ponds, nursing of
fish in hapas in common water bodies, raising of fish in rice fields and simple cage culture
technologies.
Aquaculture will require various inputs to support its anticipated growth, such as sufficient fish
seed, feed for the fish (fertilisers and feeds), and land area and water. Services that support aquaculture
are important, particularly at local levels. In rural areas where there is potential for aquaculture,
services are needed to extend knowledge and build institutional support. Involving poor people
requires a shift in extension thinking away from technology towards a more flexible people-centred
and participatory approach using innovative communication mechanisms. Focusing government
support on small-scale aquaculture and understanding and working with poorer rural households
will provide a necessary balance to more commercially-oriented aquaculture.
2

Freshwater Aquaculture in the Lower Mekong Basin
Several regional, basin-wide, issues will also affect the future of aquaculture. These include sharing
of experiences and knowledge on aquaculture development, particularly small-scale aquaculture
and working towards common policy on basin-wide issues. Two issues that deserve particular attention
are control of aquatic animal diseases and reduction of the risks to wild stocks from the introduction
of exotics or, through trans-boundary movement, the mixing of genetically-different indigenous fish
strains.
To date, development of aquaculture has been largely sectorally driven. In future, governments and
supporting agencies will give more attention to the promotion of aquaculture within a rural
development framework. MRC's focus on environmentally-sustainable development in sub-basins
shared by more than one country provides an opportunity for testing more systematic approaches to
aquaculture and for raising the profile of aquaculture as a tool for poverty alleviation.
4. Recommendations
4.1 Aquaculture within the framework of the Mekong Basin Development Plan. Dividing the
Mekong Basin into catchments or clusters of catchments, as proposed by MRC, provides the
opportunity for systematic support to aquaculture development that targets poverty and food
insecurity. The catchment approach is quite new, therefore, a step-by-step approach should be
adopted using the lessons learned from pilot projects to gradually extend knowledge to other
catchments.
4.2 Support for small-scale aquaculture and services for aquaculture development. Future
development support should build effective services that support the objectives of small-scale
farms and poor households. This approach will require considerable capacity building among
local, provincial and national institutions to encourage use of participatory approaches to planning
and extension, improve access to knowledge and develop national planning processes and policy
which focus on the needs of rural households.
4.3 Strategically analyse aquaculture development requirements. The potential for aquaculture is
probably greatest in food insecure and remote areas of the basin. These areas include the highlands
and areas away from the Mekong and large fishing grounds such as the Great Lake in Cambodia.
To support this, a strategic analysis of aquaculture potential in sub-basins should be carried out.
4.4 Research cooperation. Regional research cooperation should be encouraged as a cost-effective
means of addressing key constraints to aquaculture development, such as those identified in the
review. Collaborative research should particularly include small-scale rural aquaculture
practitioners from impoverished households in remote areas.
4.5 Development of common policy in the Mekong Basin. There are a number of aquaculture-
related issues that transcend national boundaries, such as the movement of live aquatic animals
between watersheds, and the use of exotic species. The former raises concerns about the loss of
genetic diversity and the spread of aquatic animal diseases. Proliferation of exotic species in
natural waterways will be detrimental for indigenous species. Cooperation among riparian
countries is necessary to prepare common policy and management strategies that address such
issues. It is hoped that MRC will continue to support the valuable work of the Technical Advisory
Body on Fisheries Management and other riparian bodies that enhance communication and address
common development concerns.
3

Freshwater Aquaculture in the Lower Mekong Basin
4.6 Communication and partnerships. There are opportunities to build more effective partnerships
among various development agencies working in aquaculture and rural development in the
basin. Cooperation and sharing of experiences between stakeholders through effective
communication is important if the intellectual and capital resources available are to be used to
the best advantage.
4

Freshwater Aquaculture in the Lower Mekong Basin
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Freshwater Aquaculture in the Lower Mekong Basin
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bBaðaBIrEdlKYrykcitþTukdak;CacMbgKWkarRtYtBinitüCMgWBBYkvarIstV nigkarkat;bnßynUveRKaH
fñak;dl;karsþúkkñúgFmµCatiEdlbNþalmkBIRbePTnaMcUlmkBIeRkARsuk rWbMlas;bþÚrqøgRbeTs
nigkardak;cMruHKñanUvRbePTRtIkñúgRsukEdlmanesenTicepSg²Kña.
rhUtmkdl;bc©úb,nñ karGPivDÆn¾varIvb,kmµmankarrIklUtlas;enAkñúgdMbn;y:agTUlMTUlay.
kñúgeBlGnaKt rdæaPi)alnigbNþaPñak;garKaMBard¾éTeTotnwgpþl;karykcitþTukdak;bEnßmeTot
edIm,ICMrujvis½yvarIvb,kmµenAkñúgRkbxNÐ½GPivDÆn¾CnbT. karykcitþTukdak;rbs;KN³kmµkar TenøemKgÁ
(MRC) eTAelIkarGPivDÆn¾eGaymancirPaBEpñkbrisßanenAkñúgEpñkénGagTenøEdl rYmcUlKña
eRcInCagmYyRbeTspþl;nUv»kassMrab;sakl,gral;EpnkarEdl)anerobcMCaRbBn½§va rIvb,kmµ
nigsMrab;RbmUlnUvral;ÉksarvarIvb,kmµedIm,IeFIVCameFüa)aysMrab;eFIVkarkat;bnßy PaBRkIRk.
8

Freshwater Aquaculture in the Lower Mekong Basin
Gnusasn¾³
4-1 varIvb,kmµkñúgRkbxNÐ½kargarénEpnkarGPivDÆn¾GagTenøemKgÁ³
karEbgEckGagTenøemKgÁCadMbn;rgTwkePøóg rWCasMNMuéndMbn;rgTwkePøógdUcEdl)anesIñsuMeday
KN³kmµkarTenøemKgÁ (MRC) pþl;nUv»kassMrab;erobcMCaRbBn½§edIm,IRTRTg;dl;karGPivDÆn¾
varIvb,kmµEdlmaneKaledACYysMrYldl;PaBRkIRk nigbBaðaGsniþsuxes,óg. TisedARKb;RKg
dMbn;;rgTwkePøógKWCabBaðafIµenAeLIy dUecñHTisedAc,as;las;Kb,IRtUv)aneKeRbIR)as;nUvral;bNþa
bTBiesaFn¾Edl)anmkBIRKb;KMeragsakBiesaFn¾nanaedIm,IBRgIknUvcMeNHdwgCabeNIþr²eq<aHeTArk
dMbn;rgTwkePøógd¾éTeTot.
4-2 karKaMRTvarIvb,kmµFuntUc nigesvakmµsMrab;GPivDÆn¾varIvb,kmµ³
karKaMRTdl;karGPivDÆn¾naeBlGnaKtKb,Ik¾sagnUvesvakmµd¾manRbsiTi§PaBEdlRTRTg;dl;ral;
TisedACalkçN³tUctac nigRKYsarRkIRk. eKaledAenHtRmUveGaymankarBRgwgsmtßPaB
bEnßmeTotdl;sßab½nfñak;Cati extþ nigmUldæanedIm,IelIkTwkcitþdl;kareRbIR)as;ral;TisedAén
karcUlrYmedIm,IeFIVkark¾sagEpnkarnigkargarpSBVpSay begIánkaryl;dwg nigGPivDÆn¾ral;dM
eNIrkarénkark¾sagEpnkarCati nigneya)ayEdlepþateTAelIesckIþRtUvkarrbs;RbCaCnenA
tamCnbT.
4-3 viPaKCayuT§saRsþelIral;esckIþRtUvkarkñúgkarGPivDÆn¾varIvb,kmµ³
skþanuBlPaBénvis½yvarIvb,kmµKWmantMélFMeFgNas;enAtamdMbn;dac;RsyalénGagTenø
EdlBMumanesßrPaBmðÚbGahar. dMbn;TaMgenaHrYmbBa©ÚlTaMgdMbn;x<g;rab nigdMbn;d¾éTeTotEdl
enAq¶ayBITenøemKgÁ nigEdnensaTFM²dUcCabwgTenøsabénRbeTskm<úCa. edIm,IKaMRTdl;kar garenH
karviPaKCayuT§saRsþénral;skþanuBlPaBvarIvb,kmµenAkñúgEp¥kénGagTenøKb,IRtUv)an Gnuvtþ.
4-4 shRbtibtiþkarRsavRCav³
kic©shRbtibtiþkarRsavRCavkñúgdMbn;Kb,IRtUv)anelIkTwkcitþEdlCameFüa)ayd¾manRbsiTi§PaB
edIm,IedaHRsaynUvral;]bsKÁCaKnwøHcMeBaHkarGPivDÆn¾varIvb,kmµdUcEdl)anbgðajnUvkñúgGtßbT
9

Freshwater Aquaculture in the Lower Mekong Basin
sIþBIkarBinitüeLIgvijenH. kic©shkarkargarRsavRCavKb,IrYmbBa©ÚlCasMxan;nUvral;Gñk
CMnajvarIvb,kmµtUc²tamCnbTEdlmanRbPBmkBIRkumRKYsarRkIRkenAtamdMbn;dac;Rsyal.
4-5 karGPivDÆn¾neya)ayrYmenAkñúgGagemKgÁ³
manbBaðaTak;TgnwgvarIvb,kmµmYycMnYnEdl)anekItmanhYsRBMEdnénRbeTskñúgGagTenøemKgÁ
dUcCakarbMlas;TIrbs;BBYkvarIstVmanCIvitenAtamdMbn;ExSTwk nigkareRbIR)as;BUCeRkARsuk.
taMgBIdMbUgmankarxVl;xVayy:ageRcInGMBIrkar)at;bg;CIvesenTic ¬PaBsuT§¦ nigkarrIkraldal
énCMgWRbePTvarIstV. karsaykUnrbs;RbePTRtIeRkARsukenAkñúgEdnTwkFmµCatinwgeFIVeGay
)at;bg;RbePTRtIkñúgRsuk. kic©shRbtibtiþkarrvagbNþaRbeTskñúgdMbn;mansarsMxan;Nas;
sMrab;erobcMCaneya)ay nigyuT§saRsþRKb;RKgrYmedIm,IedaHRsaynUvral;bBaðaTaMgGs;. bBaða
enHRtUv)ansgÇwmfaKN³kmµkarTenøemKgÁ (MRC) nwgbnþKaMRTdl;kargard¾mantMélrbs;Rkum
RbwkSabec©keTs "Technical Advisory Body" sIþBIkarRKb;RKgvis½yClpl nigbNþaPñak;
gartambNþaRbeTsTaMgbYnEdlnwgeFIVeGaykan;EtRbesIreT,IgnUvTMnak;TMng nigedaHRsaynUv
ral;bBaðaelIkarGPivDÆn¾rYmKña.
4-6 TMnak;TMngnigPaBCaédKUr³
man»kasCaeRcInedIm,IbegIáteLIgnUvPaBCaédKUreGaykan;EtmanRbsiTi§PaBEfmeTotkñúgcM
eNambNþaPñak;garGPivDÆn¾epSg²EdlkMBugeFIVkarkñúgkargarGPivDÆn¾varIvb,kmµCnbTkñúgGag
TenøemKgÁ. kic©shRbtibtiþkarnigkarrYmbTBiesaFn¾TaMgLayrvagGgÁBak;B½§ntamry³TMnak;TMngKña
CakenSamGTiPaBKWmansarsMxan;Nas;RbsinebImanral;FnFanedImTun nigR)aC¶aedIm,IeRbIR)as;
eFIVCaRbeyaCn¾d¾l¥bMput.
10

®ö©-¦½¹ì÷®¹¨Ó

1. ¯½¹¸ñ©£¸¾´-À¯ñ--´¾
¡¾--ìÉ¼¤-¯¾, ¡¾-ìÉ¼¤-¦ñ©--Õ-º^-Å Áì½-¡¾--¯ø¡-±ñ¤, Á´È--À¯ñ--¸¼¡-¤¾- -ê´ó-£¸¾´-¦¿-£ñ- Áì½-
À²s´-¢oe-Àìoeº¨Å-Ã-À¢©-§ö---½-®ö© §^¤êñ¤-À¯ñ-Á¹ìÈ-¤º¾-¹¾- Áì½¦É¾¤-ì¾¨-»ñ® Ã¹ÉÁ¡È-¯½-§¾-§ö-
ê-º¾-Ä¦-µøÈ-Ã-À¢©-ºÈ¾¤-Á´È--Õ-¢º¤. ®ö©-ì¾¨¤¾- ¦½-®ñ®--s Ä©É-¡¸©¡¾-£õ- À«ó¤-¦½-²¾® ¡¾--ìÉ¼¤-
¦ñ©--Õ-¥õ© Ã--®ñ--©¾-¯½-Àê©- µøÈÃ--ºÈ¾¤-Á´È--Õ-¢º¤-ªº--ìøÈ´ £õ: ¡¿-¯ø-À¥¼, ¦-¯-¯ ì¾¸, Äê Áì½
¹¸¼©--¾´; §^¤Ä©û²ò-¦ø©Ã¹É-À¹ñ--À«ó¤¯ñ©-Ä¥-ê-À¯ñ--¯¾¨-Á¹ì´-Ã--¡¾--²ñ©-ê½--¾-¡¾--ìÉ¼¤-¦ñ©--Õ;
Ã¹É-¢Ó-¦½-ÀÎó-Á-½ À²^º-¨ö¡-¦½-´ñ©-ª½-²¾®Ã--¡¾--°½-ìò©-º¾-¹¾-Ã--º¾--¾-£ö© Áì½ ¡¾--²ñ©-ê½-
-¾-§ö---½-®ö© Ã-¢ö¤-À¢©ºÈ¾¤. ¢Ó-´ø--ªÈ¾¤Å µøÈ-Ã--®ö©-ì¾¨¤¾--¦½-®ñ®--s Á´È--Ä©É-´¾-¥¾¡ ¡¾--¯½-
¡º®-¦È¸- ¢º-¤-®ñ--©¾ °øÉ-§È¼¸-§¾- -ñ¡-¸ò-§¾-¡¾- êÀ»ñ©¸¼¡-¡È¼¸¡¾--²ñ©-ê½--¾-§ö---½-®ö© Áì½
¡¾--ìÉ¼¤-¦ñ©--Õ-Ã--ºÈ¾¤-Á´È--Õ-¢º¤. -»È¾¤-À®oeº-¤-ªí- ¢º¤-®ö©-ì¾¨-¤¾---s Á´È--Ä©É-¢¼--¢oe--Ã--¯ó
2001 À²õ-ºÈ-¯½-¡º®-Ã¦È-®ö©¡¸©¡¾-¢½-ÁÎ-¤¡¾--¯½-´ö¤ ¢º¤ £½-½¡¿´¾êò¡¾- Á´È-Õ¢º¤
¦¾¡ö- (MRC); ¥¾¡-~- -¥^¤-Ä©É ¯ñ®¯÷¤- Áì½ ¨ö¡¢oe-´¾-À¯ñ- ®ö©-ì¾¨-¤¾--Àªñ¡--ò¡-¡È¼¸-¡ñ®-¡¾--
ìÉ¼¤-¦ñ©--Õ ¢º¤ MRC (MRC Technical Paper on Aquaculture). ®ö©-ì¾¨-¤¾-Ä©É§s-
Ã¹É¹ñ-Âº-¡¾©- Áì½ £¸¾´¦¿-£ñ-ªÒ-¡¾-¡¸©¡¾£õ- ¡È¼¸-¡ñ®-£¸¾´-¦¿-£ñ- ¢º¤¡¾-ìÉ¼¤¦ñ©-Õ
Ã-¡¾--°½-ìò©-º¾-¹¾- Áì½- À¯ñ-¡¾-¯½¡º®À¢í¾Ã-¡¾-©¿ìö¤§ó¸ò© ¢º¤§¾¸§ö---½-®ö© Ã--
À¢©ºÈ¾¤-Á´È--Õ-¢º¤.

