ASSESSING THE STATUS OF
INTERNATIONAL WATERS
Dag Daler, Elina Rautalahti-Miettinen, and Sara Gräslund;
Global International Waters Assessment, SE-391 82 Kalmar,
Sweden,dag.daler@giwa.net
The Global International Waters Assessment (GIWA) is
bodies have a transboundary (across borders) separation of
currently conducting a strategic assessment of the status of
causes (i.e., human activities) and impacts (i.e., negative changes
environmental problems and their impacts on nature and
to environment); this represents the major limitation to the
human society at a strategic and global level. The GIWA project
scope of the project. The project (UNEP, 1999) is executed by
is an initiative of the United Nations Environmental Program
the UNEP Division of Early Warning and Assessments in
(UNEP) and was created as a response to the
need for funding priorities. The financial
Figure 1. Main features in the GIWA project, and examples of impacts on the natural
resources that are available for remedial
environment and human society. Please note that all parts of the figure interact, and that
actions for environmental problems in
there are no strict borders between them.
international waters are limited, and the
Impacts on human society
Human activities
Global Environment Facility (GEF) therefore
HJ
HJ
commissioned GIWA to produce globally
o
/RVV RI GULQNLQJ ZDWHU VXSSOLHV
o
)LVKHULHV
o
,QFUHDVHG FRVW RI ZDWHU VXSSOLHV
o
$JULFXOWXUH
comparable assessment results that can be
o
5HGXFHG LQGXVWULDO DQG DJULFXOWXUDO FDSDFLW\
o
7RXULVP
o
6KRUWFRPLQJV LQ HOHFWULFLW\ VXSSO\
o
7UDQVSRUW
used for funding priorities. The GIWA
o
/RVV RI UHFUHDWLRQDO YDOXHV
o
8UEDQL]DWLRQ
o
'DPDJH WR LQIUDVWUXFWXUH
o
(QHUJ\ 3URGXFWLRQ
project is meant to provide the GEF with
o
3RSXODWLRQ PLJUDWLRQ
o
&RQIOLFWV EHWZHHQ XVHU JURXSV IRU VKDUHG UHVRXUFHV
objective and strategic guidance for
o
,QFUHDVHG UDWH RI LQIHFWLRXV GLVHDVHV
o
/RVV RI FXOWXUDO KHULWDJH
prioritizing its future interventions in the
o
/RVV RI LQFRPH DQG HPSOR\PHQW
o
/RVV RI IRRG VRXUFHV IRU KXPDQ DQG DQLPDO FRQVXPSWLRQ
International Waters Focal Area. This
o
+HDOWK ULVNV IURP FRQWDPLQDWHG IRRG
o
/RVV RI RSSRUWXQLW\ LQYHVWPHQWV
requires a holistic evaluation of the state of
o
,QFUHDVHG FRVW RI KXPDQ KHDOWK FDUH
Major Concerns
freshwater catchments and their associated
marine areas globally, and an analysis of the
o
)UHVKZDWHU VKRUWDJH
0RGLILFDWLRQ RI VWUHDP IORZ
socio-economic causes of the key issues
· 3ROOXWLRQ RI H[LVWLQJ VXSSOLHV
· &KDQJHV LQ WKH ZDWHU WDEOH
contributing to degradation of water
o
3ROOXWLRQ
· 0LFURELRORJLFDO
resources in the most impacted areas. The
· (XWURSKLFDWLRQ
· &KHPLFDO
project will provide background and
· 6XVSHQGHG VROLGV
analytical information to identify priorities
· 6ROLG ZDVWHV
· 7KHUPDO
for remedial and mitigatory actions in
· 5DGLR QXFOLGH
Impacts on the environment
· 6SLOOV
HJ
international waters, achieving environmental
o
+DELWDW PRGLILFDWLRQ
o
:DWHU TXDOLW\ FKDQJH
· /RVV RI HFRV\VWHPV
o
/RVV RI ELRGLYHUVLW\ HJ JHQHWLF GLYHUVLW\ RU GHSOHWLRQ RI ILVK
benefits at national, regional, and global
· 0RGLILFDWLRQ RI HFRV\VWHPV
VWRFNV DQG VSHFLHV GLYHUVLW\
o
8QVXVWDLQDEOH XVH RI OLYLQJ UHVRXUFHV
o
/RQJWHUP FKDQJHV LQ SRSXODWLRQ JHQRPH
levels.
