RAS/98/G31 - UNDP/Global Environment Facility - Tumen River
Strategic Action Program
TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS
Far East Branch
Russian Academy of Sciences
Pacific Geographical Institute
VLADIVOSTOK RUSSIA
2002
CONTENT
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ..........................................................................................................3
SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATION ...................................................................................6
INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................... 14
PART . SUPRA REGIONAL ZONE ISSUES ....................................................................... 17
A.1. Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 17
A.2. Transboundary diagnostic analysis and major environmental issues .................................. 21
A.3. Causal Chain Analysis ...................................................................................................... 43
A.4. Environmental Information System .................................................................................. 47
A.5. Awareness-Raising Program ............................................................................................ 54
PART B. TUMEN RIVER BASIN ZONE ................................................................................ 67
B.1. Description ....................................................................................................................... 67
B.2. Transboundary issues and threats ...................................................................................... 75
B.3. Constraints ........................................................................................................................ 89
B.4. Causal Chain Analysis ...................................................................................................... 90
B.5. Politicallegalsocio-economic analysis ......................................................................... 102
B.6. Development scenarios ................................................................................................... 109
B.7. Proposed interventions .................................................................................................... 111
B.8. Stakeholder analysis ....................................................................................................... 114
PART C. DAURIAN STEPPE ZONE ..................................................................................... 119
C.1. Descriptin/Background ................................................................................................... 119
C.2. Transboundary issues and threats .................................................................................... 124
C.3. Constraints ...................................................................................................................... 131
C.4. Causal-chain analysis ...................................................................................................... 131
C.5. Political, legal, socio-economic analysis ......................................................................... 135
C.6. Scenarios ........................................................................................................................ 139
C.7. Proposed interventions .................................................................................................... 142
C.8. Stakeholders analysis ...................................................................................................... 144
C.9. The required additional studies in Daurian Steppe Zone .................................................. 147
PART D. MONGOLIAN PLATEAU ZONE .......................................................................... 148
D.1. Description/Background ................................................................................................. 148
D.2. Transboundary issues and threats .................................................................................... 153
D.3. Constrains ...................................................................................................................... 159
D.4. Causal-chain analysis ..................................................................................................... 162
D.5. Political-legal-socio-economic analysis .......................................................................... 164
D.6. Scenarios ........................................................................................................................ 168
D.7. Proposed Interventions on prevention of land degradation, degradation of wetlands and loss
of species ............................................................................................................................... 171
D.8. Stakeholder analysis ....................................................................................................... 174
D.9. The required additional studies in Mongolian Plateau Zone ............................................ 176
CONCLUSIONS ...................................................................................................................... 177
ANNEXES ................................................................................................................................ 184
2
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis (TDA) consists of an executive summary, a summary
of recommendations, detailed analyses of the four TumenNET Area zones (Supra-Regional Zone
(SRZ), Tumen River Basin Zone (TRBZ), Daurian Steppe Zone (DSZ), Mongolian Plateau Zone
(MPZ)), conclusions and annexes. It is based on four project reports, eight regional sector reports
and four zonal reports prepared in 2001. A comprehensive environmental atlas, with some GIS
capabilities, is included with the TDA on a CD-ROM.
Part A of this report describes the major SRZ issues in TumenNET Area zones. Parts B, C and D
are devoted to detailed analyses of the TRBZ, the DSZ and the MPZ, respectively. The analysis
covers broader environmental, biodiversity, social and economic conditions, water pollution,
marine monitoring, transboundary issues, as well as threats, constraints, causal chain analyses,
development scenarios, stakeholder analyses and proposed interventions. The TDA covers 11
administrative districts in 5 countries: from southern Chitinskii Oblast in the RF to the Inner
Mongolia Autonomous Region (IMAR) and eastern provinces of Mongolia in the west, and from
southwest Primorye (SWP) in the east to Gangwon Province on the Korean Peninsula in the south.
Situated at mid-latitudes, the TumenNET Area contains deserts, grasslands, wetlands, forests,
mountains and coastal marine ecosystems of the East Sea / Sea of Japan.
Northeast Asia, with the Tumen River Basin as its centerfold, is currently undergoing rapid
economic development that if not properly managed, could cause environmental degradation and
unsustainable extraction of natural resources. The richness and productivity of the area and its
ecosystems are seriously threatened by high population growth, increasing pollution, over harvest
and habitat modification. These tendencies could lead to high rates of habitat loss and could impair
the recover capacity of biologic resources. The socio-economic impact of this environmental
deterioration is significant for regional economies. The agricultural sector, for example, remains
not only a source of significant revenues but is also an important domestic source of food.
The key transboundary issues and threats are industrial pollution, the negative impacts of urban
growth and agriculture, poor water and land management, unsustainable forest exploitation, forest
fires, transportation corridors, poor management of protected areas and species, and the impact of
tourism. All of these factors contribute to a loss and modification of marine, inland and wetland
ecosystems, to air and water pollution, to hydrologic changes, and to land and soil degradation.
One of the more seriously affected areas would appear to be the Tumen River Basin, where various
types of contamination from industry, agriculture and human settlements accumulate and flow into
the marine waters of the DPRK and into Peter the Great Bay in the Russian Federation.
The key constraints to any remedial action are government policies that inadequately address
environmental challenges and transboundary issues such as poaching and smuggling of wildlife
products. There is uncertainty about the future of land ownership. Regional frameworks and
standards are inadequate. Government regulations are disregarded. Existing ecotourism structures
are inadequate. There are no agreements or mechanisms to manage transboundary protected areas.
Farming systems and technologies are outdated. Investors encounter administrative and financial
bottlenecks. Physical and economic planning mechanisms are inadequate. And finally, there are no
jointly managed monitoring and management systems for transboundary areas.
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The root causes of environmental degradation are similar in nature, but each cause has its own
specific features:
· Ecosystem degradation: poor management and a disregard for forest legislation; inadequate
regional development planning; poor economic performance; little public awareness of the
environment; poor land use planning; growing pressure from urban growth; over emphasis
on development.
· Loss of biodiversity: disregard for laws; inadequate regulations; little public awareness of
the environment; over emphasis on development, poor water and land use management;
poor economic performance; little understanding of the value of biodiversity; introduction
of exotic species; species extinction.
· Water pollution: outdated technologies; inadequate funding; poor public safety; poor
enforcement of existing regulations; poor economic performance; little regional or
international coordination; over emphasis on development; pressure from urban growth;
outdated pesticide use technologies; poor land planning; inadequate public participation;
poor water and land use management; deforestation; minimal recycling of solid wastes;
poor management of tourist generated waste.
· Hydrologic changes: inadequate understandings of river ecology; poor water and land use
management; poor regional development planning; poor enforcement of existing
regulations; poor supervision of and compliance with forest laws, little public awareness of
the environment.
A range of specifically targeted project interventions are needed to address the environmental
problems detailed in this report. Without these interventions, the long-term sustainable economic
development and environmental security of the TumenNET Area is threatened.
The following are examples of interventions that could have an immediate impact on the
environment:
· Gradual restoration of damaged surface vegetation;
· Restoration and expansion of forest and grassland resources;
· Decrease in industrial wastewater and solid wastes;
· Improvement in the quality of surface and subsurface water;
· Restoration of biodiversity;
· Improvement in plant and animal habitat;
· Improvement in soil quality;
· Harmonization of human and natural development.
If, however, interventions do not occur in the future, existing environmental problems will increase
in severity and will become unmanageable. Without interventions, the following negative impacts
can be expected:
· More ecosystem fragmentation as transportation corridors change land use patterns;
· Additional reduction, both in number and species, of rare and valuable plants and animals;
· Disruption of hydrologic systems;
· Further modification and loss of forest ecosystems;
· Further habitat loss;
· Increasingly more serious soil erosion;
· Further declines in soil quality;
· Gradual loss of wetlands;
· Unsustainable natural resource development.
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A special section of Part A is devoted to Environmental Information Systems (EIS) and to the
importance of public awareness for the Strategic Action Program (SAP). The overarching goal of
the EIS is to create a system that allows different users (clients) to access and manage information
on regional biodiversity and international waters via the Internet. The types of available
information and information access should be client-oriented and should be structured in a way to
contribute to national decision making processes. National, provincial and local governments, the
domestic and international business sector, the scientific community and the public at large
constitute its broader client group.
Another section is devoted to measures that raise public awareness of environmental issues in the
TumenNET Area. The objective is to promote active public awareness on wetland, forest, steppe
and ocean protection issues, on transboundary biodiversity conservation and on international water
protection needs. These measures aim to facilitate the active involvement and participation of local
communities in environmental decision-making and to provide civil society a voice in government
affairs. Through targeted use of traditional (TV, radio, newspapers) and non-traditional (internet,
chat groups, talk-back radio) mass media sources, these public awareness raising measures will
mobilize local communities and access additional resources. The Small Grants Program (SGP) is
another vehicle to motivate grassroots communities and to provide them with resources to promote
alternatives to environmentally destructive behavior. The active involvement of local NGOs is an
essential ingredient to successful implementation of any strategic action program.
Public participation in national environmental legislative and regulatory processes is essential for
transparency, fairness and open government. Experience shows that simply involving the public
without any real opportunity to influence the decision-making process through public initiatives is
an ineffective tool in creating a truly participatory civil society.
The DPRK has not yet joined RAS/98/G31, but has participated in selected project activities. Data
for the DPRK sector of the TumenNET Area are scant, and thus, analysis of the DPRK is
simplified.
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SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on this TDA analysis, environmental issues in the TumenNET Area can be categorized and
recommendations provided for each of these categories.
· General recommendations applicable to all issues
(1)
· Regional recommendations applicable to issues common to more than one country
and which occur within of two or more adjacent countries. These are grouped as:
Transboundary transfer of atmospheric pollutants
(2)
Transboundary transfer of pollutants in subsurface and surface flows
(3)
Conservation and restoration of unique regional biodiversity, including
transboundary migration of animals (birds; rare, large land and
marine mammals)
(4)
Public awareness on environmental issues
(5)
Ecotourism
(6)
· National recommendations on transboundary environmental issues that occur
in one country only but affect another country or other countries
Tumen River Basin
RF
(7)
Tumen River Basin
PRC
(8)
Tumen River Basin
DPRK / RF
(9)
Daurian Steppe Zone
Mongolia / RF
(10)
Mongolian Plateau Zone
Mongolia / PRC
(11)
A
General Recommendations
(1-1) The TumenNET Area countries must cooperate in resource development and
environmental protection. Only through a concerted and coordinated effort can these
countries pool their resources to protect the environment and to ensure sustainable
economic development. Creation of nature reserves is basic to protecting the environment
and natural resources, and is also an effective measure to protect plant and animal
resources.
(1-2) Regional economic development must emphasize hi-tech industries. The activities of heavy
polluters must be examined. Pollution treatment must be improved to reduce the "three
wastes:" wastewater discharge, burning off of waste gas and solid waste. Consolidated
plans, reasonable design and quality industrial structural adjustment must be undertaken.
(1-3) An effort must be made to improve government management and procedures to provide an
infrastructure for green investment and ecologically sustainable resource development.
These efforts should:
Define investment, population and industrial policies;
Create an atmosphere for adequate environmental protection;
Improve environmental legislation: tourist management, sewage treatment,
construction materials and environmental protection;
Lead to the creation of an International Commission for the Protection of the TRBZ.
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B
Regional Recommendations
The major transboundary environmental issues in the TumenNET Area of regional and not just
national significance include the following. Each will be discussed in turn.
· Transboundary transfer of atmospheric pollutants;
· Transboundary transfer of surface and subsurface water pollutants;
· Biodiversity conservation and the protection and restoration of habitat for transboundary
migratory animals birds, rare land and marine mammals
· Public awareness of environmental issues;
· Ecotourism.
Studies show that most, if not all, of these issues are interrelated and any separation of them into
individual categories is conditional. In some cases recommendations reiterate or complement one
another. A multi stage approach is proposed:
Stage I - The goal is to halt all negative tendencies causing the loss of important ecosystems.
Essential regional priorities are:
· Conservation and restoration of forest and wetland ecosystems in ecological corridors;
· Extend nature-protected status to ecological corridors, and especially to corridors with
recognized international significance;
· Facilitate an integrated plan that establishes nature protected areas (NPAs);
· Include in that plan measures for the coordinated management near-transboundary and
transboundary NPAs;
· Established a integrated system of environmental and ecosystem monitoring;
· Formulate and negotiate a sustainable forest policy/strategy that protects forest ecosystems
and simultaneously accounts for commercial forest values;
· Raise public awareness of transboundary environmental issues.
Stage II The goal of subsequent stages is to change the land and natural resource use system and
to switch to a sustainable land management system. Specific regional priority activities include:
· Reforest harvested areas and reestablish meadows on eroded slopes currently under
cultivation;
· Increase productivity of existing flat land agriculture;
· Reduce the use of pesticides and herbicides in rice-growing areas;
· Develop of mariculture and aquaculture;
· Reestablish native forest biodiversity structure and promote rational forest biodiversity use;
· Expand commercial use of the natural resource potential of ecosystems;
· Introduce value added natural resource use;
· Create ecotourism and recreational facilities.
B-1
Transboundary Transfers of Atmospheric Pollutants
Part A shows that regional air pollutants are transferred by predominant westerly winds. In this
respect, localized and regional sources of pollution in the countries concerned would appear to be
among the regional sources of pollution.
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(2-1) The existing air monitoring network (Annexes 1-3) could effectively manage
transboundary transfers if expanded (primarily in the Russian sector of the TumenNET
Area ) and its work coordinated under a regional program.
B-2
Transboundary Transfer of Pollutants in Subsurface and Surface Flows
Part A also demonstrates that industrial and agricultural enterprises, and urban areas in the
countries concerned, would appear to be among the regional sources of surface and subsurface
water contamination, and the primary polluters of regional coastal waters. Poor water quality in the
TRBZ and its tributaries is a serious impediment to regional development, urban growth and
industrial expansion. Key measures to be undertaken are:
(3-1) The countries concerned must implement existing joint agreements and take measures to
monitor and manage effluent and residential waste discharges. Only when countries
concerned to take joint actions will pollution problems in the TRBZ be effectively solved.
(3-2) Certain industrial polluters must renovate their operations, treat waste in a timely manner
and cease discharge of untreated wastewater into the TRBZ.
(3-3) The existing network of surface, subsurface and coastal water pollution monitoring
(Annexes 1-3) can effectively manage transboundary transfer of pollutants if a permanent
monitoring station at the mouth of the Tumen River Basin is established and its work
coordinated under a regional program. The station would:
Monitor environmental conditions at the mouth of the Tumen River near where
the borders of three countries cross, in the area of the Khasan railway bridge;
Measure atmospheric, water, soil and bottom sediment contamination and take
regular meteorological, hydrological and ecological observations;
Study transboundary transfer processes to provide data essential for a thorough
understanding of the impact of pollution on the marine environment.
(3-4) Urban sewage must be treated using wastewater treatment plants and oxygenation ponds
before discharge into the Tumen River.
(3-5) A similar monitoring system should be established for the DSZ and the MPZ.
(3-6) An on-line exchange of monitoring results should be created and a single regional data
bank established as important aspects in monitoring transboundary transfer of pollutants.
(3-7) Develop and introduce modern aquaculture and agricultural techniques.
(3-8) Reduce the level of poaching and uncontrolled fishing by addressing root causes poverty
and unemployment and by improving the regulatory system and law enforcement efforts.
(3-9) Protect forests in the TRBZ, and in the coastal zone, and protect the land from soil erosion.
B-3
Biodiversity Conservation and the Protection and Restoration of Habitat for
Transboundary Migratory Animals Birds, Rare Land and Marine Animals
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(4-1) The key direction in regional conservation is the creation of a system of nature protected
areas (NPA) that include as its core elements international reserves, parks and refugees.
This can build on existing efforts, such as the 1996 Ussuri Project framework and proposals
to establish transboundary NPAs (Annex 4). Specialists have refined these proposals into
specific NPA projects (Annex 5). This system must provide adequate territory to conserve
biodiversity and protect the ecosystems of migrating birds, large land and marine animals
(4-2) The NPA network should include breeding and feeding sites connected via ecological
corridors.
(4-3) National protected area systems are an important element of the NPA system and should be
promoted by:
Improving facilities and management of existing parks to attain conservation goals;
Enlarge the scope of protected areas in heavily populated area such as has been
undertaken with new reserves in the PRC;
Creating and protecting "green corridors" between reserves and biological habitats
to ensure regular migration and reproduction of animals;
Returning cultivated lands to forest and grassland condition and promote mine
restoration to reduce erosion.
(4-4) Optimization of the system would take place based on the following critical measures:
Create ecological corridors between:
(a) Khasanskii District (Raion) in the RF and the DPRK via Jilin Province;
(b) Northern and Southern Laoyelin in the PRC;
(c) The RF and the PRC across the Strelnikov Ridge,
(d) Tolsoy Hulstai and Kerulen-Mengin PPNT, Mongolia;
-
Undertake reforestation efforts and brush fire management;
-
Increase ungulate numbers by promoting deer parks as a source of additional tiger
and leopard prey;
-
Improve anti-poaching, customs and border control enforcement;
Regain control over illegal transactions of items listed on CITES List.
B-4
Public Awareness of Environmental Issues
(5-1) Actively raise public awareness on the protection and rational use of wildlife and plant
resources so that people begin to voluntarily protect wildlife and plant resources and make
wildlife protections a social responsibility.
(5-2) Promote environmental protection efforts that raise public awareness of environmental
issues.
B-5
Ecotourism
Recommendations are made to promote ecotourism in the TumenNET Area though development
of an "ecotourism vision" and through the establishment of an ecotourism infrastructure.
(6-1) Key ecotourism opportunities (analyzed in detail in Part A) for promotion at the national
and international levels are:
Alpine tourism and tours along the Tumen River by boats and rafts;
Along the trail of the Amur tiger and Far Eastern leopard;
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Meetings with Birds - Tours of Regional Nature Reserves;
"Let's live on a desert island";
"Sea Fishing";
"Circling Lake Khanka".
(6-2) Develop and implement measures to improve tourist facilities (organizational, economic,
information, transportation, hotels);
(6-3) Create a Northeast Asian Tourism Resources Database that shares information on regional
tourism resources and on joint ecotourism development projects;
(6-4) Promote legislative agendas that improve conservation efforts by developing ecotourism
that is based on the tourism action plans;
(6-5) Expand capacity building and institutional strengthening by training local environment
rangers, tourism guides and increasing public involvement.
C
National Recommendations
C-1
Tumen River Basin - Russian Federation and Southwestern Primorye
(7-1) Create a unified NPA system in Far Eastern leopard and Amur tiger habitat based existing
regional NPAs and:
Obtain biosphere status for this NPA and include it in the East Asian network of
biosphere reserves;
Territorially reorganize Kedrovii Pad Nature Strict Reserve (zapovednik) and
Barsovii and Borisovskii Plateau Reserves (zakazniks) in southwest Primorye as a
first step in creating the proposed unified NPA;
Reinforce the status of Khasanskii Nature Park at the second stage.
(7-2) Improve the NPA arrangement in Far Eastern leopard habitat, keeping in mind to create:
Ecological corridors that connect the northern and southern part of Eastern
Manchurian Mountains;
Ecological corridors that connect Chernye Gory Mountains and the Sikhote-
Alin Ridge.
(7-3) Develop and implement a Southwest Primorye Natural Ecosystem Recovery Plan that:
Creates a fire-fighting brigade in the Khasanskii District administration;
Develops a plan to restore low quality forest to important habitat in broad leaf
coniferous forests;
Begins to implement the reforestation efforts mentioned above;
Establishes a system of fire prevention belts in southwest Primorye;
Develops and implements small leaved (birch) forest groves for the fodder needs of
ungulates;
Adopts a regional law "On Land User Responsibilities to Promote Fire Safety in Far
Eastern Leopard Habitat;"
Carries out a regional fire prevention educational campaign;
Develops and adopts rule that obligates land users to undertake conservation efforts.
(7-4) Conservation and restoration of important ecosystems and habitats.
(7-5) Implement an effective and efficient bush fire management system.
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C-2
Tumen River Basin - People's Republic of China, Yanbian Autonomous Prefecture
(8-1) Create new nature reserve in Hunchun District along the Russian-Chinese border;
(8-2) Create a system of ecological corridors on the Russian / Chinese border for the tiger and
leopard populations in Yanbian Autonomous Prefecture that are maintained through
migration from southwest Primorye. The ecological corridors would be located:
Near the Jinsun Forest District adjoining the Tumen River about 15 km from the
DPRK and RF border;
In southern Laoelin-Cnangbai Mountain region.
(8-3) Develop and implement natural habitat / important ecosystem recovery plans that:
Identify and protect native forests;
Shift away from monoculture forest plantings;
Limit monoculture plantations;
Promote reforestation of low quality forests with Korean pine and oak.
(8-4) Develop a plan to limit roads in harvest areas, and decrease and close logging settlements
to reduce ecosystem fragmentation.
(8-5) Restore ecosystems important to tiger and leopard habitat as a mechanism to conserve these
species.
(8-6) Create ecological corridors for the Changbai Mountain (Pec-Tu-San) NPA where habitat is
intact but where tiger tracks not been seen since 1994:
Changbai Mountain - Mudanlin Veihulin;
Changbai Mountain - Inelin - Harbalin.
(8-7) Promote and introduce cleaner production technologies in the pulp and paper industries
(chemical fibers) and wine producing sectors, emphasizing pollution management and
reduction throughout the entire industrial process.
C - 3 Tumen River Basin Democratic People's Republic of Korea and Russian Federation
(9-1) End intensive harvest of broad leaf coniferous forests in mountain regions.
(9-2) Develop and implement forest conservation incentives for the DPRK.
(9-3) Prohibit further agricultural development on slopes.
(9-4) Provide for ecosystem management along the eastern Manchurian sector of the RF - DPRK
border area of Pec-Tu-San/Changbai Mountain.
(9-5) Create a NPA regime for 20-30% of coastal lagoons in Northern Hamgyong Province
during bird migration.
C - 4 Daurian Steppe - Russian Federation and Mongolia
(10-1) Assess biological methods to combat livestock and crop disease, an important aspect of
green food project development.
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(10-2) Promote land restoration at the national, regional and local level, especially in agricultural
and mining areas, and areas affected by drought and other natural disasters.
(10-3) Improve land management systems for soil and vegetation that is easily destroyed by
natural disasters and climatic conditions.
(10-4) Create sustainable land resource management through creation of a National Fund to
Combat Desertification and by formulating national and aimag land use policies.
(10-5) Develop and implement restoration programs for critical, though now fallow, cultivated
areas.
(10-6) Prepare a management plan to develop international ecotourism in the DSZ.
(10-7) Improve bilateral and multilateral transboundary biodiversity conservation and water
protection in the DSZ.
(10-8) Improve water and soil pollution monitoring and increase public awareness.
(10-9) Organize regular Russian-Mongolian expeditions to study Mongolian gazelle migrations in
the DSZ to understand large scale gazelle migration and with the aim of then implementing
measures to protect the Mongolian gazelle in the RF.
(10-10) Promote active cooperation in near border protected natural territories: National Biosphere
Reserve "Sokhondinskii" (RF) and Onon-Baldginsky Reserve (Mongolia).
(10-11) Establish additional protected areas and zones in the DSZ.
(10-12) Increase environmental education and awareness efforts among local people and officials
responsible for decision-making on biodiversity conservation issues.
(10-13) Create a network of eco-training consulting centers and implement a system of adaptive
agricultural methods with consultation on risk management.
C-- 5 Mongolian Plateau Zone - Mongolia and People's Republic of China
(11-1) Improve the legal atmosphere for biodiversity conservation through improving the existing
legal system, relevant laws and regulations to create a multi-level legal system.
(11-2) Establish corresponding national regulations to implement international conventions. The
most urgent legislature work is to formulate national regulations on access to genetic
resources and maintenance of traditional knowledge, inventions and local community
practices on the MPZ.
(11-3) Strengthen law enforcement teams on the MPZ.
(11-4) Strengthen, where applicable, the capacity of NGOs and similar grassroots organizations.
(11-5) Train technical personnel working in local government to improve their conservation and
sustainable use understandings.
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(11-6) Strengthen the management of biodiversity outside protected areas and nature reserves and
develop strategic measures that lead to a national multi-layer nature conservation system.
(11-7) Improve environmental education and public awareness efforts to increase public
participation in biodiversity conservation by formulating a plan for public education on
biodiversity and by setting up public participation mechanism.
(11-8) Expand areas of international co-operation, including technology transfer, personnel
exchanges and information, and transboundary joint actions, in addition to multilateral and
bilateral co-operation and non-governmental co-operation.
(11-9) Improve the network of national nature reserves and other protected areas.
(11-10) Adopt measures to strengthen conservation capacity of existing nature areas.
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INTRODUCTION
RAS/98/G31, the `Preparation of a Strategic Action Program (SAP) and Transboundary Diagnostic
Analysis (TDA) for the TumenNET Area, its coastal regions and related Northeast Asian
Environs' - in short `TumenNET', is a two-year, 6.8 million USD project. Initiated by the
Governments of the PRC, Mongolia, the ROK and the RF, the project received funding from the
Global Environment Facility (GEF) and the United Nations Development Program (UNDP). The
United Nations Office for Project Services (UNOPS) executes the project. The project aims to
establish a regional capacity to plan, formulate and implement a strategic action program for the
protection of transboundary biodiversity and international water resources in Northeast Asia.
This TDA is the scientific basis for the development of a regional SAP, and as such, it is one of the
core project products. The TDA not only analyzes root causes of transboundary environmental
degradation, it also examines the broader socio-economic, political and legal/regulatory
environment. It identifies major stakeholder communities that must be involved in the formulation
and implementation of the SAP and explores a range of development scenarios, with and without
intervention to assist policy formulation.
The TDA is based on currently available data and information and that are accessible and un-
restricted. Where data are not available, or availability is restricted, the TDA identifies these data
gaps as areas for future priority action.
The TDA should be seen as a living and dynamic process rather than a one-time document; this
will ensure its usefulness to local planners and political decision-makers. The TDA must respond
to emerging environmental threats and the fast changing geo-political scene in mainland Northeast
Asia. Rapid change invariably creates new opportunities and the TDA must remain flexible to
explore opportunities and make use of them. `Green investment' and the involvement of an
environmentally responsible and committed private sector are among the opportunities that will be
further explored in the SAP.
A regional TDA can be formulated only with the committed participation of national bodies. In
this TDA, national committees (SAP planning units) were formed through the initiative of the
national GEF focal points in each of the five countries. Led by a coordinator, each national
committee prepared a project report to provide a substantive country-based analysis of
international waters and biodiversity related problems and concerns.