2. ¦½-²¾®-¡¾-ìÉ¼¤-¦ñ©--Õ-Ã--¯ñ©-¥÷-®ñ-
¡¾--ìÉ¼¤-¦ñ©--Õ- Ã--ºÈ¾¤-Á´È--Õ-¢º¤-ªº--ì÷È´--s Á´È--´ó-¹ì¾¨»ø® ¹ì¾¨Á®®- §¤-ì¸´-´ó: ¡¾--¯½-
¦ö´-²ñ-, ¡¾--ìÉ¼¤ Áì½ ¢¾¨-ìø¡-¯¾, ¡¾--¥ñ®-¯¾-¥¾¡-ê¿-´-½§¾©´¾-ìÉ¼¤, ¡¾--ìÉ¼¤-Á®®-¸ò-ê½-¨¾-
¦¾© Áì½ À£¤¸ò-ê½-¨¾-¦¾© À§,,-: ìÉ¼¤-Ã--Îº¤/¦½, Ã---¾-À¢í¾ Áì½- ìÉ¼¤-Ã--£º¡ (¡½-§ñ¤). °ö--
°-½-ìò© Á´È--¢¾¨-Ã--êÉº-¤-ª-½¹-ì¾©, -ÁªÈ¦È¸-¹ì¾¨®ð-ìò-Â²¡-²¾¨-Ã--£º®-£ö¸. ¡¾--¯½-¡º®-
¦È¸--Ã--¡ò©-¥½-¡¿ ¡¾--ìÉ¼¤-¦ñ©--Õ À§,,- ¡¾--¯½-¦ö´-²ñ-, ¡¾--Ã¹É-º¾-¹¾-, ¡¾--¢ö--¦¤, ¡¾--¯÷¤-
ÁªÈ¤, ¡¾--ª½-¹ì¾© Áì½-ª½-ìº©-À«ó¤ ¡¾--®ð-ìò-Â²¡-¦ñ©--Õ Á´È--´ó£¸¾´¦¿£ñ-Ã--¸ò-«ó-§ó-¸ò©
¢º¤-êñ¤-¨ó¤ Áì½ -§¾¨ ²Éº´êñ¤ À©ñ¡--Éº¨ Ã-À¢©-§ö---½-®ö© ²¾¨-Ã--ºÈ¾¤-Õ¢º¤.
Ã- 10 ¯ó-¡È-¸¾-´¾--s °ö--°½-ìò© ¥¾¡¡¾--ìÉ¼¤-¦ñ©--Õ µøÈ-Ã--®ñ--©¾-¯½-Àê© Ã--ºÈ¾¤-Á´È--Õ-¢º¤ Á´È--
Ä©ÉÀ²s´-¢oe-Àìoeº¨-´¾, ¥¾¡ 60,000 Âª- Ã--¯ó 1990 À«ó¤ 260,000 Ã--¯ó 1999/2000.

§^¤Àê¾¡ñ® 12OE13 À¯óÀ§ñ- ¢º¤°ö-°½ìò©¦ñ©-Õ¥õ©êñ¤Ïö©²¾¨Ã-ºú¾¤Á´È-Õ¢º¤ (-¯½-À´ó--Ä¸É
2,036,000 Âª-) ê-®Ò-êñ-Ä©Éì¸´- °ö-°½-ìò© ¯¾ Áì½-¡÷É¤ Ã--À¢©-Õ¡º¨ ê Mekong Delta.
®Ò£¾©£ò©¸È¾ ¡¾-²ñ©ê½-¾ ¡¾-ìÉ¼¤¦ñ©-Õ Ã-À¢©ºÈ¾¤Á´È-Õ¢º¤ ¥½´ó°ö-°½ìò©
²í-À©,,-µÈ¾¤-s ¡¾-ìÉ¼¤¦ñ©-Õ Â©¨¦È¸-¹ì¾¨Á´È-µøÈÃ-À¢© Mekong Delta, ¹¸¼©-¾´
Áì½ À¢©²ø²¼¤Â£ì¾© ²¾¡ª¾À¸ñ-ºº¡¦È¼¤ÀÎõº ¢º¤Äê, ÁªÈÃ- ¦¯¯ ì¾¸ Áì½
¡¿¯øÀ¥¼Á´È-´ó °ö-°½ìò© ®Ò¹ì¾¨¯¾-Ã©. ÁªÈµÈ¾¤Ã©¡Òª¾´, ¡¾-¡¸©¡¾-s Ä©É§sÁ-½¸È¾
¦½«òªòê¾¤¡¾- ¢º¤ ìñ©«½®¾- Á´È- º¾©¥½¯½À´ó-®ÒÏö© À§,,- ¥¾¡¢½®¸- ¡¾-ìÉ¼¤¯¾
¢½-¾©-Éº¨ ê¡¿ìñ¤´ó¡¾-¢½¹¨¾¨ªö¸¢oe-Àìoeº¨Å Áì½ ´ó£¸¾´¦¿£ñ-§^¤¡½¥¾¨µÈøêÈ¸Ä¯
êÀ¯ñ-êñ¤ Á¹ìÈ¤º¾¹¾- Áì½ Á¹ìÈ¤ì¾¨»ñ® ¢º¤ £º®£ö¸ §¾¸§ö--½®ö©.

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ìÉ¼¤¦ñ©-Õ Ã-§È¸¤°È¾-´¾-s. Ã- 10 ¯ó °È¾-´¾-s ìñ©«½®¾-ÁªÈì½¯½Àê©Ã-ºÈ¾¤ -Õ¢º¤
Ä©ûÀ²s´¡¾-ìö¤êô-Ã¦È¡¾-£í-£É¸¾, ²oe-«¾-¸ñ©«÷Àªñ¡-ò¡, ¡¾-¦ô¡¦¾ Áì½ ¡¾-§÷¡¨øû
¦¤À¦ó´. ìñ©«½®¾-Äê Áì½ ¹¸¼©-¾´ Ä©Éìö¤êô-¥¿-¸- ºñ-¹ì¸¤¹ì¾¨ Ã¦ÈÃ-¡¾-
ìÉ¼¤¦ñ©-Õ, Áì½ ¹¸¼©-¾´ ¡Ò¨ñ¤Ä©É¸¾¤Á°-¦¿¹ìñ®¡¾-¦É¾¤ ®÷¡£½ì¾¡º- Áì½
¡¾-§÷¡¨øÉ¦¤À¦ó´. °È¾-´¾ ¡¾-£í-£É¸¾ Á´È-Ä©ÉÀ-~-Ã¦È ¦½À²¾½ ê¾¤ ©É¾- ¸ò§¾¡¾-,
¦È¸-²¾¡¯½ªò®ñ© Áì½ ¡¾--¿Ã§É ìö¤¦øÈ§¾¸¡½¦ò¡º- ¨ñ¤´ó-Éº¨. ÁªÈ¸È¾ Ã-§È¸¤´ÒÅ´¾-s
Ä©É´ó¡¾-¹ñ-Ä¯¦øÈ ¡¾-£í-£É¸¾ À²^º-¿Ã§É, £¸¾´ªÉº¤¡¾- Ã-¡¾-²ñ©ê½-¾ ©É¾-¡¾-
ìÉ¼¤¦ñ©-Õ ¢º¤§¾¸ ¡½¦ò¡º-¨ñ¤À¯ñ-®ñ-¹¾ê²í-À©,,- êªÉº¤Ä©É»ñ®¡¾-¯ñ®¯÷¤Á¡ÉÄ¢.

¡¾-ìÉ¼¤¦ñ©-Õ Á®®¨õ-¨ö¤ Á´È-´ó ¡¾-¡È¼¸²ñ-µÈ¾¤Ã¡É§ò© ¡ñ® Á¹Èì¤ §ñ®²½¨¾¡º-ê¿´½
§¾© Ã-ºÈ¾¤Á´È-Õ¢º¤. ¢½®¸- ¡¾-ìÉ¼¤¦ñ©-Õ ¢½-¾©-Éº¨ Á´È-¦¾´¾© ¯½¡º®¦È¸-À¢í¾
Ã-¡¾-¯ñ®¯÷¤ ¦½²¾®Á¸©ìûº´ À§,,-: ¡¾-ìÉ¼¤¯¾Ã-Îº¤¡~--Õ (-Õ¢ñ¤) Ã-ì½©øÁìÉ¤,
¡¾--¿Ã§É¦...¤À¦©À¹ìõº¥¾¡¡¾-¡½¦ò¡¿À¯ñ-ªí-. ¦...¤Á¸©ìÉº´ê¡È¼¸²ñ-¡ñ® ¡¾-À»ñ©Ã¹É-Õ
À¯oeº- ¥¾¡ ¢½ÁÎ¤¡¾-º^- À§,,- ¡¾-¡½¦ò¡¿, ¡¾-¢ñ¤-Õ, ¡¾-ì½®¾©¢º¤²½¨¾©¦ñ©-Õ,
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¥ñ©¡¾- ì½®ö®¡¾-ìÉ¼¤¦ñ©-Õ ê«õ¡¸òêó Áì½ ÀÏ¾½¦ö´. ¯ñ®¯÷¤ Á-¸ê¾¤-½Â¨®¾¨ ¯½¦ö´
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3. ¦½-²¾®-¡¾--ìÉ¼¤-¦ñ©--Õ-Ã--º¾--¾-£ö©
º¾-¾£ö©¢º¤¡¾-ìÉ¼¤¦ñ©-ÕÁ´È-¡¿ìñ¤´ó¡¾-¢½¨¾¨ªö¸¢oe-²¾¨Ã-ºÈ¾¤Á´È-Õ¢º¤.
Ã-ì½©ñ® ´½¹¾²¾¡, ¯½§¾§ö- (¥÷ì½²¾¡) Á´È-¥½´ó£¸¾´ªÉº¤¡¾-À°s´°ö-°½ìò©ª^´
400,000 Âª-, À²^º ªº®¦½Îº¤Ã¹ÉÁ¡È¡¾-®ðìòÂ²¡¦ñ©-Õ²¾¨Ã-ºÈ¾¤Á´È-Õ¢º¤ Ã- 10
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Îº¤£¸¾´ªÉº¤¡¾-©,,¤¡È¾¸.

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NUÔI CÁ NC NGT H LU SÔNG MÊ CÔNG
Michael J. Philips
Mng li các Trung tâm nuôi cá châu Á - Thái Bình Dng

Tóm tt
1. Tình hình chung
Canh tác chn nuôi cá và các ng thc vt thu sinh khác hay gi là nuôi thu sn là
hot ng ngày mt quan trng nông thôn và là ngun cung cp thc phm và thu
nhp ca ngi dân sng h lu sông Mê Công. Bài vit này tng kt tình hình nuôi
thu sn ni a ca các nc h lu sông Mê Công là Cm Pu Chia, Lào, Thái lan và
Vit nam. Bài vit xác nh nhng yu t then cht bao trùm s phát trin ngh nuôi
thu sn và a ra nhng xut nhm nâng cao tng lai quan trng ca nó ca nó i
vi sn xut thc phm và phát trin nông thôn trong lu vc. Tài liu dùng trong bài
vit này ly t các bài vit và báo cáo t vn ca các chuyên gia nuôi thu sn và phát
trin nông thôn sông Mê Công. Bn tho u tiên c vit vào nm 2001 nhm ánh
giá Chng trình ngh cá ca U ban sông Mê Công, sau ó ã c sa cha và ng
riêng trong Báo cáo k thut v nuôi thu sn này ca U hi sông Mê Công. Bài vit
a ra ánh giá quan trng úng lúc v nuôi thy sn nh là mt phng thc sn xut
thc phm và là ngun cung cp cho nông thôn h lu sông Mê Công.
2. Tình hình nuôi thu sn
Nuôi thu sn lu vc sông Mê Công là hot ng a dng. Nó bao gm c vic cho
, nuôi và bán cá bt, cá ging, ng cá bt và cá ging cá vt c t nhiên hay
sinh sn nhân to trong các vùng nc kín hoc na kín nh: ao, rung, lng bè. Sn
phm thu c em bán và thông thng là t tiêu dùng. Cung ng sn phm u vào
canh tác nh cá ging và thc n, và buôn bán, ch bin, tiêu dùng các sn phm
nuôi thu sn là sinh k quan trng ca àn ông, àn bà và tr con rt nhiu h nông
dân sông Mê Công.
Sn lng nuôi thu sn tt c các nc h lu sông Mê Công ã tng lên nhanh
chóng trong thi gian 10 nm tr li ây, t khong 60 ngàn tn nm 1990 ã tng lên
260 ngàn tn nm 1999/2000, bng 12-13% tng sn lng cá nc ngt h lu sông
Mê Công (c tính khong 2.036.00 tn). y là cha k n sn lng cá, tôm vùng
nc l. Nhng s phát trin này là không u. Sn phm nuôi thy sn tp trung

1

ng bng sông Cu Long ca Vit Nam và cao nguyên Cò Rat ông bc ca Thái Lan,
còn Cam Pu Chia và Lào thì ít hn. Tuy nhiên tác gi cho rng s liu thng kê chính
thc ca nhà nc còn thp do cha ánh giá ht tm quan trng ca ngh nuôi cá qui
mô nh hin ang phát trin khá rng và là ngun cung cp thc phm và thu nhp quan
trng ca các h nông dân.
Chính sách ca nhà nc ã óng góp to ln cho s tng trng ngh nuôi cá hin nay.
Khong trên 10 nm tr li ây, các nc thuc sông Mê Công ã tng cng u t
vào nghiên cu, xây dng c s h tng, giáo dc và truyn bá khoa hc k thut. Chính
ph các nc Thái Lan và Vit Nam u t vào nuôi thu sn mnh m hn c. Vit
Nam có c k hoch y tham vng v xây dng ngun nhân lc và truyn bá khoa hc
công ngh. H tr cho nghiên cu t trc n nay thng tp trung vào các vn k
thut và ít chú ý n lp và thc hin các chng trình nghiên cu hng dn nông
dân. Nhng hin nay ã chuyn hng rõ ràng sang vn ông ng dân áp dng phát
trin nuôi thu sn theo nhu cu ca h.
Nuôi thu sn bn vng có quan h rt mt thit vi ngun li t nhiên sông Mê Công.
Nuôi thu sn qui mô nh giúp ci thin iu kin môi trng nh gi nc trong sut
mùa khô và quay vòng s dng nc thi nông nghip trong ao nuôi cá. Nhng vn
v môi trng liên quan n ô nhim ngun nc do các nguyên nhân khác nh nông
nghip, thiu nc, lan truyn bnh ng vt thu sn, nh hng do nuôi cá lng tng
sn, lây nhim giun, và tht thoát a dng gene do k thut sn xut ging ti và không
ánh giá ht tác dng xu do vn chuyn con ging qua biên gii. Có th gim bt nh
hng xu bng cách áp dng h thng qun lí canh tác hu hiu hn và trin khai
chin lc nuôi thu sn tng hp vào nông tri và h sinh thái t nhiên ca lu vc.
ni nào có mc tiêu là xóa ói gim nghèo thì s giúp da trên s hiu bit v k
sinh nhai ca ngi nghèo s tr thành chin lc phát trin có giá tr.
3. Tng lai ngh nuôi thu sn
Trong tng lai, ngh nuôi thu sn lu vc sông Mê Công s tip tc phát trin. V
tm v mô, cho thy trong vòng 10 nm ti do xu hng tng dân s cn thit phi có
thêm 400 000 tn sn phm thu sn áp ng nhu cu tiêu th ca ngi dân nh
mc hin nay. Phát trin nuôi thu sn s óng vai trò cc k to ln nhm áp ng
nhu cu này.
Kinh nghim ch ra rng canh tác qui mô nh theo h gia ình hu ht vùng nông thôn
lu vc sông Mê Công tuy tng h mt thì nh nhng tng th li làm ra sn lng thu

2

sn rt ln. Tim nng nâng cao vai trò ca ngh nuôi thu sn trong s phát trin nông
thôn lu vc sông Mê Công là mt thc t. mt s ni mà khai thác cá t nhiên còn
hn ch và dân còn nghèo, vn an ninh lng thc nghiêm trng chng hn nh các
vùng cao nguyên ca Lào và Vit Nam, ni xa bin h Tông Lê Sáp và sông Mê Công
Cam Pu Chia, thì ngh nuôi thu sn có th và cn c s dng nhm m bo an ninh
lng thc. nâng cao nh hng tích cc ca ngh nuôi thu sn trong toàn lu vc
cn h tr ngh nuôi thu sn qui mô nh và tip cn nhm mc tiêu gii quyt nhng
khó khn c bit mà ngi nghèo phi ng u nh vn tín dng và m rng qui
mô.
Công ngh nuôi thu sn qui mô nh ã c áp dng rng rãi hn 10 nm tr li ây
và ã t thành tu quan trng. c im ca công ngh nuôi thu sn qui mô nh áp
dng cho các h gia ình nghèo nông thôn là u t ít, ít ri ro, quay vòng nhanh. Nó
còn n gin, d áp dng, d chuyn giao, tuyên truyn viên d ào to và nó cung cp
sn phm cá ti ch. K thut nuôi thy sn này có th bao gm nuôi cá ao, ng cá
trong giai các vùng nc thông thng, nuôi cá rung lúa và c k thut nuôi cá lng
n gin.
Ngh nuôi thu sn òi hi nhiu loi u vào có c s tng trng mong mun
nh con ging, thc n (phân bón và thc n) vùng t và cht nc nuôi cá phù hp.
Các loi dch v phc v cho nuôi thu sn c bit là dch v ti ch rt quan trng.
vùng nông thôn có tim nng phát trin nuôi thy sn thì vic chuyn giao k thut và
xây dng t chc là rt cn thit. Thu hút ngi nghèo òi hi phi chuyn t truyn bá
công ngh sang nhng vn linh hot hn, xoay quanh con ngi và cùng tham gia
nh s dng c ch thông tin mi. S tp trung chú ý ca chính ph giúp cho ngh
nuôi thu sn qui mô nh và nhng h nông dân nghèo s to s cân bng cn thit i
vi ngh nuôi thu sn ch mang tính thng mi.
Nhiu vn v khu vc và lu vc cng nh hng n ngh nuôi thu sn trong
tng lai. ó là vn nh trao i kinh nghim, kin thc v phát trin nuôi thu sn,
c bit là nuôi thu sn qui mô nh và trin khai nó trong khuôn kh phát trin nông
thôn, trao i kinh nghim v chính sách chung ca khu vc v các vn thuc phm
vi lu vc. Có hai vn áng c c bit quan tâm là qun lí bnh ng vt thu sn
và chính sách làm gim nguy c ln ging do di nhp các loài thu sn ngoài lu vc
hoc vn chuyn t nc này qua nc khác làm pha trn ngun gien các àn cá bn
a.