· 2YHUH[SORLWDWLRQ
o
5HGXFHG YHJHWDWLRQ FRYHU
· ([FHVVLYH E\FDWFK DQG GLVFDUGV
o
$TXDWLF RUJDQLVP LQIHFWLRQV DQG GLVHDVHV
GIWA aims to evaluate a myriad of
· 'HVWUXFWLYH ILVKLQJ SUDFWLFHV
o
&KDQJHV LQ HFRV\VWHP FRPPXQLW\ VWUXFWXUH HJ FKDQJHV LQ
· 'HFUHDVHG YLDELOLW\ RI VWRFN
VSHFLHV FRPSRVLWLRQ
environmental and socio-economic aspects in
· ,PSDFW RQ ELRORJLFDO DQG JHQHWLF GLYHUVLW\
o
/RVV RI KDELWDWV HJ FRUDO UHHIV
o
*OREDO FKDQJH
o
0RGLILFDWLRQ RI KDELWDWV HJ ULSDULDQ KDELWDWV
sub-regions of the planet's surface, including
· &KDQJHV LQ K\GURORJLFDO F\FOH
o
5HSURGXFWLYH G\VIXQFWLRQ LQ DTXDWLF RUJDQLVPV
o
,QFUHDVHG PRUWDOLW\ RI DTXDWLF RUJDQLVPV RU DYLDQ VSHFLHV
both marine and freshwater systems.
· 6HD OHYHO FKDQJH
· ,QFUHDVHG 89% UDGLDWLRQ
o
5HGXFHG SURGXFWLYLW\
However, GEF is only concerned with
· &KDQJHV LQ RFHDQ &2 VRXUFHVLQN IXQFWLRQ
international waters whose shared water
Pages 37-41

---

collaboration with the University of Kalmar, Sweden, and other regional and
The Limnology
intergovernmental bodies, and funded primarily by GEF. Although the coordination office
and Oceanography
Bulletin
of GIWA is located in Kalmar, Sweden, the assessment work is conducted by local and
regional experts around the globe.
Shared resources of fish stocks in the oceans, and the use of rivers flowing through several
The American Society of Limnology and
countries are typical examples of GIWA issues in international waters. Where water
Oceanography is a membership-driven
scientific society (501(c)(3)) that promotes
resources are shared between two or more countries, environmental problems are
the interests of limnology (the study of
transboundary in nature and often impossible to solve from a solely national approach.
inland waters), oceanography and related
Therefore, analyses of environmental issues and remedial actions in international waters must
aquatic science disciplines by fostering the
exchange of information and furthering
be approached from an international perspective. GIWA has identified five major concerns
investigations through research and
that comprise the areas where environmental degradation impacts human life and welfare,
education. ASLO also strives to link
knowledge in the aquatic sciences to the
health, and the economy: freshwater shortage, pollution, habitat modification, unsustainable
identification and solution of problems
use of living resources, and global change (Figure 1). Within these five concerns, 22 key
generated by human interactions with
the environment.
issues related to the degradation of international waters are the main focus for GIWA
analyses. GIWA's ultimate objective is to reveal the root causes of identified environmental
Editor: Greg Cutter, Old Dominion
University, Norfolk, VA 23529-0276,
degradation. By assessing the details of impacts on the natural environment and human
USA; tel: 757-683-4929;
society, and linking these impacts with the sectors of society, the causal chain back to the
gcutter@odu.edu
societal root causes are established; this process is illustrated in Figure 1.
ASLO Executive Director:
A large number of institutions, research institutes and programs study water issues.