At the Inception Workshop in Beijing (22-23 August 2000), the Regional Lead Agent and National
Partner Institutions for the TDA component were nominated. Working closely with the Project
Coordination Unit and international consultants, the Lead Agent (Far Eastern Branch of the
Russian Academy of Sciences) developed an outline for project reports. The outline was discussed
and adopted by representatives of all member countries at the TOP Workshop (27 November-1
December 2000). A need for eight regional sector reports was identified and regional task teams
were set up to prepare the following reports:
· Coastal Priority Environmental Issues in Peter the Great Bay and East Coast of Korean
Peninsula (RF);
· Ecotourism Opportunities and their Impacts on Transboundary Biodiversity and
International Water Resources (Mongolia);
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· Large Predators, Ungulates and their Habitat (RF);
· Loss of Habitat and Important Ecosystems from Anthropogenic Activity (RF);
· Migratory Birds and their Habitats (ROK);
· Transportation Corridors and their Contribution to Transboundary Environmental
Degradation in Northeast Asia (PRC);
· TumenNET Area Priority Environmental Issues (PRC);
· Urbanization and its Environmental Impact (PRC).
The first draft project reports were presented at a meeting in Vladivostok (4-5 April 2001). At this
meeting countries declared their national/regional priorities. The Regional Lead Agent (RLA) and
the Project Coordination Unit (PCU) provided comments. Revised reports were submitted to the
PCU/RLA in May 2001 and were accepted.
The regional concerns and principal issues identified serve as the foci for the preparation of
regional sector reports and also comprise the outline for the regional TDA. In addition to the
preparation of the TDA outline, the substance of the strategic action plan was discussed at the
Inaugural Council Meeting in Beijing (28-29 May 2001).
A few weeks later the PCU developed a new TDA strategy. According to this strategy, the
TumenNET Area was extended to include the border areas of Eastern Mongolia, the IMAR in the
PRC and Chitinskaya Oblast in the RF. Preparation of the TDA was based on four reports, or
`zonal TDAs':
· TUMEN RIVER BASIN ZONE ISSUES. Regions: Jilin Province (PRC), Primorskii
Krai (RF), North Hamgyong and Ryanggang Provinces and Rason Economic and Free
Trade Zone (DPRK);
· DAURIAN STEPPE ZONE ISSUES. Regions: Chitinskaya Oblast (RF), Dornod and
Khentii Aimags (Mongolia);
· MONGOLIAN PLATEAU ZONE ISSUES. Regions: Inner Mongolian Autonomous
Region (PRC), Dornod and Sukhbaatar Aimags (Mongolia);
· SUPRA REGIONAL ZONE ISSUES. Regions: all zones.
The Lead Agent for the TDA component prepared a cluster analysis for each zone that includes
short descriptions of special socio-economic features of the zone, a short description of major
environmental assets (resources), and grouped threats to the environmental assets (clusters). At a
regional TDA Workshop and Technical Meeting held in Vladivostok (August 29-31, 2001),
delegates discussed, prioritized and amended these issue clusters, agreed on priorities, identified
gaps and carried out a gap analysis. They prepared a preliminary list of local stakeholders,
identified constraints and discussed enabling measures that may be required for the
implementation of the SAP. A new outline and revised deadline for the TDA were also agreed. A
TumenNET Area Governors Memorandum ensured the necessary local level political support for
the preparation and implementation of the SAP.
Task managers for the four zones were identified and the Lead Agent authorized the Pacific
Institute of Geography FEB RAS in Vladivostok to coordinate the preparation of zonal TDAs and
finalize the regional TDA. As an additional level of quality control, the PCU contracted four
scientific advisors to assist task managers and local writing teams. Initial zonal drafts were
subjected to local scrutiny at zonal stakeholder workshops held in October and November 2001. At
these workshops, local communities, local government, NGOs and local business were given an
opportunity to comment on drafts that were then revised. This additional step was to ensure that
the findings and recommendations of the TDA were sensitive to community needs and
requirements. The second Council Meeting (29-30 November 2001) approved the findings and
15
conclusions from zonal TDAs presented by the Lead Agent and provided recommendations for
finalization of the regional TDA.
The project reports, the regional sector reports, the TDA workshop in Vladivostok and the regional
stakeholder workshops are all integral parts of this TDA.
16
PART . SUPRA REGIONAL ZONE ISSUES
A.1. Introduction
The northeastern Asian region, with the Tumen River Basin as its centerfold, is a strategic area. It
is currently undergoing rapid economic development that is causing environmental and natural
resource degradation. The TDA Supra Regional Study embraces the Tumen River Area, Eastern
Mongolia and border territories in the RF (southern Chitinskaya Oblast and southwest Primorye),
Jilin Province and the IMAR in the PRC, and the Korean Peninsula (Figure 1).
Figure 1.
Supra Regional Zone
The SRZ is located in a mid-latitude zone, bounded by Asia on the west and the Pacific Ocean on
the east (Figure 2).
The leading SRZ issues of concern in the TumenNET Area have been identified in order to
consider the environmental and social factors for a comprehensive analysis and identification of
constraints, enabling measures, and cooperation of stakeholders.
Specific SRZ concerns were discussed at the Working Group discussion held in Vladivostok on
29-30 August 2001. Since the operational definition for the SRZ was agreed to at the Vladivostok
17
Regional Policy workshop, it is worthwhile to review its contents. SRZ issues were identified in a
context of transboundary issues and problems experienced by several of the countries in the region
and not just based on a set of common issue which can be addressed by other "zonal" working
groups to develop a sense of "over arching' clusters/issues.
Figure 2.
Tumen River as Seen in a Landsat Image
Figure 3.
Landscape in the Tumen River Estuary
18
The TRBZ is a strategic, international marine and biodiversity zone (Figure 3). Biodiversity and
international marine resources in the SRZ are closely geared to the environmental protection of the
TRBZ.
Many bird populations migrate across the borders of adjacent countries to get from breeding sites
in the north and to non-breeding areas in the south. Most bird migrations occur along fixed
flyways, although at times, population groups can deviate from these patterns (Figure 4).
Figure 4.
Birds in the Estuary of the Tumen River Basin
The diversity of birds in coastal/marine ecosystems and wetland areas and adjacent territories is
immense. A variety of different marine and land mammals use coastal marine ecosystems and
rivers for migration. A number of transboundary problems exist within the TumenNET Area,
including the impact of localized and regional air pollution sources, land and coastal water
pollution. Identifying the characteristics of transboundary shifts of pollution is essential. Indeed,
the SRZ consolidates the TumenNET Area.
A.1.1. Environmental Assets and Threats
Important environmental resources in the TumenNET Area are closely interrelated. In the
Northeast Asia have been identified as wetlands, bird population, marine ecosystem of the Tumen
River mouth and coastal areas of Korean peninsula, forest and steppe ecosystem, wildlife
population, air quality. They are prioritized at the Vladivostok workshop as is in order of: wetland
area (11); bird populations (7); marine ecosystem (7); forest and steppe ecosystems (7); air quality
(5); animal populations (3). Numbers in parentheses show the priority of the assets.
To preserve these precious assets of waters and biodiversity it will be necessary to consolidate the
measures against the threats to the environment. The threats are combined into the clusters:
degradation of wetlands (11); urbanization impacts (11); erosion and land degradation (10);
transportation networks (6); poaching and illegal trading (5); fires (5); tourism (4); agriculture (4);
explosion of forests (4).
19
Above exercise of identification and prioritization of environmental assets and threats definitely
led the way for raising awareness in specific issues among specific groups, that is, identification of
constraints, challenges, and enabling measures to help to raise awareness. Moreover, the
participation and partnership of stakeholders' on various issues were considered good measures for
efficient implementation of awareness raising program to solve threats to preserve environmental
assets of the SRZ.
A.1.2. Stakeholders
The nine major categories of stakeholders identified under Agenda 21 were modified to adjust
better fit for the TumenNET Area. Although Agenda 21 does not recognize the decision-making
institution like governments and legislative bodies as stakeholders, they are recognized as
stakeholders also because government and legislative body decisions and actions exert an impact
on SRZ issues. Vladivostok workshop produced the final Stakeholder matrix as below (Table 1):
Table 1. Stakeholder Matrix
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One can interpret this matrix in three ways.
1. Major stakeholders for a particular cluster, for example, erosion, are local government,
natural resource users, scientists/technicians, legislative bodies, environment agencies,
Ministry of Construction/Transport, and Ministry of Agriculture.
2. Major stakeholders across all clusters are indigenous people, marginalized individuals,
local government, natural resource users, legislative bodies, Ministry of Environment,
Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Construction/Transport, and Ministry of Agriculture.
3. Certain stakeholders appear that are unimportant in the SRZ: labor unions, Ministry of
Foreign Affairs, and Ministry of Tourism.
The major environmental issues in the TumenNET Area and in Northeast Asia are ongoing land
degradation from urbanization, expansion of agricultural land, and other development activities,
20
loss of valuable wetlands for migratory birds and biodiversity, degradation of water quality and
resource depletion (Table 2).
Table 2. Major Environmental Issues in the TumenNET Area
Environmental problems
Natural Causes
Human Causes
Land
Degradation · Low rainfall
· Livestock herds too large in some areas
(desertification, loss · High winds
· More horses, cattle and goats; fewer
of topsoil and other · Extreme
sheep
erosion, decrease in
temperature
· Inappropriate mining and industry
fertility of pasture · Thin topsoil
practices
and croplands)
· Steep slopes
· Inappropriate cultivation practices
· Fires
· Multi-tracking (off-road traffic)
· Fires
Deforestation
· Fires
· Destructive
and
unregulated
(depletion of limited · Insects
commercial logging techniques
but available, forest · Slow growth rates · Insufficient and poorly managed
resources)
for
natural
and
reforestation
replanted
· Unregulated cutting for domestic fuel
regeneration
wood
· Fires
Loss of Biodiversity
· Same
natural · Hunting
causes as for land · Overgrazing
degradation leads to · Pollution
loss of species and · Deforestation
habitat
Air
and
Water · Fires
· Overall inefficiency in manufacturing,
(generally
localized · High winds
resulting in excess energy/inputs use
problem)
· Low flow-rates in
and production
rivers for most of · Coal burning power plants, generator
year
and industrial boilers
· Temperature
· Increase in automobiles, many of which
inversions
in
are old and poorly maintained
localized situations
· Inappropriate use and disposal of
chemicals
· Inappropriate disposal of solid and
liquid waste
Wetland Degradation · Global warming
· Increase of herds and livestock around
of wetland areas
· Desertification
· Inappropriate
crop land irrigation
system
A.2. TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS AND MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL
ISSUES
A.2.1. Biodiversity
Biodiversity is humanities most import resource. It is key to genetic balance. It is important to
normal reproduction of biological resources and a normal ecologic condition of the environment. It
is a unique tourist resource. That is why biodiversity conservation is important for current and
21
future generations. Biodiversity conservation problems acquire additional specificity where the
land meets the ocean or the sea. There are many interactions and connections between land
biological complexes and marine complexes. The Northeast Asian bioregion includes temperate
zones in the PRC and the Koreas, in southwest Primorye of the RF and extends to the steppe
grasslands in Mongolia and Chitinskaya Oblast. There are many different ecosystems and wildlife
species native to these areas. Pine, oak, acacia forests cover large portions of the Korean Peninsula,
Manchuria and the Russian Far East.
There are various vegetation types and many species in the SRZ. Latitude and longitude influence
plant and animal distribution. There are many wild plants, many endemic species and a relic
survivor species. Though the number of plant species in this region is not as great as in the south
because of geographical limits, the number of classes, orders, families and genera is large. Wildlife
populations use great expanses and have resource and economic values.
Plant diversity in the Chinese sector of the SRZ is abundant and includes seven plant
classifications such as fungus and angiosperm. The higher plants belong to 4 classes, 54 orders,
and 134 families, in total 2,090 species. Gymnosperm has 30 species, 12.50% of the number of
species in the PRC compared with angiosperm that has 2,060 species (6.86%).
Plant diversity in Russian sector of the SRZ is also very high and includes 1,500 species of
vascular plants (62% of the plant diversity in Primorskii Krai), 3,500 species of fungi (70%), 700
species of mosses (77%), 400 species of lichens (85%), 1,000 species of freshwater algae (50%).
According to statistics, in the TumenNET Area there are 94 species of endangered and rare flora
(29 families) listed on national and regional endangered species lists.
Eastern Mongolian plant families are dominated by several genera: Artemisia - 66 species, Carex -
48, Oxytropis - 42, Potentilla - 29, Astragalus - 27, Salix - 22, Saussurea - 19, Vicia - 18 and
Onion - 28. Since vegetation variety is a reflection of changes in precipitation and plant
distribution, starting in foothills and extending to mountaintops in vertical belts, Mongolia is
divided into high mountain forest taiga, mountain forest steppe, rolling steppe, semi-desert and
Gobi desert areas.
A mountain range running the length of the Korean Peninsula from Baiktu Mountain (northern
DPRK to Jiri Mountain in southern ROK) contains a wide variety of forest vegetation. Sub-alpine
and coniferous forests dominate in the northern regions of the range, mixed forests are found in
mid-northern regions, broad leaf deciduous forests dominate the mid-southern regions and
coniferous deciduous forests cover the southern edge of the mountain range. Because roads and
railroads can often block access for wildlife, much of the habitat in this mountain range has been
adversely affected by modern construction of transportation routes.
Southwest Primorye (RF) belongs to the Changbai Mountain sub-region of the northeast area of
the Paleoarctic region according to national wildlife geographical division. Wildlife resources are
abundant and widely distributed in this region. There are 422 animal species, belonging to 6
classes, 38 orders and 87 families. The fauna resources are richest in the Russian Far East where
there are 370 species of birds (80% of animal diversity in Primorskii Krai), 64 species of fish
belonging to 22 families and 12 orders and 41 species of mollusks belonging to 17 genus and 10
families. At present, the TumenNET Area has 63 species of animals listed into the first-grade
national protection. There are 23 species of mammals being regarded as rare species in the RF,
including the endemics Japanese mole (Mogera wogura), giant shrew (Sorex mirabilis), Ussuri
little tube-nosed bat (Murina aurata), eastern red bat (Vespertilio superans), Far Eastern leopard
(Panthera pardus orientalis), Amur tiger (Panthera tigris altaica), Far Eastern wild cat (Felis
silvestris), black and brown bears (Ursus thibetanus, Ursus arctos), lynx (Felis lynx), wolf (Canis
22
lupus), red (Manchurian) deer (Cervus elaphus), Japanese (dappled) deer (Cervus Nippon), wild
boar (Sus scrofa), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), goral (Nemorchaedus caudatus), all under threat
of extinction. However, the greatest concerns are for tiger and leopard populations.
There are fewer animal resources in the Chinese sector of the TumenNET Area than in the Russian
sector. Many of the animals are strictly protected (Table 3).
Table 3. Protected Animal Species in the Chinese Sector of the Supra Regional Zone
Category
Protected at
Protected at Listed on
Threatened
Rare Species
Regional
National
Endangered
in Jilin
Level
Level
Species Lists
Province
Cyclostome
2
Teleostean
4
fishes
Amphibians
2
Reptiles
1
Birds
52
22
43
4
Mammals
11
11
11
In the Eastern Mongolian steppe, which contains all the types of Central Asian steppe, there are 70
mammal species (or 50.7% of all mammals in Mongolia). They represent 6 orders, 16 families, and
43 subfamilies. This area has wolverine (Gulo gulo), Moose (Alces alces), Daurian Tsokor
(Myospalax myospalax), Eastern Bat (Vespertilio superans), Black-tailed Gazelle (Gazela
subgutturosa) and White-tailed Gazelle or Zeren (Procapra gutturosa) Wild Mountain Sheep
(Ovis ammon), Marmot (Marmota sibirica), Satunin's Jerboa (Cardiocranius paradoxus), Little
Jerboa (Alactagulus pygmaeus), Midday Gerbil (Meriones meridianus), Long-eared Hedgehog
(Erinaceus auritus) and inhabitant, number, location of the population of gazelle. There are
currently around two million gazelles in the Eastern Mongolian steppe. This region's rare species
listed in the Mongolian Red Book are Siberian Salamander (Salamandrella keyserlingii), Eastern
Frog (Rana chensinensis).
A recent survey of species for the DPRK reports 18,087 animal species, 8,271 plant species, 1,625
fungi species and 1,167 prokaryote species. 17 of the 102 mammal species and 10 of the 450 bird
species are found only in the DPRK. Older reports claim 491 families, with 11,853 species of
insects. However, new reports suggest this represents only 20% of the actual number of insect
species in the DPRK, and the likely number exceeds 50,000. The DPRK has either 33 or 34
invertebrate phylum. However, only 15 phylum are systematically studied. Data from these studies
are very limited.
A.2.2. Wetlands
There are many plant species in Tumen River wetland areas of the SRZ. The greatest number is
angiosperms, followed by bryophytes. There are fewer ferns and gymnosperms. The species
composition for plants in SRZ wetlands is typical for temperate zones. Given the rich diversity in
the wetland ecosystem, especially marsh ecosystems, there are many wetland plant types. There
are also many wildlife species representative of wetlands.
There is obvious seasonal distribution, especially among wetland birds, including summer birds,
migrating birds and resident birds. There are 18 bird species listed in the first- and second-tier rare
23
and endangered bird list of Wild Animals of National Key Protection. These include Grus
japonensis, Cygnus cygnus Cygnus, Anser albifrons albifrons, Aix galericulata. There are also
many wetland fish species and they account for more than 86% of the fish in Tumen River's
marine environment.
According to classification standards for Investigation and Monitoring Regulation on National
Wetlands Resources, Tumen River wetlands are divided into five types: offshore wetlands, river
wetlands, lake wetlands, marsh, meadow wetland and artificial wetlands.
Offshore Wetlands
Offshore Tumen River wetlands are located at Jixin village in Hunchun city, adjacent to the RF in
the east and the DPRK in the southwest. This area is on the left bank of the lower reaches of the
Tumen River, 15 km from the East Sea / Sea of Japan. Contours are low and smooth, many
meanders and abundant lake swamps. The surface area of the lakes and reservoir is 1,815 km2. The
area of herbaceous wetlands is 1,388.62 km2.
River Wetlands
The contours of the upper reaches of the Tumen River are flat, and Guangping and Yuanchi have
scattered wetlands. In the upper of Nanping, at Helong city, rapidly flowing rivers cut deeply into
the valley. The riverbed is narrow and deep. There are no wetlands. Gaya River originates from the
southeast of Sanchang Peak of Laosong Mountain at Wangqing County and flows into the Tumen
River from the northeast of Tumen City. The river is 205 km long and is crooked. The wetlands on
the each bank have been cultivated into paddy fields.
Lake Wetlands
Tianchi Lake is a permanent fresh lake in the alpine belt of Changbai Mountain, 2189 m above sea
level. It is 4.4 km long from south to north and 3.37 km wide from east to west. Surface area is
9.82 km2, and the perimeter is 13.1 km. Its maximum depth is 373 m and average 204 m. It covers
21.4 km2 and holds 20.4×108 m3. The lake fluctuates within a range of two meters.
Marsh and Meadow Swamp
· Larix olgensis - Rhododendron parvifolium - Sphagnum magellanicum swamp
This kind of marsh is found only at Yuanchi Lake, 1,260 m above sea level in Changbai Mountain.
It is a peculiar species of Changbai Mountain with an area of about 10 km2. There are perennial
surface marsh ponds but no obvious water layers. Water naturally exudes when step on.
· Brushwood swamp -Betula ovalifolia - carex swamp
This kind of wetland spreads on the outer margin of Larix olgensis - Carex swamp, sometimes
extending to the outer margin of carex swamp. It is a transition from forest wetland and carex
swamp. Guangping at Helong is a representative of this kind of wetland. The soil surface is always
keeps wet and there is seasonal ponding.
· Herbaceous wetlands - Carex appendiculata swamp
24
This community is distributed in the Changbai Mountain valley and is found at the Guangping
Forestry Center in Helong City. The community covers more than 20 km2. The surface is too wet
because of seasonal ponding. The water table is about 50 cm below the surface.
· Carex pilosa swamp
It scatters in the marshes with perennial ponding and on the surface of lakes, such as Yuanchi
Lake. There is ponding with 30 cm deep on the surface of the wetlands perennially. The soil is peat
bog soil and peat soil. There are many species and accompanying plants here. Carex pilosa swamp
is the dominant species.
Wild rice swamp
This wetland type is scattered around small lakes in the Tumen River, such as the edges of four
lakes at Jingxin town of Hunchun City. Their area is less than one km2. They are surface perennial
ponds, with a dept of 10-30 cm deep.
Artificial Wetlands
There are nine medium sized reservoirs in the Tumen River, including Dunhua. The total capacity
of the reservoirs is 2.48×104 m3, and normal capacity is 1.72×104 m3 (Water conservancy
statistical data of Jinlin Water Conservancy Administration, 1985). This wetland resource faces a
serious threat from water pollution, tourism and economical development.
Wetland distribution in the ROK is described as below (Table 4). There is no data for DPRK
Table 4. Wetland Distribution in the Republic of Korea
Name
Characteristics
Major Threats
Extensive mudflats
Southern Kanghwa Wintering ground for ducks and geese, stop-over site for shorebirds
Reclamation
Island
Breeding and wintering ground for red-crowned crane, black-faced
spoonbill, raptors and swinhoe's Egretor endangered species
River estuary connected with the sea and rice fields
Estuary of Han
Wintering ground for ducks and geese
River
wintering ground for white-napped crane, raptors and swan goose,
vulnerable or endangered species
Rice field with reservoirs
Natural monument
Development
Chulwon Basin
Wintering ground for ducks and geese
Human
Wintering ground for cranes and raptors, vulnerable or endangered
Disturbance
species
Mudflat areas
Youngjong Island
Stop-over sites for shorebirds
Reclamation
Breeding ground for Eurasian oystercatcher, vulnerable species
25
Mudflat areas
Namyang Bay
Stop-over sites for shorebirds
Artificial lake made by reclamation and mudflat areas
Asan Bay
Water Pollution
Wintering ground for ducks and stop-over site of shorebirds
Artificial lake made by reclamation and mudflat areas
Dae Lake
Wintering ground for ducks and stop-over site of shorebirds
Artificial lake made by reclamation and mudflat areas
The largest wintering ground for ducks and geese
Chonsu Bay
Water Pollution
Wintering ground of oriental white stork, Baikal teal, whooper swan,
hooded crane and Sanders' gull, vulnerable or endangered species
River estuary connected with the sea, mudflats, rice fields and deltas
Estuary of Kum
Wintering ground for ducks and geese and stop-over site of shorebirds Reclamation
River
Wintering ground of the Eurasian oystercatcher, raptors and whooper
swan, vulnerable species
River estuary connected with the sea, mudflats and rice fields
Estuary of Tongjin Wintering ground for ducks and the largest stop-over site of
Reclamation
& Mangoung River shorebirds
Wintering ground for the Sanders' gull, vulnerable species
Artificial lake made by reclamation and mudflat areas
Wintering ground for ducks and geese
Youngam Lake
·Water Pollution
Wintering ground for Oriental white stork, Eurasian spoonbill, swans,
and raptors, vulnerable or endangered species
Artificial lake made by reclamation and mudflat areas
Kumho Lake
·Water Pollution
Wintering ground for of ducks and geese
Artificial lake made by reclamation and mudflat areas
Wintering ground for ducks
Gochonam Lake
Water Pollution
Wintering ground for Baikal teal, Saunders' gull and raptors,
vulnerable species
Mudflat and rice fields
Development
Wintering ground for ducks
Sunchon Bay
Human
Wintering ground for Saunders' gull and hooded crane, vulnerable
Disturbance
species
Three small reservoirs and rice fields
Development
Wintering ground for ducks and geese
Junam Reservoir
Human
Wintering ground for Eurasian spoonbill, swan goose, whooper swan Disturbance
and white-napped crane, vulnerable species
River estuary connected with the sea, mudflats, rice fields, and deltas
Estuary of
wintering ground for ducks
Development
Nakdong River
Wintering ground for Eurasian spoonbill, Saunders' gull, Eurasian
Water Pollution
oystercatcher, swans and raptors, vulnerable species
26
All wetlands are integrated into a common system of migratory routes for many bird species
(Figure 5).
Figure 5
A.2.3. Aquatic and Marine Ecosystem and Migratory Fish
The Tumen River is a typical, steep "v-shaped" valley with very steep slopes. The lower reaches of
the basin gradually transition to relatively gentle slopes. Most of sediments from the Tumen River,
especially bed load sediments, are deposited in the river mouth and estuary. The remaining water
and polluted sediments flow southward along the north Primorskii cold current. The major current
moves along the coastal reach of the East Sea / Sea of Japan is located at the latitude 380 N, near
port of Sokcho by famous Liman Cold Current (LCC) (part of the Primorskii Cold Current (PCC))
and North Korean Cold Current (NKCC) flow southward and stand against the East Sea Warm
Current (EKWC). The coastal and offshore areas the port of Sokcho is a world famous fishing
bank.
Northwest winds from Manchuria and Siberia predominant in the TRBZ. Air pollution and yellow
sand drift from the northwest to the Tumen estuary and coastal areas, and to the East Sea / Sea of
Japan. Satellite images and MGIS will be used to study DPRK coastal phenomena. The east coast
and offshore the Korean Peninsula, including the Tumen River, are influenced by a natural
oceanographic occurrence. Najin Bay is located in the south of Tumen River. The Najin and
Chungjin seaports are possible sources of industrial pollutants. Peter the Great Bay, however,
might contain and be the source of even greater pollutants, from Vladivostok and other ports. The
Liman Cold Current flows south along the RF coast, passing near Peter the Great Bay. This means
27
the oceanographic features of this bay may affect the mouth of the Tumen River and adjacent
coastal zones: the southeast edge of the east coast of the Korean Peninsula. The coastal area near
the mouth of the Tumen River and estuary is not separated from the coastal zone along the East
Sea / Sea of Japan (including the DPRK) and RF coastal zone (including Peter the Great Bay).
This is due to water movement, currents and related features: sediments, pollutants and ecological
response.
The narrow but long continental shelf along the RF, DPRK and ROK is contiguous from north to
south, and coastal and marine environments are interrelated in terms of impacts on the Tumen
River.
Despite limited data on the DPRK, information gathered from various sources, and satellite
images, provides some sense of the situation in that country. TumenNET Area countries have
attempted to convince scientists and government officials in the DPRK to participate in the coastal
project.
The ROK covers the coastal and marine areas from the Tumen River mouth south to Pusan Port.
There is much data on the coastal zone from Sokcho Port to Pusan Port in the ROK. Water mass
and currents features, and related suspended sediments and pollutants, as well as biodiversity in the
coastal zone, are directly connected to the open sea. For that reason the East Sea / Sea of Japan is
covered extensively in the coastal sector report.