3

Ngày nay phát trin nuôi thu sn ã c y lên thành mt ngành ln. Trong tng
lai, các chính ph và c quan tài tr cn phi chú trng hn n phát trin nuôi thy sn
trong khôn kh phát trin nông thôn. U hi sông Mê công ch trng phát trin môi
trng bn vng trong các tiu vùng gia 2 hay nhiu nc ang to c hi th nghim
cho mt lot các kiu tip cn ngh nuôi thu sn và cho vic a ngh nuôi thy sn
tr thành công c xóa ói gim nghèo.
4. xut
4.1 Ngh nuôi thu sn trong khuôn kh chng trình phát trin lu vc sông Mê
Công. U hi sông Mê Công chia lu vc sông Mê Công ra làm nhiu lu vc nh hay
gi là tiu lu vc theo các nhánh chính ca nó to c hi cho mt tip cn h thng h
tr cho phát trin nuôi thu sn nhm mc ích xoá ói gim nghèo và m bo an ninh
lng thc. Thut ng tiu lu vc là hoàn toàn mi, vì vy phi áp dng theo cách
trin khai tng bc, t kinh nghim hc c ca các mô hình, trin khai mt cách t
t sang các tiu lu vc khác.
4.2 Giúp ngh nuôi thu sn qui mô nh và các dch v phc v cho phát trin
nuôi thu sn. S giúp cho phát trin tng lai là phi xây dng dch v phc v
cho mc tiêu nuôi thu sn qui mô nh và giúp các h nghèo. Vic này òi hi phi ào
to ngun nhân lc ln lao cho các c quan a phng, tnh, nhà nc nhm áp dng
bin pháp cùng tham gia xây dng k hoch, truyn bá, nâng cao kh nng hc hi, và
nhm xây dng chng trình k hoch và chính sách quc gia da trên c s s cn
thit ca các nông h.
4.3 Phân tích chin lc v nhu cu phát trin nuôi thu sn. Tim nng ngh nuôi
thu sn là rt ln i vi an ninh lng thc và vùng xa xôi ca lu vc. ó là nhng
vùng cao nguyên, ni xa sông Mê Công và nhng vùng khai thác cá chính (nh Bin h
Cam Pu Chia). Mun vy cn phi tin hành phân tích chin lc v tim nng nuôi
thu sn ca tiu vùng.
4.4 Hp tác nghiên cu. Cn phi thúc y s hp tác nghiên cu trong khu vc nh là
bin pháp kinh t gii quyt nhng vng mc ct lõi i vi phát trin nuôi thu sn
nh ã nêu ra trong phn tng quan. Hp tác nghiên cu v nuôi thu sn c bit cn
phi có s tham gia ca nhng ngi ang nuôi thy sn qui mô nh là nhng h nghèo
vùng xa.
4.5 Xây dng chính sách chung cho lu vc sông Mê Công. Có hàng lot các vn
liên quan n nuôi thu sn sông Mê Công vt ra ngoài khuôn kh biên gii quc

4

gia, thí d nh ng vt thu sinh di c t nhánh sông này sang nhánh sông khác hay s
dng nhng loài di nhp. iu này làm gia tng lo ngi v tn tht a dng di truyn và
lây lan bnh ng vt thy sinh. Phát trin không kim soát ni ca các loài di nhp
các sông t nhiên s chèn ép các loài bn a. Hp tác gia các nc thành viên ven
sông là vic cn thit cùng nhau hoch nh chính sách chung, tho thun vi nhau
trong khu vc v chin lc qun lí nhng vn chung này. Hy vng rng U hi
sông Mê Công tip tc ng h công vic có giá tr ca Ban T vn k thut v qun lý
ngh cá và các c quan ca các nc ven sông khác nhm thúc y trao i thông tin và
gii quyt các vn phát trin chung.
4.6 Thông tin và i tác. Có rt nhiu c hi xây dng i tác hu hiu t vô s các
c quan phát trin hot ng trong lnh vc nuôi thu sn và phát trin nông thôn thuc
lu vc. Hp tác và trao i kinh nghim gia các i tác thông qua thông tin tt cng
là iu quan trng nu nh ngun kin thc và tài chính cho phép c dùng vào ch
li th nht.

5

Freshwater Aquaculture in the Lower Mekong Basin
Status of
1
aquaculture in the
Lower Mekong Basin
1.1 Background
Aquaculture is a diverse and important rural activity in the Lower Mekong Basin. It encompasses
production and sale of fry and fingerlings and the raising of wild or artificially-reared fry and
fingerlings in enclosed or semi-enclosed water bodies, such as ponds, rice fields and fish cages, for
both sale and home consumption. Supply of inputs, such as fish seed and feed, and the handling,
processing, marketing and consumption of products from aquaculture are an important feature of
the livelihoods of many rural households, some of which are located in remote parts of the basin.
Aquaculture and capture fisheries have often been treated as separate activities, but the reality is
they are closely inter-related in many ways. This paper identifies some of these links and analyses
the role and importance of aquaculture within the wider context of fisheries and rural development
in the basin. Information on the status of the capture fisheries sub-sector and reservoir fisheries, as
well as a short synthesis on aquaculture, is given in a separate document (Sverdrup-Jensen 2002).
1.2 Aquaculture production in the Lower Mekong Basin
Over the last ten years, there has been a steady growth in inland aquaculture production in the Lower
Mekong Basin areas of all riparian countries from an estimated 60,000 tonnes in 1990 (Interim
Committee for the Coordination of Investigations of the Lower Mekong Basin, 1992) to around
260,000 tonnes (1999/2000 figures). These totals are based on official government statistics and
household consumption surveys which are presented in Table 1. The farm gate value of aquaculture
products in 1999/2000 was around US$ 263 million.1 Production from aquaculture appears to represent
around 12-13 percent of the estimated 2,036,000 tonnes of aquatic products produced in the Lower
Mekong Basin.
In the brackish water areas of the Mekong Delta, aquaculture contributed another 135,179 tonnes of
aquatic products, including 71,536 tonnes of high value shrimp (Tran and Tran 2000). Although
very important to Viet Nam and the people living in this delta region as a source of income and
national export earnings, brackish water culture systems and species are not considered further in
this report.
1 Includes additional estimates from Northeast Thailand for the value of unreported small-scale aquaculture.
29

Freshwater Aquaculture in the Lower Mekong Basin
Aquaculture is unevenly developed in the Mekong Basin. Most production takes place in the Mekong
Delta in Viet Nam and the Korat Plateau in Northeast Thailand. There are also some aquaculture
operations in Cambodia and in the central plains and highlands of Lao PDR, but their production is
small in volume and value. Small-scale aquaculture is probably under reported, and more widely
practiced among rural households than official aquaculture production figures suggest.
Table 1: Inland aquaculture production in the Lower Mekong Basin (based on 1998-2000 data)
Estimated total
% of rural
Estimated annual
Estimated value
number of rural
households
inland aquaculture
($)1
households
engaged in
production
aquaculture
(tonnes)
Thailand
2.6 million
approx. 7
38,1152+30,0003
20,400,0004
Lao PDR
667,900
8.35
5,3786
7,000,000
Cambodia
N/A
N/A
14,1007
17,200,000
Viet Nam
2,675,9008
N/A
171,5709
200,000,000
259,163
244,600,000
Total
Notes:
1 This value is the theoretical cash value of production and does not reflect the actual income/expenditure on aquatic
resources
2 DOF 1998 official production statistics for northeast Thailand (DOF 2001)
3 Estimated unreported small-scale aquaculture production
4 Estimated from 1997 DOF data on the average freshwater fish price of Baht 27/kg and 1997 annual production
figures and an exchange rate of 1US$=Baht 45
5 Lao Agricultural Census, 1998/99. Steering Committee for the Agricultural Census Agricultural Census Office.
Vientiane, February 2000.
6 Pond production estimated as: Estimated pond area x average productivity 800 kg/ha, Rice fish culture area x 120 kg/ha.
7 Official DOF figures for 1998 (also value)
8 1999 figures (from READ) based on the population of the 12 provinces of the Mekong Delta in Viet Nam being 13.38
million in 1999 and assumes a mean household size of 5.
9 The figure excludes shrimp production. Ministry of Fisheries data give 71,536 tonnes of shrimp/prawn in 2001.
1.3 Producers and the role of aquaculture in food security and livelihoods
There are a few large-scale commercial farms in the Lower Mekong Basin, such as the cage culture
farms that produce river catfish in the Bassac River in the Mekong Delta, and the large integrated
fish farms near urban centres in Northeast Thailand. However, most aquaculture production in the
basin comes from the small-scale operations of rural households. At the household level, aquaculture
is becoming more important throughout much of the basin, particularly in poor and fish deficit areas
away from major wild fisheries, a fact not usually captured in official statistics. In Northeast Thailand,
for example, 170,000-200,000, or 6.5-7.6 percent of the 2.6 million rural households are involved in
small-scale aquaculture. In Lao PDR, although the annual production of 5,000 tonnes seems quite
low, 55,200 rural families (8.3 percent of rural households) engage in some form of aquaculture. It
is clear that aquaculture does have an important role to play in poverty alleviation.
Small-scale aquaculture contributes to food supply in areas of the basin where opportunities to catch
wild fish are limited and in seasons when wild fish are not readily available. It also provides income-
earning opportunities for rice farmers who lack other opportunities to generate income. Aquaculture
can provide both food and opportunities for low risk income generation. Farmed fish and other
cultured aquatic products can be sold live at the village level, ensuring freshness and a good taste. In
rural areas that are not electrified and lack ice, being able to sell live fish is a considerable marketing
advantage over wild-caught fish that may have been out of the water for some time since capture.
30

Freshwater Aquaculture in the Lower Mekong Basin
Aquaculture can also contribute to improving human nutrition. Rural diets in the Mekong Basin rely
on rice as the predominant form of carbohydrate and for a significant amount of protein. This rice
diet is deficient in the essential amino acid, lysine. Fish, however, is a rich source of lysine.
Aquaculture is a source of cash and food for rural households. Cash outlay may be required for
fingerlings, so some form of income is usually necessary (earned through the sale of fish produced or
from other farm products). In poor households, the families that engage in aquaculture often consume
the fish, and this may spare other livestock for income generation (especially chickens and pigs). In
Lao PDR, experience from a Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) project shows that the majority
of fish farmers engage in aquaculture primarily for household food security, with income generation
as an added bonus where surplus fish are produced (Funge-Smith 1999a). Fish production for food
security generally requires little labour once the pond is established. It is therefore not only the tonnage
that makes aquaculture important in the basin it is the number of households engaged in production.
The spectrum of people involved in aquaculture is wide, and includes low income and poor people,
as well as the better off with more assets to invest. For the better off, aquaculture can offer a lucrative
return on investment, as can be seen, for example, in freshwater cage farms in Viet Nam. The basin's
people are also involved in the supply of inputs, such as fish seed and feed, and in post harvest
activities. In the Mekong Delta, for example, factories processing river catfish fillets for export
provide employment for a significant number of women.
Even though some assets are needed to invest in aquaculture production, poor landless people can
become involved and benefit from well-targeted aquaculture interventions. For example, in Lao
PDR, landless poor people who did not have access to ponds were involved in a successful and
sustainable fish-nursing network (Lithdamlong et al. 2002).
To date, the approach to aquaculture development has emphasised increasing aquaculture productivity,
but such production and technology-oriented approaches have not always focussed on poor people. In
some cases, such an approach may even disadvantage poor people (Haylor 2001). Projects in Lao PDR
and Cambodia over the past few years demonstrate that a focus on the participation of poor groups in
aquaculture can make significant contributions to improving rural livelihoods. Frequently, the rural
poor will readily enter aquaculture if the basic constraint of reliable fingerling supply can be overcome.
Women, men and children are all involved in small-scale aquaculture, although each may have
different roles. In the basin, there are few cultural constraints on women's participation. In Viet
Nam, for example, women are actively involved in routine feeding and fertilisation, and are involved
in harvesting for consumption and marketing. In Lao PDR, women are actively involved in marketing
(Funge-Smith 1999a). Moreover, experiences with the MRC's Rural Extension for Aquaculture
Development (READ) project suggest that the role of women is greater in poorer households, where
men often have to work away from home on a seasonal or daily basis. In some areas, the distance of
the aquaculture operation from home is a constraint, and domestic chores may conflict with the
requirements for feeding and management. Overall, women play an active role and are important
participants in small-scale aquaculture in the Mekong Basin.
1.4 Aquaculture systems and species
Most fish cultured within the basin are farmed in ponds and rice fields (Table 2), usually as part of
a rice-based agricultural farming system. But, there are distinct differences between fish culture
practices throughout the basin, and between peri-urban and rural areas. Peri-urban areas have better
access to agricultural inputs (feed), and more intensive livestock production (particularly pigs and
chickens) provides useable wastes. Technical information and fish seed are also more readily available
31