Jonathan T. Phinney, ASLO,
Nevertheless, the majority of these are small and limited in their scope. GIWA is unique in
Washington, DC 20005, USA;
Tel: 202-289-1972, Ext. 249;
its globally holistic approach, and crosses "borders" (literal and figurative) in many respects.
jphinney@aslo.org
The project covers all types of waters, including rivers, lakes, aquifers, glaciers, wetlands,
ASLO Business Manager:
estuaries, and ocean waters. GIWA examines problems from the perspectives of the
Helen Schneider Lemay, ASLO Business
environment itself, as well as of the human society and welfare. Therefore, the sub-region
Office, Waco, TX 76710, USA;
Tel: 254-399-9635 or 800-929-2756;
task teams are composed of environmental scientists, socio-economists, and other national
Fax: 254-776-3767;
and regional experts from the different nations in the sub-region under study. In addition to
business@aslo.org
the use of local expertise, the assessment work is based on current knowledge. In particular,
http://www.sgmeet.com/aslo
GIWA is not conducting new sampling or practical studies, but utilizes existing data and
Advertising: Helen Schneider Lemay,
knowledge, and compiles these into the comprehensive assessment.
ASLO Business Manager, Tel: 254-399-
9635 or 800-929-2756; business@aslo.org
THE GIWA NETWORK
© 2001 American Society of Limnology
The geographic scope of GIWA is global, but with a defined regional focus. For the purpose
and Oceanography. Material in this issue
may be photocopied by individual
of conducting the GIWA assessment, the world is divided into 66 sub-regions as basic units,
scientists for research or classroom use.
defined by a catchment area and associated coastal waters. A typical GIWA sub-region is the
Permission is also granted to use short
quotes, figures, and tables for publication
Aral Sea, which comprises the Aral Sea and coast, the river systems Syr Daryra and Amu
in scientific books and journals. For
Daryra, and their drainage basins. This sub-region expands into 5 countries, Kazakhstan,
permission for any other uses, contact the
Kyrgystan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan. In each of the 66 sub-regions, a local
ASLO Business Office.
organizer/contact and host institution(s) are selected to organize and oversee the GIWA
The L&O Bulletin is published quarterly by
work. The selection process is carried out by the GIWA Core Team and approved by the
the American Society of Limnology and
Oceanography, 5400 Bosque Blvd., Suite
GIWA Steering Group. The local organizer and host institutions are selected based on their
680, Waco, TX 76710 USA. Postage paid at
reputation, competence, capabilities, and their track records for undertaking international
Waco, Texas. POSTMASTER: Send address
changes to ASLO Business Office, 5400
assessment projects. Participants from GEF-eligible countries receive financial support from
Bosque Blvd., Suite 680, Waco, TX 76710
USA.
the Core Team to enable their participation, but participants from non GEF-eligible
countries cover their own costs as an in-kind contribution to the project.
Subscription price to regular members is
included in annual dues. Information on
The local organizer assembles a team of regional experts. Selection of the expert group is
institutional subscriptions is available upon
request from the ASLO Business Office.
considered to be one of the most critical elements for the success of GIWA. The team
members must be recognized local experts in their field. The team has to cover all relevant
Views expressed in this publication do not
necessarily reflect official positions of the
disciplines, such as hydrology, oceanography, biology, health, and economics. The experts are
American Society of Limnology and
Oceanography unless expressly stated.
typically from the fields of natural and environmental sciences, sociology, economics, and
health sciences, and are recruited from universities, research institutes, governmental
The L&O Bulletin publishes brief, peer-
reviewed articles of broad interest to the
agencies, and the private sector. All countries in a sub-region must be represented in the
ASLO membership, Letters to the Bulletin
sub-regional task team.
(typically responses to articles), as well as
ASLO News on a quarterly basis.
Information on the preparation and
THE ASSESSMENT PROCESS ITSELF
submission of articles and letters can be
found on the ASLO web site (www.aslo.org).