A narrow continental shelf fringes the Siberian coast and Korean Peninsula. Complex sea-floor
topographic features are found on the Japanese side; it has many banks, small basins and troughs.
This complicated bottom geomorphology affects water circulation and currents. Coastal currents
travel great distances along a narrow continental shelf from the Siberian coast in the north to the
Korean Peninsula in the south. The Tumen River mouth and adjacent estuaries exist in the middle
of this long continental shelf and is affected by regular coastal current systems.
The biota of Peter the Great Bay, whose southwest border cuts across the mouth of the Tumen
River, is unique for the following reasons:
· The bay is located at the cusp of temperate and subtropical zones and is subject to the
effects of cold Primorskii and warm North-Korean currents.
· There are many wave-protected areas consisting of shallow water bights, lagoons with
abundant coastal vegetation.
· There is great biotype diversity represented by varied physical and chemical conditions that
result in unique environmental conditions for marine animals and plants in this region.
· The biodiversity of Peter the Great Bay is among the richest and most productive in the RF.
· The number of marine organisms in the bay significantly exceeds similar areas in the RF.
· The bay provides habitat for more than 3,700 species of microorganisms, fungi, plants and
animals that belong to 1,850 genera, more than 840 families, 103 classes and 51 phyla.
· The important problem for marine ecosystems is the influence of results of this project's
implementation on migrations of sea animals in TumenNET Area coastal water.
Pelagic ichthyocene (mainly active migrating fishes) includes 34 fish species. Anadromous fish are
the salmonids and cyprinids, and neritic-pelagic species that enter the coastal zone in mass number
in summer: anchovy, saury, Pacific needlefish, Japanese needlefish, gizzard shad and others (Table
5). There are 65 resident and 40 seasonally migrant species, most of which who come to bights in
the summer during their northern migrations.
28
Table 5. Primary Migratory Fish in the Marine Area of the Tumen River Basin Zone
English name
Latin name
Biogeographic Group
Pollack
Theragra chalcogramma
boreal
Cod
Gadus macrocephalus
boreal
Herring
Clupea pallasi
boreal
Sandfish
Arctoscopus japonica
subtropical
Mackerel
Scomber japonica
subtropical
Anchovy
Engraulis japonica
subtropical
Far-Eastern sardine
Sardinops melanosticta
subtropical
Saury
Cololabis saira,
subtropical
Pacific needlefish
Strongylura anastomella
subtropical
Japanese halfbeak
Hyporhamphus sajori
subtropical
Fish of southern origin (sandfish, mackerel, Far-Eastern sardine) approach the mouth of the Tumen
River in summer. For example, the area of mackerel is West Sea / Yellow Sea and East Sea / Sea
of Japan. During the hot summer season, this species reaches the Tartar Strait during its feeding
migration. Mackerel spawn in the East Sea / Sea of Japan. Another subtropical fish, anchovy,
inhabits the West Sea / Yellow Sea and East Sea / Sea of Japan. This species can use Peter the
Great Bay to spawn. Some migrating fishes living in the East Sea / Sea of Japan and West Sea /
Yellow Sea use the coastal waters of Peter the Great Bay, with its shallow water lagoons, to
spawn.
Anadromous species are the most important migratory fish. These species return to sea to feed and
then return to the river to spawn. The anadromous species are Pacific salmons and redfins. The
TRBZ has three salmon species (masu, pink and chum salmons) and two redfin species (Pacific
redfin and big-scaled redfin). These species have declined in numbers in recent years. Pollution in
the TRBZ is the most obvious reason. The increasing volumes of pollution are a threat to
anadromous fish species. Key reasons are:
· They use the lower and middle reaches of the Tumen River to spawn and this is where the
bulk of pollutants are accumulated;
· Chemical pollution has a negative impact on spawning efficiency, resulting in greater egg
and larvae mortality;
· Ore and processing mill pollution increases suspended material in river water, adds silting
to spawning grounds and reduces total spawning area;
· Increased water turbidity makes the river unattractive for spawning for some species:
salmons and possibly Sakhalin sturgeon.
The role of Peter the Great Bay and the Tumen River in biological resource reproduction for the
entire East Sea / Sea of Japan is also very important. This are has major spawning grounds for
Pacific herring, walleye Pollack, Far-Eastern saffron cod, flounder, greenlings and other
commercially valuable fish. These fish are important marine resources for Primorskii Krai.
Mirgrating fish species that spawn along the East Sea / Sea include: Far-Eastern sardine, anchovy,
Pacific mackerel, saury and cod. These species find optimum spawning conditions the shallow
waters of Peter the Great Bay. The southwestern portion of Peter the Great Bay, which is
influenced by Tumen River runoff, is a unique center of biodiversity conservation because of the
area's abundant, warm, shallow bights where invertebrate species find optimal reproduction
29
conditions. The currents in Peter the Great Bay transport invertebrate larvae. Marine organisms are
distributed such that the water of the Tumen River influences them during migration. Water quality
is a threat to no only endangered species but commercial species also. Annexes 6-9 show
distribution maps for the main populations of commercial fish species. It is clear that Tumen River
waters have an especially strong impact in the winter period. As a rule, pollution is more
concentrated in the winter than in summer.
A.2.4. Tumen River Estuary Migratory Birds
Seasonal routes along the Asian-Pacific flyway extend for several thousands kilometres and cover
several countries. Two major flyways are recognized in Asia for waterfowl, especially Anatidae:
the Central - South Asian flyway and the East Asian flyway (Figure 6).
The area adjacent to the Tumen River's lower reaches is on north-south and west-east migration
routes and serves as key resting and feeding grounds for birds during migrations in Northeast Asia.
Successful TumenNET Area conservation measures are not, however, enough to save bird
biodiversity. Migratory birds are international wealth and do not recognize national or
administrative borders and that is why it is expedient to refine a system of protective measures that
include activities both in the TumenNET Area and that coordinate international activities aimed at
improving the general ecological situation in regional flyways for migratory birds.
An estuary area at the lower reaches in Tumen River is an area of Chinese, Russian and Korean
interface. This region is in a mid latitude belt, has oceanic monsoon climate typical of a mid
temperate zone and is considerably influenced by the East Sea / Sea of Japan.
Figure 6.
Two Major Migratory Bird Flyways in Asia
Many migratory birds use the Chinese sector of the Tumen River estuary. Rare species such as
Crus japonensis P. L. Muller, Haliaeetus albicilla albicilla L. rest and reproduce here. The
provincial largest 116 Crus japonensis P. L. Muller group in total migrating and resting in this area
was found in 1989. This is also the PRC's only habitat for Haliaeetus pelagicus Pallas. Many
national and provincial birds of key importance, such as accipiter, crane, grow and reproduce here.
Endangered species - Cygnus, Aix galericulata, Haliaeetus albicilla albicilla, Crus japonensis,
Emberiza jankowskii are listed in the Chinese Red Book to raise public awareness of their
situation. 346 bird species are registered in the Russian sector of the Tumen River estuary. This is
one of the RF's richest diversity of birds. The highly productive brackish and freshwater reservoirs
sustain numerous migratory waterfowl and provide an important stopping place for migratory
30
birds. 26 duck species are recorded there, the most numerous of them are Northern Pintal Anas
acuta, Garganey Anas crecca, Falcated Teal Anas falcate, Mallard Anas platyrhyncha, Tufted
Duck and Scaup (Aythya fuligula and Aythya marila). In some years, up to 100 thousand ducks
were registered simultaneously in the wetland. The swans, mainly whooper Swan Cygnus Cygnus,
stop annually on Ptichye Lake, forming aggregations to several hundred individuals. The geese fly
mainly transit; Bean Goose Anser fabalis and White-fronted Goose Anser allbifrons are most
numerous. In the Tumen River area and the adjacent territories about 50 species of migratory
shorebirds were registered. Dunlin Calidris alpina and red-necked Stint Calidris ruficollis were
most numerous, sanderling Calidris alba, Mongolian Plover Charadrius mongolus, Gray Plover
Squatarola squatorola, Wood Sandpiper Tringa glareola, Greenshank Tringa nebularia, Spotted
Redshank Tringa erythopus, Godwits Limosa limosa and Limosa lapponica, Austrailan Curlew
Numenius madagascariensis and Whimbrel Numenius phaeopus were common. The territory
sustains a number of rare species; 30 are in the IUCN Red Book: black vulture, Steller's sea-eagle,
white-tailed eagle, Japanese and white-napped cranes, Chinese egret. Thousands of colonial birds
feed in the wetland - black-tailed gull, Temminck's and common cormorants, gray heron and
Chinese egret and breed on Furugelm Island situated nearby.
There are 17 steppe birds in Eastern Mongolia such as Northern Harrier (Circus cyaneus), Upland
Buzzard (Buteo hemilasius), Steppe Eagle (Aquila nipalensis), Lesser Kestrel (Falco naumanni),
Japanese Quail (Coturnix japonica), Demoisella Crane (Antrhopoides virgo), Great Bustard (Otis
tarda), Oriental Plover (Charadrius veredus), Greater Short-toed lark (Calandrella cinerea),
Lesser Short-toed lark (Calandrela rufescens), Mongolian Lark (Melanocorypha mongolica),
Common Skylark (Alauda arvensis), Tawny Pipit (Anthus campestris), Northern Wheatear
(Oenanthe oenanthe), Isabelline Wheatear (Oenanthe isabellina), Tree Sparrow (Passaer
montanus), Pere David's Snow Finch (Pyrgilauda davidiana).
In the DPRK, near Sonbong City situated in the estuaries of Tumen River, there are three large
lakes: Manpo (885 ha), Sobonpo (1,612 ha) and Dongbonpo (361 ha). These three lakes serve as
staging lakes for many migratory birds. Red-crowned Cranes and white-napped cranes also use
these wetlands as a transit area. Waterfowl include Cygnus cygnus, Cygnus olor, Anas
platyrhynchos, A. crecca, A. falcate, Aythya farina, Mergus merganser and Fulica atra. Sonbong
area is being developed as a free economic trade area and there is a plan to develop tourism at the
lakes.
Studies have recently been carried out on bird migration in northwest counties. Banding activities
have been undertaken in the PRC, the RF and Mongolia. Annex 10 and 11 list research results
from an analysis of migration routes for individual bird species.
Korean researchers at the National Institute of Environmental Research (NIER) have used satellite
tracking, banding and color flagging to gather data on migration routes and to identify key habitat
(Table 6).
Table 6. Migration Routes Identified Through Satellite Tracking, Banding and Flag Re-Sight by
NIER, Korea
Species
Country of Origin for Ring or Flag
Country Spotted
Black Vulture
Cholwon, Yeoncheon, ROK (Satellite
Mongolia, RF
tracking and banding)
Red-crowned
Khanka Reserve, RF (Satellite tracking and
Cholwon, ROK
Crane
banding)
31
White-naped
Izumi, Japan
ROK
Crane
Hooded Crane
Izumi, Japan
ROK
Bean Goose
Anadir, Russia
ROK
White fronted
Colima, Russia
ROK
Goose
Little Tern
Nakdong River, ROK
Philippines
Mongolian Plover Mankyung River, ROK
Japan
Stint
Mankyung River, ROK
Taiwan
Taiwan
ROK
Australia
ROK
Terek Sandpiper
ROK
Taiwan
ROK
Australia
ROK
Yakutia, RF
Australia
ROK
Bar tailed Godwit Australia
ROK
New Zealand
ROK
Black tailed
Australia
ROK
Godwit
Knot
New Zealand
ROK
Great Knot
Mankyung river, ROK
Australia
Australia
ROK
Broad billed
Australia
ROK
Sandpiper
Turnstone
New Zealand
ROK
Far eastern
Australia
ROK
Curlew
Human activities - urbanization, agricultural use of wetlands, wetland reclamation, and
transportation corridors - destroy habitat for migratory birds.
A.2.5. Transportation Corridors
The PRC, the RF, the Mongolia and the DPRK, through their cooperative international
development venture in the Tumen River, have examined transportation corridors in the area. In a
broader sense, Japan and the ROK have also participated because both countries are enthusiastic
promoters of both land transportation (between the above four countries and ROK) and ocean
routes (through the East Sea / Sea of Japan) (Figure 7).
In continental northeast Asia, railways between the PRC, Mongolia and the RF (former Soviet
Union) have been an important trade corridor between China and Russia, China and Europe since
the start of operations in the 1950s. Since the 1980s, China has supplied port services for the
foreign trade of Mongolia at Tianjin port. Because the railway has always been Mongolia's foreign
trade corridor, according to material supplied by the Tianjin port, cargo turnover was less than
10,000 tons per year before 1997. This places no infrastructure burden on Chinese railway or the
port at Tianjin. Thus, there is no reason to connect the railway with development of the
TumenNET Area.
In the mid 1980s Dalian seaport began to once again act as a land bridge from Japan to Europe. In
northeast China cargo arrived at the border between the PRC and the former Soviet Union, after
which it crossed Changchun, Harbin, moved west and then connected to the Trans Siberian
32
Railway. The additional costs of shipping via China, compared with the Soviet land bridge, led to
its closure.
Figure 7
In the 1990s, both local Russian and Chinese governments again planed construction of a bridge
over Heilong River (Amur River) to develop trade between Heihe in the PRC and Blagoveschensk
in the RF. A land bridge was considered from Dalian port to Russia. But neither China nor Russia
had funding to construct the Heilong River Bridge. The construction of a transboundary bridge is a
very sensitively geopolitical issue.
Railways are often built on embankments and equipped with various barriers that often interfere
with the natural movement and migrations of ungulate species. Fire along railways, such as occur
in Khasanskii Raion of Primorskii Krai, where large areas along the railway are burn annually, are
also a problem.
The railroad between Ulan-Bator and Zamyn-Ud became a serious obstacle to east west Mongolian
gazelle migration. This resulted in a decline in the number of gazelle in central and western
portions of the country.
The special danger to conservation of large predator population is existence of roads and railroads
Kraskino - Hunchun and the road linking Hunchun with port in DPRK; they can prevent animals
from migrating. They seriously hinder contract among different population groups of the Far
Eastern leopard in the RF and the PRC and may block the unique remaining ecological corridor in
this portion of the predator's habitat.
33
A.2.6. Urbanization
The population of the Chinese sector of the TumenNET Area was 996,000 in 1999, including
579,000 city dwellers, or 58.1% of the total population in that sector. The population of the
Russian sector of the TumenNET Area was 41,200, including 30,400 city dwellers, or 73.8% of
the total population. Total Chinese and Russian population is 1,037,200, and total urban population
609,400, or 58.8% of the total population. In 1999 the volume of urban land in the Chinese
sector was 57 km2 and has increased 65.2% since 1990. Urban use in the Russian sector is 47 km2
increased by one km2. In Mongolia, Ulaanbaatar is the principal industrial center for international
trade. Mongolia, with a population of 2.4 million, or 1.5 per km2, Mongolia has one of the lowest
population densities in the world. About 34% are nomadic and 52% live in urban areas.
It is expected that most Koreans (92%) will live in urban areas by the year 2020. In line with the
1960s Korean Economic Development Plan, the urbanization rate has increased from 40% in the
1970s to 80% in the 1990s. Migration to Korea's six major cities has profoundly increased, raising
the percentage of people in the ROK who live in these six cities from 28.2% in the 1970s to 50%
in the 1990s. Urban data is not available about DPRK.
There are only two cities in the Chinese sector of the TumenNET Area: Yanji and Tumen; DPRK
has one port city of Rajin. For several reasons the economy in the Russian sector of the
TumenNET Area has been stagnant for the past 15 years. Nor has there been any urban expansion.
The DPRK sector added two cities: Rajin-Sonbong and Hoeryong. Owing to economic depression,
overall urbanization levels, however, have not changed much. The Chinese sector of the
TumenNET Area, under the influence of reform and an opening up policy, has witnessed rapid
economic growth. Since 1990, Hunchun became the focus of development, a prelude of TRA
development. Growth of urbanization has been gradual. In the last 15 years cities have expanded
and three communities - Hunchun, Longjing and Helong - have been included in the city list.
Correspondingly, urbanization pressures on the environment have increased in this period.
Urbanization in the Chinese sector increasingly threatens biodiversity.
Many factors influence urbanization trends in the TumenNET Area, including undetermined ones
such as politics. It is thus difficult to predict long-tem trends. However, short-term trends are clear.
Figure 8 shows zoning in the eastern portion of the TumenNET Area based on the environmental
impact of urbanization.
Because of economy depression, urbanization process in the DPRK sector will not develop greatly.
In the Russian sector, there is a trend toward economic recovery, and urban capacity and vitality
will improve. However, due to a small population, a large area, and presently high urbanization
levels, there will not be great changes in the short-term. In the Chinese sector, with a series of
favorable policies such as the development of town and township enterprises, tourism
development, infrastructure construction, and business and capital attraction, urbanization will
develop rapidly.
There is optimism for cooperative development between the PRC, the RF. the DPRK, ROK and
Mongolia. Urbanization is an area where the ROK, Mongolia, Japan, USA and European countries
investment will grow most rapidly.
The amount, type, scale and distribution of investment from the UNDP and other international
sources will play an important role. Each country attaches importance to the development and
construction of harbors. Ports and harbors will hot spots for urbanization in the TRA, making
transboundary cities possible.
34
Figure 8
A.2.7. Mining and Industry
Many years of remedy have reduced industrial pollution, but the impact of municipal wastes and
sewage continue to grow. In 1996 the State Council promulgated "Decisions on Some Issues of
Environmental Protection", which stipulates that by 2000 all industrial discharges must meet
standards. By the end of 2000, statistics show 232 sources of industrial pollution in the Chinese
sector of the TumenNET Area. Excluding Kaishantun Chemical Fiber Pulp Factory, the Shixian
Paper Mill and the Yanbian Aluminum Factory, which had not completed their pollution treatment
tasks yet, 173 industrial pollution sources achieved discharge reduction targets and 59 had been
shut down by prefecture or county (prefecture) governments, meaning that 98.7% of the target was
achieved. With population increase and urban expansion, sewage problems are growing each year.
There are no new urban sewage treatment plants in this region and urban wastes have become one
of the major polluters of surface water.
Industrial effluent in the Tumen River comes from DPRK. The largest source of pollution is the
Musan Iron Mine and the Undok Chemical Factory. Along the mainstream of the Tumen River,
272 km above Kaishantun, pollution comes mainly from DPRK. The major source of pollution is
the Musan Iron Mine of DPRK. It is the biggest iron mine in DPRK and the biggest iron ore
production base in Asia. The mineral reserve of Fe3O4 is about 11×108. Mining started in 1915. It
discharged more than 1.5×104 tons of effluent into the Tumen River in the 1980s, containing about
1 600×104 tons of tailings. Current waste discharge rates are unknown. The effluent comes from
the Chengchun River, one of the branches of the Tumen River. The Tumen River and the
Chengchun River converge at a place 9 km from Nanping in Dehua Township, Helong, PRC.
There is a pulp plant 47 km from Kaishantun is the DPRK. There is sugar factory in Hoeryong.
Both discharge wastewater into the river and raise levels of lignin and phenol in the water.
The Undok Chemical Works in the DPRK is located in the lower reaches of the Tumen River. It is
one of the basic factories of inorganic and organic chemistry in the DPRK. This factory processes
60×104 tons of brown coal in a year and obtains 1.5×104 tons of tar after carbonization. The tar is
35
then processed to make various products, such as phenol, light diesel, hard wax, bitumen. Its daily
effluent discharge in the early 1980s was 18×104 tons, and the components of the effluent were
complex. Water samples taken in the Undok River are an example: the highest phenol value is 0.23
mg/l. The reason for such a phenol value is that phenol is one of their major products. The nature
and level of its waste discharges are unknown.
In the RF there are a number of large, modern industries, such as ship repairing, extraction and
processing of sea products. At the same time, southwest Primorye does not have a high level of
economic development. This territory's low level of economic development is not in keeping with
its high natural resource and unique economic-geographical potential.
The industrial sector has developed rapidly in the past 25 years in Eastern Mongolia. During this
period large-scale, state-owned food, construction material, light and heavy industries were
founded. Many of those industries were located in the Choibalsan, Berkh, Bor-Undur cities. Since
1990 the state owned industries have been privatized and industrialization has been moving toward
small and medium sized businesses. At the end of 2000, in the three Eastern Mongolia Provinces,
there were 850 industries and economic entities: 14.1% - rural, forestry and hunting organizations,
14.9% - processing industries, 1.6% - mining, 2.6% - power stations, 4.0% - construction, 35.3% -
commercial, 3.0% - hotels, restaurants, 7.3% - transportation and communication, 2.3% - financial
trading, 4.0% real estate, 8.2% - health, 2.7% -social services. More than 90% are private.
In the past 35 years, the economy of the ROK has risen to the level of industrialized countries by
harmonizing various factors, including disciplined labor, dedicated entrepreneur spirit and export-
oriented growth strategy. By adopting an outward-looking economic development strategy
focusing on development of export industries, Korea has achieved rapid economic growth and has
advanced its industrial structure.
A major consequence of an industrial activity is air pollution. Air pollution in the TumenNET Area
is from global, regional and local sources. Global impact is rather evenly spread across the entire
region. Therefore, we will discuss regional and local sources. The region's main air pollution
sources are related to human activities in settlements and mining areas. The region is slightly
affected by long distance transboundary air pollution (Figure 9).
Figure 9.
Distribution of anthropogenically emitted SO2 and standard routs of air transport of pollution
36
Russian scientific research shows that more than 73% of pollutants arrive from a western direction.
Observations also show that the most heavily polluted air masses come from the east, along
trajectories from Japan and Korea Peninsula.
Most air pollution in the TumenNET Area is low level air pollution caused by the smoke from
burning of coal; the pollutants are mainly dust and particles. The cause is industry boilers and the
local burning of untreated coal in domestic and commercial stoves. These discharge sources are
wide, scattered, and close to the ground. Most towns in the Chinese sector of the TumenNET Area
are located in mountain valleys where it is difficult for pollutants to disperse, especially in winter
or in abnormal temperature conditions. The atmosphere is unstable. The abnormal temperature rate
is 60% annually; unfavorable climatic conditions are also an important factor for the undesirable
atmosphere conditions.
Atmospheric conditions in cities in the Russian sector of the TumenNET Area are also
unfavorable, though in non-industrial areas air quality meets standards. The principal sources of
pollutants are heat and power enterprises, and automobile and truck transport; these account for
80-85% of the gross volume of atmospheric pollutants. Automobiles supply 66% of the carbon
monoxide, 46% of the nitrogen compounds and 93% of the carbon hydroxides, as well as
benzpyrene and 200 other substances. 90% of pollutants in the TumenNET Area are released to the
atmosphere by enterprises and transportation in three cities: Vladivostok, Artem and Ussuriisk.
The largest source of urban air pollution is thermal power plants, diesel stations, boilers, vehicles,
domestic stoves and solid waste disposal sites. Depending on the fuel used, the base economic
activity and climatic conditions, the main pollutants are SO2 and dust.
The industrial effluent in the Tumen River comes from the PRC and the DPRK. Among the major
sources of pollution is the Kaishantun Chemical Fiber Pulp Factory and the Shixian Paper Mill, the
Musan Iron Mine and the Undok Chemical Factory (Figure 10).
Figure 10
37
Domestic sewage is one of main sources of contaminates in the Tumen River. Domestic sewage
pollutes the mainstream of the Tumen River from Hoeryong in DPRK. Many years of effort to
treat waste in the PRC have eased the industrial pollution, but pollution from domestic sewage is
on the rise. According to statistics, in 1998 fertilizer application in the Chinese sector of the
TumenNET Area was 48,137 tons N, 13,558 tons of nitrogen, 6,666 tons P2O5, 1,066 tons
phosphate. 749 tons of pesticides were applied in 1998, of which 28% were insecticides, 12% -
germ killers, 57% - herbicides and 3% plant growth regulators.
Water pollution causes diseases in fish and others aquatic life (Figure 11).
Figure 11.
Jaw Tumors of the Needlefish
Eye Tumors of the Flatfish (Pleuronectes pinnifasciatus)
Scoliosis of the Haarder (Mugil so-iuy)
Fish Diseases Encountered in the Mouth of the Tumen River Basin
A.2.8. Ecotourism
There are three main ecotourism zones in the TumenNET Area. These are:
38
· Mountain tourism in the Yanbian Korean Nationality Autonomous Prefecture and Jilin
Province in the northeast PRC where one finds the spectacular, scenically beautiful
Changbai Mountain and its abundant biodiversity, Tianchi Lake, hot springs and volcanoes.
There are 2,277 plant species and approximately (Figure 12);
· Coastal/marine and wetlands tourism in southwest Primorye, with spectacular views of
Peter the Great Bay and its rich marine life, rugged and highly scenic coastal landscape and
numerous coves, beaches and capes. There are more than 250 bird species, 270 fish species
(Figure 13);
· Steppe and wetlands tourism in eastern Mongolia with its 11 protected areas and over 1000
wetlands, vast open grassy steppes and Mongolian gazelle habitat. There are 892 vascular
plants, 458 algae species, 71 mammal species, 45 fish species and 327 bird species (Figure
14).
The Changbai Mountain (Baiktu Mountain) of the PRC has six tourist zones (Changbai Mountain
Natural Scenery Zone, Yanji Folk Custom Tourist Zone, Hunchun Border Scenery Zone, Longjing
Historical Relics Tourist Zone, Tumen Border Cities Tourist Zone, He Long Dragon King
Mountain Tourist Zone) and 12 tourist sites (Changbai Mountain Tour, Changbai Winter Tour,
Tianchi Ethnic Culture Tour, Yanbian Chan Ethnic Culture Tour, Chinese / DPRK Tour, Chinese /
Russian Tour, Tumen River Tour, Bo Han Historical Relics Tour, Longjing Historical Relics Tour,
Dragon Spring Herbs / Health Tour, Helicopter Tour, Target Shooting Tour). The tourism industry
in the TumenNET Area has expanded. International tourism was the first to begin and started with
domestic and border tourism. Tourism gradually developed a full set of services of outstanding
quality. Single day border tours of Saibier in DPRK are very popular with tourists since opening in
1991. Until the end of 1999 Yanbian had nine tourist lines operating to the DPRK and the RF.
Border tourism has grown annually. Domestic tourism is rapidly expanding after a late start.
Figure 12.
Ecotourism in the Chinese Sector of the TumenNET Area
39
Organizing recreation and tourism in such a large territory as the Russian sector of the TumenNET
Area cannot rely exclusively upon a few protected areas. This region should be zoned for
ecotourism and appropriate infrastructure developed (Figure 13).