Freshwater Aquaculture in the Lower Mekong Basin
due to the proximity of government fisheries stations and fish seed supplies. In Thailand and the
Mekong Delta of Viet Nam, better infrastructure allows farmers better access to inputs, markets and
information than is the case in more remote rural areas in Cambodia and Lao PDR.
The number of aquaculture farms and land allocated to aquaculture has grown over the past 10
years. In Northeast Thailand, there has been substantial digging of fish ponds since 1997, influenced
in part by Thailand's economic crisis, and through the self-sufficiency and food security principles
and projects promoted by His Majesty, the King of Thailand. In Cambodia, large numbers of
household ponds have been dug by NGOs and donor agencies over the past 10 years, although only
some of these multiple purpose ponds have been used for aquaculture, and productivity of many
remains low. The available statistics on farms and land cover, summarised in Table 2, certainly
underestimate small-scale aquaculture scattered throughout the rural areas of the basin.
Table 2: Aquaculture production areas and estimated fish fingerling production in the Lower Mekong Basin (based on
1998-2000 statistics)
Pond culture
Cage/pen culture Rice-fish culture
Estimated fingerling
(ha)
(ha)
(ha)
production
Thailand1
25,862
8.96
6,519
190.6 million2
Lao PDR
5,1503
N/A
1,8964
<15 million5
Cambodia
315
14.25
N/A
7.1 million in 1999,
(3561 cages, 9,870 t)
estimated >10 million
in 20006
Viet Nam7
51,264
3 9
79,750
595 million
Notes:
1
Northeast Thailand. DOF official statistics for 1998. Excludes 30 ha of `ditch' culture.
2
Personal communication from Dr Khamchai Lawonyawut, based on DOF estimates of production of 38,114,790 kg of
fish, and 1 kg fish requiring 5 fingerlings (in 1998) (DOF 2001).
3
Estimated as 51,500 households x average pond size of 0.1 ha
4
Estimated as 6,320 households x average stocked area of 0.3 ha
5
Government estimate from 1997, but probably less
6
So Nam and Nao Thuok (1999)
7
Tran Thanh Xuan et al. 2000
Aquaculture is taking off around the basin in response to demand for aquatic products within
households, from local or urban markets, and for export of some species, such as the river catfish
and freshwater prawns. In the
Mekong Delta, cage culture
Box 1: Factors affecting small-scale aquaculture development
of pangasiids has expanded
?
Local wild fish supply, including seasonal and yearly variations
rapidly in recent years, due to
?
Availability of inputs, particularly water, fish seed, feed/fertiliser
inputs and suitable land (or water area)
expanding export markets.
?
Local market demand, particularly in remote rural areas
Aquaculture has particularly
?
Availability of support services credit, information and
good potential where there is
infrastructure.
water and food insecurity,
and in areas where wild fish
supply is insufficient to meet demand, either seasonally or throughout the year. The important factors
influencing aquaculture development include infrastructure, access to markets, supply of inputs,
particularly fish seed, and access to extension and other support services. In Lao PDR, for example,
economic factors such as the poorly developed market economy outside of towns, poor road
communications, the largely subsistence rural economy and limited access to long term credit, play
an important role in constraining aquaculture development.
32

Freshwater Aquaculture in the Lower Mekong Basin
There are more than 30 fish and prawn species cultured in the Lower Mekong Basin, a diverse
collection of both exotic and indigenous species. A brief overview of the systems and species is
provided below, divided into different regions to illustrate the variation that occurs from the lowland
delta areas of Viet Nam and Cambodia, to the central plains in Northeast Thailand and Lao PDR, to
the upland areas in northwest Cambodia, Lao PDR and in the Central Highlands in Viet Nam.
Additional references are provided for readers seeking more information.
1.4.1 Mekong Delta in Viet Nam
The Mekong Delta in Viet Nam has the largest aquaculture area in the basin, covering 329,225 ha.
Total production (fresh, brackish and marine) in 19992 was 291,457 tonnes, worth an estimated
US$ 305 million (Tran and Tran 2000). Of this, freshwater aquaculture production made up 171,570
tonnes. The total for pond culture was 80,980; cage culture was 58,410, fish-fish culture was 29,840
and Macrobrachium (prawn) culture was 2,340 tonnes. There were 51,264 ha of ponds in the Mekong
Delta region of Viet Nam in 1999, though only 16,877 of these, or 33 percent, were cultured.
Production per unit of water area is high, with a mean annual pond production rate of 4.8 tonnes/ha.
Ponds are small, typically 100-500 m2 in area, and are often created when earth is excavated to
elevate land for house construction. In 1999, in the Mekong Delta of Viet Nam, 111 hatcheries
produced an estimated 1,615 million fry and 595 million fingerlings. Silver barb, Chinese and Indian
carp, tilapia and river catfish were the most abundant fish seed produced. With support from the
MRC READ3 project, there has been a recent increase in hatchery production of fish seed from
snakeskin, kissing and giant gourami and climbing perch. Cages are commonly found in the river,
with the largest concentrations at Chau Doc in An Giang Province, and smaller numbers at Long
Xuyen.
The most commonly cultured fish species in Mekong Delta ponds are river catfish P. hypophthalmus,
silver barb Barbodes gonionotus¸ common carp Cyprinus carpio, tilapia (mainly O.niloticus and
O.mossambicus), giant gourami Osphronemus gourami, sand goby Oxyeleotrix marmoratus, hybrid
catfish Clarias gariepinus, C. macrocephalus, silver carp Hypophthalmichthys molitrix, Indian carps
and snakehead Channa striatus. Polyculture is the norm with stocking regimes and densities varying
with feed availability, water quality and market price. Fish pond farming in the Mekong Delta is
normally integrated under the VAC system, an acronym for the Vietnamese words for "livestock,
pond and vegetables". Extensive use is made of agricultural and fisheries by-products, some human
wastes from over-hung latrines, and abundant cheap labour, which keeps fish prices relatively low.
The MRC READ project estimated that 240,000 tonnes of farm-made feeds are used annually in the
Mekong Delta, and so far, only minimal (but growing) use is made of formulated pellet feeds. Viet
Nam, therefore, has a rich experience with farm-made feeds.
In the Mekong Delta, 79,750 hectares of an estimated potential area of 209,670 ha, are presently
under rice-fish culture. Trenches 1.5-2.0 metres wide and 0.8-1.0 metres deep, and occupying 10-15
percent of the total rice field area, are dug around the rice field periphery. Silver barb, common carp,
silver carp, tilapia, Indian carp, climbing perch, and snakeskin gourami are most frequently stocked
in rice-fish systems. Mean annual production from rice-fish systems in the Mekong Delta is 0.37
tonnes/ha, with the fish being held in the rice fields for two or three successive rice crops.
2
Ministry of Fisheries estimates for 2001 are 372,578 tonnes, consisting of 137,043 tonnes of pond fish, 64,908
tonnes of cage culture fish, 63,643 tonnes of clam and blood cockle, 71,536 tonnes of shrimp/prawn and 35,448
tonnes of other items.
3
Rural Extension for Aquaculture Development (READ) MRC project.
33

Freshwater Aquaculture in the Lower Mekong Basin
In 1999, there were 4,639 fish cages in four Mekong Delta provinces, each ranging from 50 to
400 m3 in size, with larger cages commonly consisting of living quarters on top and the submerged
cage portion below. River catfish, snakehead, red-tail tin foil barb (Barbodes altus), silver barb
and common carp are most often reared in cages, stocked with one major species, plus a few
common carp to utilise uneaten feed. For river catfish and snakehead, stocking densities for
nursing and grow-out are 200-300 and 80-150 fish/m3 respectively, at a size of 5-6 g. Other species
are stocked at 80-100 fish/m3. Fish are fed wet sticky balls of mixed rice bran, broken rice and
trash fish, costing US$ 0.10-0.14/kg. Vegetables were previously used for river catfish, but are
no longer used as ingredients as they contain carotenoids, which caused the flesh of the now
dominant species, P. hypophthalmus, to turn yellow and be rejected by fillet processing plants.
Fish are cultured for between 10-14 months and yields range from 80-120 kg/m3. Cage culture of
high value species requires investment levels beyond the reach of poor and marginal farmers.
The fish cages are heavily dependant on the supply of so-called "trash" fish, from wild fisheries
in Viet Nam and Cambodia. Using trash fish as feed transforms a low economic value product
into a higher value product the cage reared fish. Amounts of "trash" fish collected from the
wild are substantial. No figures regarding trash fish were available to the review, but concerns
have been raised over the impact of expanding demand on the environment and the availability of
fish for poorer consumers.
The government of Viet Nam has recently begun promotion of giant freshwater prawn culture in the
Mekong Delta region. In 1999, there were 2,940 Macrobrachium ponds. These were typically 50-
200 m2 in area and stocked with 1-5 post larvae/m2. There were also 6,730 hectares of rice-prawn
plots, which were stocked with 1-2 post larvae/m2. Macrobrachium culture is dependant on wild
seed fish, though hatcheries are being developed. In ponds, Macrobrachium are fed a mixture of rice
bran, broken rice, fishmeal or trash fish, while no feed is provided in rice-prawn systems. Mean
annual production in 1999 was 0.33 tonnes/hectare.
The parts of the Central Highlands in Viet Nam that drain into the Mekong River have some small-
scale pond culture and cage culture. Cage culture of grass carp started in Dak Lak province in 1993
in the Ea Soup Reservoir. The number of cages in the reservoir increased rapidly, but declined in
1996 due to outbreaks of grass carp disease (Phillips 1998). Major problems affecting cage culture
in the area included water pollution, fish disease and market4 constraints.
1.4.2 Mekong Delta and Tonle Sap system in Cambodia
In Cambodia, over 80 percent of aquaculture production comes from cages and pens in the Tonle
Sap Great Lake and the Tonle Sap, Mekong and Bassac River systems. Cage and pen culture
originated in the Mekong Delta and Tonle Sap system, and has a long history. Major species
cultured in cages include the river catfish Pangasianodon hypophthalmus and giant snakehead
Channa micropeltes. Minor species include Barbodes sp., Clarias batrachus, Oxyeleotris
marmorata, Cirrhinus sp. and Leptobarbus hoevenii. Cage culture in Cambodia is in the "transition"
zone between capture and culture fisheries. Some farmers use cages solely for transporting fish.
Others may hold fish in cages or pens for a few months for fattening and marketing when fish are
scarce. Still others may use cages and pens, or combinations, to grow fish from juvenile to market
size. Juvenile river catfish and snakeheads are often collected from the wild, illustrating the heavy
dependence on the wild fishery.
4
For example, disease problems in cage culture in the Ea Soup reservoir in 1997 led to farmers selling large quantities
of grass carp, with a consequent reduction in price due to limited local market capacity for fish. Interestingly the
drop in price of cultured grass carp had a "knock on" effect on prices of wild fish, with reductions in prices received
by local fishermen.
34

Freshwater Aquaculture in the Lower Mekong Basin
Raising fish in ponds and rice fields is less developed in Cambodia, although importance has been
increasing in recent years following promotion by NGOs and international agencies. The contribution
from the two systems is some 15-20 percent of total aquaculture production. There are two pond
systems in Cambodia. One is the intensive Pangasius culture, common around Phnom Penh and in
Kandal, a province that is near the markets of Phnom Penh. Fish fingerlings are collected from the
wild and held in small ponds and fed rice bran, or trash fish when wild fish are abundant. The second
type is low-input pond culture, rice-fish and other integrated fish/livestock/vegetable culture
techniques involving both exotic and indigenous fish species. Here, although pond and rice-fish
culture make a limited contribution to national fish production, they are important for poor households
in fish-deficit areas away from the Tonle Sap and major rivers.
1.4.3 Lao PDR
In Lao PDR, fish culture in ponds and rice-fields is practiced in many areas, and a variety of systems
are used, depending upon the agro-climate of the area. The main areas are the plains bordering the
Mekong River, and the valleys in highland areas (which cover about 85 percent of Lao PDR). There
are still considerable areas of land that could be developed for seasonal aquaculture, either as pond
or rice-fish culture. Aquaculture appeals to rural farmers in circumstances where capture fisheries
are inaccessible or require excessive effort for a limited catch. There is a small amount of cage
culture in reservoirs, and growing investment in cage culture in the Mekong River and major
tributaries, but so far this culture system makes a relatively small contribution to aquaculture
production. The majority of Lao PDR fish ponds are rainfed and shallow, with water depths of less
than 50 cm. The ponds, constructed by hand, are small. Fish pond development is often rapid in
areas where road building results in excavated ponds or ditches, but production is frequently
constrained by lack of fingerlings.
The productivity of rural aquaculture ponds is low in Lao PDR and reflects the limited amount of
inputs (feeds, manures) applied to ponds, and the lack of fingerlings for stocking. In colder areas,
the reduced grow-out season also limits productivity. A diversity of fish species are cultured in Lao
PDR including tilapia, exotic carps (Indian carp, Chinese carp and common carp), and also indigenous
silver barb (Barbodes gonionotus and other Barbodes species). The diversity of wild fish species
(including snakehead, Anabas, catfish, eels, Carassius auratus, Cyprinus carpio5 and others) and
the common occurrence of other small aquatic creatures (Rasbora, small shrimp, frogs, and snails,
which sometimes self-recruit in ponds), provide an important source of additional nutrition for farm
households. This small-species by-catch does not have a high market value and is usually used for
household consumption only.
Rural areas of Lao PDR are typified by their self-reliant subsistence agriculture systems, where
agricultural surpluses are minimal and livestock typically forage on their own. As a result, farmers
lack the manures that could be used as fish feed. They also lack seed, supplemental feed, technical
information or even awareness of the potential for aquaculture. Because the population density is
low, and communications between villages are poor, the extension services that could promote
aquaculture and provide technical information are limited.
Rice fields in Lao PDR are an important source of aquatic products both from fishing and from
aquaculture. However, raising fish in rice fields is more difficult in upland areas. Rainfed and
irrigated rice fields often require terracing, and because this limits the size of individual paddy
5
There are wild feral populations of Carassius auratus and Cyprinus carpio in the mountain areas of Lao PDR,
including several variants (morphotypes) of Cyprinus carpio as described in Vietnamese literature.
35

Freshwater Aquaculture in the Lower Mekong Basin
fields, farmers are reluctant to cut channels or construct refuges (as recommended by most rice-fish
culture experts). Where irrigation is available (usually from stream diversion), the requirement for
deep water and refuges is reduced due to the continual flow of water into the paddy. Deep water and
refuges are also less important in upland areas because temperatures are cooler.
Where irrigation is available, rice fish culture is more successful, principally due to the increased
availability of fish fry. In upland Lao PDR, Cyprinus carpio and Carassius auratus spawn naturally
in the rice fields and adjoining ponds. In some areas, farmers can produce their own fish seed and
this is extremely popular as cash is not required. An FAO project found that rice-fish culture rapidly
expanded once farmers were given some basic training in fingerling production. Previously, fingerling
shortages had been a major constraint. A DfID research project in Savannakhet found that simple
rice field aquatic resource production systems were accessible to very poor farmers.
Fingerling production is popular because it requires little investment or risk, and profits are made
quickly. Few modifications to ponds are required other than raising their walls. Once fingerling fish
are produced, they are transferred to adjoining ponds for on-growing. If farms are close to a provincial
or district market, income can be easily generated from raising fish. Fish are raised during the rice-
growing period (typically 90-100 days), harvested at the same time as the rice, and often used to
reimburse labour or to celebrate the harvest. Having fish available is also popular since there is no
time to fish during the rice-harvesting season.
The size of the fish harvested varies according to the size stocked. Farmers prefer to stock a larger
5-10 g fish, although smaller fish are stocked in some cases due to their cheaper price. Stocking
densities are typically low, reflecting the high price of fish fingerlings and the limited amount of
money farmers have to invest. Since most farmers do not generate cash, the purchase of fish
fingerlings is frequently not possible.
Rice-fish culture is also practiced in lowland areas; primarily for household consumption. Species
include Cyprinus carpio and Carassius auratus and Oreochromis sp. Risks to non-irrigated rice-
fish culture are principally flooding, drought and theft. Access to a water supply increases the
reliability of the system. Lack of success with rice-fish culture is typically due to the problems
previously mentioned. This demonstrates that not all rice fields are suitable for fish culture, even
though they may still provide a valuable source of other wild aquatic animals.
1.4.4 Korat Plateau in Northeast Thailand
In Northeast Thailand, aquaculture has expanded significantly over the past 10 years, and the Korat
Plateau is the second largest area for aquaculture production in the basin, after the Mekong Delta.
Fish culture in ponds, rice fields, ditches and cages contributes over 38,000 tonnes according to
official Department of Fisheries statistics for 1998 (DOF 2001). These statistics certainly under-
estimate the contribution made by large numbers of small-scale producers. There are 2.6 million
farm holdings in Northeast Thailand. In the last five years, some 60,000 ponds have been dug in the
region, although not all of these are used for aquaculture. It is now estimated that more than 200,000
households may be involved in small-scale aquaculture and annual production from these small-
scale households is estimated as 30,000 tonnes or more. This makes a total production about 68,000
tonnes per year if the 30,000 tonnes for small-scale production is added to the 38,000 tonnes that
DOF officially estimated in 1998.
Pond culture predominates on the Korat Plateau. Species include a mixture of tilapia (several strains),
exotic and indigenous carp, including silver barb (Barbodes gonionotus), common carp (Cyprinus
carpio), Indian major carp, Chinese carp, catfish and snakeheads. Pond culture is based largely on
36