The GIWA process is divided into several stages. Each stage is conducted by using a
It is recommended that you contact the
particular methodology (GIWA Core Team, 2001) developed within the project. The GIWA
editor before preparing an article or letter.
methodology is based on local expertise and is not uniform for each sub-region.

---

Scaling and Scoping. "Scaling" is the definition of the
population's need for food. The underlying root cause for
geographical boundaries of the aquatic system to be assessed.
urbanization is population growth and the demographic trend
Thereafter, "scoping" is conducted - identification of the
that people move to cities. Failures in governance by political
relevant issues and concerns in the system that should be
initiatives, although difficult, to encourage urban growth in
prioritized for further examination in the subsequent stages.
regions less vulnerable to water shortage is another possible
The team essentially addresses the questions: What are the key
root cause. In this respect, "governance" is also introduced as a
aquatic systems within the sub-region? What are the issues that
means to intervene in the causal chain. Governance in this
should be analyzed further? These tasks are performed in a
context is understood as: implementation of laws, rules, and
workshop-like manner. The scoping exercise uses a qualitative
regulations, capacity building and education, and investments
approach. The expert group scores the issues on a scale of 1-4
in public infrastructure. It is assumed that through governance,
based on their expert evaluation, discusses the justification for
the exploitation of water resources can be managed to
the score, and agrees by consensus on the final ranking and
sustainable limits.
identification of the critical concerns in the sub-region.
The Scenario and Policy Options Analysis. This final
Detailed Impact Assessment. The next stage of
assessment stage is also under development. It involves the
assessment is a detailed analysis of the environmental issues and
identification and evaluation of different policy options and
concerns, and their impacts on the environment and society.
potential mitigation actions designed to achieve significant
Although the detailed impact assessment also relies on
environmental benefits. An overall question to be addressed in
qualitative descriptions, this exercise is supported and
this stage can be: What are the alternatives for remedial actions
supplemented by quantitative data obtained largely by
in transboundary waters from the environmental and
monitoring programs in the sub-regions. For the critical
economic perspectives?
concerns (identified in the scoping stage), available data
describing the impact of the issue are collected and analyzed
EXAMPLES OF ASSESSMENT RESULTS
within a socio-economic context. An essay-type assessment
The first stage of GIWA, Scaling and Scoping, has already been
report is produced. Using eutrophication as an example, this
conducted in several sub-regions. In Table 1, the very
would involve identification of the problem algal species, the
preliminary scoping results for five different sub-regions, the
frequency and spatial distribution of blooms, the type and
Benguela Current, Black Sea, Caspian Sea, Aral Sea, and Baltic
concentration of nutrients that support the algal blooms,
Sea, are shown. The table demonstrates how the results can be
descriptions of the toxicity of the algae, and impacts on
illustrated and compared. At this first stage of assessment,
habitats and the aquatic ecosystem, biodiversity etc. In socio-
experts screened all GIWA concerns and issues. The experts
economic terms, this involves describing any impacts on:
carried out the assessments of the environmental and socio-
fisheries revenue (monetary value) and volume of fish landed,
economic impacts under present and future conditions. They
tourism and other commercial interests, employment (due to
also identified overall impacts and priorities for further
loss of fisheries and other commercial activities), social life and
analysis. Often there were several issues regarded as having
recreation (due to degradation of beaches), and human health
severe impacts. In these cases, an in-depth discussion by the
(due to malnutrition, toxic substances, or bacterial infections).
experts, considering amongst other things the linkages
Causal Chain Analysis. The two previous assessment
between different issues and future impacts, was used to agree
stages have already been developed and implemented, but the
on what issue should be put forward as a top priority for
stepwise analysis of the linkages between the identified
further analyses.