The Mramornyi Cape tourism zone currently has sport hunting and fishing and specializes
organizing scientific and educational tours. In the next 2-3 years organization of rest facilities at
Nazimova Spit Mramornyi Cape belt, which can accommodate 1100-1300 visitors at one time,
should be considered. Development of other locations is restricted due to their proximity to the
marine reserve. The floating facilities at Molochnyi bar (beach length - 14 km) which can handle
up from 4,000 to 4,500 people at one time is also possible. Hunting activities should be reduced in
the interest of biodiversity conservation and more emphasis be placed on educational forms of
recreation. Pos'et resort and ecotourism sub-zone should specialize in medical and recuperative
services.
Figure 13.
Recreation Map of Khasanskii Raion in the Russian Sector of the TumenNET Area
There is a huge potential for educational tourism. Many important archaeological monuments are
located in the TumenNET Area. It is expedient to build compact villages for fishermen (min-
40
tourist bases) that service Mramornyi Cape and Poset recreational zones. The main emphasis for
tourism in Troitsa Bay is beach tourism. The north portion of the Russian sector of the TumenNET
Area has Boisman Bay and Lomonosov Peninsula ecotourism sub-zones specializing in beach
tourism. Slavyanka, Peschanyi Peninsula and the now closed Fyodorovskii sand quarry can
specialize in out-of town and weekend vacationers. This means services will be concentrated near
the coast. Beaches and near coast forest accessible by motorboat will bear the heaviest load.
Attractions and activities for tourists in Eastern Mongolia are largely natural environment sites that
hold a great diversity of landscapes, plants and animals. Tourists also visit Mongolian cultural
sites. Genghas Khan who united the Mongolian people in 13th century into a strong nation that
went on to control most of Eurasia is a focus of the region's cultural tourism. There are also
Buddhist monasteries. Even though many monasteries were destroyed under Communist rule,
some intact and are symbolic sites for Mongolians wishing to worship.
Given available tourist resources, interest and transportation options (mainly flight routes and local
airports), major tourist destinations in Eastern Mongolia are grouped into three sub-zones (Figure
14):
· Natural tourism sub-zone of Khentii (Khan Khentii, Onon-Balj, Kherlen Toono and
Delgerkhaan);
· Historical, cultural and natural tourism sub-zone of Dornod (Khalkh River, Tamsag,
Mongolian Daguur SPA);
· Natural, cultural ethno-tourism zone of Sukhbaatar (Volcanoes landscape, stone man
monument, Dariganga and Uzemch Tsakhariin).
Figure 14.
Recreation Map of Eastern Mongolia
The natural recreational potential and the geographic location of the TumenNET Area mean that
cross border tourism offers great potential. Recommended international tours include (Figure 15):
41
· Sea tour along the East Sea / Sea of Japan coast (days and nights stays) to ports in Japan,
the DPRK, the ROK and the RF;
· Railway ring tour from Ulaanbaatar to the Trans-Siberia-Railway to Vladivostok and
Zarubino (with a five to seven day stay in the Russian sector of the TumenNET Area) and a
return to Ulaanbaatar through Chinese territory via the Trans-Chinese Railway;
· Alpine tourism that begins in the central mountains of the Russian sector of the TumenNET
Area and crosses to the Chinese Mountain Changbaishan (in Korea Paekdu), leading
from there to the top of a large mountain to see forested areas in the PRC and the DPRK;
· Ring around Lake Khanka that forms a boundary between the RF and the PRC and which
offers winter and summer fishing, bird hunting and tours of both PRC and RF reserves;
· Ring tour by the train from Pusan through Seoul - Pyongyang - Rajin up to Zarubino (with
5-7 days staying in the Russian sector of TumenNET Area) and further to Vladivostok and
back by sea with staying in the Free Economic Zone «Rajin-Sonbong».
Figure 15
Besides these forms of exotic ecotourism, there are other tourist routes in the Russian, Chinese and
Korean sectors of the TumenNET Area. These routes include excursions to beautiful natural
landscapes, reserves, cities and settlements, historical and cultural monuments. In the Russian
sector of the TumenNET Area it is possible to visit scientific stations where natural systems and
industrial impacts are studied. Large seaports can be visited where sea trips can be organized is
also a possibility.
A.2.9. Poaching and Illegal Trade
Wildlife populations are declining due to illegal hunting and subsequent sale of products. Low
wages, unemployment in many settlements and a shortage or high cost of meat products promotes
wildlife poaching by local residents year round. Some species are highly sought for the oriental
medicine markets. It is difficult to calculate the losses from poaching. But one can indirectly
42
estimate the impact that poaching has through official confiscation figures. There have been recent
cases of poisoning rare species - red-crowned crane, white-nape crane and black vulture as an
indirect consequence of poisons used to hunt ducks in rice paddies and near rivers. Local farmers
use poison to reduce crop damage from pheasants and ducks or to catch ducks for food and sale.
Ducks are caught for medicinal purposes, as people believe duck soup is a cure for hypertension.
Poaching of tigers and leopards, as a rule, is a combination of many: 1) possible sale of pelts and
body parts; 2) to reduce competition for ungulates; 3) conflicts arising from the predator killing
animals at deer farms; 4) conflicts arising from predators killing domestic cattle and dogs near
settlements.
A.3. Causal Chain Analysis
All issues mentioned above are related to one another. Urbanization and agricultural land use leads
to a decline in wetland area and to a degradation of water quality; cities produce pollution and
agriculture uses pesticides and fertilizers. The decrease in wetlands leads to a loss of plant and
animal biodiversity, especially to a decline in migratory birds. Mining and industrial pollutants
discharge into streams and estuaries adversely impact aquatic and wetland ecosystems.
Development of transportation corridor also affects the ecosystem. Environmental protection
problems caused by development, transportation and primary mineral processing can be divided
into groups:
· geomorphologic: impact and change of relief; land, including impact on lands;
· forest loss and degradation and loss of forests;
· water problems, including changes in hydrology, contamination and change in chemical
composition of surface waters;
· edaphically, including contamination of bedrocks and their exsiccation;
· ecosystem, including degradation of forests and decrease or extinction of animals
populations.
These factors adversely affect soil, water, and air. Environmental restoration comes from
environmental impact assessments, public awareness and international cooperation.
A.3.1. Wetland Degradation
Wetlands, as defined and classified by IUCN, are varied in form, and including sub-tidal or inter-
tidal coral and sea grass, river channel, wet rice fields, flooded crops, natural lakes, man-made
reservoirs, farm ponds, borrow pits. Wetlands are treasures of the biodiversity and provide habitat
for plant and animal species. They are extremely valuable assets that serve many environmental,
social and economics functions: wildlife habitat, pollution purification and flood mitigation. Even
so, systematic wetland conservation is lacking and policy gaps have caused the destruction of
wetlands in recent decades. Reclamation and excessive water use, over grazing, forest and steppe
fires, timber harvest and fires, wind erosion and agricultural chemicals and industrial wastes lead
to degraded or complete loss of wetlands.
Reclamation transforms wetlands into arable lands, including paddy fields and is the most serious
threat to wetlands. Degradation of coastal wetlands is mostly a result of the reclamation of tidal
flats, hatcheries, and various kinds of inland pollutants, oil spills and over harvesting. Many
reclamation projects are either completed or in process. Reclamation of tidal flats seriously affects
marine ecosystem, invertebrates, fish and shorebirds populations.
43
Wetland degradation and loss of biodiversity resulting from reclamation are irreversible or require
substantial periods of time. Development of plains and flood lands result in fragmentation and
isolation of small tracts of lakes and swamps that decreases threaten remaining wetlands.
Stream ecosystems are disrupted because of 1) physical changes in streams (dam construction,
dredging, pebble exploitation, high bank development, over use of stream water for water supply)
and disturbance of surrounding areas (timber harvest, forest fires, cultivation, wetland
reclamation); 2) chemical changes in streams (water pollution from factories, household sewage,
toxic wastes, oil); 3) biological changes from introduced species such as bluegill, bass and giant
bull frogs.
A.3.2. Urbanization
Urbanization increases as people and industry concentrate in one location and the process has
inevitable environmental impacts.
Urbanization has the following impacts on biodiversity in the TumenNET Area:
· Urbanization reduces habitat, fragments large ecosystems, and hinders natural
migration and reproduction;
· Industrial development requires land, building of solid waste sites, damages nature
ecosystem by discharging toxic wastes;
· Mining fragments and pollutes large ecosystems;
· Tourism increases the human impact on land;
· Transportation lines hinder biological reproduction;
· Dam construction reduces wetlands;
· Poaching, hunting and unsustainable harvest decrease the number of wild plant and
animal species;
· Sewage and garbage cause habitat loss and pollute rivers and steams;
· Agriculture activities convert habitat and use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides and
agriculture plastic film damage wildlife habitat.
Urbanization affects international waters in the following manner:
· Urban population growth and industrial development increase demand for freshwater
and extenuate conflicts between limited water supply and increased water demand;
· Urban infrastructures do not properly treat wastes, resulting in river pollution;
· Industrial effluents and slag, polluted irrigation water increase river pollution.
A.3.3. Tourism
Northeast Asia has rich natural assets, beautiful scenery and varied ecosystems of international
significance. Countries within the region must find mechanisms to advance tourism potential
without damaging the environment. Tourism development implies modern communications, road
building and a restaurant and hotel service structure. It has the capacity to advance social and
economic development, but also can adversely impact the environment.
Since tourism influences the environment in various ways, precise quantitative descriptions of
impact are difficult to predict. Despite a lack of international data and a growing tendency toward
specialization, the following tourism activities have a major impact on the environment:
44
1. Coastal and marine environments: non-motorized aquatic sports, scuba diving, motorized
aquatic sports, nature observation;
2. Mountain environments: nature and adventure tourism (hiking, trekking, rock and mountain
climbing), winter sports (skiing), summer holidays (vacation cottages), bird watching and
nature photography, hunting;
3. Steppe and wetland environments: driving, camping, picnicking, viewing wild animals,
bird watching, and hunting.
In addition to the above activities, there are factors that can seriously impact ecosystems and
landscapes. There is the impact of untreated sewage and inadequate trash removal. Some countries
have no sewage and waste disposal capacity.
A.3.4. Mining
Most mining development is associated with water pollution. Development of tin and poly-metal
deposits causes surface water contamination. Coal mining cause changes in hydrology and surface
relief. Water contamination directly or indirectly influences the habitat of large mammals.
The most important mining development in the TumenNET Area is the titanium-magnetite field
within the riparian belt (300 m wide) of the Tumen River mouth near the boundary of the Far-
Eastern Marine Reserve. Sand extraction will inevitably lead to a reduction in waterfowl in
lagoons. These lagoons are known rest sites for cranes and sand removal damage these sites.
A.3.5. Agriculture
The proper use of chemical fertilizer is one way to increase agricultural production. Farmers often
use excessive volumes of chemical fertilizer. Over use of chemical fertilizers affect the physical
landscape, causing soil solidification, hindering crop and other plant growth. The persistent use of
fertilizers, especially the mineral fertilizers, has lasting effects on soil.
Pesticide application, especially herbicide use, has increased annually in the TumenNET Area.
Residue left by some pesticides remains a controversial topic and requires further study. But it is
well known that pesticides are harmful to some animals and birds. If pesticides enter the water,
they can damage aquatic environments.
Although plastic sheeting enhances agricultural production, farmers fail to understand that plastic
sheeting left on fields causes pollution. Waste sheeting damages soil structure and hinders crop
growth. Soil capillaries are blocked, affecting water movement in soil. Physical and chemical
functions of soil deteriorate, hindering the growth of plant roots.
Agricultural irrigation affects underground run-off and damages aquatic ecosystems. If effective
measures are not taken, it will affect the regional soils and degrade fields and affect the
biodiversity in the area.
A.3.6. Transportation Corridors
Transportation corridors have important impacts on biodiversity and international waters in the
TumenNET Area. Transportation corridors are important to urban and tourist development, but
their impacts on biodiversity and international waters could also restrain development. Since
transportation corridors in the TumenNET Area are transboundary and marine-land, invasion of
alien species is unavoidable. If the dream of a "land bridge" comes true, the invasion of alien
species (viruses, funguses, insects) from Europe or Pacific regions will have negative impacts on
regional biodiversity.
45
With population growth and intensifying natural resource development, infrastructure development
sharply accelerates. Automobile and railway corridors increase. A key threat to large mammals
from high density of road systems is a decrease in ungulate density from increased illegal hunting
and poaching. Fragmentation of large mammal habitat, due to corridor development, will also lead
to a decrease of genetic diversity and large mammals can become extinct in their native ranges.
There is also the impact of logging roads that are frequently built in river valleys. These logging
roads are often quite built in the riverbeds of small rivers where an increase in the number of
ungulates is observed, especially during seasonal migrations, periodic migrations and shifts from
one ecosystem to another in winters with heavy snowfall. With a decrease in ungulate density in
valleys, the numbers of large predators also declines.
A.3.7. Forest Use and Forest Fires
Despite reforestation plans for harvest zones that are intended to increase total forest area, a newly
replanted forest does not replace original forest in terms of biodiversity and wildlife habitat. Rural
people use wood for firewood, leading to forest loss. Sustainable harvest and wood collecting
plans for given areas haven't been executed as a result of population increases and market demand.
In some areas, over grazing is the key reason for plant and animal habitat destruction. Over harvest
of non-timber forest products is another reason for a decline in ecosystem quality. There is a lack
of understanding of the destructive consequences of over harvest. The impact of forest loss on
local areas is not assessed in detail, but observations show some critical environmental problems.
It is clear that in the TumenNET Area forest ecosystems are severely threatened by human
activities. Forestland productivity continues to decline and forests in the region are losing their
water holding, climatic and wildlife habitat functions. The basic fires arise in the fields where there
is little snow, in spring from the end of April up to middle of May, and in autumn from middle
October up to the end of November. As a result of fires of different character and frequency,
forests of all types sharply change their structure. In broad leaf forests, there are ground fires at
which the potent leaf-litter burns down more often. Process of regeneration goes differently to
compare with fires in coniferous forests. In places of the dead trees (oak, linden, maple), young
springwood is recovered, mainly oak and alder in downturn of relief. Fires do not directly lead to
the death of large predators and ungulates, but do force them to leave burnt out territories.
Casual Chain analysis is required to assess the environmental impact of the factors mentioned.
These factors cause the same environmental problems water pollution, habitat loss and ecosystem
destruction, and are a result of human activities. Solutions to these problems are need based on the
interaction of international collaborations, awareness programs, environmental information
systems and conservation actions (Figures 16 and 17).
Figure 16.
Agriculture
Air
Mining
Transport
Water
Tourism
Urbanization
Wetland Degradation
Soil
Forest Exploitation
Relationships between Clusters and the Environment
46
Figure 17.
Wetland
Degradation
EIS&EIA
Forest
Water Pollution
Exploitation
Agricultural
Impact
Loss of Habitat
Measures
&
Forest Fires
Actions
Urbanization
Destruction of
Transport
Ecosystem
Corridor
Awareness
Mining &
Industry
Schematic Diagram of Relationships between Clusters and Environmental Impact
A.4. ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION SYSTEM
The TumenNET Area has five major project components: Environmental Information System
(EIS), Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis (TDA), Awareness Raising Program (AWARE),
Strategic Action Program (SAP), and Regional Water Survey (SURVEY). The overall goal of the
Environmental Information Systems component is to create a system where users can access and
manage information on biodiversity and international waters of the region via Internet. This
information will assist government, business, the scientific community and other stakeholders to
enhance understandings on decision making and to contribute to the environmentally sustainable
economic development of the TumenNET Area. Cross-border compatibility and mutual acceptance
of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) procedures are other goals under this component. The
PRC serves as a Lead Agent for the development of the Environmental Information and
Management System for the TRBZ Strategic Action Plan Project. Since the TDA/SAP TOP
workshop held in Beijing from 27 November to 1 December 2000, EIS Lead Agent (LA) and
Partner Institutes (PIs) engaged in Environmental Information Systems framework design and data
collection.
A.4.1. Agreements on Environmental Information System
The Environmental Information Systems Regional Meeting in Changchun (March 1-2, 2001)
reached agreements on the following issues.
Scope of Information for the Environmental Information Systems Component
47
The basic idea behind data collection for Environmental Information Systems component is to
"Work for people not scholars, minimize work scope, avoid new digitizing, use existing data,
harmonization with sector reports." In the actual work, each institute should make good use of the
existing information sources and incorporate critical information into regional and national
Environmental Information Systems. The scope of information for the EIS component is:
· Basic information: maps and associated data, geographical, geological and meteorological
data;
· International waters: mainstream and major tributaries of Tumen River, coastal areas,
Kherlen and Khalkh Rivers in Mongolia;
· Major sources of pollution: name, location, type, daily and annual wastewater discharge
volumes, discharge rates for key pollutants, concentrations of key pollutants, treatment
facilities;
· Monitoring stations/sites and monitoring data: maps and associated data, name and location
of monitoring stations/sites, monitoring information for concentration parameters in the last
ten years that list total: N, P, TSS, BOD5, oil, and heavy metals (Cr6+, Cd, Pb, As, Hg);
· Biodiversity: all the boundary countries, especially the Primorskii Krai in the RF, DPRK
and Mongolia;
· Maps data: main ecosystem types, list of key protected and endangered species, and
protection status;
· Regional concerns - Amur tiger, Far Eastern leopard, Mongolian gazelle, migratory birds:
maps, pictures and associated data, existing and proposed protected areas, population
dynamics, availability and distribution of prey, migratory routes for migrating birds,
existing and potential threats - highways, railroads, border facilities, poaching;
· Incorporation with TDA: maps, pictures and associated data, tourism, transportation
corridors, urban centers, major existing and potential threats to biodiversity;
· Land use: maps and associated data, forests, grasslands, cultivated land, settlements,
wetlands, protected areas, water bodies.
A.4.2. Regional Environmental Information Systems Frameworks
Regional EIS frameworks are key to the EIS component. The Lead Agent submitted and had
approved a regional EIS framework (Figure 18).
Figure 18.
Regional EIS Homepage
Terminal
China
Mongolia
Russia
Republic of
DPRK
EIS
EIS
EIS
Korea
EIS
Homepage
Homepage
Homepage
EIS
Homepage
Homepage
Approved Environmental Information Systems Framework
48
A.4.3. Web links
As one of the key technical issues, the form of the web linkage between each participating country
was discussed and general agreement was made about linkage details, limitations, requirements,
and base e-map.
A.4.4. Current Status
The PRC, as a lead agency, has the website: www.tumen.com.cn. The site contains digital maps,
picture album, biodiversity, and surface water. The amount of information is not great, particularly
on Tumen River water quality. Data by seasons and monitoring stations are needed for public
awareness.
The RF has the website: www.tigis.dvo.ru/tumenproject/start.htm. The site contains land use,
biodiversity, and international water data for southwest Primorye. There are some extra blocks:
Chitinskaya Oblast, AWARE, Stakeholders.
Mongolia has the website: www.tumennet.mn. The site contains data of land use, biodiversity, and
water resources. The site attracts the public.
The ROK has the website: www.neaspec.go.kr/tumen. The site contains project and sectorial
reports. The site needs to prepare public awareness and green investment data.
A.4.5. Challenges and Measures
We expect the following challenges and suggest measures to meet these challenges. Maintenance
of the regional/national EIS homepages
Besides the accessibility of national EIS homepages, the update and maintenance of
national/regional EIS homepages also calls for both a national and bilateral/multilateral level
strategy. Without a straightforward strategy and effective implementation and cooperation, no
update and maintenance can be expected of the national/regional EIS homepage after the TRBZ
Strategic Action Program Project ends in August 2002. The active involvement of
provincial/national governments and research institutes is strongly recommended. One practical
solution would be that the EIS plays a role as a platform for local government to air their program.
How often we need to update the data is data specific. For example, the monitoring data for water
quality should be updated at least three times a year, i.e. low-flow period, medium-flow period and
high-flow period. For biodiversity information, the time interval for updating data could be longer.
All the emergent accidents causing great environmental damage should be reported immediately,
and the post-accident monitoring and evaluation should be done strictly.
A) Data Sharing
There are two aspects of data sharing: 1) which data could be released from related authorities and
shared by users, and 2) what is the comparability of data from different sources.
The first aspect is related to national/provincial policies/regulations. To promote a more
transparent political environment in both national and regional levels, the suggestion is to sign a
bilateral/multilateral agreement and encourage more local community involvement in the policy
making process.
49
The second aspect is a technical issue. Since it is impossible to change the terminology,
measurement method, expression format of certain information, a widely accepted international
standard should be a practical compromise, for example, GIWA for international water, and the
rapid assessment method from the World Health Organization. A joint expert team should be
formed to carry out field study to check the applicability of the standard, and the capacity of
research institute involved.
B) Additional Information on Regional / National EIS Homepages
Regional EIS Homepage
The language for regional/national EIS homepages is English and should attract interest and
investment globally. However, considering the quite poor English language skills of local people,
the interest may not be local. Without a strong awareness and involvement of local government
and local community in existing and potential environmental problems, no improvement could be
achieved successfully.
A regional EIS homepage in local languages should be established, i.e. a Russian version for the
RF, a Mongolia version for Mongolia, a Korean version for the ROK, and Chinese and Korean
versions for the Chinese sector of the TumenNET Area located in Yanbian Korean Autonomous
Prefecture.
Considering the availability of funds and time, it is recommended to split this work into two steps.
The first step is to establish a regional EIS homepage in English with some local language
summaries. The second step is to build up three sub-regional EIS homepages (TRBZ, DSZ, MPZ)
in local languages with English summaries, respectively.
The Regional EIS homepage will present the major transboundary environmental issues, which
refer mainly to migratory birds, large mammal, transportation, urbanization, Tumen River,
ecotourism, priority marine environmental problem, and loss of habitat.
In addition to information on environmental conditions, information on investment opportunities,
technological options for pollution manage, environmental education will be collected and put into
specific columns to facilitate or provoke environmental protection activities in the region. The
regional EIS homepage is expected to be ready by the end of November 2001.
C) Additional Information On Biodiversity and Rare Plants
On the national EIS homepages, listed will be the names of plants and animals, the current situation of
rare and endangered species, nationally protected areas. In the under-construction regional EIS
homepages, our big concerns are given to high threat issues, such as migratory birds, Siberian
tiger/leopard and Mongolia gazelle that are also highlighted by the sector reports.
These data are not sufficient to address biodiversity issues in the project area. One reason is we
have drawn a strict boundary on what could appear in the regional/national EIS homepages, the
result is only a few species could be addressed. The other reason is we have relatively poor data
comparing to the popularity and threats of the highlighted species. To improve the current
situation, it is suggested to add more information into the regional or sub-regional EIS homepages.
Migratory Birds
The continuing growth of human population, habitat destruction and fragmentation caused by
agricultural expansion and urbanization precludes the conservation of migratory birds and their
50
habitat. Intensification of economic activities causes a serious threat to regional survival of
migratory bird populations. Website development is important to mitigate these problems and to
attract public. Data on migratory birds monitoring, hunting statistics, seasonal distribution and
routes, and the state of particular species or group of birds will be supplemented.
Mongolia Gazelle
Mongolia gazelle is a species with great significance for biodiversity protection. However, due to
lack of information on Mongolia gazelle distribution, population, food, migratory routes in the
IMAR in the PRC and Chitinskaya Oblast in the RF, a complete picture for the Mongolia gazelle
has not been formed. It is suggested to allocate additional budget to study the IMAR and
Chitinskaya Oblast. The materials needed are the distribution of Mongolian gazelle, the changes in
distribution and population in the last 50 years, the situation of protected areas in the IMAR and
Chitinskaya Oblast.
Amur (Siberian) Tiger / Far Eastern Leopard
Just like Mongolia gazelle, a study should be undertaken to identify the distribution and population
of Amur (Siberian) tiger and Far Eastern leopard in the region (Figure 19).
Figure 19
51
Besides migratory birds and large mammals, species with specific public interest or environmental
or economic significance should be included, for example, medicinal plants and animals. The
species are usually location specific and/or country specific, therefore, it is recommended that the
sub-regional EIS homepages cover above information upon the request of local users.
52
D) Information on Public Awareness and Green Investment
The public awareness component consists of three subcomponents: Small Grants Program (SGP),
Awareness Raising Program (ARP) and the TumenNET Area Environment Excellence Award.
The Small Grants Program is targeted at local communities and preference is given to practical and
results-oriented projects, preferably with cross-border impacts. The Awareness Raising Program
(ARP) intends to educate local people on environmental issues, biodiversity protection and new
and sustainable approaches to income generation. The ARP will also provide a feedback
mechanism through which the project can learn about concerns of local communities and villagers
directly affected by environmental degradation. It will help to increase awareness on
transboundary environmental issues among other stakeholders such as local and provincial
governments, small and medium sized business. The TumenNET Area Environment Excellence
Awards will be launched in every participating country. Nominees will be selected among
individuals, non-government organizations (NGO), small business companies and others for their
achievements in environmental protection and education, introduction of "green business."
E) Broader Geographic Scope
During the TOP WP last November in Beijing, the geographic scope of EIS component was
determined to be the project area in the boundary countries, i.e. Tumen River Area, Eastern
Mongolia. During the preparation of the regional EIS homepage, it was discovered that the project
area does not cover the study areas for migratory birds, large mammals, transportation, and
ecotourism. For example, the sector report on transportation covers the East Sea / Sea of Japan,
Chitinskaya Oblast in the RF, Heilongjiang Province and the IMAR in the PRC. Meanwhile, since
the data in each sector report mainly serve for the sector report itself, they do not give the whole
picture of the covered area. Therefore, it is mandatory for the regional EIS homepage to cover a
much larger geographic area. As a result, more data/information would be needed.
F) User Oriented Approach
To ensure that the EIS is user friendly, user oriented and relevant to the process of promoting the
environmental protection in the region, certain strategies should be promoted at political and
operational levels.
G) Criteria for Evaluating the Operation of EIS
The criteria should include a measuring matrix and methodology. The parameters in the matrix
may be quantitative and qualitative. For example, how relevant the EIS is to major environmental
issues/activities and how relevant the EIS is to users are qualitative parameters, the time interval
for data updating and web-site visiting times are measurable parameters.
Evaluation activities should be done independently, and results used to improve the services
supplied by the related institutions only.
H) User Profile
The importance of local government and private sector involvement has been stressed. For
stakeholders without Internet access (rural areas of the PRC, Mongolia and the RF), it was
suggested to use local newspapers in cooperation with AWARE partners. Other technical issues
are data availability and resources needed, contracts extension, new contracts, personnel,
equipment, software.
53
I) Next Steps for the Environmental Impact Assessment
A lack of technical and legal harmonization of national environmental impact assessments has
been identified as one of the key impediments to the successful implementation of the Strategic
Action Plan. Consequently, the project provides resources for national and regional capacity
building to overcome that constraint. TumenNET Area Environmental Impact Assessment Policy
Workshop was held in Ulaanbaatar on 16 October 2001. Several issues were discussed and
recommended.