Freshwater Aquaculture in the Lower Mekong Basin
the use of agricultural by-products, such as manures and vegetable matter, and increasingly on
commercially-made pellet feeds. Integrated farming is also found around urban centres where organic
waste from pigs and chickens is more readily available.
Rice-fish culture is found in Northeast Thailand, although it has not expanded significantly in
recent years. Cage culture of tilapia, supported by larger agro-industrial concerns, has expanded in
the past three years in reservoirs, in the Mekong mainstream and in major tributaries, particularly
the Moon River. Cage culture of river catfish can also be found in the Mekong River, based on wild
caught seed. This will likely expand if the breeding technologies of the higher value Pangasius
bocourti become more widely adopted. Northeast Thailand is also important in the supply of seed
and feed to areas in Lao PDR that border the Mekong River.
1.5 Consumers and markets
Aquaculture products are becoming a more important feature in the basin's fish markets, particularly
in Viet Nam and Thailand. The availability of markets for aquaculture products influences the success
of aquaculture, and the availability of products from capture fisheries also has a strong influence on
markets. For example, the influx of wild fish from the Great Lake of Cambodia during early 2001
depressed Northeast Thai markets for cultured fish snakeheads, catfish and tilapia. This is largely
a consequence of high catches in 2001 and improvements in infrastructure linking Cambodia with
markets in Thailand.
Aquaculture fish have a number of advantages when compared to wild fish: cultured fish can be
marketed live, providing a fresher product; and cultured fish can be marketed when there is insufficient
wild fish and market prices are favourable. In Svay Rieng Province in Cambodia, for example, the
lowest prices are early in the year, when there is a large wild catch. Farmers with sufficient water in
their ponds to last the dry season can keep fish into the rainy season, and sell when prices are higher.
Infrastructure and the availability of wild fish have an important influence on markets for aquaculture
products. Aquaculture may allow flexibility in marketing, taking advantage of dry season shortages
and traditional festival periods. Prices of cultured fish are at their best during the Lao and the
Cambodian New Year periods, which take place during the dry season when fresh fish are in short
supply. As stated previously, cultured fish can also be sold live at the village level ensuring freshness
and a good taste. In rural areas that are not electrified and often lack ice, being able to sell live fish
is a considerable advantage over wild-caught fish that may have been out of the water for some time
since capture.
A proportion of cultured fish may be consumed at home, or at least not directly marketed. It is
typical for a family in Lao PDR, for example, to purchase fish from a neighbour in order to acquire
fish for celebrations or festivals. According to data from a FAO project in Lao PDR (FAO/LAO/97/
007 Funge-Smith 1999a), 70 percent of households involved in aquaculture sold some farmed
fish. Most of the products produced from aquaculture are consumed in the basin, or nearby markets.
There are some exports from the basin, perhaps the most notable being pangasiids (presently mainly
Pangasianodon hypophthalmus) from Viet Nam. These river catfish have a growing market in the
United States and Europe as fillets. Some tilapia fillets are also exported from Viet Nam, and there
is growing commercial interest in tilapia production for export.
So far there is very limited value added to most aquaculture fish. Wild fish tend to be dried, smoked
and fermented, but in contrast, aquaculture is more focussed on growing a premium product and
selling fresh as needed.
37

Freshwater Aquaculture in the Lower Mekong Basin
In the case of cage culture in Cau Doc, An Giang Province, the changing role of traders is of particular
interest. Different trading networks supporting this cage culture have emerged in parallel. The
provision of small freshwater cyprinids from nearby traps has reached around 1,000 tonnes per day
in the wet season. This is traded through Cau Doc town on a daily basis to feed pangasiid and
snakehead being raised in the surrounding area. Pangasius bocourti and snakehead (Channa spp.)
fingerlings caught in dai traps, mainly in Cambodia, are also sold for grow out in cage culture
operations in Viet Nam. The trading networks that supply feed fish for aquaculture appear to have
developed outside the table fish networks6.
1.6 Institutional support to aquaculture
1.6.1 Policy and legislation
Government policy in all Mekong riparian countries has been supportive of aquaculture, and some
governments have production and earnings targets for future development. These pro-aquaculture
policies have supported investments in research, infrastructure, education and extension that have
contributed significantly to the growth of aquaculture in the past 10 years. As a result of this support,
there has probably been less attention paid to issues of inland fisheries. Thailand and Viet Nam have
invested the most resources in aquaculture; investments appear to have been less in Lao PDR and
Cambodia. In Cambodia, most institutional support has been directed to wild fisheries, and only in
the late 1990s was aquaculture recognised in policy and a specialised aquaculture unit formed within
the Department of Fisheries.
Governments have also recognised aquaculture within the context of rural development and poverty
alleviation policies. For example, the Prime Minister's office in Viet Nam has recently established a
policy regarding aquaculture for poverty alleviation. This is part of the national Hunger Eradication
and Poverty Reduction programme. In Thailand, the new constitution promulgated in 1997 emphasises
decentralisation of governing power to local institutions in order to support local development. In
Lao PDR, the new Agricultural Policy of the government recognises the role of aquaculture in rural
development and income generation.
The policy environment outside the fisheries sector has a major influence on the development of
aquaculture. For example, to alleviate poverty, conversion of rice fields to aquaculture ponds has been
stimulated in Viet Nam and Lao PDR through changes in land use policy. Tenure and land use issues are
also important in the
Box 2: Experiences with farmer groups and aquaculture extension
management of village or
in Lao PDR
community fish ponds in
Aquaculture in rural areas is an activity that can be adopted by households
northeast Thailand and Lao
with quite different resource bases. Traditional development approaches
PDR. Government policies
have focused on a narrow technical package for aquaculture that excludes
promoting international and
many families. An FAO project (FAO/LAO/97/007) took a farmer group
regional trade and
approach that recognised the diverse situations of farmers. Supporting
infrastructure development
farmers by enabling access to fingerlings, coupled with an exploratory
have influenced aquaculture
approach to what was practically achievable, allowed farmers to develop
development as well by
their culture system in accordance with a risk level that they found
acceptable. Households with better water resources or greater interest in
leading to greater movement
fish culture, were trained in fingerling production. Decentralising fingerling
of fish fingerlings, feeds and
production is a crucial factor in sustaining stocking activities in remote
fertilisers, and of fish to
areas that cannot access fingerlings produced by provincial hatcheries.
markets.
6 Personal communication from Simon Bush, based on an unpublished report to MRC.
38

Freshwater Aquaculture in the Lower Mekong Basin
Laws and regulations have been developed at various levels, but there is no separate legislation on
aquaculture in any Mekong riparian country. Aquaculture tends to be considered as part of national
fisheries legislation. Fisheries legislation has recently been revised, or is undergoing revision in
Cambodia, Thailand and Viet Nam to reflect changing circumstances. In Cambodia, a new law is
being developed that will place more emphasis on the management of aquaculture, as well as co-
management of fisheries resources. In Thailand, a new law is being considered that will place more
emphasis on community-based management in line with the new constitution. In Viet Nam, a fisheries
law has been drafted that places more emphasis on aquaculture as a sub-sector within fisheries.
Development of specific regulations on aquaculture will be prepared under the fisheries law.
At present, most line agencies involved with aquaculture are in a transitional state, driven by a sectoral
perspective. The development of new institutional mechanisms and governance strategies is, however,
required to accommodate the shift in emphasis towards local development and governance.
At the regional level, the 1995 Agreement that established the Mekong River Commission provides
a framework for cooperation among riparian countries in the basin, and indeed there has been some
increased cooperation in research, development and education in the past 10 years that has contributed
to aquaculture development in the basin. There are, however, trans-boundary policy issues relevant
to aquaculture that have yet to be addressed. These include issues related to the introduction of
exotic species, cooperation in controlling the spread of fish diseases, and genetic issues related to
movement of indigenous cultured fish. In the future, such cooperation may become important for
management of genetic resources and aquatic animal health within the basin.
1.6.2 Institutional support
Government institutions supporting extension, research, education, and training exist in all riparian
countries. Thailand and Viet Nam have invested considerably more resources in aquaculture, and
Viet Nam has an ambitious plan to support capacity building and extension for aquaculture.
Investment in government hatcheries has also been substantial in Thailand. Research support has
traditionally focussed on technical issues, and less on formulating and implementing farmer-driven
research agendas. Similarly, extension has largely been prescriptive rather than farmer-needs based.
It is only more recently that more adaptive, farmer-needs-driven aquaculture has been piloted (Box
2). Awareness of the need for such approaches is growing. For example, in the Mekong Delta, the
government of Viet Nam has just completed a policy document that emphasises creating an enabling
environment to overcome technological constraints. However, the paradigm shift from technology
transfer to supporting and empowering farmers and rural households will take time.
Governments, and to a lesser extent
non-government institutions, are
Box 3: Targeting women in aquaculture extension
involved in extension support, a
While women are invariably involved in many of the stages of
critical factor for the success of
aquaculture, targetting of women in extension is often
aquaculture. Without access to
problematic. Training activities and meetings often take place
appropriate extension and input
during the day when women are busy with household activities.
Women may not travel between villages and do not have long
supplies, aquaculture can suffer
periods of time available to attend training. Seed production is
failures. For example, large
an activity that can be highly suitable for women's involvement,
numbers of ponds were dug by
provided that the production site is located near to the house.
NGOs and international agencies in
Cambodia during the late 1980s and 1990s, but without any training and extension, that led to poor
practice and limited success. Extension support also has to be sensitive to the needs of the target
audience; for example women (see Box 3) or those who do not speak the national language well.
39

Freshwater Aquaculture in the Lower Mekong Basin
A feature of extension in the basin is the relatively small number of extension workers compared to
the number of rural farmers. In Tien Giang Province in Viet Nam, the READ project estimated there
are 10 aquaculture extension staff for 350,000 households, while typically in Cambodia and Lao
PDR, there is at most one aquaculture extension officer per province. This situation is unlikely to
change much in the future, and therefore innovative extension approaches and partnerships must be
developed. There has been some success with alternative approaches, such as using private seed
suppliers to supplement traditional government extension activities. In Lao PDR, farmer groups
have been established and appear to have been successful as a means of self-help and a focus for
government extension (Box 4). The past 10 years has seen some success in extension in the Mekong
Basin, and there are now better innovative techniques than before. To meet the needs, future work
will have to concentrate on innovative approaches.
The large number of agencies, donors and NGOs supporting aquaculture, either as a sector, or
increasingly as part of rural development, makes the need for coordination and effective
communication increasingly important.
1.7 Aquaculture and the environment
Aquaculture operations can impact the surrounding environment and in turn be impacted by it.
Small-scale aquaculture can contribute to environmental improvement but on- and off-farm
environmental interactions need consideration in the promotion of aquaculture in the Mekong Basin.
Box 4: Seed producers as an extension resource
1.7.1 Positive environmental
benefits from aquaculture
Group approaches to extension facilitate exchange of ideas, and
concurrent development of supply and distribution systems for
fingerlings. Typically, once fingerling supplies are developed,
Small-scale aquaculture ponds store
demand far outstrips production capacity. This encourages other
water that can be used for livestock,
farmers to become involved in fingerling production. Lack of
watering vegetables, and as a
resources for long-term extension support requires that farmers
domestic water supply during the
become independent within one or two crops. Focusing on seed
dry season. Integration of fish ponds
production limits the numbers of farmers that need extension
into irrigation networks can increase
support, but can still impact a wider, less-accessible target group.
When governments support seed production in remote areas,
the benefit of water prior to
farmers from even more remote areas may access this resource.
discharge into fields. The income
Seed producers can be effectively used as trainers since they
generated from fish production per
usually have a good appreciation of what is possible under local
unit area is greater than that of rice
conditions. It should be recognised that seed producers and
production, and generally requires
traders may not fit poverty criteria for assistance, however they
less water. Ponds also provide a
may be a critical resource in helping poor households to engage
means of recycling nutrients and
in low risk aquaculture. Long-term strategic support to fingerling
producers through access to quality broodstock and support with
organic matter. As part of the
fish health issues, can reduce the cost of extension, while still
household livelihood strategy, a
impacting a much wider target group.
pond is an important natural asset
for small-scale farm households.
1.7.2 Environmental impacts arising from outside the aquaculture sector
Environmental conditions impact significantly on aquaculture, due to natural climatic fluctuations
or man-made changes. For example, in Lao PDR, most fishponds are seasonal due to the six
month dry season. Ponds are shallow and dry quickly, and high temperatures may be a problem.
Heavy rain during the monsoon season can cause flash flooding, which enables fish to escape.
40

Freshwater Aquaculture in the Lower Mekong Basin
In the Mekong Delta area of Viet Nam, heavy flooding has caused significant damage to aquaculture,
although household losses were reduced by a corresponding increase in the wild catch in culture
ponds. Poorly sited ponds, such as "barrage ponds" in dammed streams in mountainous areas of Lao
PDR are particularly prone to flood damage. Floods and droughts, which occur naturally in a monsoon
climate, can be exacerbated by deforestation and ill-considered water management schemes. Equally,
diversion of water to create aquaculture ponds may adversely impact other users of water resources.
Other human activities can also severely affect aquaculture. The disposal of polluting wastes into
shared river and canal systems by upstream users can have devastating effects on aquaculture ponds
downstream. This is a particular concern in the highly populous Mekong Delta, and in parts of the
Korat Plateau in Northeast Thailand. Potentially damaging wastes in the basin include pesticides,
and tannery and sugar processing effluent. Pesticide use in rice fields can also have a major impact
on fish being raised in rice fields. However, adoption of Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
techniques can substantially decrease pesticide use and improve fish and rice yields. Such approaches
deserve further attention in the Mekong Delta region of Viet Nam, where pesticide use and consequent
health and environmental problems appear to be particularly significant (Anon. 2002).
1.7.3 Environmental impacts arising from within the sector
Aquaculture can lead to adverse impacts on the environment, including impacts on wild fisheries.
These environmental issues, while less significant than impacts arising from outside the sector,
need to be properly assessed and managed.
Aquaculture production within the basin relies heavily on exotic (introduced) carps and tilapias,
which often escape to the wild and may pose a risk to wild fisheries (Welcomme and Vidthayaonon
1999). Government policy in some riparian countries emphasises promotion of indigenous species
aquaculture. The argument for culturing indigenous species rather than exotics is to reduce potential
risks to the biodiversity of the basin caused by introduction of alien (non-native) species. The
success to date shows that some indigenous species are more profitable than exotics and may be
readily adopted by farmers. For example, Barbodes (Puntius) in Lao PDR was readily adopted by
hatchery operators and farmers when simplified hatchery techniques became available.
The use of indigenous species for aquaculture has to be accompanied by broodstock management
programmes that contribute to maintaining genetic diversity. In Thailand, for example, there is
some evidence of loss in genetic diversity through widespread hatchery breeding of Barbodes.
Thus, while favouring indigenous fish is a positive environmental move, the approach needs to be
supported by effective broodstock management strategies incorporating genetic concerns and species
policies that reduce the movement and mixing of genetically-different stocks and strains.
There have been a number of fish disease outbreaks in the Mekong Basin, and it is likely that such
problems will increase in future with further expansion and intensification of aquaculture. While
the occurrence of large-scale fish disease outbreaks has been rare since the spread of epizootic
ulcerative syndrome in the 1980s, occasional serious outbreaks and low-level, chronic, health
problems are known to be a constraint to small-scale pond culture. Recently, there have been outbreaks
of disease in Macrobrachium in the Mekong Delta, and cage culture in the Mekong and Bassac
Rivers, and reservoirs in central Viet Nam have suffered fish losses in the past five years.
The infection of humans from liver flukes (trematodes) is a serious human health concern in parts
of the Mekong Basin where raw fish is consumed (WHO 1999). Aquaculture can be a means to
reduce infection of trematodes, but may also be a source of infection. In Lao PDR, trematode
41