problems and their underlying root causes ("causal chain
The Team Leader of the Benguela Task Team is Dr. Kim
analysis") is still being developed. Some questions that need to
Prochazka, International Ocean Institute, University of the
be addressed include: What are the immediate causes, and root
Western Cape (South Africa). The Benguela Current expert
causes of the problems? What are the barriers to overcoming
group has met for the scoping workshop (Pochazka, 2001) and
the identified impacts (e.g., failure to implement existing
concluded that modification of stream flow is one of the most
regulations, market distortions)? Based on the Detailed Impact
important issues in sub-region. The Benguela Current system
Assessment (above), the linkages between environmental issues
extends from the northern border of the Cabinda Province
and their underlying root causes are identified through the
southwards around Cape Point. The majority of rivers in the
various sectors of society. The root causes are grouped and
sub-region (>65%) only flow periodically. All of these river
sectored so that options for remedial actions can be easily
systems are dammed, most multiple times, and they are grossly
mapped to the root cause. Thus, the root causes will fall within
over-utilized to the extent that some never flow into the sea.
the following categories: marked (excessive demand), legal
Permanent rivers are limited to the less arid parts of the sub-
failures, educational and capacity failures, lack of investments,
region. Although they suffer from a range of problems, the
and lack of technology.
most important are also changes in river flow. Every river in
The shortage of freshwater from a reduction in steam flow
the sub-region is modified by impoundment and is over-
provides an example of causal chain analysis. The immediate
utilized, resulting in significant decrease in river flow. Up to
cause may be high water consumption from irrigation for
75% reduction in stream flow has been recorded (e.g., Berg
agriculture and from human use in urbanization. The
River). In many cases these rivers have ceased to flow
underlying root cause for agriculture is the human
permanently and have become intermittent, resulting in

---

temporal, rather than spatial, fragmentation of the habitat. The
last few years. Moreover, only 6 out of 26 species of
scoping exercise indicates that this has a major socio-economic
commercially valuable fish available during the 1960's remain
impact, impeding economic growth and probably causing
in exploitable quantities. Since fisheries are extremely
significant health losses in parts of the population. These
important sources of income and protein, their collapse will
impacts will be further evaluated, detailed, and quantified in a
have adverse effects on the economy and protein consumption
Detailed Impact Assessment study to follow.
of people, particularly those inhabiting the Black Sea coast.
The GIWA Leader of the Black Sea Task Team is Professor
The effect on employment in the fishery sector has been no
Felix Stolberg, assisted by Dr. Olena Borysova of the
less dramatic. One estimate puts the total job losses from the
Department of Environmental Engineering, Kharkiv Academy
collapse of Black Sea fisheries at some 150,000 (Stolberg et al.,
of Municipal Economy (Ukraine). In the Black Sea, the expert
2001). The number of people indirectly affected in the Black
group identified eutrophication as the critical environmental
Sea fishing communities is certainly much higher.
issue (Stolberg et al., 2001), confirming a large number of
The socio-economic value of the Black Sea is high. It is the
previous studies on this issue (NATO, 2000). Eutrophication
only marine area available to millions of Eastern European
and other types of ecosystem degradation have led to reduced
citizens, and tourism should be a major revenue source for all
biodiversity and imbalanced ecosystems in the Black Sea. In
Black Sea countries. As it is, the number of people vacationing
the past 25-30 years, the Black Sea has been transformed from
in the Black Sea has fallen dramatically in recent years and the
a diverse ecosystem supporting varied marine life to a
total loss of income may be as high as $400 million. Even if
"eutrophic plankton culture" that provides environmental
this cannot be accounted for by environmental degradation
conditions unsuitable for most organisms higher in the food
alone, it is obvious that polluted beaches and coastal waters
chain (Kideys et al., 2000). The fisheries yield has declined
account for a significant part of the economic losses.