Environmental impact assessment procedures in each participating country are implemented
according to national laws. To incorporate any "transboundary" issues into the environmental
impact assessment procedures, national laws would have to be changed which seems highly
unrealistic. Harmonization of national procedures to incorporate transboundary issues might also
be required. Three participating countries (Mongolia, PRC and ROK) are not signatories to
existing conventions that deal with international waters or transboundary environmental impact
assessment issues. Environmental impact assessment specialists attending the Workshop explored
the scope for regional cooperation on environmental impact assessment issues pertaining to
transboundary biodiversity and international waters. The Workshop participants formulated the
following recommendations:
· Include considerations of transboundary environmental impacts in national environmental
impact assessment procedures;
· Screen projects which will require environmental impact assessments for their possible
transboundary impacts;
· Establish routine reporting mechanism for transboundary accidents with neighboring
countries: contact persons, e-mail, fax, phone numbers;
· Share environmental impact assessment information for projects with potential
transboundary impacts with neighboring countries in order to involve public and local
authorities in the environmental impact assessment process;
· Prepare bi-lateral and multi-lateral agreements on transboundary environmental impact
assessment procedures;
· Consider establishment of joint commissions to analyze possible transboundary
environmental impacts;
· Use the Strategic Environmental Assessments (SEAs) for potential transboundary oil and
gas pipelines and transportation corridors in the region as case studies on transboundary
biodiversity and international water issues;
· Prepare an Environmental Impact Assessment (Statement) for the TRBZ and distribute it to
participating countries for consideration;
· Allocate funds from the TumenNET Area Project budget to assist environmental impact
assessment capacity building in the region;
· Strengthen regional environmental impact assessment capacities with the approximately
$50,000 USD in the TumenNET Area Project budget. Because the sum is inadequate to
support initiatives in every participating country, environmental impact assessment
capacity building seminars could be organized to provide training on the following topics:
outline of environmental impact assessments for mining sector, outline of environmental
impact assessments for transboundary pipelines, outline of environmental impact
assessment for transboundary highways and railroads, guidelines for Strategic
Environmental Assessment, guidelines for regional Environmental Impact Statement, and
internet-based assistance kit for environmental impact assessment preparation.
A.5. Awareness-Raising Program
54
A.5.1. Objectives
Since the beginning of the TumenNET Area Project, an Awareness Raising Program has been
developed and implemented in each participating country. The major purpose for setting up an
awareness program is: 1) wetland, forests, steppes, and ocean protection as well as transboundary
biodiversity conservation and International Water protection will be strengthened and enhanced by
creating strong public awareness; 2) a SRZ Network in various environmental sectors will be
established in the process of promotion of awareness Raising Program; 3) to heighten public
awareness, the mass media will be included in the process of creating a mechanism for information
networking; 4) a Small Grant Project (SGP) will be adopted to promote grass-root NGOs
visualization of ecosystem protection of the SRZ. The promotion and implementation of the SGP
process will raise awareness on specific issues of SRZ.
A.5.2. Key Outcomes of Awareness Raising Program
To implement the public awareness program, education documents, including texts for children
and adults, brochures, posters are published. The activities of the awareness program will be
recorded on videos, slides, CDs for future environmental protection promotion of the TumenNET
Area.
A Small Grant Programs (SGP) has been executed for various aspects of the TumenNET Area. 29
programs were selected in four countries for the first period which began in the summer of 2001.
All SGPs are either completed or in an implementation phase. An evaluation team - Mr. Badarch, a
Leading Agent of Awareness Raising Program and Ms. Ying Zhou, EIC (Education, Information
and Communication) Manager of PCU of TumenNET Area - made on-site inspection of SGPs in
four countries from the middle of October until the 9th of November.
The 29 projects were distributed as follows: PRC 10; Mongolia - 9, RF - 6, Korea 4. Thematic
distribution was as follows: biodiversity - 5; water issues 5; children's drawing competition 1;
exhibits - 1; plant and animal conservation - 4; environmental education 5; general public
awareness - 8.
The second grant period began in January 2002 with proposals submitted by NGOs.
Although the ROK and Mongolia are not directly located in the TRBZ, local people are aware of
the Tumen River. On the Korean Peninsula the "Five Major Rivers Event" is held in November to
watch migratory birds. The image of the Mongolian gazelle will awaken in children, housewives,
activists and disabled people an awareness of TumenNET Area issues. These events focus
attention on the importance of clean water and biodiversity to government and administrative
officials.
A.5.3. Achievements of Awareness Raising Program
Each country launched a pilot phase of the National Awareness campaign using its own materials,
such as educational books for children and adults, posters, brochures, booklets. These materials, in
local language, allow people to include the Tumen River in their environmental campaigns and to
focus attention on the social and political situation of TumenNET Area.
According to the regional education, information, communication (EIC) strategy, country-specific
National Environmental Awareness-Raising Programs (NARP) have been set up by effectively
communicating among groups such as PCU, Lead Agent and Partner Institutes.
55
The Partner Institute of Korea organized a special Korean Committee of Awareness Raising for the
Protection of the Tumen River. Members of this committee consist of the international staff of
major environmental NGOs, Korean Federation of Environmental Movement (KFEM), Green
Korea United (GKU), Citizen's Movement of Environmental Justice (CMEJ), Korea Women's
Environmental Network (KWEN), Green Future, Won Buddhism Association. Monthly meetings
began executing procedures for all ARP projects.
A.5.4. Weaknesses for Implementation of Awareness Raising Program
There are weaknesses in several ARP areas. A failure to implement the Education, Information and
Communication (EIC) regional strategy at national and local levels reflect the rather weak capacity
of responsible NGOs and other related organizations. The nature of the initial TumenNET Area
Project period resulted in a focus on only a few species. Plant and animal data and the status of
rare and endangered species in the SRZ should be supplemented to assure the future success of the
TumenNET Area Project.
The shortage of educational materials in each country can be overcome through the publication of
sample materials by the PCU or by individual countries, and then translated to other languages.
Lead Agent and Partner Institute for each country need to publish more educational materials.
To implement the ARP of NGOs, there must be national and local government support in each
country to promote the capacity of Local Awareness Organizations to accomplish EIC regional
strategy and NARP (National Awareness Raising Program).
A.5.5. International Awareness Raising Program Events
PCU, Leading Agent and Partner Institute of each country in the SRZ agreed to plan several
International events together to raise awareness of the TumenNET Area Project. Green Schools,
Children drawing competition, Tumen River Clean Up Day, 5 June, 2002, and Mass Media
Campaign will be co-planned among participating TumenNET Area countries: the PRC, the RF,
Mongolia and the ROK.
Green School
Each country will select three to five primary schools and kindergartens in each country. The
Partner Institutes in each country will prepare a selection matrix and selection panels of country
green school. The cooperation of local governments is strongly recommended for linking NGOs
with administrative activities. The curriculum for green schools might include extra-curricular
activities like 'planting a tree a day,' 'love bird week,' expeditions along eco-paths near schools,
summer environmental schools, tourist clubs, extra-curriculum courses on ecology. Environmental
Tool Kits for teachers, classroom booklets and materials, educational videos, exhibition materials
will be used for classroom teaching.
International seminars for teachers at green schools on curriculum development can be organized
by the PCU or Lead Agent of ARP. Evaluation of curriculum and activities at green schools can be
executed by organizer of green school in the leading country.
There will be some incentives and rewards for green schools by offering funding (300 to 500
USD) provided by PCU or Lead Agent and Partner Institutes from the ARP budget. Each country
Partner Institute can develop awareness materials for green schools and campaign together with
green schools.
56
A certificate will be issued to recognize their dedication to the environmental protection. Names of
contact, phone and fax numbers, and e-mail addresses will be provided for communication among
green schools in four countries. Programs for International Green Schools will be developed by
each Partner Institute for exchange among participants in the TumenNET Area Project.
Tumen River Clean-Up Day, June 5 2002
Dr. Eun-kyung Park, Director of Environment and Culture Institute, the Partner Institute of Korea
Awareness Raising Program will prepare the Master plan for the Tumen River Clean Up Day
event. This event will remind residents in the four participating countries and other citizens of the
value of clean water for biodiversity conservation, and specifically, for migratory birds in their
own lands.
The goals of the "Clean Up Day" are to:
· Remind people that the Tumen River is the center of biodiversity;
· Raise consciousness on the value of inland waters;
· Build a four nation cooperative spirit;
· Establish future Tumen River Clean Up Days in the region.
The Program will:
· Select ten local sites in each country to join the river or seacoast clean up effort;
· Select ten NGOs in each country to cooperate in this multinational event;
· Bring together children and youth, women, and the disabled to share information on the
importance of clean water.
The Lead Agents and Partner Institutes will promote linkages to the private sector for better future
cooperation. The Korean TumenNET Area Committee will prepare garbage bags, aprons and head
bands with our TumenNET Area Project logo for all participants in the Clean Up Day events.
Children Drawing Competition
Lead Agents and Partner Institutes will organize a TumenNET Area Drawing Competition for
primary school children. Partner Institutes will pick competition themes in light of transboundary
biodiversity and water issues. The purpose of this competition is two: 1) to raise awareness on the
TumenNET Area Project among small children and their parents, and 2) to select drawings for the
2002 TumenNET Area calendar. Partner Institutes in each country will send six drawings to the
PCU with the following information: name of student, title of drawing, age, address, and
registration forms. Lead Agents and Partner Institutes will select drawings and fund them through
the ARP budget. 2002 TumenNET Area calendar will be produced by the 25th of December 2001.
Mass Media Campaign
Mass Media Campaign to promote more effective work among the four country ARPs has been
postponed until the beginning of year 2002. The event will coincide with the press releases to the
mass media on TumenNET Area projects. The Strategic Action Plan reporting section has attracted
mass media attention and the TumenNET Area Small Grant Project has been covered in ten
newspaper reports, three public TV reports, and one radio report. There has also been one cable
TV broadcast in early November 2001, two 50 minute video programs on the Korean ARP.
Overall Mass Media campaign has been well developed in the context of the Korean ARP.
57
A.5.6. National Awareness Raising Programs
Each country has developed its own ARP in compliance with local environmental conditions.
Russian Tiger Day
Russian Tiger Day was organized by local government, state government and NGOs, including
WWF Friends Club and TumenNET Area Club in Vladivostok. The purpose of the event was to
raise awareness about tigers. 1,000 people attended various programs including a morning parade
of car decorations, a six hour-long concert. 700 signatures were collected from supporters of
national park. Fireworks concluded the Tiger Day event.
Events to Feed and Observe Migratory Birds
Bamsum (Bam Island), which is located in the middle of Han River, is famous winter habitat for
migrating birds. Birds remain in this area from October to February before returning to Siberia in
spring. However, recent political decision to reclaim wetlands on the ROK's west coast could
affect migratory bird routes along the Siberian - Korean flyway. Continued seacoast reclamation
could intimidate various migratory birds on the Korean peninsula and destroy wetland and
agricultural sites.
Koreans must be made aware of the importance of maintaining clean water and preserving
wetlands, not only to conserve biodiversity but also to protect migratory birds stopping on our
peninsula. To increase awareness of these environmental issues, each month gatherings to feed and
observe migratory birds will be held at Bamsum (Bam island): in October, November, December
2001 and until January and February 2002. During program implementation, the need to preserve
the environment of the TumenNET Area will be emphasized.
Several NGOs, along with members of the Korean TumenNET Area ARP will participate in this
joint program. The Association of Migratory Birds will manage the program, along with prominent
environmental NGOs in the ROK, like KFEM, GKU, CMEJ, KWEN, Green Future. Various
groups, including children and mothers, disabled people, and youth will be included in this
program. All these programs will be videotaped and information will be provided to newspapers,
radio and TV.
Local Activities
Since local areas also contain migratory bird habitat, it is important to raise awareness of local
residents of the importance of migratory birds. Four major rivers in the ROK - Youngsan, Sumjin,
Nakdong and Kum - will be sites for local activities. All four areas will hold birds events,
organized by local Associations of Migratory Birds, local NGOs of KFEM, Green Korea, YWCA.
Programs such as observing migrating birds, feeding, children's composition competition and
children's drawing contest will be promoted.
Liaison Project with Yanbian Green Yanji and Newspaper
Green Yanji will partner with the Korean ARP to organize children art contests in July 2001.
These art contests will be co-sponsored by the Korean ARP, Green Yanji and Youth Newspaper of
Chinese Korean society, founded in 1957 and which has a readership of 50,000. The project will
award 200 students for their environmental awareness. Some of the art works will be displayed by
cooperation of CMEJ on Korea as a SGP.
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Educational Materials
Educational materials will be prepared at levels: for small children and for adults. Green Korea
United will produce a children's booklet; it has previously published various ecological literature
for children. Adult literature on specific issues will be written by seven specialists to raise
environmental awareness. Children's booklet will consist of five chapters. Pictures of wildlife in
the TRBZ will be included. One thousand copies each booklet will be printed for primary school
students, women's groups and government officials. Korean Committee members will use the
children's booklet during lectures and extra-curricular class activities at kindergartens and primary
schools. The adult booklets will be used for training high-school teachers, especially with members
of the "Environmental Friendly Teacher's Association," a nationwide organization. The teachers
will hopefully distribute the booklets to high school students. Members of the Korean ARP will
take advantage of opportunities to use the prepared educational materials. Materials will be
distributed to all participants in ARP programs. Government and business are also target groups
and materials will also be distributed to these groups.
Mass Media Campaign
Mass media - radio, TV, cable TV, newspapers have been mobilized since June 2001. Press
releases have been regularly prepared and various mass media outlets have been notified of all
ARP programs. Specific mass media events include:
· "Reporting Sessions" as well as "Environmental Specials" on various broadcast channels;
· "Environmental News" on the radio;
· NGO sections in the each daily newspaper;
· Environment programs on cable TV;
· Magazines and newsletters produced by various environmental NGOs.
Each Korean TumenNET Area event will be videotaped and edited to advertise the TumenNET
Area. The Korean Committee of the TumenNET Area will use all available mass media outlets to
distribute TumenNET Area Awareness Campaign materials. The Bamsum events and Clean Up
Day Programs will be promoted through contacts in the mass media.
The SRZ includes three other sub-regional TumenNET Area zones: DSZ, MPZ, TRBZ.
Comprehensive, integrated Awareness Raising Programs and Small Grant Programs have been
listed in this report. Lead Agents and Partner Institutes coordinated most of these programs at the
Third Awareness Raising Meeting on November 15th in Beijing. Green Schools, Clean Up Day,
Children's Drawing Competition and Mass Media Campaign will be promoted simultaneously in
four countries. SGPs for Tranche 2 will link international NGOs in four countries. ARP and SGP
have been created in four countries according to meet specific local environmental and social
needs, cooperation will create a long lasting network to promote environmental protection of the
TumenNET Area. The concept of a SRZ implies more regional corporation through small projects
created for SGP of Tranche 2, 2002. All four Korean SGPs of Tranche 1 networked liaison
projects with Chinese and Russian NGOs: Won Buddhism with PRC and Russia; Green Korea
United with Yanji Green in Yanbian; Korea Federation of Environmental Movement with Yanbian
University and local people of Yanji; and Citizen's Movement of Environmental Justice with Yanji
Youth Newspaper. NGOs are a potentially important means of empowering people and monitoring
the environment. NGOs should take a greater role in environmental discussions and in decision-
making processes.
A.5.7. NGO and Similar Grassroots Organization Involvement in Environmental and
Natural Resource Issues in the TumenNET Area Project
59
As environmental awareness and public involvement is promoted in the TumenNET Area Project,
a public awareness raising campaigns should be developed in conjunction to successfully achieve
measurable results. An analysis of legislation in TumenNET Area countries is also necessary to
promote public participation in environmental management. The means to raising public
awareness with NGO participation should be base on existing legal mechanisms. Such
mechanisms, different in each TumenNET Area country, should lead to public awareness raising
programs and projects. Experience shows that simply attracting public attention without real means
to influence administrative decision-making process through public involvement, including NGO,
is an ineffective tool. A better understanding of what are effective public awareness campaigns is
important in order to explain why NGOs should participate.
Why NGOs and the local community should participate in government decision-making on
environmental and resource use issues, especially at the local level, includes:
· NGOs are generally guided by an awareness of potential environmental dangers of current
of planned economic activity;
· Agency, business, government and local community interests in territorial development
always have elements of conflict for which a compromise can be found;
· Local communities are most interested in conservation of environmental quality,
biodiversity and traditional lifestyles since they suffer the most from environment
degradation. Local interests can best be represented by NGOs;
· Decisions made without considering local community opinion and their participation are
often ineffectual;
· Experience of international institutes and developed democratic countries demonstrates the
need to actively support NGO development and its participation in solving environmental
and resource issues at the local level. In some countries, for instance, in the USA,
obligatory NGO and local community participation in environmental and resource
decision-making is legally defined;
· In the TumenNET Area, especially in transboundary environmental and resource uses
issues (Tumen River Area, Dauria), there are additional NGO activities;
· NGOs are the most effective at finding and examining international transboundary
environmental and resource use. Their effectiveness is defined by:
- No need to coordinate their activities according to bureaucratic rules;
- Understanding of real environmental and resource use issues at the local level;
- Relative ease of overcoming socio-cultural barriers that are often insurmountable
for representatives of official agencies;
- Single orientation for the future.
Creation of institutional structures that support environmental and resource issues in the
TumenNET Area Project require the effective participation of NGOs in this structure. At the same
time:
· Current regional NGOs activities and cooperation are in transition (Refer to Sector Reports,
Project Reports and Zone Reports for more detail on regional NGOs);
· NGO development is proceeding with the support of international institutions to ensure
their participation in environmental protection and resource use decision-making processes.
Development of an NGO sector that can participate in environmental protection and resource use
decision-making processes in the TumenNET Area will take place at different levels.
Local Level
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· Create new NGOs and support existing ones that are working to solve environmental
problems and that support sustainable development and ecologically oriented business. It is
advisable to have at least several active NGOs in each sector (environmental education,
pollution monitoring, biodiversity conservation) of each country represented in
transboundary issues;
· Create an association of NGOs operating where transboundary issues exist to help
coordinate their activities on different environmental and resource use issues, and, if it is
necessary, to create a single judicial framework to conduct joint actions;
· Include NGO representatives in institutional structures that make local decisions on nature
management and territory development;
· Conduct coordinated, joint actions to support biodiversity and environmental quality;
· Elaborate and promote a symbol and slogan for each transboundary issue.
Government Level
· Gain recognition by government agencies responsible for solving environmental, resource
use issues and territory development issues of the right of NGOs to participate in decision-
making. For example, in the RF, there is a right to initiate the Public Environmental
Expertise (Article 20, 25 of the Law "On Environmental Expertise" and Article 36 of the
Law "On Environment Protection");
· Develop an understanding of environmental and resource use features for each
transboundary issue.
International Level
· Provide at least 10% of the budget to support local NGOs to implement international
projects sponsored by international organizations;
· Organize from among national NGOs an international association to determine
environmental and resource use issues for each transboundary issue;
· Conduct at least one action a year in each country with transboundary problems that
includes the participation of NGOs from those countries.
There are many NGOs actively supporting environmental initiatives and projects. These
organizations operate in the sphere of Public Awareness Raise. Joint cooperation in the future will
help to organize conservation activities and generate public initiatives in countries participating in
the TumenNET Area Project. Joining with the NGOs from the countries of TumenNET Area
Project provides an opportunity to define an effective mechanism for public participation in
environmental regulation and enforcement at the international level and influence implementation
of projects that affect the quality of the environment or that have environmental impacts.
A.5.8. Outcomes and Recommendations to Improve Environmental and Resource Use
Legislation in the TumenNET Area
This section is based on analysis of materials and proposals to improve legislation presented in the
Project Reports, Sector Reports and Zone Reports prepared by the RF, the PRC, Mongolia and the
ROK. It also considers environmental issues and priorities in the TumenNET Area for future
socio-economic development of given sub-regions. The TumenNET Area covers a vast territory
that includes geographically heterogeneous regions, with significantly different natural features.
The territories also represent different political and administrative structures. In this respect, it
would be more reasonable to prepare two large blocks of legislative proposals for the sub-region,
61
specific for the TRBZ and adjacent territories and marine areas: Dauria (Mongolia) and Nei
Mongol (PRC).
Another problem closely connected to this issue is the absence of an exact, official definition of the
geographical boundaries on the international legislative level. This requires additional treaty
negotiations. The most "vague" are the boundaries of TREDA, which could be considered on the
international level, on the level of administrative units, or only on the level of physical geographic
object TRBZ. It is important to mention that in the Russian and Chinese project reports there
were attempts to define the boundaries of this subregion, including cities of Yanji, Tumen,
Hunchun, Longjing, Helong and counties of Wangqing, Antu in the Yanbian Korean Nationality
Autonomous Prefecture (excluding Dunhua) and North Hamgyong Province of the DPRK and
southwest Primorye of the RF. However, in the further Sector Reports these boundaries were
mentioned more broadly and that is why additional discussion and further legalization is necessary.
Another distinctive feature is international legislation, framework conventions and international
treaties. Compared to existing national environmental legislation, the provisions in the
Environmental and Resource Laws and Regulations for the region are lacking in the legislation of
the TumenNET Area countries. To develop and improve legislation for the TumenNET Area, there
must be a clarification on the level at which obligations will be carried out: national, regional and
local legislation. There is also a known contradiction between the aim to have uniform legislation
in one country and the need to enact specific laws and regulations that apply to local conditions.
The history of RF legislation is a sufficiently successful example of resolving the national and
regional needs issues. A positive example is the block of legislation regulating the Baikal Lake
Watershed that was passed at the federal level but which applies to a specific geographic area.
Based on information in the review of national legislation, no participating country has to date
passed legislation specifically regulating environmental or resource use issues in the TumenNET
Area. At the same time, as mentioned, there is international legislation, aside from international
conventions and treaties mentioned above, including a Memorandum of Understanding on
Environmental Management of Northeast Asia and Economic Developing-Area in Tumen region
Memorandum on Mutual Understanding, which clearly point to environmental and resource use
issues, and which were adopted in 1996 by the five participating countries.
It is important in each country to elaborate environmental management legislation for each
TumenNET Area sub-region with a transboundary issue. This legislation should be based on the
content of the Memorandum of Understanding, outcomes and recommendations of the UNDP/GEF
Project on preparation of TDA and Strategic Action Plan.
Analyses of the reports outline the following legislation that in turn requires changes or
amendments in national and regional legislation and international legislation and treaty practice:
· Provision and manage of environmental quality;
· Biodiversity and important ecosystems loss;
· Support for environmentally friendly business and sustainable nature resource
management.
· Participation of local communities and the general public in decision making on
environmental and resource use issues.
Recommended environmental and legal reform includes both public (public law) and private
interests (private law). The first two blocks are adequately identified in national legislation and
international law; future improvements are necessary to resolve environmental and resource use
issues in TumenNET Area. Legislation at the regional and national levels should be adopted. For
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all blocks, additional mechanisms to implement legislation passed at the local and municipal level
are needed.
A.5.8.1. Environmental Quality Management
Bilateral and multilateral treaties to manage transboundary pollution must be signed that the
international principals outlined in the Stockholm Declaration of 1972.
These treaties must define mechanisms that:
· Manage size and extent of environmental damage;
· Set procedures to prosecute for violation of environmental protection legislation;
· Set sanctions and material damage compensation;
· Establish measures to prevent environmental damage;
· Conduct estimates of transboundary impact of planned activities;
· Compile information exchange and prior notice;
· Conduct consultations on potentially dangerous environmental activities in border areas.
The short-term legislation needs in the TRBZ and adjacent territories are:
· Agreement on natural objects and environment parameters under their control;
· Unified pollution estimate method and measurement tools;
· Creation of a joint monitoring center;
· Agreement of the legal basis for conducting environmental impact assessment for planned
industrial sites that could have transboundary environment impacts;
· Information exchange, prior notice and consulting on all planned activities capable of
negative transboundary environmental impacts.
A.5.8.2. Biodiversity and Valuable Ecosystems Conservation
The issue here is the assessment of the features at all territory levels. It is impossible to preserve
existent plant and animal species in the protected areas alone and mechanisms must be developed
to protect these species throughout their habitat. And conservation is a more difficult task than
pollution management. In a discussion of the international legal background for biodiversity
conservation, there is a list of international conventions and treaties, to which all TumenNET Area
countries are party. These conventions are the Convention on International Trade in Endangered
Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), Convention on Wetlands of International Importance
Especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention), Convention Concerning the Protection of the
World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention), Convention on Biological
Diversity, bilateral agreements on conservation of migratory birds.
At the local level, there are no precedents for regulating biodiversity and key habitat conservation
according to treaties. In transboundary issues, joint programs on rare and endangered plant and
animal species conservation (Conservation Action Plans - CAPs) or species strategies (specific
species) are needed in order to create and sign various joint programs. Using international law and
national environmental strategies as a basis, these joint programs or strategies will define priority
actions.
A good example of a CAP is the TumenNET Area is the Far Eastern Leopard Conservation
Program for Primorskii Krai (RF), Jilin Province (PRC) and northern Hamgen (DPRK). Another
example is the Far Eastern Stork Conservation Program developed for TumenNET Area wetlands.
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A key legal issue in improving biodiversity conservation is prevention of poaching the illegal take
of rare species. The most important features are:
· Improve legislation to expand criminal prosecution of suspected poachers;
· Provide greater authority to local authorities;
· Reduce demand for rare and endangered species products in Chinese and Korean
markets.
A.5.8.3. Support of Environmentally Oriented Business and Sustainable Nature Management
Environmentally oriented business and sustainable nature management are optimal ways to solve
environmental and resource use issues of the region. But it is first of all necessary to define what
environmentally oriented business is. If a manufacturer follows all existing regulations and
environmental rules, he is a law-abiding citizen. Environmentally oriented business starts when a
manufacturer chooses the most environmentally friendly alternative instead of just the most
economically profitable. Examples of environmentally oriented business for this region are
ecotourism, mariculture, new technologies for process natural resources.
Environmentally oriented business, as a rule, unless it is advanced technology, operates on the
edge of profitability and therefore needs state support. None of the TumenNET Area countries
have legislation that supports environmentally oriented business or sustainable resource
management and an urgent need is to develop and adopt such legislation.
It is possible to create the model territories (including within the territories of free economic zones)
of sustainable nature management to stimulate the development and creation of ecologically
oriented business in the places where it is important to combine the need to realize the potential for
economic growth and necessity to follow ecological regulations for the purposes of the quality
environment and rare species conservation.