Freshwater Aquaculture in the Lower Mekong Basin
infection of wild fish occurs where rivers and streams and paddies are used as latrines. But in Lao
PDR, infection from cultured fish is less likely since nightsoil fertilisation of ponds is not practiced.
Although there are over-hung latrines in ponds in the Mekong Delta, epidemiological studies into
their role in causing infections are lacking. Risk factors and preventative management strategies
require further research. Human nightsoil has been used as a pond fertiliser in Viet Nam, although
the practice has now been banned by the government. Indeed, it may be environmentally better to
use ponds as latrines rather than to randomly dispose of nightsoil around the farm.
The conversion of wetlands and even parts of rice fields to fish ponds can lead to losses in wetland
habitat and wild fisheries. Such problems have to be avoided through better planning approaches
that consider both aquaculture and wild fisheries. Aquaculture should "add-value" to natural resources
and the livelihoods of people that depend on natural resources.
There is an environmental concern regarding the culture of predatory fish species that require supplies
of wild fish to sustain culture. This mainly concerns snakehead and pangasiid cage culture in
Cambodia and Viet Nam. The environmental or human food implications of the use of such large
quantities of fish as feed are not understood. Is the practice, for example, taking food away from
poorer groups of people? Would availability of cheap ice improve the quality of the catch so that it
could be better used? Could the fish be marketed in another way? Could more resource-efficient
feeds be developed? Better understanding of such issues, through feed and bio-economic studies, is
required to support policy decisions for efficient resource use.
The majority of stocked fish seed comes from hatcheries, though some species, for example, Pangasius
and snakeheads in Cambodia, Macrobrachium in Viet Nam, and a small number of other species
such as sand goby, are collected from the wild. In Viet Nam, recent successes in Pangasius breeding
(Pangasianodon hypophthalmus and Pangasius boucourti) have led to more farmers stocking
hatchery-reared catfish, although some farmers still prefer wild-caught seed. Increasingly in the
Mekong Delta, prawns are coming from hatcheries, as demand for post-larvae rises. Whether this is
because of diminishing wild supply, or high demand, or a combination of both, is not known. From
the limited information available, there appears to be no evidence that juvenile collection is a wasteful
use of the resource, although other species are discarded in the process.
As widely found throughout the Mekong Basin, water and sediments from fertilised semi-intensive
aquaculture ponds can be recycled and efficiently used on agricultural crops without environmental
concern. By contrast, more intensive farming practices, particularly those associated with large
concentrations of cage farms where wastes are discharged directly into the water body without
treatment, risk localised water pollution. This has led to deterioration of water quality and fish
disease outbreaks, for example, with grass carp cage culture in the reservoirs in Dak Lak. Larger-
scale developments of cage culture may also result in traditional fishers losing access to fishing
grounds. Such problems can be addressed through better cage culture management practices that
reduce feed losses, better site location for cages, and localised management arrangements that reduce
conflicts and maintain the number of cages and production within the assimilative capacity of the
water body.
42

Freshwater Aquaculture in the Lower Mekong Basin
Aquaculture
2
sub-sector analysis
2.1 Developments, opportunities and threats
2.1.1 Aquaculture and its role in food security and livelihoods
Inland aquaculture will continue to contribute to food security and poverty alleviation among people
living in the Lower Mekong Basin, at macro- and micro-levels.
At the macro-level in the basin, the overall demand for aquatic products for human consumption
over the next 10 years will require additional sources of fish, and aquaculture will have a
critical role in meeting this demand. Preliminary calculations based on figures supplied by the
MRC, suggest demand in 10
years time of around 2,440,000
Box 5: Population growth and fish production estimates
tonnes (Box 5). Thus, an
With a projected population growth in the Mekong basin of 2
estimated additional 440,000
percent/year, the demand for fish is expected to grow
tonnes of aquatic animal product
correspondingly, and in 10 years time, the demand for fish will
have risen by 22 percent. Based on current estimates of supply
will be required in the Lower
at around 2 million tonnes per year, this means that an additional
Mekong Basin to even maintain
440,000 tonnes of fish (or aquatic products) will be required.
consumption at present levels.
These figures require verification by research and more detailed
This estimate is highly uncertain,
analysis, but suggest that fish supply must increase by over
as there are several unknowns,
40,000 tonnes per year in the next decade, just to maintain
but it provides an indication of
present consumption levels. It is uncertain whether production
the scale of the issue.
from wild capture fisheries can increase at this rate and
aquaculture production, culture-based fisheries and possibly
imports are all expected to contribute to the growing demand.
The growing demand for aquatic
It is therefore likely that aquaculture will become be a major
products will be met in various
contributor to fish supply and with the Mekong basin's current
ways. Capture fisheries represent
aquaculture production levels at around 260,000 tonnes per year,
one source, and although
substantial increases in aquaculture will clearly be necessary. If
sustainable yields are not known,
aquaculture alone is required to "fill the gap", then by 2010
there has been an apparent increase
an annual production of 700,000 tonnes will be required.
over the past 10 years. Stocking
and harvesting of fish from
reservoirs may also contribute. Infrastructure improvements will have an affect, offering opportunities
for the import of fish (as is the case with transport of marine and freshwater fish from central
Thailand to urban centres in Northeast Thailand). If there is less fish, then people may also substitute
other protein sources, although this is nutritionally not ideal because of deficiencies with other
forms of animal protein.
43

Freshwater Aquaculture in the Lower Mekong Basin
Aquaculture is certainly a key to significant increases in fish production in the future, though it is
difficult to predict the amount. For aquaculture to meet the predicted demand gap, as indicated in Box
5, an increase of around 40,000 tonnes per year would be required. Current rates of expansion over the
past 10 years suggest a four-fold increase from around 60,000 in 1990 to 260,000 in 2000. Further
expansion at this rate would certainly help fill the gap, although considerable constraints exist.
At the micro-level, there are considerable differences in supply and demand for fish throughout the
basin, and the potential for aquaculture is very uneven. Within areas close to the large floodplains,
large supplies of wild fish may meet demand for aquatic products. In areas where wild fish supply is
limited, and there is food insecurity (such as in the highland areas or away from the Tonle Sap-
Mekong River corridor in Cambodia), aquaculture can contribute to meeting local demand. These
remote areas contain some of the poorest people in the basin (Haylor 2001).
Experience suggests that where there is market demand, and inputs (particularly fish seed) and support
services are available, aquaculture is rapidly adopted by farmers. In MRC READ project areas in
Cambodia, for example, there has been a 20-30 percent increase in the number of rural households
practicing aquaculture in the past two years. Similar high rates of expansion have been seen in parts of
the mountainous areas of northern Lao PDR. With provision of inputs, particularly fish fingerlings and
support services, aquaculture can contribute significantly to meeting future needs.
It is important to emphasise that aquaculture and wild fisheries management should not be considered
as separate, unrelated activities, since households are often involved in both. The direction of policy
and development efforts towards aquaculture, as an "easy" means of increasing fish production,
could result in a dramatic loss of wild fisheries resources. Unless attention is paid to both wild
fisheries and aquaculture, food security could be reduced, in particular for poor people.
Box 6: Rice and fish
On average the protein requirement in adults lies between 0.8-1.0 g protein/kg body weight/day, which in
the Mekong River region is often satisfied or close to satisfied on an annual basis, although seasonal
malnutrition is common in some areas. However, total protein requirement is only part of the story in
human nutrition and cases of malnutrition. Firstly, over half of the daily protein requirement is provided
by the rice in the diet. Secondly, in lowland areas (where the bulk of the population lives) around 40-80%
of animal protein comes from aquatic animals (Interim Committee for the Coordination of Investigations
of the Lower Mekong Basin, 1992; Gregory and Guttman 2002). Thirdly, the nutritional quality of the
protein differs greatly and has an impact on human health.
Rice is, for human consumption, deficient in lysine, an essential amino acid (one that cannot be
synthesised from other sources) and although meats (poultry, beef and pork) have a higher lysine
content than rice it is only about ¾ of the concentration in fish and other aquatic products (Garrow and
James 1993). If the fish and other aquatic animals in a typical rural lowland diet (where 52 percent of
protein derived from rice, 36 percent from aquatic animals and 12 percent from other meats, is replaced
with other meats, the result is a lysine deficient diet.
Although this may not seem like a likely scenario in the short term, a government policy that promotes
intensification of rice production with associated increased use of pesticides, as well as concurrent
support for conversion of `swamplands' into irrigated rice lands, a decline in fish in the diet is a likely
result. The importance here is that other livestock products do not readily replace this decline as they
are nutritionally different in terms of lysine, the amino acid rice is most deficient in from a human
nutritional perspective. Policies to manage the fisheries resources (including small scale fisheries)
and promotion of small scale aquaculture can ensure that the rural diet remains nutritionally balanced.
44

Freshwater Aquaculture in the Lower Mekong Basin
2.1.2 Who will grow the fish?
Rural areas of the basin, and in particular farm households involved in rice culture, offer the greatest
potential for expansion of aquaculture. Small-scale farmers involved in aquaculture will sell some
of the fish they produce and use some for household consumption. Specialised aquaculture farms
will sell all of their product. The development of aquaculture is strongly influenced by market
demand, particularly in local markets. Market demand will, to some extent, depend on the availability
of consumers who can pay the price, often US$ 0.75-1.00 per kg or more. Rural per capita income is
often in the range of US$ 120-150 per year, although Lao PDR and Cambodia are lower in cash
terms. This may limit the scope for aquaculture development in some areas, and closely tie it to
development of infrastructure and urban expansion. This will probably come gradually, and in some
areas cautious development is advised, based on understanding of local markets.
In promoting aquaculture, there is a choice between production or producers. Throughout the rural
areas of the basin, experience shows that small-scale farm households make individually-small, but
important, contributions to aquaculture production. In the households of small-scale farmers,
aquaculture contributes income through sale of fish, but ponds also provide household food. This is
augmented sometimes through the catching of wild fish in nearby streams and rivers and the
harvesting of small self-recruiting aquatic species that enter the pond. The recommended approach
is to emphasise small-scale aquaculture for rural households, and to promote equitable participation
in aquaculture production within the basin. Such an approach can contribute to food security among
poor households, poverty alleviation and rural development. Too much emphasis on commercial
large-scale export-oriented aquaculture can diminish support to the small-scale sector, lead to inequity
in rural development, and create environmental problems through conversion of wetlands and
pollution from intensive farming.
There is an argument that poor people cannot enter aquaculture because they do not have assets. However,
experience in the Mekong Basin shows that poor people can become involved and benefit from
aquaculture, provided they have access to land or water bodies where fish can be raised. Indeed,
aquaculture may provide a low risk means for helping poor households make better use of their land. In
the case of landless people, there are opportunities for them to provide services to the aquaculture sector
(such as seed collection, fingerling nursing or collection of inputs for ponds). However, the approach
has to be targeted to address the special obstacles that poor people face, such as access to credit and
extension support. The approach to aquaculture development focusing on poverty alleviation should be
incremental, participatory, adaptive, and support the building of basic husbandry and management skills
among risk-adverse poor and landless people, with limited financial capital (Haylor 2000).
2.1.3 How will the fish be grown?
The technologies for small-scale aquaculture that work for poor rural households can be characterised
as ones which require low investment, little risk and provide quick returns. They also are simple,
easy to copy, easy to extend, trainers can be easily trained and they contribute to local fish supply.
These aquaculture technologies may include ponds, nursing of fish in hapas in common water bodies,
raising of fish in rice fields and even simple cage culture technologies. Concentration should be on
technologies that integrate with the rice-based farming systems, which predominant in the basin.
In Viet Nam and Lao PDR, households practicing aquaculture can increase income and improve
food security by introducing fish culture into their farming systems. In order to improve farmers'
incomes, it is government policy in these countries to promote aquaculture as an addition to other
forms of farming. There are choices regarding how to diversify rice farming systems. If diversification
45

Freshwater Aquaculture in the Lower Mekong Basin
involves growing a second or third crop of rice, fish production will have to be sacrificed because
the varieties of rice used require less water and more pesticides. Raising fish in conjunction with
fewer rice crops and using traditional varieties of rice, may actually be more effective in terms of
income and/or food production (Box 6). There is a strong nutritional argument for maintaining a
balance between fish and rice because between them, they provide a balanced diet. Policies to
manage fisheries resources (including small-scale wild fisheries) and promotion of small-scale
aquaculture can ensure that the rural diet remains nutritionally balanced.
2.1.4 What inputs are required to support aquaculture?
There are a number of important inputs required to support aquaculture, particularly sufficient fish
seed, feed for the fish (fertilisers and feeds), and land area and water to grow fish. Will these be
sufficient to support the anticipated growth in aquaculture?
Fish seed and fingerlings
The availability of good quality and healthy fish fingerlings is a pre-requisite for the development
of aquaculture. The supply of seed for aquaculture has increased substantially in the past 10
years, especially in Thailand and Viet Nam, where significant hatchery and nursery development
has occurred involving both the government and private sector. In Northeast Thailand, fish
fingerlings are sold at the farm gate (government also supplies some seed, but their emphasis is
shifting to stocking of public waters). Fingerlings are also sold in the Mekong Delta of Viet Nam
through extensive networks of hatcheries, nursing stations and fry and fingerling traders. In
Cambodia and Lao PDR, many ponds are not regularly stocked because of the lack of access or
availability of fish fingerlings, although with an increasing number of farmers involved and
improving infrastructure, the market incentives and supply of seed will increase. The widespread
adoption within the basin of the `hapa' technology (nursing of fry to large fingerling size in small
net cages), has contributed to the availability of larger fingerlings that are less vulnerable to
predation when stocked in ponds.
There are at least two billion fingerlings7 used for producing around 250,000 tonnes of aquaculture
product within the basin. For aquaculture to grow, a significant expansion in hatchery and nursing
capacity will be required. Rural aquaculture is constrained by access to fingerlings, but experience
suggests that local small-scale hatcheries can have a big impact. The Asian Institute of Technology
(1997) considers that the centralised, large, government hatchery model has not been successful.
Local small-scale hatcheries, hapa nursing and trading networks, and on-farm breeding have proven
to be a better catalyst for rural, small-scale aquaculture. Further development of hapa nursing and
nursing networks will therefore be essential to support aquaculture, particularly in areas of Cambodia
and Lao PRD that lack good infrastructure. Without local networks, seed will be transported over
large distances between cathchments, with an attendant risk of genetic mixing of fish stocks and
spread of disease.
There are also constraints on small-scale hatcheries that need to be addressed, such as inbreeding
problems and difficulties in breeding some species (such as Pangasius) due to lack of pond space,
and lack of breeding technology and broodstock management. Therefore, the emphasis should be on
small-scale hatcheries supplying local needs, supported by local hapa and nursing networks, and
with some back-up by larger hatcheries or broodstock centres that maintain diverse genetic stocks
7
Roughly estimated as 50 percent survival of fingerlings, reaching an average market size of 250g. There is some
disagreement in the figures in Table 2, and research is required on this issue.
46

Freshwater Aquaculture in the Lower Mekong Basin
Box 7: Decentralised private fish seed supply in southern Lao PDR (based on the work of RDC/
AIT see Haylor 2001).
Proven system for:
?? Promoting decentralised private sector seed production, and networking amongst sectors of small-
scale producers.
?? Providing functional requirements similar to existing livestock vaccination systems.
?? Communicating aquaculture extension messages.
?? Supporting operational budget at the local institutional level in line with work done.
?? Building local management capacity.
Addresses following development issues:
?? The need for fish seed for people interested in small-scale aquaculture.
?? The lack of productivity of large-scale public sector hatcheries and their competing with the private
sector.
?? The need for communication that is a key requirement in an emerging industry.
?? Limited operational budget of line agencies available at local level.
?? Limited management capacity of local level line agencies.
and broodstock of larger species. The role of government and private sector investment in such
centres needs to be carefully analysed as the basis for development of effective genetic management
and species strategies for the basin. Governments, in particular, may have an important role to play
in genetic conservation, although incentives to encourage the private sector to invest more in such
activities need to be explored as well.
Species to be cultured
The fish to be cultured should be lower in the food chain as this will allow rural farmers to use more
readily available feeds, and because it is more ecologically efficient. The bulk of existing aquaculture
production is from omnivorous and herbivorous species, both indigenous and exotic, which can be
grown in ecologically efficient ways. The emphasis should continue, although markets will dictate
demand. In many rural areas of the basin there is a preference for indigenous species, and this should
be supported by broodstock management strategies that preserve genetic diversity. For carnivorous
species, such as snakeheads, that will continue to be cultured, emphasis should be on improving
efficiency of feeding systems to ensure that: fish diets do not contain wild fish that are consumed by
poor people; they make efficient use of fish protein; and they reduce pollution loads on the
environment. Research work on indigenous species, such as that supported by the AIMS project of
MRC, is also to be encouraged.
Feed and fertilisers
The feed required for fish is supplied directly or through stimulating productivity in ponds and rice
fields by the addition of organic or inorganic fertiliser. Inputs come from on-farm, although because
many rice-based farms are constrained by lack of inputs to aquaculture ponds, intensification of
aquaculture will require off-farm inputs. Rice bran is an important fertiliser, but other inputs are
suitable as well, depending on local resources. Suitable resources include vegetation, chemical fertilisers,
human "night soil" and the waste from integrated livestock/vegetable production. The inputs are
likely to be diverse and will change over time, depending on what farmers grow and their resource
limitations. Geographically, off-farm inputs are more readily available in Viet Nam and Thailand, but
not in Cambodia or in Lao PDR, although both the latter two countries will have access to more inputs
as infrastructure improves and as markets for agriculture inputs (fertilisers and lime) develop.
47