dramatically to an 80% reduction in the total catch within the
Table 1. Scoring Matrix for the GIWA Concerns and Issues
source/sink function
2
SUB-REGION
CONCERNS
I: Freshwater shortage
- Modification of stream flow
- Pollution of existing supplies
- Changes in the water table
- Economic impacts
- Health impacts
- Other social and community impacts
II: Pollution
- Microbiological
- Eutrophication
- Chemical
- Suspended solids
- Solid wastes
- Thermal
- Radionuclides
- Spills
- Economic impacts
- Health impacts
- Other social and community impacts
III: Habitat and community modification
- Loss of ecosystems or ecotones
- Modification of ecosystems or ecotones
- Economic impacts
- Health impacts
- Other social and community impacts
IV: Unsustainable exploitation of fisheries
- Overexplotation of fisheries
- Excessive bycatch and discards
- Destructive fishing practices
- Decreased viability of stock
- Impact on biological and genetic diversity
- Economic impacts
- Health impacts
- Other social and community impacts
V: Global Change
- Changes in hydrological cycle
- Sea level change
- Increased UV-B radiation
- Changes in ocean CO
- Economic impacts
- Health impacts
- Other social and community impacts
17
**
Baltic Sea
22 Black Sea
23 Caspian Sea
24 Aral SeaX
***
44 Benguela Current
KEY:
X
= Pollution mainly: salinisation of soils, surface and ground waters
Present situation
= No impact
= Slight impact
= Moderate impact
= Severe impact
Likely direction of future changes
= increased impact
= no changes
= decreased impact
*
= Uncertain if the present situation is No impact or Slight impact
**
= Uncertain regarding direction of future changes
***
= Uncertain if the Present situation is Moderate impact or Severe impact

---

CONCLUSIONS
The task of GIWA is highly ambitious. The assessments need
to be comprehensive, including analyses of the impacts of
environmental problems in international waters on the human
society and nature, and analyses of the root-causes behind the
problems. Additionally, scenarios must be developed, and
different policy options and their possibilities to improve the
situation analyzed. The assessment of impacts on the
environment should be made from the perspective of the
intrinsic value of aquatic ecosystems, while the assessment of
socio-economic impacts must be focused on human use of the
environment. The GIWA assessment protocol to date is an
effective tool for identifying critical environmental concerns,
their impact on human life and welfare, the economy and
health of the population, as well as the underlying root causes
of the environmental problems and threats. The first sub-
regional results indicate that severe environmental problems
prevail in international waters where causes extend across
national borders, and that these problems are likely to increase
in the coming years unless remedial actions are taken. When all
stages of the GIWA assessment are completed, including the
causal chain analyses, the sub regional findings will provide
guidance for governance and future intervention at technical,
management, socio-economic, and policy levels.
Important achievements by GIWA are being made on
many levels. However, one of the more subtle ones is that
experts from different countries in a region sit down together
at the fairly informal GIWA workshops and simply talk. These
personal connections between experts, bridging languages,
economic status of their countries, and ethnic/cultural
backgrounds, are, apart from the assessment results themselves,
very important achievements. GIWA is dependent on many
contributors in order to secure the complete success. Local
experts in all disciplines are welcomed to participate in the
GIWA project, in expert panel workshops, thematic teams, and
study groups. If you would like to know more about GIWA's
activities, visit our web site, www.giwa.net, or contact us at
info@giwa.net.
REFERENCES
GIWA Core Team. 2001. GIWA Methodology, Stage 1: Scaling
and Scoping, Guidance to the methodology and its use.
Kideys A.E., A.V. Kovalev, G. Shulman, A.Gordina and F.
Bingel. 2000. A review of zooplankton investigations of the
Black Sea over the last decade, J. Mar. Systems, 24: 355-371.
NATO. 2000. Black Sea Integrated Shelf Zone Monitoring
and Modeling (INCOM) Program Science Plan, NATO
Committee on the Challenges of Modern Society (CCMS),
Report No. 248.
Pochazka, K. 2001.GIWA Scoping Report, Sub-region 44:
Benguela Current.
Stolberg, F. and O.Borysova. 2001. GIWA Scoping Report,
Sub-region 22: Black Sea, 23: Caspian Sea, 24: Aral Sea.
UNEP. 1999. Project Number GF/FP/1100-99-01. (The
GIWA Project Document)

---