A.5.8.4. Local Community and General Public Participation in Territorial Planning and in
Environmental and Resource Issues
Public involvement in environmental protection and management issues and in the adoption of
environmental regulations is a major issue for TumenNET Area countries. Despite the existence of
environmental legislation in the RF that defines the role of the citizens and their public bodies
(right to accurate information on the state of the environment, right to a healthy environment), the
participation of the public in decision-making remains at a very low level. The environmental
rights of citizens can be enforced by creating and participating in environmental NGOs that have a
right to create public ecological funds, conduct public environmental assessments, go to court to
sue for infractions of environmental law and/or for compensation for damages. But in the RF there
is as yet no effective mechanism to assure these rights. There is inadequate experience in trying
environmental cases in the courts, low public involvement, a nascent civil society, and in some
cases, unwillingness by local authorities to permit NGOs to discuss and be part of the decision-
making process in environmental issues.
To activate the public and to involve local people in decision making on environmental issues
affecting their social and economic well being, legislation is needed that mandates public hearings
as part of the environmental impact assessment process as exists in economically developed
countries. Environmental education and information dissemination, experience sharing, creation of
"green" schools and universities will play an important role environmental conservation and in
creating a society that supports and complies with environmental laws.
A.5.9. Required Actions and Measures
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The following are priorities to improve environmental conditions in the Tumen River Basin.
1) Ecosystems Conservation
There should be a basin wide survey of natural ecosystems to identify areas to be protected
and to take steps to conserve them within TumenNET Area. The survey would cover
distribution and abundance of animal and plant species, forest, and endangered species.
Based on the survey, integrated strategies and programs for ecosystem conservation in the
TumenNET Area would be formulated and implemented by each member country in
cooperation with neighboring countries and relevant international organizations.
2) Protection of Tumen River Freshwater and Marine Resources
Pollution of the Tumen River affects not only water use but also estuaries and marine
resources in the East Sea/Sea of Japan. A cooperative study is needed to assess current water
quality and to identify sources of pollution, and to determine what conservation measures are
necessary to protect natural resources.
3) Preservation of Wetlands for Migratory Birds
The Tumen River Basin, including the Korean peninsula, is valuable migratory bird habitat.
Urbanization and land conversion is destroying regional wetlands and quality migratory bird
is disappearing. National and regional measures are necessary to protect and conserve
migratory bird wetlands
4) Establishment of regional cooperation mechanism
A Tumen River Basin Environmental Agency is urgently needed to develop and implement
environmental baseline surveys and to manage a master plan to protect the TumenNET Area.
A more detailed list of needs is provided in each cluster. Since clusters are interrelated, some
environmental protection needs are duplicated. Clusters are presented for each issue.
Wetland Degradation and Migratory Birds
· Conserve and restore forest and wetland ecosystem structure in ecological corridors;
· Provide international level nature-protection status to ecological corridors;
· Create a coordinated plan for Natural Protected Area (NPA) formation and for boundary
areas adjacent to NPA;
· Improve international legal instruments to protect migratory birds in the TumenNET Area;
· Establish a migratory bird monitoring and information system;
· Mark particular populations of migratory birds based on seasonal distribution;
· Prohibit construction in migratory bird habitat;
· Hold a special meeting of the Migratory birds of the Asiatic-Pacific Flyway.
Transportation Corridor
· Develop Green transportation corridor technology (clean fuel, treatment of garbage and
toxic waste, reduction of noise and non-harmful impacts to wildlife);
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· Require environmental impact assessments for all road construction;
· Develop mechanisms to assess potential damage to biodiversity and international waters.
Urbanization and Industry
· Define urban development guidelines to protect biodiversity, international waters and to
promote sustainable development;
· Identify critical areas to preserve in a natural condition using the model analysis;
· Design and perfect urban infrastructures for separation of rain and sewage water, to
improve waste treatment;
· Introduce quality standards;
· Apply best available technologies at treatment facilities;
· Coordinate stream and marine monitoring systems.
Agriculture
· Prohibit excessive pesticide and fertilizer use;
· Restrict land conversion from forest to agriculture;
· Block sediment flow into streams.
All adverse effects would be identified as regional and national priorities, based on local analysis.
Collaborative, region wide activities to protect the Tumen river area are needed. Development and
economic activities should be considered using environmental information systems that are then
evaluated by TumenNET Area countries.
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PART B. TUMEN RIVER BASIN ZONE
B.1. DESCRIPTION
B.1.1. Geographic Subdivisions of TRBZ
Geographic subdivisions of TRBZ are shown in Table 7 below.
Table 7. Geographic Subdivisions of the Tumen River Basin Zone
Country
Sub-region
Major cities
Population
(thousand)
DPRK
North Hamgyong,
Chongjin, Rajing, Sonbong
No data
Ryanggang
Provinces, Rason
Economical and Free
Trade Zone
PRC
Jilin Province
Hunchun, Tumen, Yanji,
1706
Longjing, Helong, Antu,
Wangqing
RF
Primorskii Krai
Vladivostok, Ussuriisk, Artem, 1300
Nakhodka, Zarubino,
Slavyanka
Figure 20 shows the boundary for the Tumen River Basin Zone.
Figure 20
Tumen River Basin Zone
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B.1.2. Natural conditions
The TRBZ is a strategic area with international waters and biodiversity that includes three
countries. Bounded by PRC on the north and west, by the RF on the east and the DPRK on the
south, the Tumen River area has always a central role in economic and political stability issues in
northeast Asia and adjacent regions. Today it is the focus of an effort to define environmental
sustainability and food security for these nations.
The TRBZ (Figure 21) is situated in the mid-latitude zone and is bounded by Asia in the west and
by the Pacific Ocean in the east. Due to its location close to the Pacific Ocean, the area benefits
from warm weather and much rain. Monsoons prevail during seasonal change. Winters in the area
are long and cold with northwest winds prevailing; summer are short and warm with south and
southeast winds prevailing. The drainage's climate can be classified as cold continental and sub-
humid monsoon zone.
Figure 21
Annual average temperature ranges between 2~6 degrees centigrade above zero, with a maximum
of 35~37 degrees centigrade above zero and a minimum of 40~38 degrees centigrade below zero.
Annual relative humidity is 68%. Relative humidity is high in summer and low in winter. The
frost-free period generally lasts 110~150 days per year; the shortest duration is less than 100 days
per year. Frosts begin in late September and last until mid and late May except for a few extremely
cold areas where frosts last until early June. Annual sunshine averages between 2,380~2,800 and
the annual percentage is 54~59%. From May to August sunshine hours average 710~900 hours per
year, or 30~36%. Annual rainfall ranges from 500 mm to 800 mm. Rain falls mainly in June, July
and August, accounting for 60~70 percent of annul amounts.
68
B.1.3. Major Environmental Assets
In the northern and middle regions, primarily in upstream and midstream portions of rivers and
streams, broad leave coniferous forests dominate. Key forest species are fir and Korean pine.
Tumen River wetlands are part of the Primorskii waterlogged plain with a network of salt and
freshwater ponds, shallow water marine gulfs with separate islands. The Russian sector of the
TumenNET Area includes 60 species of rare vascular plants, 36 bird species, 18 fish species listed
on Russian and IUCN endangered species lists. Compared with other regions of northeast Asia,
this is the richest area of unique marine, coastal and wetland biodiversity in the Tumen River Basin
Zone.
There are five types of wetlands: coastal, river, lake, waterlogged and artificial ones in the TRBZ.
The wetlands hold habitat for rare and protected species (first and second protection categories
according to the Chinese classification): Daurian, black and Japanese cranes, geese, Mandarinka
duck. Fauna in the Tumen River Basin Zoneis quite diverse because of the high diversity of
vegetation, great number of biotopes, and general landscape diversity species. The most threatened
species are the Far Eastern leopard and the Amur (Siberian) Tiger.
B.1.4. Administrative Structure
People's Republic of China
The Tumen River drainage in eastern Jilin Province is home to people of Chinese Korean
Nationality. There are five cities (Figure 22) (Yanji, Tumen, Hunchun, Longjing, Helong) and two
counties (Wangqing and An'tu) in the Yanbian Korean Nationality Autonomous Prefecture with
another city (Dunhua) that is not in the drainage area. The area's total population at the end of
1999 was 17,060,000. The urban population was 6,050,000 (66 cities, 35.5%). The rural
population was 11,010,000 (900 villages and settlements, 64.5%). The population increased from
13,360,000 in 1978 to 17,060,000 in 1999. Population growth in the next 20 to 30 years could be
quite rapid.
The Tumen River drainage covers 300,000 km2, or 1/5 of all of Jilin Province. Yanji is the capital
city of the Yanbian Korean Nationality Autonomous Prefecture and is also the core city of the
Tumen River drainage area.
Figure 22
69
Russian Federation
The largest cities (Figure 23) in Primorskii Krai are Vladivostok (664,000 people), Artem
(115,200), Nakhodka (193,000), Ussuriisk (161,800) and Partizansk (61,600).
Figure 23
Southwest Primorye is the closest portion of Primorskii Krai to the TRBZ. Southwest Primorye has
61 villages consolidated into 10 rural administrations. These include six municipal type
settlements, all located in Khasanskii Raion. The largest are Slavyanka 17,400, Zarubino
4,700, Kraskino 4,300. As of January 1, 2000, the total population of southwest Primorye was
55,700, of which 30,000 people lived in municipal (town-type) settlements.
B.1.5. Natural Protected Areas
Details on natural reserves in the Chinese and Russian sectors of the TumenNET Area are given in
Tables 8 and 9 and Figures 24 and 25 below.
Table 8. Natural Reserves in the Chinese sector of the TumenNET Area
Name
Position
Area
Protected Areas
Established
(km2)
Existing
Changbai Mountain Antu
1900
Forest ecosystem
Nature Reserve
Baihe
Nature Tumen
2
Pinus sylvestris var.
1985
Reserve
sylvestriformis
Fenfwugou Natural Long-
774
Water supply protection
1991
Reserve
jing
forest
70
Fozhishan
Pine-
Long-
774
Wild plants
1996
mushroom
jing
Provincial
Nature
Reserve
Pine-mushroom
Minyue
1200
Wild plants
1999
Provincial Natural village in
Reserve
in Antu
Mingyue village
county
to be
Laoyeling
Hunchun
20832
Wild animals especially
2000
established
Northeast
tiger
Amur tigers and their
Nature Reserve
habitat
Jingxin biodiversity Hunchun
210
Biodiversity, rare birds
Nature Reserve
and wild animals
Figure 24
Table 9. Nature Protected Areas in Southwest Primorye
Category of
Name
Type of
Primary Land
Year
Area (thou. ha.)
% of
NPA
Land Use
Use
Established Land
Marine
Total
Region
Reserves
Far East
Primary
Institute of
1978
1.36 near
63.00
(zapovednik)
Marine
Marine
southwest
State
Biology FEB
Primorye
Reserve
RAS
Kedrovaya
Primary
Institute of
1916
17.90
__
2.41
Pad
Biology & Soil
Sciences FEB
RAS
71
Federal
Barsovyi
Secondary
Goslesfond
1979
106.0
__
14.27
Refugee
(State Forestry
(zakaznik)
Service Fund)
Regional
Poltavskii
Secondary
Goslesfond
1963
119.00
__
16.02
Refugee
(State Forestry
(zakaznik)
Service Fund)
Borisovskii Secondary
State Forest
1996
63.43
__
8.54
Plateau
Resources
breeding farms
Natural park Khasanskii
Primary
Primorskii Krai
1998
9.54
__
1.28
Administration
Total area of southwest Primorye
743.00
100
Total area of NPAs in southwest Primorye
315.87
63.00
42.5
Figure 25
Protected Areas of Russian sector of the TumenNET Area: 1 - Kedrovaya Pad State Reserve; 2
Far East State Marine Reserve; 3 Poltavskii Refuge; 4 Nature Park Borisovskii Plateau; 5
Barsovyi Refuge; 6 Khasanskii Natural Park
72
Democratic People's Republic of Korea
The DPRK began to actively cooperate at the international level following the "Rio Conference."
The DPRK signed the following International Conventions and Protocols:
· "Convention on Biological Diversity" in 1994;
· "UN Framework Convention on Climate Change" in 1994;
· "Vienna Convention for Protection of Ozone Layer" in 1995;
· "Montreal Protocol on Substances that deplete the Ozone Layer" in 1995;
· "UNESCO Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural
Heritage" in 1998;
· "Catagena Protocol on Bio-Safety" in 2001.
The first reserve in DPRK was established in 1946, and as of 1976, the following types of reserves
had been established (Figure 26): 6 natural reserves, 14 plant reserves, 14 animal reserves, 6
seabird breeding reserves and 4 marine reserves.
In 1995, following the "Rio Conference", the DPRK extensively expanded its natural and
environmental reserves. The current, total reserve is 2,428,590 ha, or 19.78% of the DPRK.
The reserves include one international biosphere reserve (Mt. Paekdu biosphere reserve), 21
natural parks, 8 natural reserves, 14 plant reserves, 14 animal reserves, 6 marine bird breeding
reserves and 12 migratory bird (wetland) reserves. The natural environmental reserves in DPRK
can be divided by the criteria of IUCN and 451,283 ha belong to the I-III categories of IUCN.
Figure 26.
Network of Biosphere Reserves in the DPRK
Considering topography, climate change and distribution of plants and animals, the natural reserve
network in DPRK can be divided into 1) Northern Network including northern alpine area and
northern area, and 2) Middle Network, including middle area and middle coastal area. Mt. Paekdu
Biosphere Reserve ( 132,000 ha), nominated in 1989, is included in the Northern Network.
Mt. Paekdu Biosphere Reserve (Figure 27).
73
Mt. Paekdu formed by eruption about 1,000,000 years ago and has high hills standing like walls
near Lake Chonji include Changgun Peak (2750m), Mangchonru (2,651m), Mt. Paekam (2,741m)
and Chail Peak (2,735m). The Amrok River, the longest in the DPRK borders with the PRC and
flows to the southwest; the Tumen River flow to the east, bordering with the PRC and the RF. Mt.
Paekdu is a transboundary reserve. Mt. Paekdu has 1,200 higher vascular plant and 2,800
vertebrate species.
Figure 27
Representative communities include alpine plant communities 2,000 m above sea level, Picea
jezonensis Beta ermanii community, Larix olgensis Picea jezoensis community, Cnosenia
arbutifolia community at the upper stream of Amrok River and aquatic plant community in Lake
Samjiyon.
Plant species are Festuca japonica, Lloydia serotina, Kobresia bellardii, Rhodiola angusta,
Tofieldia nutans, Rhododendron aureum, Rhodiola angusta, Phyllodoce coereulea, Rhododendron
confertissimum, Therorhodion skianum, Abies nephrolepis, Picea jezoensis and Beta ermanii.
The animal species are brown bear (Ursus arctos), sika (Cervus nippon), sable (Martes zibellina),
yellow-throated marten (Martes flavigula), great black wood pecker (Dryocopus martius), black
grouse (Lyrurus tetrix, and chinese merganser (Mergus squamatus). Mt. Paekdu Biosphere
Reserve has five core zones: 1) alpine centering Lake Chonji, 2) Mt. Paekdu camping area, 3)
Begyabong, 4) Chongbong and 5) Lake Samji. The reserve is 18,000 ha with 29,700 ha of buffer
zone and 83,700 ha of transition zone.
74
B.2. Transboundary Issues and Threats
B.2.1. Present Transboundary Issues and Threats
Note: No detailed data is available for river pollution. Available data about marine pollution
in the area of Tumen River mouth are based on investigations conducted five years ago.
Figures 28 and 29 represent existing land use conditions in the Chinese and Russian sectors of the
TumenNET Area.
Figure 28
Transboundary issues and threats can be listed according to their priority as follows: industrial
impact, impact from urbanization and agriculture, inappropriate water and land use management,
75
unsustainable timber management, forest fires, transportation networks, unsustainable management
of protected areas and species and the impact from tourism.
Figure 29
Note: Environmental impacts in the eastern sectors of the TumenNET Area are shown in Figure 8.
Mining Impact
Coal mining is the major mining issue in the Chinese sector of the TumenNET Area. Impacts are
not significant in light of its small scale. In 2000, after interventions by the Chinese government,
relatively small-scale enterprises were closed.
There are more than 70 different deposits in the Russian sector of the TumenNET Area, and
include porcelain, quartz sand, coal (hard and brown), titanium, marble, seashells, peat, building
stone and sand, limestone, zeolites and perlite. Only a small portion of these deposits is currently
exploited and only one open pit coal mine operates. Several earlier operating mines (Khasanskii
brown coal mine and the Tumen River building sand quarry) have no demand and are closed.
Given the rate of exploitation at the end of the 1990s, known reserves are adequate for hundreds of
years.
There are no toxic substances mined in the Chinese and Russian sectors. Key environmental
impacts are listed below.
The Musan Mine complex in the north of Hamgyong Province in the DPRK is an identified source
of pollution in the Tumen River because of its discharge of tailings into the river. In 2000 the mine
produced the million tons of magnetite; the mine is a key source of revenue for the country. The
mine's entire production of concentrate was transported to the Kim Chaek Iron and Steel works on
the coast at Chongjim, 100 km from Musan, as slurry via pipeline. At Chongjim the magnetite was
dewatered, dried and made into pellets for the iron and steel industry, which is the DPRK's largest
industrial sector. The mine has a worldclass deposit that has been worked since 1937. It contains
2.2 billion tons of known 24% grade Fe and another 3 billion tons of suspected reserves of the
same grade. Waste to ore ratio is approximately 3.3:1. The magnetite ore is easily concentrated to
65% Fe by crushing, grinding and magnetic separation in a simple flow sheet, using well-known
unit operations and equipment.
76
Water Pollution
The composition of effluents discharged into the river by the Musan Mining complex is shown in
Table 10. They are mostly silicates and iron oxides with no sign of heavy metals, chemicals or oily
components. This is confirmed by samples and visual inspection.
Table 10. Composition of Tailings Discharge
Component
Content %
Fe
9.66
SiO2
62.6
Al2O3
12.1
CaO
2.7
MgO
2.2
TiO2
0.35
MnO
0.6
However, the impact of the tailings discharged into the river on the biodiversity is considerable:
· Sands and fine sediments deposit in the quieter regions and smother any aquatic flora;
· Sediment load and the presence of oxidizable minerals deplete the dissolved oxygen
content of water, killing aquatic fauna;
· Sediments prevents transmission of light through the water;
· Sediment deposition will eventually affect river flow patterns and could force a change in
river course as it flows through flatter valleys; and
· Local communities living downstream of discharges will be adversely affected by reduced
water quality for personal or irrigation use.
Ecosystem Loss and Modification
Open pit coal mining is a threat to biodiversity. It can cause the loss and fragmentation of habitat,
decrease plant and animal numbers and contaminate fish spawning rivers.
Air Pollution
The key environmental issues are tailings dust contamination of adjacent residential, industrial and
agricultural areas.
Landscape Degradation and Soil Erosion
Exploration, mining and processing activities modify relief (open pits and mine tailings), degrade
soil and vegetation cover, and damage plants. These activities are seldom followed by adequate
land restoration activities.
Industrial Impact
Ecosystem Loss and Modification
Decline of water quality affects the environment and reduces marine animal populations. Water
quality deterioration has caused ecosystem loss and modification. The volume of suspended solids,
wood elements, volatile hydroxybenzene, ammonia, nitrogen introduce in wastewater flowing into
77
the Tumen River is so large that it is far beyond the river's natural water purification capacity.
Marine plants and animals are threatened under such conditions, fish being the most threatened.
Certain industrial harvest of biological raw materials causes habitat loss and degrades biodiversity.
Pulp and paper, food processing, pharmacy and building industries need timber, wild plants and
animals. Timber consumption in the area is high. Forest ecosystems have been partially destroyed
and fragmented, thus affecting habitat and biodiversity.
Water Pollution
The main sources of industrial water pollution in the TRBZ are shown in Figure 30.
The absence or inadequacy of wastewater treatment facilities causes degrades water quality in the
TRBZ.
Figure 30
People's Republic of China
The main pollution sources are the Kaishantun Chemical Fiber Pulp Factory, Shixian Paper
Factory, Longjing Paper Factory, Hunchun Power Station, Hunchun Mining Area Building
Headquarters and Wangqing Forest Office. There is no wastewater treatment plant in this area. The
area's depressed economy and a shortage of capital hinders introduction of industrial pollution
treatment facilities at major point source polluters; existing equipment is outdated and urgently
needs to be replaced. Existing facilities are obsolete, do not operate properly and treatment is
unsatisfactory. Large volumes of industrial wastewater are discharged directly into the Tumen
River or discharged in a condition that is not in compliance with laws and regulations.
Fortunately, the Chinese government has made great progress in pollution management. In 1996
the State Council required that by 2000 all industrial discharge must meet standards. By the end of
78
2000, according to statistics on 232 sources of industrial pollution in the Tumen River Area, 173
enterprises met discharge standards. Regional and local government shut down 59 enterprises.
Several large-scale industrial enterprises that were shut down included Hunchun Paper Factory,
Helong City Winery, Yanbian Chemical Factory and Yushuchuan Power Station.
Russian Federation
The primary sources of pollution in the Russian sector of the TumenNET Area are energy plants
(274.23 million m3 per year), cities and towns (158.06 million m3 per year). The Vladivostok
energy plant "TETS-2" produces 73.5% of the city's pollution (sea water to cool turbines). The
municipal enterprise "Vodokanal" produces 25.7% of the pollution in the form of untreated
industrial and domestic wastewater discharge into the coastal zone through 22 outlets.
Peter the Great Bay receives 83.3% of all oxidized organic substances discharged into Primorskii
Krai river basins and most of the wastewater. It also takes in 78.6% of the suspended solids, almost
100% of the sulphates and chlorides, 75.49% of phosphates, 75.7% of ammonia nitrogen, 16.9% of
phenols, 61.1% of nitrates, 94% of surfactants, 86.8% of fats, 75.8% of copper, 34.9% of zinc,
89.9% of aluminum and 76.1% of iron.
153 enterprises discharge wastewater into Peter the Great Bay. Environmental monitoring data
show that Peter the Great Bay is becoming more polluted. Amurskii, Nakhodka and Golden Horn
Bays, as well as Bosfor-Vostochnii Strait, are considered "fouled" (V) and Ussuriiskii Bay -
"polluted" (IV).
Phenols are one of the most toxic admixtures contained in wastewaters. Maximum phenol
concentrations in Golden Horn Bay amount to 10-28 MAC, average annual concentration is 5
MAC, and in Nakhodka Bay the concentration reaches 3-14 MAC. A concentration reaches 15.3
MAC, with maximum concentrations of 910 MAC in Nakhodka.
Heavy metal content - Cu, Ni, Fe, Cd, Zn, Cr, Pb - is gradually increasing. Mercury polluted
seawater is of special concern. High concentrations of mercury polluted water are observed in
Nakhodka Bay (2.9 MAC), Amurskii Bay and Golden Horn Bay. Highly toxic chlorinated organic
pesticides have been registered in Peter the Great Bay for many years.
Results of long-term hydrobiological monitoring show that the average plankton and benthos
biomass in Peter the Great Bay has changed markedly and the number of microorganism indicator
forms has sharply increased; water euthrophication is occurring. The sate of the environment in the
Bay is critical. The most unfavorable conditions are registered in Golden Horn Bay, Amurskii Bay
and Nakhodka Bay. Ussuriiskii Bay has relatively favorable conditions.
Democratic People's Republic of Korea
The Undok Chemical Works is a significant point source water polluter of the Tumen River and
Peter the Great Bay. Phenol concentrations in the Undok River are 0.23 mg/l. (SRZ Issues, Zonal
Report, 2001). Only Russian data on detergent and phenol concentrations in the river estuary are
available. The detergents and phenols were determined in surface water of estuary area in
September 1997 and July 1998. Phenol concentrations varied from 2-5µg/l (September 1997) at
the mouth, near the shore zone and increased to 7-8 µg/l in river water at the mouth. Phenol
concentrations in this area exceeded maximum permissible concentrations (MPC). Average
concentrations for detergents were 76 µg/l in September 1997, 46µg/l in July and 49 4µg/l in
August 1998. Detergent and phenol concentrations in the surface water of estuary areas are shown
in table 11.
79
Table 11. Detergent and Phenol Concentrations (µg/l) in Surface Water of Estuary Area
Stations
Detergents
Phenols
September
July
August
September
July
August
1997
1998
1998
1997
1998
1998
35
n. m1
65
43
3
1
8
36
64
32
n. m
3
1
n. m
37
102
24
36
7
10
0
38
64
<20
n. m
2
10
0
1
54
n. m
51
1
1
n. m
2
39
96
57
2
5
<1
3
90
66
80
2
2
13
4
122
n. m
n. m
5
n. m
0
6
31
n. m
67
1
n. m
4
7
54
n. m
n. m
0
n. m
n. m
8
n. m
n. m
<20
n. m
n. m
0
11
77
n. m
n. m
3
n. m
n. m
12
40
n. m
n. m
1
n. m
n. m
13
66
<20
42
2
<1
1
14
97
42
28
5
3
1
15
n. m
n. m
33
n. m
n. m
0
16
75
35
0
4
2
1
17
n. m
n. m
29
3
n. m
1
22
95
35
56
2
<1
0
23
n. m
26
n. m
n. m
0
n. m
24
152
36
57
3
0
0
25
107
n. m
36
2
n. m
1
26
n. m
n. m
0
n. m
n. m
1
27
115
n. m
45
3
n. m
0
n. m no measured
80
Figure 31.
Measurement Station Location (Detergents and Phenols in µg/l) in Estuary area.
(Dotted circles with ciphers show the location of stations and their numbers)
Air Pollution
Air quality is quite unstable. Air pollution in the Tumen River is a result of smoke from burning
coal. The main pollutants are dust and particles. Their sources are mainly industrial boilers and
domestic stoves that burn untreated coal. Discharge sources are dispersed and near ground. Most
towns in the Tumen River are located in mountain valleys where pollutants poorly disperse,
especially in winter or in abnormal temperature conditions. The atmosphere is unstable. Abnormal
temperature conditions occur 60% of the year and unfavorable climatic conditions are other
important factors in poor atmosphere conditions.
Hydrologic Changes
Industrial development requires adequate energy. Energy production is one of the most important
factors in the normal operations of enterprises and factories. Power consumption has increased
significantly with industrial development and population growth. Dams have been built for power
generation along the Chinese sector of the Tumen River, changing the natural flow of local rivers.
It is true that damn building can benefit humans, and can serve to control floods and store water.
These functions, however, decrease river speed and affect river turbulence.
Impact from Urbanization
The size of cities and counties in the Chinese, Korean and Russian sectors of the Tumen River is
relatively small, with poorly developed urban infrastructures.