Freshwater Aquaculture in the Lower Mekong Basin
In rural areas of Cambodia and Lao PDR, farmers are likely to continue to use a diverse choice of
feeds for some time. The species raised will also have an influence. For example, the widely promoted
green water system using chemical fertilisers is more suitable for exotic tilapia than for indigenous
species. Integrating fish culture with livestock represents an opportunity, but mainly in peri-urban
areas where livestock are kept in pens. With the exception of the Mekong Delta in Viet Nam, rural
livestock are usually not penned. The constraints imposed by competition for manure, bran and
other agricultural by-products need to be addressed through an analysis of current and future needs
and appropriate extension support.
Water and land
Water of sufficient quality and quantity is required for aquaculture. Most of the small-scale
aquaculture ponds in the basin are rainfed, and therefore use and success can vary from year to
year, depending on rainfall. The use of water is not likely to be a constraint with rainfed ponds,
unless the climate in the basin changes dramatically. In irrigated farming areas, or where there is
multiple use of water, other considerations may arise. The policy for water use is changing in the
Mekong Basin, and more emphasis is being given to making the most economic use of water.
Aquaculture will have to be considered in this process where it is part of a multiple use environment
(e.g. ponds in irrigated areas, cage culture). Aquaculture can be an efficient user of water,
particularly when integrated with agriculture. The MRC water utilisation programme will provide
a forum for discussion on policy issues related to the use of water, and aquaculture, though a
small user, should be considered.
Water quality may become a concern in future. Ponds in several parts of the basin are faced with
turbidity and productivity problems due to poor and acidic soils, and inappropriate management
practice. Such problems can be addressed through adoption of better water management practices.
In more `open' farming systems such as cages in lakes, rivers and reservoirs, or the culture of
fish in rice fields, pollution is a concern. Integrated pest management (IPM), which reduces the
use of pesticides in farming, should be explored. In cage and pen culture located in open access
waters, more attention will be required to ensure that industrial or human effluent does not
affect aquaculture.
The availability of land in some parts of the basin may be a local constraint, but overall, land is
available to support aquaculture development. Rice-growing land or marginal land in rice-growing
areas can be used for pond construction, although in some areas, such as the uplands in Lao PDR,
the scarcity of flat land restricts land use to rice cultivation. Although Lao PDR has a low population
density, the availability of good agricultural land and land suitable for wet rice cultivation is at a
premium. The approach for aquaculture should be to add value, promote diversity and make better
economic use of land wherever possible.
2.2 What support services are required?
With the basic technologies for small-scale aquaculture largely put in place over the past 10 years,
future support should emphasise extension of knowledge and building of institutional support for
rural households where there is potential for aquaculture. Evidence from the basin shows that a
major impediment to poor people's involvement in aquaculture is the lack of understanding of
their livelihoods and objectives. Involving poor people requires a shift away from technology
towards a more flexible people-centred and participatory approach in both extension and research.
Policies, institutions and processes should all support poor people's involvement in aquaculture
(Haylor 2001).
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Freshwater Aquaculture in the Lower Mekong Basin
2.2.1 Local and community level
The building of support services at the local level is crucial in expanding aquaculture. Experiences
from the basin indicate that aquaculture has failed where it was promoted without effective extension
support, or focused too much on technology, without understanding the socio-economic constraints
of rural households.
Because lack of people and resources are a constraint to extension systems, government should partner
with both the private sector and NGOs. Mass media could be used, along with other new approaches
to spreading information. For example, in Lao PDR, partnerships between local government, farmer
groups, fry traders and nursing networks were effectively used for extension. Women's organisations,
such as the Women's Union, have also been used in Lao PDR and Viet Nam.
There is also a need for integrated approaches to extension and service provision at the local level.
The decentralisation processes now being seen across the basin provide an entry point for this.
An important constraint to poor people's involvement in aquaculture is lack of savings and lack
of access to credit. Credit systems in rural areas are undeveloped and difficult to access in Lao
PDR and Cambodia, but relatively well developed in Thailand and Viet Nam. The Viet Nam
Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development, for example, provides loans for freshwater fish
culture, provided farmers have a "red book" demonstrating "ownership" of the land as collateral.
Credit should be analysed as part of the process to support farm households entering into
aquaculture. The special difficulties faced by poor households have to be recognised and addressed
by supporting agencies.
2.2.2 National level issues and policy
Building local capacity and adopting new approaches to extension within an integrated rural
development or catchment management approach, will require policy change. Aquaculture policy is
different from that required for wild fisheries, as it is more about extending information and more
easily defined than capture fisheries policy. Capture fisheries policy is likely to be more focused on
co-management. National level policy development for aquaculture will need to emphasise building
of capacity and supporting local institutions, processes and general governance that support rural
farmers. There is certainly scope for further development of policy, which supports small-scale
aquaculture within a rural development framework. There are also considerable opportunities to
share experiences in policy development within the basin, as all countries are working within this
changing environment.
2.2.3 Regional level issues
There are regional basin-wide issues that affect aquaculture and opportunities for cooperation among
riparian countries in mutual support and policy development. These include national issues that are
common to the region, and regional issues that are common to each of the countries.
The common national issues related to aquaculture mainly concern the need for sharing of experiences
and expertise in small-scale aquaculture and its growth within a rural development framework.
There are considerable opportunities for riparian countries to share such information, improve
communication, promote technical and research cooperation, and discuss new approaches. There
may also be opportunities for networking and sharing among small-scale producers, although language
will clearly be a constraint.
49

Freshwater Aquaculture in the Lower Mekong Basin
Two regional issues that deserve particular attention are aquatic animal disease control and policies
that reduce the risks to wild stocks from introduction of exotics or trans-boundary movement and
mixing of genetically-different indigenous fish strains.
Cooperation in aquatic animal disease control
Aquatic animal diseases can rapidly spread across catchments and national boundaries, leading to
loss of fish stock and producers' livelihoods. Also, expertise in fish disease control varies between
countries, so some sharing will be beneficial. Among the various components of an effective
aquaculture health management plan, advance planning (contingency planning), can significantly
reduce the social and economic impacts of a serious disease outbreak. Prompt action is crucial.
Often disease spreads because of lack of action rather than lack of scientific knowledge. Therefore,
a practical trans-boundary action plan incorporating the following elements is recommended: i)
develop effective disease surveillance and reporting systems; ii) strengthen diagnostic services;
iii) improve human resources and build national and regional capacity to engage in disease
management activities; iv) strengthen emergency preparedness for facing newly-emerging diseases;
v) support development of appropriate policy, legislation and regulatory frameworks; vi) promote
consensus building, community participation, and private sector involvement; and vii) empower
local communities with knowledge and tools to better understand and reduce the risks of diseases.
Management of genetic resources
There is a need to develop joint policy or strategies for the management of exotic fish species
because of concern about their impact on the natural ecosystem. Where practical, indigenous fish
species should be used for aquaculture, but they too may be subject to inbreeding and mixing of
strains unless care is taken. To preserve genetic diversity, polices concerning broodstock management
and trans-boundary movement are needed.
2.3 Information needs and gaps to be filled for aquaculture
As the technologies for small-scale aquaculture are now readily available, there is less need for
technical research. More emphasis should be given instead to communication and extension of
existing knowledge in ways that are relevant to rural households. Examples of "best practice"
approaches are available, and there is a need to share such experiences more widely.
Better coordination and exchange of information and experiences is becoming increasingly necessary,
as is the need to engage all relevant stakeholders, including poor households, in more inclusive dialogues.
Official fisheries statistics on aquaculture still underestimate small-scale aquaculture, although
censuses and household surveys demonstrate its increasing importance. To reflect the importance
of the small-scale aquaculture sector, government fisheries agencies should consider collaborating
with other sectors in order to get data in rural areas, as has worked well in Lao PDR.
To support small-scale aquaculture, research agendas should utilise participatory approaches and be
driven by farmer and development needs. Better linkages are also required between research, extension
and education providers and focus should be on the needs of small farmers. These include:
?
Promoting indigenous fish aquaculture through research on husbandry and genetics, and
development of appropriate policy;
?
Developing suitable feeds and making efficient use of feeds and fertiliser;
50

Freshwater Aquaculture in the Lower Mekong Basin
?
Conducting bio-economics research on the use of wild caught fish as feed for predatory fish;
?
Encouraging rice farmers to add aquaculture to their production and adopt integrated pest
management methods to avoid harmful pesticides. This would include demonstrating the economic
benefits of both IPM and aquaculture, and providing relevant technical information. A study
could be conducted which would demonstrate how the methods used by farmers in Bangladesh,
which combine IPM farming with aquaculture, could usefully be applied in the basin;
?
Reducing risks to rural livelihoods from aquatic animal diseases;
?
Developing poverty-focussed aquaculture systems, including appropriate cage culture systems;
and
?
Developing environmental management systems for more intensive aquaculture systems such
as cage culture.
2.3.1 Research on rice-based farming systems
Increasing rice production is often promoted by national and international agencies, without
considering other ways of using the land. Raising fish in rice fields may give a higher return to the
farmer than growing a second or third rice crop. Common property floodplain areas may have a
higher value for the community in general as breeding or feeding habitats for fish, than if wetlands
are drained and managed for agriculture purposes. Research cooperation is needed between
agriculture, fisheries and rural development programmes and agencies to determine which options
provide the best livelihoods for farm households and for the community in general.
There is a need to promote effective collaboration with the agricultural sector because it has proven
methodologies for technology transfer and farmer-focused participatory extension and training
techniques, including IPM, which the fishery sector could usefully adopt.
2.3.2 Development of indigenous fish species
Indigenous fish species are often preferred by Mekong consumers and should be promoted for
aquaculture. This will require support for the development of broodstock management plans that
prioritise prevention of inbreeding and maintenance of genetic diversity. Consideration should also
be given to the role of the private sector (which dominates hatchery and nursery systems), and
government hatcheries, and their roles and financial incentives in conserving genetic material for
selected species.
2.4 The need for integrated planning and regulation
The approach to development of aquaculture to date has largely been a sectoral one. Governments
are now giving more attention to promoting aquaculture within a rural development framework. The
promotion of aquaculture should use food insecurity and poverty as a starting point for aquaculture
interventions. This means using participatory research to identify and overcome the constraints to
establishing aquaculture initiatives; building capacity in institutions (particularly local ones) for
extension and management; and integrating aquaculture into fisheries projects and wider rural
development strategies.
The catchment management approach promoted by the MRC as part of the Basin Development
Plan, provides an opportunity to develop and test more systematic approaches to support aquaculture
development, within a broader capture fisheries and rural development framework.
51

Freshwater Aquaculture in the Lower Mekong Basin
The following general points should be considered in promoting aquaculture within the context of
rural development:
?
Support capacity building in local, provincial and national institutions for participatory
approaches to extension and research;
?
Encourage effective partnerships among government, NGOs and the private sector that address
the needs of rural households;
?
Increase use of mass media and experiment with other cost-effective approaches to extension;
?
Share information on best policy and practices; and
?
Strengthen the voice of poor aquatic resource users in the policy development process.
2.5 Threats to aquaculture and possible solutions
Threats to the development of aquaculture and possible solutions can be summarised as follows:
?
Extension activities by government institutions are constrained because they lack staff and
resources. Human resources are available at the local level, but they need training in participatory
approaches. To overcome these constraints, new extension partnerships incorporating all available
resources and expertise must be created.
?
The policies needed to support an integrated approach to aquaculture and fisheries are not yet
in place, developing them will take time and progress will be slow as experience builds. Selected
pilot studies and opportunities to exchange experiences can contribute to policy development.
?
Degradation of the environment is an important threat both to aquaculture and wild fisheries in
the basin. Aquaculture is affected by natural disasters, aquatic animal diseases, escape of exotic
species and water pollution. Management strategies need to be put in place to deal with these
issues.
?
Sectoral approaches hinder cross-sectoral integration, as does the lack of coordination among
donors that sometimes occurs. Cross-sectoral coordination and cooperation is traditionally
difficult, but may improve where agencies are working together at the local level.
?
Markets and market access have been little studied in the basin, compared to the more technical
aspects of aquaculture development. Better understanding of markets and market routes can
provide a basis for improving producers' access to markets, and also maximising opportunities
for other employment and income generation within aquaculture.
52

Freshwater Aquaculture in the Lower Mekong Basin
Recommendations
3
for aquaculture within
the context of Mekong
fisheries and the basin's
development
Aquaculture development within the Mekong Basin is essential to meet future demand for aquatic
products, and should be used for alleviation of food insecurity and poverty in the basin. To maximise
its potential contribution to the basin's development, aquaculture should be supported as a component
of the fishery sector and as part of development planning in the basin. The following recommendations
have been made for the MRC and member governments.
3.1 Planning and implementation approach
3.1.1 Use of a catchment-based approach
The division of the Mekong Basin into 10-20 catchments or clusters of catchments for planning
purposes, is being proposed by MRC as part of the Basin Development Plan. This new approach
provides an opportunity for systematic support for the development of aquaculture and wild fisheries
management, within a broader basin development framework.
It is recommended therefore:
?
That aquaculture development be supported as part of the catchment approach.
?
That an understanding of people's livelihoods and their relations to aquatic resources be used as
the starting point for aquaculture and fishery management interventions in the respective
catchments.
?
That aquaculture potential be identified within catchments in a participatory manner and
integrated with assessments of fisheries status and requirements for institutional support.
Within the catchments of the Mekong Basin, capture fisheries and aquaculture (including culture-
based fisheries in reservoirs) are strongly interdependent. The development of aquaculture is closely
related to the availability of and access to wild fish. If wild fish are not readily available, then
aquaculture will have more success provided that farmers have access to markets, adequate seed and
53

Freshwater Aquaculture in the Lower Mekong Basin
infrastructure. In areas of the basin where fish are always or seasonally scarce, aquaculture has
shown success in tackling poverty and providing protein. In areas where wild resources are abundant,
aquaculture may be less important. In such areas, fisheries development efforts should target better
management of existing wild fish resources and securing poor people's access to them. Dividing the
Mekong Basin into selected catchments provides a logical starting point for targeted interventions
that address poverty and food insecurity in the basin. From a fisheries resources perspective, it
allows those locations most influenced by water management interventions, such as dams, to be
identified and management actions taken. This approach is therefore in accord with MRC's efforts
to develop a Basin Development Plan. As the catchment approach is quite new, a step-by-step approach
to implementation is suggested.
It is recommended therefore:
?
That pilot catchments be selected for testing the approach, depending on the aquatic resources
available and the extent of poverty
?
That lessons learned from pilot projects should be gradually extended to other catchments.
3.2 Supporting small-scale aquaculture
There is a need to support future development of aquaculture within the Mekong Basin, but the
emphasis should be changed. Over the past 10 years, technology development has been emphasised
and technologies for small-scale aquaculture are now largely developed, with the exception of some
work on indigenous species.
It is recommended therefore:
?
That the main thrust of future aquaculture development should be directed towards small-scale
aquaculture.
?
That emphasis be given to building effective support services for small-scale aquaculture.
?
That planning processes and policy reflect the needs of rural households and support improved
access to extension services.
?
That research agendas of national institutions, and indeed the MRC's own agenda of support,
should evolve, based on the needs and livelihoods of rural households.
There are some experiences already (e.g. in the MRC READ project areas, in southern Lao PDR, the
NACA regional STREAM Initiative), but there is a need to further share and extend these approaches
to other areas.
The greatest potential for small-scale aquaculture to contribute to development probably lies in the
food insecure and remoter areas of the basin, such as the highlands, or in areas away from major
fisheries of the Mekong and the Great Lake in Cambodia. Potential varies throughout the basin, and
should be assessed in a coordinated way.
It is recommended therefore:
?
That as part of a catchment planning approach, strategic analysis of aquaculture potential should
be undertaken to support aquaculture in key areas.
54