Ecosystem Loss and Modification
Expansion of existing cities and creation of new ones result in habitat loss. Urbanization has
resulted in more and more cities. 15 years ago there were only two cities in the Chinese sector;
now there are five. The size of existing cities and towns has also increased. A decline in water
quality affects aquatic ecosystems and reduces marine animal populations. During urbanization,
81
arable lands are first converted into construction areas. As industrial demand and population
increases, natural lands such as grasslands, wetlands and forests are converted to arable lands. The
land cities occupy causes habitat fragmentation and create ecosystem "bland spots". Flowering
plants, especially wind pollinating plants, find it difficult to disseminate their seeds to other areas.
Cities act as barriers to migration for animals seeking food and breeding range.
Water Pollution
People's Republic of China
There are no municipal sewage treatment facilities at present in the Chinese sector of the
TumenNET Area, although a system is currently under discussion for the Yanji, and wastewater is
discharged directly or indirectly into the river system. Impacts of municipal sewage on the decline
in water quality in the Tumen River are given in the "Impact from industry/pollution on water
bodies" Subchapter. It should be noted that urban pollution has become one of the major sources of
surface water pollution. Since 2000, when many polluting enterprises either shut down or modified
their activities to reduce pollution, the volume of pollution has significantly decreased. Pollution
from municipal sewage, however, is on the rise. Municipal sewage discharge currently accounts
for 50% of total effluent discharge. With population increases and urban expansion, municipal
sewage increases yearly. Wastewater treatment facilities are urgently needed in the Chinese sector
of the Tumen River.
Russian Federation
In the Russian sector of the Tumen River, the coastal zone of Peter the Great Bay accounts for
12% of Primorskii Krai. Most urban areas, railroads and seaports (Nakhodka, Vladivostok,
Slavyanka, Zarubino, Poset) are located here. Municipal wastewater facilities in Khasanskii,
Nadezhdinskii, Oktyabrskii, Partizanskii, Ussuriiskii and Shkotovskii Raion and in Vladivostok,
Artem, Nakhodka, Partizansk, Ussuriisk, Bolshoi Kamen, and Fokino are the main source of water
pollution from rivers flowing into Peter the Great Bay. Regional economic development in the
1960-1990 did not include construction of effective treatment facilities. Peter the Great Bay was
used as a dumping site for untreated wastes.
According to expert estimates, annual wastewater volumes discharged into Peter the Great Bay in
the early 1990s reached 491.81 million cubic meters. Seawater near Vladivostok and Nakhodka
has incurred the greatest anthropogenic impact. Wastewaters discharge volumes into Golden Horn
Bay, Amurskii and Ussuriisky Bays reached 263.6, 121.2 and 55.6 million cubic meters,
respectively (that is 26.0, 0.6 and 1.7% of the total water mass). Other parts of Peter the Great Bay,
including its southern region, are highly polluted. This area is less populated, with only six town-
type villages and a total population of 30,000 people (Kraskino, Poset, Zarubino, Slavyanka,
Barabash, Zanadvorovka). The total population of southwest Primorye is 55,700 people (2.6% of
Primorskii Krai). The main sources of pollution are seaports (Slavyanka, Zarubino, Poset) and
marine vessels. Annual wastewater volumes discharged into Pos'et Bay in the early 1990s was 2.7
million cubic meters (0.03% of its water mass).
Air Pollution
Note: No detailed air pollution data are available.
Please refer to the "Impact from industry/air pollution" Subchapter.
82
Hydrologic Changes
Demand for freshwater to support a growing population and industrial development has increased
greatly in recent years in the Chinese sector of the Tumen River. The water supply, however, has
been a constraint on development. Current water storage capacity in TRZ is fairly limited. The
uncertainty of annual rainfall and its highly seasonal nature dictates a need for a comparatively
large storage capacity. Construction of water storage is likely to impact areas with the high
conservation values (flooding and creation of access for poaching and the illegal harvest of forest
products) and will annex agricultural areas. Agricultural land, at least in the Chinese sector, is in
fairly short supply because of topography. Water pollution limits available freshwater. Demand for
and supply of water need to be balanced.
Landscape Degradation
Expansion of cities and creation of new ones places demands on land. In the Chinese sector natural
landscapes are developed, agricultural lands shifted to industrial uses and rural landscapes become
urban.
Impact from Agriculture
Ecosystem Loss and Modification
Due to the pressure of urbanization on agricultural lands, grasslands, wetlands and forestlands have
been reclaimed for cultivation in PRC. Large area of forests were cut down in the past and
replaced by agricultural lands, causing soil erosion. Forests have been protected in recent years and
new trees planted. There is no developed agriculture in the Russian sector.
Water Pollution
Fertilizers and pesticides use pollutes water in the Tumen River. Farmers have become more and
more dependent on chemicals to increase production. Long-term misuse and inappropriate
application have negative impacts on water quality.
In the Russian sector of the Tumen Rive, the impact of agricultural pollution on water bodies
(fresh and marine) is limited because agriculture in underdeveloped in this region of Primorskii
Krai. The volume of wastewater discharged into Peter the Great Bay began to decrease in 1994 as
industrial and agricultural activities declined in the region.
In spite of weak development of agriculture in the Russian sector of the Tumen River, high levels
of toxic chlorinated organic pesticides have been registered for many years in different parts of the
marine zone not far from the mouth of the Tumen River. Very high concentrations of chlorinated
organic pesticides are seen in some marine fish and mollusks taken from this sector.
Landscape Changes
Large expanses of wetlands, forest and grasslands were transformed in the past into agricultural
lands and with that came environmental problems. Fortunately, favorable environmental policies
have been adopted and forestland is increasing. In 1995 and 1999 agricultural land decreased by 49
83
km2 and 135 km2, respectively. Grassland decreased by 5.0 km2 and 8.0 km2, respectively.
Forestland increased by 12km2 and 48 km2, respectively. Such changes are considered as favorable
to the environment.
Hydrologic Changes
The shift of forest to agricultural lands leads to changes in water regime and is often accompanied
by poor land and water use management.
Ecosystem Loss and Modification
Deforestation
Refer to "Unsustainable forest exploitation/ Loss and modification of ecosystem" Subchapter.
Wetland Loss
Poor management resulted in large wetlands being converted to agricultural lands. The Jingxin
wetland covered more than 2000 ha till the 1980s, mainly in Liudao and Jiudao Ponds and was the
only suitable habitat for waterfowl migration and reproduction. By 1998, 25% of this wetland had
been reclaimed for paddy fields. Jingxin wetland cannot survive at such a reclamation rate. Sedge
marsh in channels and river valleys have been reclaimed for paddy fields in the last 40 years and
wetland volume has declined by 80%. Modifying river channels for farming decreases total area
and further reduces the number of aquatic organism, affecting species types and abundance.
Dams and Reservoirs
Please refer to "Impact from industry/ changes to water regime" Subchapter.
Water Pollution
The main threat is deterioration of water quality and the loss of biodiversity and biotopes.
Hydrologic Changes
Dams and reservoirs slow current speed and change natural hydrological conditions in rivers. They
disturb fish migration, especially anadromous fish. Soil erosion increase sand density the rivers
and when river current slows down, sand is deposited in the river causing the river to shallow and
widen.
Unsustainable Forest Use
Ecosystem Loss and Modification
Forest resources in TRBZ have been unsustainably exploited in recent decades. Large areas of
forest were logged in both the Chinese and Russian sectors of the TumenNET Area. Many rare
plants lost habitat because of excessive deforestation. Forest landscapes tend to be fragmented as a
result of frequent human activities. This reduces plant resources and decreases forest ecosystem
stability.
Hydrologic Changes
84
Uncontrolled forest cuttings on steep slopes and reforestation failures result in erosion. The shift of
soil into rivers causes riverbeds to shallow and rivers to widen. Floods increase and water quality
decreases. Suspended solid matter in rivers exceeds national standards. The volume of organic
pollutants increases as ice melts and when there are heavy rains. Run-off in major rivers becomes
unstable.
Landscape Degradation
The TRBZ, are in the Chinese sector was virgin forest, with few visible corridors or areas of
fragmentation. Enormous changes had occurred by 1986 and by 1996 the forest landscape had
entirely changed. Primary forest was replaced with immature and sapling forest. Over cutting of
forests, transformation of forests to fields and poorly managed timber harvest seriously damaged
forest resources, destroying and fragmenting forest habitats.
Forest Fires
Forest fires are an environmental threat in the Chinese sector of the TumenNET Area. Close
attention has been paid to the issue and a special institute was established to monitor forest fires.
Helicopters make daily inspections of forests and this provides effective control of forest fires. The
large volume of timber harvest also means that supervision of forest condition is easier.
Fires in the Russian sector of the TumenNET Area occur most frequently in spring and summer.
The destruction of vegetation cover caused by fires greatly impairs and even structurally destroys
existing landscapes. Slopes give way and there is erosion.
Transportation Networks
Ecosystem Loss and Modification
Transportation corridors restrict wild animal movement. Animals characteristic of the TRBZ -
Amur tiger and Far Eastern leopard, cervus, nipon teminck, fogs - need expansive areas for feeding
and reproduction. Transportation corridors reduce habitat by fragmenting this habitat.
Transportation corridors shift land use to farmland and have a direct impact on biodiversity. The
vegetation destroyed by transportation corridors is replaced by sub-forest and man-made forest and
this simplifies forest structure. Forests in the TRBZ are coniferous, broad leaf deciduous. There are
ten species of woody plants, 20~30 bush species, 50~60 herb species. In replacement forest there
area only 5~6 bush species and 20~30 herb species.
Vehicles disturb animals and can lead to their death. Traffic noise disturbs wild animals. Driving at
night causes the death of animals. According to a recent study, animal mortality increases with an
increase in the number of vehicles. Although this impact is relatively slight in comparison with
others, this problem cannot be ignored.
Vehicle pollution affects approximately twice as much land as the actual corridor. Some toxic
substances produced by cars are harmful to organisms and have an impact on plant and animal
reproduction, especially of birds.
Water Pollution
Water pollution resulting from transportation corridors occurs when toxic and hazardous cargos
are spilled. Oil, fertilizer, farm chemicals and toxic and inflammable cargos are hauled through the
Chinese and Russian sectors of the TumenNET Area. Possible impacts on water bodies are:
85
· Oils can pollute water bodies, threaten fish survival and affect reproduction;
· Fertilizer can increase the growth of organic mass in rivers, form rich oxygen environments
and damage fish habitat;
· Agricultural chemicals can affect aquatic habitat;
· Toxic and inflammable cargo can seriously damage water quality and destroy aquatic life
forms;
· Marine vessel pollution can introduce exotic species when bilge water is dumped illegally.
Ships are the main source of pollution in ports. The marine environment in ports is most often
polluted with oil products and phenols. This is especially the case in Golden Horn Bay and
Nakhodka Bay. There are considerable concentrations of phenols in portions of the marine zone
adjacent to the mouth of the Tumen River.
Hydrologic Changes
Transportation corridors divide landscapes and change land use patterns. Vehicle pollution can
degrade or destroy vegetation near transportation corridors. In certain transportation corridors have
completely changed the original environment, even without other direct human interventions.
Original vegetation on both sides of lines is destroyed and replaced by secondary forests.
Unsustainable Management of Protected Areas and Species
Ecosystem Loss and Modification
Unmanaged over harvest of wild plants is an important reason for the reduction, and even
extinction, of some plants, especially medicinal and commercial valuable plants species. Poaching
of such species as Martes zibellina, Lutra lutra, Vulpes vulpes, Canis lupus for their body parts is
also a destructive practice. The Amur tiger is nearly extinct and wild Cervus Nippon is extinct. The
number of Cervus elaphus has dropped to 10% of its 1970 numbers. Restaurants serve, at great
profit, many rare and endangered animals. High purchase price induces people to risk hunting and
killing protected animal species, despite national laws.
In the last decade the preferred target of poachers in the Russian sector of the TumenNET Area in
southwest Primorye has been the Far Eastern "trepang" (sea cucumber Apostichopus japonicus).
At least 70 individuals are involved in the illegal sea cucumber harvest in Pos'et and Amurskii
Bays, most of them concentrated in Pos'et Bay. There are in fact many more people involved,
including those who provide insurance, transportation, production facilities, information support
and transfer of contraband across borders.
The volume of poached Far Eastern trepang in southwest Primorye from 1992 to 1998 was about
150-350 tons per year. Given the price offered by buyers, the cash value amounted to around two
million dollars. The total value of holothurians caught in southwest Primorye and illegally shipped
to other Asia-Pacific countries (mainly PRC) exceeds four million dollars per year (in Hong Kong
prices). Stocks of Far Eastern trepang have all but been destroyed in the waters of Primorskii Krai.
Reasons for active poaching in southwest Primorye are quite evident:
· High and steady demand for seafood products in Asian countries;
· Reduced catches lead to price increases;
· Difficult social and economic conditions making poaching the only means to provide basic
needs;
86
· Poor law enforcement and coordination between various authorities;
· Absence of legal mechanisms that motivate rational use of coastal resources;
· Absence of effective reasonable markets.
Primorskii scallop (Mizuhopecten yessoensis) is another poaching target. Scallops are exported to
the ROK and the PRC. It is very difficult to assess the scope of the illegal scallop fishery on
domestic markets since it is impossible to differentiate between scallops bred artificially and
scallops collected in natural conditions. Poaching of other bivalve mollusks (Corbicula japonica,
Spisula sachalinensis, Scapharca broughtoni) is not considered high since the price of mollusks on
foreign markets is low. Profits in the poaching of marine resources depend upon special equipment
and boats.
Soil and Landscape Degradation
Agricultural activities in protected areas degrade soil and often cause erosion.
Impact of Tourism
Ecosystem Loss and Modification
Lodging and restaurants are built at preferred sites where water and sunshine is abundant. This
disturbs vegetation at the water's edge and disrupts plants and animals. Indiscriminate hunting and
fishing, the harvest of plants changes species composition and lead to the disappearance of rare
species. Wildlife poaching serves the souvenir industry and reduces wildlife numbers. The
construction of transportation infrastructure leads to deforestation, vegetation damage and habitat
fragmentation.
Water Pollution
Litter and sewage is disposed of in lakes and rivers, causing water pollution. Vehicle exhaust
fumes, oil and gas spills create water pollution.
Soil and Landscape Degradation
Tourism facilities, such as hotels, camping sites, access roads and power lines cause disruptions in
soil stability, compacting of soil, and esthetic scars on landscape and soil erosion.
B.2.2 Transboundary Issues and Threats
The environmental impact from industrial development in the Chinese sector of the TumenNET
Area will decrease as a result of effective interventions by the Chinese government. Effective
measures have already been adopted to manage industrial pollution. Many polluting enterprises
have been closed and some positive results are already seen. There is, however, a shortage of
wastewater treatment facilities for certain important enterprises that are still operating. Pollution
problems will persist in the absence of adequate investments in the construction of such facilities.
Urbanization is inevitable with economy development and urbanization will have environmental
consequences. These include population growth and growth of cities. Pollution from municipal
sewage will increase. If no new municipal sewage treatment facilities are built in the future,
population growth will cause serious water and solid wastes pollution problems. The growth of
cities will expand onto agricultural land and aggravate the contradiction between agricultural land
use and other land use such as forests and wetlands. This will have an impact on biodiversity.
87
The impact of agriculture on pollution can be changed in the near future. There are two major
reasons for chemical and pesticide pollution: inappropriate use and poor farm management. Better
use is a matter of education. The future development in Jilin Province is toward an eco-economy.
Guidelines and development directions have already been formulated and it will be possible to
change current farm management.
Impact from transportation corridors will be more serious. It must be recognized that quality
transportation is a prerequisite for economic development. Highways and roads are certain to be
built in the future and it is incorrect to say that they will have no impact on biodiversity or that
they will not add to pollution. The only practical measure is to minimize such impacts through
scientific planning.
Tourism is sure to have certain negative impacts on the environment. Compared with other
industries, however, tourism is a clean form of economic development. As a result, this for of
development should be emphasized in the future and its development advance. Impacts can be
minimized by creating appropriate facilities, improving management and education to improve
environmental awareness among tourists.
The environmental impact from industrial development in the Russian sector of the TumenNET
Area could increase existing threats, in particular industrial, urban and agricultural pollution and
the impact on coastal, marine and freshwater ecosystems and unique biodiversity. There are many
environmental threats in Primorskii Krai and, particularly in southwest Primorye. One is a project
to mine a titanium-magnetite field in the beach zone (300 m wide) in the Tumen River mouth near
the boundary of the Far Eastern State Marine Reserve. Sand extraction will inevitably disturb and
possible led to the disappearance of ducks groupings, shore birds in lagoons throughout marine
beach and adjacent coastal waters. Rest zones for cranes will disappear near lagoons.
The withdrawal of vast volumes of sand will cause the lagoons, the most productive area in the
region, will evidently disappear. Roads to be built to mine in the wetland complex, creating public
access. The disturbance factor in the region will increase markedly, poaching will increase and the
end will be the complete physical destruction of the most valuable wetland in the Tumen River's
lower reaches. This is incompatible with operation of the Khasan Nature Park.
The main biodiversity threats in Peter the Great Bay and the priority conservation measures are
listed in Table 12.
Table 12. Main Biodiversity Threats in Peter the Great Bay and Priority Conservation Measures
Threat
Cause
Measure
Decrease in number of
-- Contamination of marine
-- Decrease the level of marine
species
environment leading to death of
environment pollution: purification of
both adult organisms and their
waste waters, decrease the level of air
offspring as well as to
pollution by building and operating
disturbance of the reproduction
modern filtering equipment, introducing
of marine organisms
waste treatment systems at currently
-- Poaching
operating enterprises
-- Decrease poaching and uncontrolled
fishing by improving fisheries
management, by improving law
enforcement to apprehend and bring to
justice poachers and the people who buy
their products
88
-- Support FESMR by improving the
activity of its anti-poaching team
Decrease in the area
-- Increase in silt component of
-- Treat waste waters
covered by bottom
bottom sediments as a result of
-- Protect forests
grasses and algae, the
increased inflow of suspended
-- Protect soil from erosion
most important sites for
solids with wastes, river runoff
-- Improve the system of collecting and
fish and bottom
and land discharge in the coastal storing of solid wastes
invertebrates spawning
zone
-- Develop and introduce modern
-- Contamination of marine
mariculture technology
environment
-- Poor intensive mariculture
-- Increase in recreational
pressure on the coastal zone
Change in the structure of -- Contamination of marine
-- Decrease the level of marine pollution
the bottom and pelagic
environment
-- Decrease the volume of suspended
communities:
-- Silting of bottom sediments
solids entering marine environment
catastrophic drops in the
-- Poaching and uncontrolled
-- Decrease poaching and uncontrolled
numbers of some species; fisheries
fishing
increase in numbers of
-- Eutrophication
-- Support for FESMR
eurybiontic and tolerant
-- Natural factors: typhoons and
-- Monitor the population status of
species; appearance and
floods resulting in a sharp
commercially valuable species
spread of immigrant
decrease in water salinity and a
-- Restore the most commercially valuable
species
mass die-offs of hydrobionts
species through mariculture
The environmental impact from industrial development in the DPRK sector of the TumenNET
Area includes the building of the international airport "Sonbon" near the Tumen River mouth area,
a threat to birds who will be threatened by aircraft. The location of an airport on spring (March-
May) and fall (July-November) migratory bird routes, as well as an area with two large sea bird
colonies (Furugelm Island in the RF sector and Arsom Island in the DPRK sector) is a prescription
for disaster.
An attempt to combine a large airport with an adjoining protected bird refugee is not a serious
endeavor and seriously contradicts one another. Protected territories (Far-Eastern Marine Reserve
(RF); Khasan Natural Park (RF); Arsom Refuge (DPRK); the planned refuge in Jingxin (PRC) are
located near the Tumen River lower reaches and would be affected by the airport.
Birds, especially waterfowl, a permanent fixture of the region given, enjoy locally favorable
conditions. A number of national and local development projects that ignore the value of local
wetlands have been carried out in the coastal and river ecosystems and have had significant impact
on the wetlands. Straightening the river for flood control negatively affected local biodiversity.
Setting up and implementing a national land development policy should take into consideration the
conservation values of wetland ecosystems.
B.3. Constraints
Note: No data are available from the DPRK.
The main constraints in TRBZ are:
89
Impact from Industry and Mining
Government policies are inadequate and not in keeping with environmental needs and
requirements. There is non-compliance with governmental regulations. Technology is outdated.
There are administrative bottlenecks for investors and financial constraints exist.
Impact from Urbanization
Inadequate physical and economic development planning, non-compliance with regulations,
financial constraints and rapidly growing urban populations are all factors.
Impact from Agriculture
There is a growing demand for land, a lack of ownership regulations and inappropriate
technologies and farming management systems.
Inappropriate Water and Land Use Management
There is a lack of legal framework and standards and no joint monitoring systems.
Unsustainable Forest Use
There is a lack of supervision and compliance with forest laws and inadequate forest laws lead to
forest destruction.
Transport Corridors
There is a need for environmental impact assessments for roads.
Sustainable Management of Protected Areas and Species
There is a lack of agreements and mechanisms to manage transboundary protected areas and
poaching.
Impact from Tourism
There are inadequate infrastructures, inappropriate tourist behavior, poor policy formulation and a
lack of developed tourist sites.
B.4. Causal Chain Analysis
Key Issue: Ecosystem Loss and Modification
A final result of any unsustainable human activity (industrial, urban and agricultural development,
roads construction) is ecosystem modification and degradation. Key Tumen River ecosystems are
forest, wetlands, coastal and marine.
Root Causes
There are various reasons for ecosystem modification and degradation (Figure 32). First is a weak
economy and inadequate knowledge. There is also a lack of industrial and urban wastewater
90
treatment and outdated industrial and agricultural technology. Poor supervision of and compliance
with laws (particularly forest laws) and inappropriate land use planning lead to unsustainable
regional development and results in ecosystem degradation. Population growth leads increases
demand for nature resources. Inappropriate regional development planning leads to increased
population pressure. Poor tourist and recreation planning policy increase pollution and litter
problems.
Forest Loss and Degradation
The main causes of forest loss and degradation are timber harvest (illegal and by the timber
industry), urban and industrial development connected with the expansion of transport networks
and agricultural activity. Natural causes of forest degradation are diseases, insects, and pests.
Total forest area in the Chinese sector of the TumenNET Area is currently 312.2×104 ha, and forest
coverage is 74.69% of the whole region. Changes in the use and management of forest resources,
forest production has stabilized. In 1998 deforestation covered 3,019 ha, not including 578,168 ha
of deforestation on hillsides. Clearing of young growth and established forest was 161,924 ha. Mill
output was 887,036 m3. Refer to Table 13 for information on land use in the Russian sector.
Excessive deforestation leads to habitat loss for important rare plants. Forest landscapes are
fragmented by frequent human activity that rapidly reduce plant resources and degrade stabile
forest ecosystems. Forest diseases insects and pests threaten forest ecosystem.
Timber harvest rates have reduced the volume of forest in TumenNET Area. Many secondary
deciduous forests and young stands have been destroyed. Despite harvest and reforestation plans
for steep and currently treeless areas to increase total forest area, newly planted forests do not
replace the original forest in terms of biodiversity and wildlife habitat.
91
Figure 32
92
Table 13. Land Resources in Southwest Primorye of the Russian Federation
Khasanskii
Raion Oktyabrskii
Raion Nadezhdinskii Raion
Ussuriiskii Raion
(thousand hectares)
(thousand hectares)
(thousand hectares)
(thousand hectares)
1999
%
1999
%
1999
%
1999
%
percent
percent
percent in
percent in
in Raion
in Raion
Raion
Raion
1. Total land according to official census, including:
413,01
163,28
159,57
362,55
Arable land
4,07
1
53,63
32,8
9,50
6
45,61
12,6
Haying area
39,33
9,5
7,75
4,8
11,73
7,4
12,02
3,3
Pastures
66,79
16,2
22,52
13,8
14,56
9,1
25,09
6,9
Fallow
0,27
0,1
Forests
195,64
47,4
15,22
9,3
94,3
59,1
215,3
59,4
Scrubs
41,13
10
41,72
25,6
6,90
4,3
30,53
8,4
Marshes
19,56
4,7
0,88
0,5
1,57
1
0,94
03
2. Total land used by agricultural enterprises, 65,58
15,9
(22,0)
13,5
(19,0)
11,9
(51,5)
14,2
organizations and individuals, including:
Arable land
3,51
0,8
(8,86)
5,4
(2,2)
1,4
(19,2)
5,3
Haying area+
11,98
2,9
(0,83)
0,5
(2,56)
1,6
(2,59)
0,7
Pastures
19,69
4,8
(2,84)
1,7
(7,03)
4,4
(9,44)
2,6
Fallow
0,11
0,03
Gardens
0,37
0,1
3. Urbanized Land
9,40
2,3
2,24
1,4
6,23
3,9
4,75
1,3
93
Wetland Loss and Degradation
The main causes of wetland loss and degradation agriculture, urban and industrial development
(including pollution as result of these activities) and expansion of the transportation network.
The most important wetlands in the TumenNET Area are in extreme southwest Primorye,
including the Khasanskii Nature Park and adjacent territory in the PRC and the DPRK. At the
end of 1998, total cultivated land in the Chinese sector of the TumenNET Area was 159,107 ha,
including 121,058 ha dry farmland and 3,049 ha irrigated field, with the percentages 76.09% and
23.91%, respectively. Local crops are cereals, industrial crops and fruits.
Land reclamation and agriculture are decreasing wetland resources. Stream modification cuts off
fish migration routes. An increase timber harvest and agricultural land conversion are a result of
increased human pressure in the region. Large expanses of forest are shifting to shrub lands, then
to grasslands and eventually loose their fertility.
Wetland conversion in the Tumen River mouth and economic development are the basic threats
to migratory birds. Total land resources in the Russian sector of the TumenNET Area, in
southwest Primorye, used for agriculture are 148,695 hectares. Cultivated lands have decreased
in the past five years by 10.9%; hay field and meadows - by 11.4%.
Wetland pollution affects fish and invertebrates in the following ways:
· Local and migratory fish use the lower and middle Tumen river to spawn and this is
where most pollutants accumulate;
· Pollution from ore mills and processing plants increase the volume of suspended material
in river water and cause silting of spawning grounds of rheophylic fish species,
decreasing the volume of quality spawning grounds.
Loss and Modification of Coastal and Marine Ecosystems
The main causes of coastal and marine ecosystem loss and modification are agriculture, urban,
industrial and tourist development (including their sources of pollution and litter), and expansion
of transportation networks.
Coastal ecosystems are the most vulnerable to increases in pollution. The main reasons are:
· Chemical pollution negatively affects spawning efficiency and possibly increases egg and
larvae mortality;
· Increased water turbidity reduces the likelihood of successful spawning.
Urban, agricultural and industrial in the TumenNET Area affect coastal and marine ecosystems.