Freshwater Aquaculture in the Lower Mekong Basin
3.2.1 Building extension capacity
For participatory approaches to planning and extension to be successful, donor and other support
agencies have to shift their focus from a technical one to an approach which emphasises capacity
building, learning and communications.
It is recommended therefore:
?
That priority be given to developing the capacity of local, provincial, and national institutions in
order to foster their adoption of participatory approaches to planning and extension that reflect
the needs of rural households.
?
That building of capacity be a part of a systematic approach to developing aquaculture extension
within the catchments of the Mekong Basin.
?
That the needs for capacity building and institutional responsibilities should be evaluated as
part of the catchment development approach.
3.2.2 Building farmer-driven aquaculture research agendas
Many national institutions in the Mekong Basin remain strongly oriented towards technical
research, development and verification. This should shift towards support of small-scale aquaculture
within the context of rural development.
It is recommended therefore:
?
That with limited personnel and budgets, research capacity should be directed more towards
rural development and poverty alleviation, through participation of intended beneficiaries in
identifying needs, design and implementation of projects; in training and extension; and in
monitoring and evaluation.
?
That the development of research agendas be based on the needs of rural households and supported
by developing researchers capacity to undertake participatory research, monitoring and evaluation.
?
That the active participation of aquaculture researchers be encouraged within rural development
initiatives and catchment-focused approaches.
?
That because the catchment approach itself will generate considerable research needs, that it be
used as an opportunity for aquaculture researchers to join in and closely influence a rural
development process.
There are a number of research needs and issues identified in this review, such as indigenous fish
culture, rice-based farming systems, and others. The development and implementation of these
research activities can be effectively tackled through further strengthening of research cooperation,
both within and between countries.
It is recommended therefore:
?
That opportunities for effective research cooperation and networking among riparian countries
and research institutions should be encouraged wherever possible, such as being promoted within
the STREAM Initiative and the AIMS project.
55

Freshwater Aquaculture in the Lower Mekong Basin
3.2.3 Regional cooperation in development of policy
There are a number of aquaculture-related issues that transcend national boundaries within the Mekong
Basin, such as the trade in fingerlings and movement of aquatic animals between catchments, which
raise genetic and health concerns. Introduction of new species or strains without proper precautions
may also lead to unintended negative impacts. Cooperation among the riparian countries will be
essential in preparing common and agreed-upon policy and strategies for addressing such issues.
It is recommended therefore:
?
That cooperation between riparian countries be promoted to develop strategies or policies of
mutual interest and shared experiences in aquaculture development.
There are a number of key issues that emerge from this review where cooperation and common
policy development might be promoted.
Support of low-input aquaculture suited to the context of poor-peoples' livelihoods.
There are opportunities for poverty-foccused low-input aquaculture throughout the basin, and
opportunties to promote effective sharing of experiences and expertise among Mekong countries to
support such developments.
Exotics, indigenous species and trans-boundary movement of aquatic animals
The use of exotic fish species, due to concern over their impacts on the natural ecosystem, should be
avoided, where possible. Research is needed to assess risk and develop appropriate management
strategies and agreed-upon common policies for exotics. The use of broodstock of indigenous fish
species may be subject to some constraints, due to genetic differences among stocks. Such issues
might be addressed, for example, by using wild fish caught relatively close to the area of use, or
encouraging local hatcheries. Again, common policy should be prepared and adopted.
It is recommended therefore:
?
That risk analyses be carried out to evaluate the impact of the introduction of exotic species and
formulate appropriate policies.
?
That a policy to promote the use of Mekong Basin species for aquaculture should be prepared
by the riparian countries to improve broodstock management. This approach can be closely
coordinated with catchment-based development approaches to aquaculture and fisheries.
?
That a Mekong Basin policy for trans-boundary movement of aquatic animal species, including
introduction of species, be formulated for catchments and Mekong countries.
Establishment of a Mekong aquaculture health management plan
Increased aquaculture development in the Mekong Basin will probably lead to more aquatic animal
disease outbreaks, and pathogens could easily spread beyond catchments and national boundaries.
In addition to adversely impacting the livelihoods of small-scale farmers, these may adversely impact
wild fish species.
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Freshwater Aquaculture in the Lower Mekong Basin
It is recommended therefore:
?
That an aquatic animal health management plan be established in the Mekong Basin, in accord
with the recommendations of the FAO/NACA Asia Regional Project, "Assistance for the
Responsible Movement of Live Aquatic Animals", and in accordance with the provisions of the
"Asia Regional Technical Guidelines on Health Management for the Responsible Movement of
Live Aquatic Animals and the Beijing Consensus and Implementation Strategy"(FAO/NACA
2000).
?
That a Mekong health management plan should be practical and seek to address the risks
associated with outbreaks of aquatic animal diseases and the spread of serious pathogens within
the basin.
3.2.4 Improving access to learning, communication and policy development
There are also considerable opportunities for the sharing of experiences and knowledge and the
promotion of cooperation among institutions and donor agencies within the lower Mekong Basin,
and also for the sharing of experiences outside of the basin (e.g. on IPM and rice field aquaculture/
fisheries, promotion of co-management, and the use of indigenous species).
It is recommended therefore:
?
That further communication and exchange of information and learning experiences should be
given a high priority in support of the development of aquaculture.
?
That communications should also seek to allow better access to knowledge by resource users in
support of building of capacity and policy development.
Government and donor resources to support aquaculture development are likely to be constrained in
coming years. This emphasises the importance of effective cooperation among national institutions
to support extension and research activities.
It is recommended therefore:
?
That more cooperation among supporting agencies (donors, development banks) should be
promoted to support riparian institutions.
?
That more emphasis should be given to development led by riparian country institutions, and
with coordinated support of these institutions from donors and other regional and international
organisations.
?
That the catchment approach should be used to provide lessons for better coordinated institutional
arrangements and lessons for more effective donor coordination in particular.
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Freshwater Aquaculture in the Lower Mekong Basin
References and reading
4
The following provides references to key aquaculture works quoted in the text and to other more
detailed technical information on aquaculture in the Mekong riparian countries.
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Ahmed, M. & P. Hirsch. Editors. 2000. Common property in the Mekong Issues of sustainability
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AIT. 1997. Policy Paper No. 1: issues in developing fish seed supply. AIT Aqua Outreach, Asian
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Anon. 2002. Vietnam Environment Monitor 2002. The World Bank, National Environment Agency,
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Bush, S. R. 2001. Review of fish marketing in Cambodia: assessment of Mekong Fisheries.
Component of the MRC Fisheries Programme, Working Paper No. 2. Mekong River Commission,
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Coates, D. 2001. Biodiversity and fisheries management opportunities in the Mekong River Basin.
Blue Millenium Conference Paper. Assessment of Mekong Fisheries Component of the MRC Fisheries
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Coates, D., A. F. Poulsen & S. Viravong. 2000. Governance and trans-boundary fish stocks in the
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Funge-Smith, S. J. 1999a. Small-scale rural aquaculture in Lao PDR (Part I). FAO Aquaculture
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Funge-Smith, S. J. 1999b. Some lessons learned in aquaculture extension. Provincial Aquaculture
Development Project (LAO/97/007). Lao PDR. FAORAP, Bangkok.
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Freshwater Aquaculture in the Lower Mekong Basin
Funge-Smith, S. J. 1999c. Small-scale rural aquaculture in Lao PDR (Part II). FAO Aquaculture
Newsletter, December 1999, 23:17-21.
Funge-Smith, S. J. 2001. Activity planning and hatchery renovation, Viet Nam, Aquaculture of
indigenous Mekong species. Component (AIMS), Mekong River Commission, Phnom Penh. 56pp.
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Primary Aquatic Animal Health Care in Rural, Small-scale Aquaculture Development in Asia, 27-
30th September 1999. Dhaka, Bangladesh, NACA, Bangkok, Thailand.
Garaway, C. 1999. Small water body fisheries and the potential for community led enhancement:
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London. Ph.D. thesis. 413 pp.
Garrow, J. S. & W. P. T. James. Editors. 1993. Human nutrition and dietetics, 9th ed. Churchill
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Gregory, R. & H. Guttman. 2002. The rice field catch and rural food security. Pp. 1-13. In: P. Edwards,
D C. Little & H.Demaine. Editors. 2002. Rural Aquaculture. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK.
Gupta, M. V., B. Saphakdy & L. Khamsivilay. 2000. Review of aquaculture support to Lao PDR
during 1975-2000. LARReC Technical Report No. 4, Vientiane.
Guttman, H. & S. J. Funge-Smith. 2000. The role of aquaculture in rural subsistence livelihoods in
Lao PDR. Provincial Aquaculture Development Project (LAO/97/007). STS Field Document 9.
FAORAP, Bangkok.
Hambrey, J. 2002. Financial analysis and risk assessment of selected aquaculture and fishery activities
in the Mekong basin. MRC Technical Paper No. 5, Mekong River Commission, Phnom Penh. 66 pp.
Haylor, G. 2000. Eight successful systems for promoting sustainable livelihoods through developing
aquatic resource management systems that benefit the poor in SE Asia. Aquatic Resources
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Haylor, G. 2001. Report of the email conference on poverty and aquatic resources. Aquatic Resources
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INFOFISH. 2000. The potential of Cambodian fishery products in the international market: a market
study. INFOFISH, Kuala Lumpur.
Interim Committee for the Coordination of Investigations of the Lower Mekong Basin. 1992. Fisheries
in the Lower Mekong Basin, Main Report and Annex 5-8. Interim Committee for the Coordination
of Investigations of the Lower Mekong Basin, Bangkok.
Khanh, P. V., N. Tuan, N. V. Hao, Z. Jeney, T. Q. Trong & N. M. Thanh. 2000. Review of biology
and breeding of some indigenous fish species in the Mekong Delta of Viet Nam. Management of
Reservoir Fisheries in the Mekong Basin II. Component Report, Number 3. Vientiane.
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Freshwater Aquaculture in the Lower Mekong Basin
LECS 2. 1999. The households of Lao PDR social and economic indicators from the Lao Expenditure
and Consumption Survey 1997/98. National Statistics Centre, State Planning Committee, Vientiane.
67 pp.
Leelapatra, W., P. Srisakultiew & N. Sukumasavin. 2000. Biology and breeding of indigenous fish
species in Thailand. Management of Reservoir Fisheries in the Mekong Basin II. Component Report,
Number 2. Mekong River Comission, Vientiane.
Lithdamlong, D., E.Meusch & N.I. Taylor. 2002. Promoting aquaculture by building the capacity of
local institutions: developing seed supply networks in the Lao PDR. p. 155-166. In: P. Edwards,
D.C. Little & H. Demaine (Editors). 2002. Rural aquaculture. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK.
MAF. 1999a. The government's strategic vision for the agricultural sector. Ministry of Agriculture
and Forestry, Vientiane. 76 pp.
MAF. 1999b. Agricultural Statistics of Lao PDR 1998. Permanent Secretary Office of the Ministry
of Agriculture and Forestry, Vientiane, 146 pp.
Meenakarn, S. 1998. Mini-hatchery development. Provincial Aquaculture Development Project (LAO/
97/007), STS Field Document 1, FAORAP, Bangkok.
Meenakarn, S. 1999. Farmer training in small-scale hatchery techniques. Provincial Aquaculture
Development Project (LAO/97/007). STS Field Document 6. FAORAP, Bangkok.
Murray, U. Sayasane, K. & S. J. Funge-Smith. 1998. Gender and aquaculture in Lao PDR: a synthesis
of a socio-economic and gender analysis of the UNDP/FAO Aquaculture Development Project LAO/
97/007. Provincial Aquaculture Development Project (LAO/97/007), STS Field Document, FAORAP,
Bangkok.
Nam, S. & N. Thuok. 1999. Cambodia. Aquaculture sector review (1984-1999): an outline of national
aquaculture development plan (2000-2020). APCU/DOF, Phnom Penh.
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of Viet Nam. Report to the Mekong River Commission. Phnom Penh. 124 pp.
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feeding improvement. Can Tho University, Viet Nam. Ph.D thesis.
Phovinsay, A. & S. R. Bush. 2001. Baseline study of the fish trade from the Siphandone Fishery in
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Sen, A.K. 1999. Development as freedom. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.
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Freshwater Aquaculture in the Lower Mekong Basin
Sjorslev, J. G. Editor. 2001. An Giang Fisheries Survey, Viet Nam. Research Institute for Aquaculture
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Tran T. X. & T. H. Tran. 2000. Report of status of aquaculture in the Mekong Delta of Viet Nam.
Research Institute for Aquaculture No.2, Ministry of Fisheries, Hanoi. 42 pp.
Welcomme, R. & C. Vidthayaonon. 1999. Report on the impacts of introduction and stocking in the
Mekong Basin and policies for their control. Mekong River Commission, Vientiane. 66 pp.
WHO. 1999. Food safety issues associated with products from aquaculture. Report of a joint FAO/
NACA/WHO study group. WHO Technical Report Series 883, World Health Organisation, Geneva.
Wysocki, J. & R. Friend. 1998. Aquatic Resources and Rural Livelihood. Report to the ToR Regional
Aquaculture Approach Assessing Potential for Poverty Reduction. DfID Southeast Asia, Bangkok.
39 pp.
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Freshwater Aquaculture in the Lower Mekong Basin
MRC Technical Papers
Status of the Mekong Pangasianodon hypophthalmus resources, with special reference to the
stock shared between Cambodia and Viet Nam : MRC Technical Paper 1
Van Zalinge, Nicolaas; Lieng Sopha, Ngor Peng Bun, Heng Kong, and John Valbo Jorgensen.
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to the stock shared between Cambodia and Viet Nam. MRC Technical Paper No. 1, Mekong
River Commission, Phnom Penh. 29 pp.
Status of Pangasiid aquaculture in Viet Nam : MRC Technical Paper 2
Trong, Trinh Quoc, Nguyen Van Hao and Don Griffiths. 2002. Status of Pangasiid aquaculture
in Viet Nam. MRC Technical Paper No. 2, Mekong River Commission, Phnom Penh. 16 pp.
Mekong giant fish species: on their management and biology : MRC Technical Paper 3
Mattson, Niklas S., Kkongpheng Buakhamvongsa, Naruepon Sukumasavin, Nguyen Tuan, and
Ouk Vibol, 2002. Mekong giant fish species: on their management and biology. MRC Technical
Paper No. 3, Mekong River Commission, Phnom Penh. 29 pp.
Deep pools as dry season fish habitats in the Mekong Basin : MRC Technical Paper 4
Poulsen, Anders, Ouch Poeu, Sintavong Viravong, Ubolratana Suntornratana & Nguyen Thanh
Tung. 2002. Deep pools as dry season fish habitats in the Mekong Basin. MRC Technical Paper
No. 4, Mekong River Commission, Phnom Penh. 24 pp.

Financial analysis and risk assessment of selected aquaculture and fishery activities in the
Mekong Basin : MRC Technical Paper 5
Hambrey, John. 2002. Financial analysis and risk assessment of selected aquaculture and fishery
activities in the Mekong Basin. MRC Technical Paper No. 5, Mekong River Commission, Phnom
Penh. 66 pp.
Fisheries in the Lower Mekong Basin: status and perspectives : MRC Technical Paper 6
Sverdrup-Jensen, S. 2002. Fisheries in the Lower Mekong Basin: status and perspectives. MRC
Technical Paper No. 6, Mekong River Commission, Phnom Penh. 95 pp.
Freshwater aquaculture in the Lower Mekong Basin : MRC Technical Paper 7
Phillips, M. J. 2002. Freshwater aquaculture in the Lower Mekong Basin. MRC Technical Paper
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Fish migrations of the Lower Mekong Basin: implications for development, planning and
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Poulsen, A. F., Ouch Poeu, Sintavong Viravong, Ubolratana Suntornratana & Nguyen Thanh
Tung. 2002. Fish migrations of the Lower Mekong Basin: implications for development, planning
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63