The Tumen River is the largest in the East Sea / Sea of Japan. Total effluent discharge into the
Tumen River from PRC is 14,057.51×104t, of which 7,367.51×104t is industrial (52.4% of total
discharge) and 6,690.00×104t of sewage (47.62%). Only 20.83% of the industrial waste is
treated.
The population of the Chinese sector of the TumenNET Area increased from 13,360,000 in 1978
to 17,060,000 at the end of 1999. The population is projected to be 21,400,000 in 2010,
25,850,000 in 2010, and 41,120,000 in 2020. Domestic sewage is one of the main point source
pollutants in the Tumen River. Average detergent concentration at the mouth of the Tumen River
in 1997 was 76 µg/l, 46µg/l in July and 49 4µg/l in August 1998.
94
Industrial effluent in the Tumen River arises from PRC and the DPRK. The largest polluter in
PRC is the Kaishantun Chemical Fiber Pulp plant and the Shixian Paper Mill; in the DPRK they
are the Musan Iron Mine and the Undok Chemical Factory. According to 1999 monitoring data
for the Chinese sector of the TumenNET Area, phenol was 16.70µg /l. In the Hedong region the
phenol reading was 24.88µg /l; Quanhe - 6.98µg /l. Effluent discharge and treatment in the
Tumen River is shown in the table 14.
Table 14. Industrial Effluent Discharge and Treatment in the Chinese Sector of the TumenNET
Area in 1999.
Region
Discharge
Standard
Standard
Treatment
Treatment
(104 tons)
Discharge
Discharge Rate (104 tons)
Rate
(104 tons)
(104 tons)
(%)
Total
7 367.51
1 534.74
20.83
3 886.00
41.21
Yanji
211.74
192.42
90.88
93.62
91.18
Tumen
2 616.01
8.35
0.32
425.45
14.44
Hunchun
766.98
643.35
83.95
716.03
91.89
Longjing
2 981.95
17.72
0.59
2 103.11
41.95
Helong
199.80
168.91
84.54
42.91
99.79
Wangqing
299.41
252.24
84.25
124.13
98.81
County
Antu
288.63
251.35
87.08
380.75
91.08
County
Non-point pollution sources are the most important sources of pollution in the Chinese sector of
the TumenNET Area that reach the coastal and marine portions of the RF. These pollutants are
largely the result of agriculture activity and soil erosion.
Fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides. In 1998, fertilizer use in the Chinese sector of the
TumenNET Area was 48,137 tons of nitrogen, 1,066 tons of phosphate, 1,421 tons of potash and
18,399 tons of composite fertilizers. In the Chinese sector of the TumenNET Area, in 1998, 749
tons of pesticides were applied: 28% -insecticides, 12% - germicides, 57% - herbicides and 3% -
plant growth regulators.
Soil erosion. Most of the soil in the Chinese sector of the TumenNET Area is granite-based gray-
brown and dark brown soil. It is rather light and weakly soil erosion resistant. Water and soil
erosion is common when vegetation is destroyed. Recently, with sharp increases in population
and with irrational resource use, including over harvest of timber, mining, quarrying, sand
extraction, soil erosion has become a serious problem. According to statistics for 2000, soil
erosion was observed on 370,463 ha, 12.05% of the Chinese sector of the TumenNET Area.
Coastal zone. Peter the Great Bay, about 12% of Primorskii Krai, is the most developed portion
of the Russian sector of the TumenNET Area. Most of the settlements, railroads, seaports
(Vladivostok, Nakhodka, Slavyanka, Zarubino, Poset), industrial and agricultural enterprises are
located here.
Annual wastewater discharge into Peter the Great Bay in early 1990s was 491.81 mln m3.
Consequently, marine waters near Vladivostok and Nakhodka are the most susceptible to
anthropogenic impact (Figure 33).
95
Figure 33.
Discharge Volumes for Total Suspended Solids and BOD5,
and Discharge Rates along the Peter the Great Bay Shoreline
In southwest Primorye there are many industries: ship repair, fishery, sea product processing that
discharge wastewater into coastal waters. Southwest Primorye, however, is not a highly
developed area.
Figure 34 shows the volume of pollutants, including wastewater, entering Peter the Great Bay. In
addition to the Tumen River, there are five large rivers in the Russian sector of the TumenNET
Area that discharge wastewater into the Bay of Peter the Great. The main pollutants are organics
(indicator is BOD) (44%) and suspended solids (41%). Other pollutants include ammonia
nitrogen (6%), nitrates (4%) and fats (3%). The remaining pollutants account for less than 0.1%,
including heavy metals and phenols.
96
Figure 34.
9910
40.00
1361.40
37.94
1087.90
243.51
728.95
550.94
206.11
10760
23.38
BOD
Oil products
Suspended solids
Nitrites
Ammonia nitrogen
SAS
Nitrates
Fe
Fat
other
Makeup of Wastewater Pollutants (tons per year) Entering Peter the Great Bay
Key Issue: Reduction of Biodiversity
Human activity is the key factor in the reduction of biodiversity in the Tumen River. Human
activities that affect biodiversity are habitat reduction, species and genetic loss, impact of
pollution and the introduction of exotic species.
The root causes, shown in Figure 35, are:
· Poorly managed development;
· Inadequate planning for regional development;
· Non-compliance with laws;
· Poor regulation;
· Lack of environmental awareness
Habitat Loss
Habitat Fragmentation. Regional economic development, population growth and natural
resource use cause ecosystem deterioration. The destruction of key ecosystems in certain regions
causes reduces the amount of suitable habitat for ungulates and predators. The result could lead
to isolation of individual population in fragmented habitat. In the TumenNET Area this applies
to the Far Eastern leopard.
The decline of the Far Eastern leopard in Russia and China follows a classical species extinction
scheme. Habitat loss coincides with a decline in area and loss of quality habitat. Small, isolated
leopard populations perish owing to various factors. Far Eastern leopard populations in
Primorskii Krai, in the 1900, were three distinctly fragmented populations. Two of these three
populations have probably disappeared since 1970. Evidence is lacking on the existence of a
stable, resident leopard population anywhere in northeast China. Leopards were found in Jilin
and Heilongjiang Provinces in the past. There are no more than 5-7 leopards; these live on the
Russian border and are part of the southwest Primorye population.
97
Figure 35
Tiger habitat fragmentation is not as expressly shown as for the leopard. Tiger habitat in the
Sikhote-Alin is contiguous and there are not significant gabs. The northern limits of tiger habitat
(Sukpai, Samarga, Botcha) are isolated from main tiger habitat. There are two isolated tiger
habitats in the Chinese sector of the TumenNET Area.
Habitat Destruction. Industrial and urban development has ignored environmental protection
need and cause severe environmental problems such as forest destruction, water and soil erosion.
The Tumen River has been transformed into agricultural fields and the river has been dammed to
produce electricity. These activities have had an impact on the environment and have affected
the ecology of resident organisms. Agricultural activities began in 1890 and by 1920 flatland
areas had been converted to cultivated lands. Forests in the forest-steppe have nearly been
destroyed. Oak forests, predominately Mongolian oak and lespedeza underbrush, have been
converted. Timber harvest and fires have deforested river valleys and mountain slopes.
Transformation of forest and forest-steppe ecosystems and the impact on large predator and
ungulate populations in southwest Primorye may be irreversible. Over grazing in some areas is
the main reason for wildlife and plant habitat destruction.
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The largest and most important migratory bird wetlands are in the mouth of the Tumen River.
More than 300 species are registered here during migration, nesting and winter, 32 of which are
listed on international endangered species lists. The area is on the East-Asiatic Flyway. Many
thousands of waterfowl and shorebirds rest and feed here during migration. The support of these
bird populations is possible due to the diversity water and marshlands and abundant food
resources. There are salt lagoons and small, slowly flowing rivers, sandy and pebbly marine
beaches, shallow inlets and the Tumen River delta. Water bodies located in the plain are highly
productive. Anthropogenic impact could reduce ecosystem vitality.
The role of the Peter the Great Bay in biological resource reproduction of the East Sea / Sea of
Japan is very important. Coastal and marine biotopes degradation reduces fish and invertebrate
spawning grounds.
Species and Genetic Biodiversity Loss
Harvest of wildplants, poaching, illegal fishing. Wildlife numbers have declined sharply because
of over hunting and over harvest. The volume of trade in and hunting of wild plants and animals
has obviously increased. Large numbers of wild foxes, wolfs, bears, otters and other fur bearing
animals are captured annually. Many animals and plants are used in traditional medicine. Many
animals are caught and killed for meat. Rare species are sold as pets and delivered to zoos and
museums. The Far Eastern trepang (sea cucumber Apostichopus japonicus) is the favorite target
of poachers in southwest Primorye. The volume of the illegal Far Eastern trepang catch in
southwest Primorye from 1992 to 1998 was about 150-350 tons per year. The fight to halt
poaching has been ineffective and state fisheries management agencies report very few cases of
poaching: less than 2% of poachers are apprehended. Under current conditions a complete ban
on trepang fishery would be ineffective to restore holothurians stock and will not contribute
much to a sustainable trepang industry.
Rural residents use wood for firewood, stealing wood when permission is not given to collect
firewood. Sustainable harvest plans have not been carried, in part as a consequence of increases
in population and market demand in the countryside.
Increased tourism in southwest Primorye has increased use of Spisula, Grey Mussel and
Crustacea. Locals illegally catch and sell several hundred kilograms of these animals every day.
The illegal algae (laminaria and ahnfeltia) fishery in Peter the Great Bay is minimal since
volumes of laminaria are inadequate for profitable fishery and the demand for in ahnfeltia for
agar-agar production is satisfied with beach casts during storms. Harvest is mostly in Troitsa and
Perevoznii Bays and in Stark Strait. Primorskii scallop (Mizuhopecten yessoensis) is also
poached and is exported to the ROK and the PRC. An assessment of the illegal scallop fishery is
difficult because the production from artificial scallop beds and scallops collected in natural
conditions is impossible to differentiate. Other illegal fisheries are bivalve mollusks (Corbicula
japonica, Spisula sachalinensis and Scapharca broughtoni) is not considered high as the price of
mollusks on foreign markets is low. Ways should be found to rationally use these resources via
long-term leases, legalization of fisheries and aggressive marketing in Chinese wholesale
markets to stem illegal activities.
Reasons for active poaching in southwest Primorye are quite evident:
· High and steady demand for seafood products in Asian countries;
· Reduced catches lead to price increases;
· Difficult social and economic conditions making poaching the only means to provide
basic needs;
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· Poor law enforcement and coordination between various authorities;
· Absence of legal mechanisms that motivate rational use of coastal resources;
· Absence of effective reasonable markets.
Water Pollution
Industrial and agricultural development in the Chinese and DPRK sectors of the TumenNET
Area create water pollution. Water pollution exceeds the capacity of the river to naturally clean
itself. The damage to the ecological balance seriously affects spawning grounds for resident and
anadromous fish species. The Tumen River is becoming increasingly more polluted due to
economic development and poor management. Pollution not only destroys fish and bird habitat,
it exacerbates current and future ecosystem problems. Pollution results in fishery losses and
negatively affects public health, and reduces crop yields. Pollution of international waters
threatens the Tumen River ecosystem and migratory birds in wetlands. Many species are on the
verge of extinction.
Introduction of Exotic Species
Introduction of exotic species changes the genetic composition of resident species and can lead
to native species extinction.
Key Issue: Pollution of Water Bodies
General information on pollution is provided in the sections on "Ecosystem Modification and
Loss" and "Biodiversity Loss." An explanation is needed for the section "Solid Wastes" (Figure
36). Industrial, urban and tourism activities are the main causes. The main source of solid waste
in Peter the Great Bay is marine ports and ship repair facilities. These ports are in Vladivostok,
Nakhodka, Zarubino and Pos'et. The cargo capacity of the Vladivostok industrial-transportation
zone is 6.6 million tons per year. There are two ports in Vladivostok. The cargo handling
capacity of the Nakhodka transportation zone is 29 millions tons per year. The area has five ice
free ports. The cargo handling capacity at the Khasanskii port zone exceeds two million tons per
year and there are two joint-stock companies: "Pos'et Sea Port" and "Zarubino Sea Port". There
are eight large ship repair facilities in Peter the Great Bay: two in Nakhodka, four in
Vladivostok, one in Bolshoi Kamen and one in Slavyanka.
The other primary source of solid waste in the Peter the Great Bay is coastal tourism. The
geographical position of southwest Primorye, its mild climate and warm sea make the region
attractive for Russian and foreign tourists.
The region has the physical resources for medical and health programs, for education, hunting
and fishing, swimming and sunbathing. In excess of 87 thousand people from 55 countries of the
world visited southwest Primorye in 1999.
Key Issue: Hydrological Changes
Figure 37 shows the causal chain analysis for this problem. The basic information is given above
in this subchapter.
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Figure 36
101
B.5. Political-Legal-Socio-Economic Analysis
Note: No data are available from DPRK.
B.5.1. Government Agenda, Plans, Strategies
People's Republic of China
Development patterns for the 21st century in Jilin Province emphasize environmental priorities.
Guidelines can be summarized as follows:
· Development according to a sustainable development theory;
· Development of an environmental protection economy;
· Support for modern scientifically based technologies;
· Coordination of natural and economic laws;
· Promote features of Jilin Province's environmental and economic system;
· Create high-quality environment;
· Develop green industry;
· Improve economic profits;
· Scientifically and promote development of an environmentally safe Province;
· Further reform and fully embody environmentally functional economic structures;
· Promote government and social investment to develop and protect a rule of law based
environment;
· Implement sustainable socio-economic development.
The time frame for this plan is 30 years, divided into three stages: Stage One Start up (2000-
2005), Stage Two Advanced (2006-2015), and Stage Three Fine Tuning (2016-1030).
The goal of Stage One is to strategically adjust the economic structure of the entire Province to
create a framework for green industry by adjusting science and industry, by managing pollution,
by restoring and revitalizing ecosystems, by halting ecosystem destruction and by improving
environmental and economic efficiency. The key tasks at this stage are to develop a
characteristic economy, expand market demand, foster new economic growth, restore, build and
control eco-environment, increase output and renew high-quality resource and green products
capacity, update the structure of green products and green ecologic areas, form green industry
groups; spread clean production and manage major pollution sources.
The key industries will be organic and green food industry, green vehicle industry,
environmental protection chemical industry, intensive and sustainable agriculture, high-tech
industries, health industry, environmental protection industry, ecotourism, information industry
and forest industry.
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Figure 37
103
Priority projects are restoration and development of regional ecosystems, establishment of eco-
industries and high-tech industries, comprehensive environmental protection management,
promotion of an eco-culture, ecosystem management, and restoration and rational use of natural
resources.
Russian Federation
The integrated nature of interests in the Russian sector of the TumenNET Area must be taken
into consideration. There are at three stakeholders: RF, Primorskii Krai and southwest Primorye.
Geopolitical interests primarily motivate the RF: economic and environmental cooperation in
Southeast Asia, for example, leopard and tiger conservation. The strategy in Primorskii Krai is
defined by environmental impacts of the TumenNET Area project: implementation could lead to
increased population migration, and competition with ports in Vladivostok and Nakhodka from
seaport development in southwest Primorye. Environmental problems are the primary focus in
southwest Primorye.
In view of various Russian interests in the TumenNET Area Project, the Russian position is to
address obvious contradictions that exist between its interests and those of adjacent countries. A
key issue is resolving the contradiction between the Russian aim to conserve existing
biodiversity in southwest Primorye and the quality of the environment in Peter the Great Bay and
intensive socio-economic developments in adjacent territories where environmental impacts are
not considered.
These contradictions can be summed as:
· The Russian sector of the TumenNET Area in southwest Primorye, in comparison to the
PRC and the DPRK, has existing high levels of biodiversity and its preservation is a
national priority;
· The Russian sector of the TumenNET Area in southwest Primorye is the most susceptible
to transboundary pollution given the nature of marine and atmospheric transfers.
This contradiction can be partially resolved by developing plans that take into consideration the
need for biodiversity conservation and pollution reduction in adjacent territories. The following
are priority measures for adjacent territories:
1. Biodiversity conservation:
· Improve natural ecosystem protection: example - Far Eastern leopard habitat;
· Prevent illegal shipments of animal and plant products from the RF to PRC and the
DPRK;
2. Pollution management that mitigates water pollution in the Tumen and Razdolnaya
(Suifun) River watersheds.
B.5.2. Demographic Data
Note: No data are available from DPRK.
People's Republic Of China
Aside from the Han nationality, there are 20 minority ethnic groups in the Chinese sector of the
TumenNET Area include Korean, Manchu, Hui. The birth rate in 1999 was 6.03, lower than
the death rate of 6.21, indicating a rise in population. Natural population growth was 0.18,
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far less than average National and Province levels. Per capita industrial growth was 0.50 and
total population growth was 0.32. Total population by the end of 1999 was 17,060,000. Han
population was 8,3020,000 (48.7%), Korean population - 8,255,000 (48.4%), Manchu - 451,000
(2.6%) Hui - 38,000 (0.2%) and the remaining minority groups 15,000 (0.1%). Rural
population was 6,050,000 (35.5%); urban 11,010,000 (64.5%). The male population was
8,566,000 (50.02%) and female- 8,495,000 (49.8%).
Russian Federation
The population in the Russian sector of the TumenNET Area (four administrative districts) is
153, 900 people, including 64,400 urban and 89,500 rural residents (42% and 58%, respectively).
This represents about 7% of Primorskii Krai's total. The ethnic composition is Russians (80%),
Ukrainians (up to 15%), Byelorussians and Mordovians, Tatars, Chuvashians and Koreans.
Population dynamics reflect socio-economic developments changes in southwest Primorye. An
initial abrupt drop in population number occurred at the end of 1930's and was connected with
the introduction of a strict border regime. In the 1950s-1960s, with fisheries and agricultural
development, the population steady grew. The population of Primorskii Krai decreased by 8-
14% in the last decade due to a socio-economic restructuring. Military reductions in border areas
are the main reason for the decrease in population. Current demographic figures are: mortality
(8.7-9.9%), birth rate (9.9-14.9%) and average life expectancy (60.7-66.5) carry an imprint of
population decrease of the last decade. Over the period from 1992 to 1999, the birth rate dropped
by 60-69%, while mortality had increased by 24-45%.
B.5.3. Environmental Laws and Regulations. Bilateral, Regional and International Treaties
and Conventions
Refer to Annex 12 for details.
B.5.4. Institutional Environmental Management
People's Republic Of China
Environmental Management Organizations in TumenNET Area are shown in Figure 38.
The environmental management system in the Chinese sector of the TumenNET Area has nine
independent environmental protection bureaus, eight environmental monitoring stations, one
environmental research center that has 400 working staff, of which 300 are technicians. It is a
three-tier environmental management system: state, county (city) and town.
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Figure 38.
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Major Functions of Respective Bureaus
Environmental Protection Bureau of Yanbian State. This Bureau is responsible for state
environmental protection and provides environmental protection guidance in Yanji, Tumen,
Hunchun, Wan Qing, He Long, An'tu, Dunhua, Longjing, the eight counties as well as Erdao
Environmental Protection Bureau of Erdao Development Zone and Hunchun Economic
Cooperation Zone. Main responsibilities are to protect and improve the living environment and
ecosystems of Yanbian State, to prevent environmental pollution and other public hazards, to
maintain public health, to formulate environmental principles, to supervise and guide the
activities of each department, to monitor and supervise the environmental protection state wide.
Yanbian Prefecture Environmental Monitoring Station. The Station is public good institution
subordinate to the Environmental Protection Bureau of Prefecture. Its professional activities are
guided by the Jilin Province Monitoring Center; it is a third level station. It provides
technological support and service and carries out environmental management, programs and
provides data for decision-making and implementation of environmental law. It is the technical,
data, networking and training center that develops programs for regional environmental
monitoring. It creates and revises local environmental standards and technical regulations,
106
collects monitoring data, writes and edits reports and guides environmental monitoring activities
at a local level. The station monitors construction projects that have an environmental impact.
There are 16 staff members.
Yanbian Environmental Protection Research Institute: The Institute conducts scientific,
undertakes environmental protection research, technical advice and services that include
evaluation of environmental impact, environmental design engineering, environmental data
collection and development of new products. It provides scientific basis for environmental
management, environmental decision-making, for the development of environmental laws and
regulations, comprehensive, regional environmental improvement and protection programs and
technical policy. There are 9 staff members.
Yanbian Prefecture Propaganda and Education Center for Environmental Protection. The
Center is administratively subordinated to Yanbian Prefecture Environmental Protection Bureau
and is primarily responsible for public awareness and environmental education. It guides and
advises the Environmental Protection Bureau at the county, city or district levels on public
awareness and environmental education and training issues on the organizational aspects of the
Yanbian Environmental Protection Communication Association. There are 3 staff members.
Yanbian Prefecture Environmental Inspection and Management Division. The Division is
responsible for reducing pollution and enforcing pollution laws. It is also responsible for
collecting pollution reduction assessments from enterprises in the Prefecture, for investigating
environmental accidents and violations and for environmental inspection and management at
lower levels. There are 14 staff members.
Yanji City Environmental Protection Bureau. The Bureau is sector of city government and its
main responsibility is to protect and improve the living environment of Yanji, to prevent and
manage environmental pollution and other public harm, guarantee public health, regulate
environmental protection program, supervise and guide various sectors of Yanji on policy
implementation as well as on environmental protection laws and regulations.
Yanji City Environmental Monitoring Station. The Station is subordinated to the Yanji City
Environmental Protection Bureau and is under the guidance of the Yanbian Prefecture
Environmental Monitoring Station. It provides technological support and service to the
government on environmental management, program, decision-making and implementation of
environmental law. In addition to monitoring, it participates in developing programs and plans
for regional environmental monitoring, collects monitoring data, writes and edits reports and also
undertakes appraisal of construction projects with environmental impact. The Station also checks
and monitors compliance with environmental protection projects.
Other county Environmental Protection Bureaus. These function at the county government level
and are mainly responsible for protecting and improving the regional environment. They prevent
and manage environmental pollution and other public harm, guarantee public health, regulate
environmental protection programs, supervise and guide various regional sectors on policy
implementation as well as environmental protection laws and regulations.
Other county Environmental Monitoring Stations. These are administratively subordinated to the
county Environmental Protection Bureau. The Yanbian Prefecture Environmental Monitoring
Station guides their professional work and they provide technical support and service on
environmental management programs and decision-making and in implementation of
environmental law. Besides regular monitoring tasks, they draw up regional environmental
monitoring programs and maps, collect monitoring data, edit and write reports. They also
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monitor construction projects for compliance and verify completed environmental protection
projects.
Russian Federation
· Ministry for Natural Resources (MNR) regulates natural resources use and environmental
protection.
· Primorskii Krai Committee for Natural Resources develops and implements field
projects for the rational and sustainable use of natural resources in Primorskii Krai, forms
and keeps databases on natural resources, cadastres, and natural resources monitoring in
Primorskii Krai.
· Pacific Specialized Marine Inspection Service protects and manages the use of marine
resources.
· Russian Federal Service for Hydrometeorology and Environmental Monitoring
(Roshydromet) carries out field hydrometeorology and ecological monitoring and
provides users with hydrometeorological and heliogeophysical data as well as data on
environmental conditions and pollution.
· Primorskii Hydrometeorological Service (PUGMS) issues forecasts of
hydrometeorological conditions in Primorskii Krai and adjacent marine zones, including
forecasts of dangerous hydrometeorological and hydrological phenomena; carries out
observations of meteorological, hydrological and aerological parameters and environment
pollution.
· Far Eastern Regional Hydrometeorological Research Institute (FERHRI) carries out
research in meteorology, oceanography, land hydrology and ecology in the Far East and
Eastern Siberia; provides methodical guidance to regional Hydrometeorological offices;
represents Roshydromet research fleet in the Far East.
· Far Eastern Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences (FEB RAS) carries out scientific and
applied research of marine environment components and biodiversity.
· Institute of Marine Biology FEB RAS (IMB FEB RAS) studies of marine, and partially
fresh-water fauna and flora, and ecological state of water environment in the Far East and
adjacent areas.
· Far Eastern State Marine Reserve (FESMR), as a part of IMB, provides protection and
research on animal and plant species in the Reserve area.
· Pacific Oceanic Institute FEB RAS (POI FEB RAS) studies ocean conditions and
hydrological systems of Far Eastern seas.
· Pacific Institute of Geography FEB RAS (PIG FEB RAS) studies ecological state of the
Far Eastern seas and world oceans
· Russian Ministry of Transportation organizes and manages ocean and seaport
transportation operations.
· Safety Coordination Center conducts at sea rescue missions.
· DalmorNIIproject (Far Eastern Research Projects) designs marine equipment for the Far
East, including navigation planning and construction of sea objects in the waters of Peter
the Great Bay.
· All-Russian Research Institute of Hydrometeorological Information World Data Center
(RIHMI-WDC, Obninsk).
· State Research Navigation and Hydrography Institute (GosNINGI), St. Petersburg.
· Center for Marine Geological and Geophysical Data (CMGD), Gelengik.
· All-Russian Research of Fisheries and Oceanography (VNIRO), Moscow.
· Regional Oceanographic Data Center FERHRI (RODC FERHRI, Vladivostok).
· Regional Data Center, TINRO-Center.
· Laboratory of Ocean Information and Monitoring, POI FEB RAS.
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· Satellite Data Center, IACP FEB RAS.
· Laboratory for Receiving Satellite Data, Vladivostok office, Russian Federation
Emergency Ministry.
B.6. Development Scenarios
Note: No data are available from DPRK.
B.6.1. Situation with No Interventions
Condition of Biodiversity
· Fragmentation of large ecosystems will become more and more serious due to expansion
of transportation corridors.
· Decline in the number and of the species composition of rare and important plants and
animals will increase.
· Decline in the number and species composition of plants and animals from industrial,
domestic and agricultural air water and land pollution will increase.
· Gradual disappearance of rare, wild plants such as Oplopanax elatus, a close relative of
the species of Panax ginseng, due to over harvest will increase.
· Disappearance of rare wild animals such as the Amur tiger and Far Eastern leopard due to
over hunting and reduced suitable habitat will increase
· Loss of plant and animal habitat through a shift of habitat to farm, construction and other
uses.
· Decline in water quality will continue.
· Decrease in plant habitat due to water and soil erosion will occur.
· Unsustainable use of natural resources, poor forest, grassland, wetland and coastal
ecosystem management resulting in a decline in genetic, species and ecosystem diversity
will continue.
Condition of International Waters
· Water and soil erosion that causes high densities of sandy water, shallowing and river
widening and which increases the volume of organic pollution in water during ice melt
and during the rainy season will continue.
· Unstable conditions in damaged forests will lead to changes in hydrology.
· Volumes of heavy metals, toxic substances (chemicals and pesticides), suspended solid
and organic waste in water (river, coastal and ground) arising from industrial, agricultural
and urban activities, and inadequate water treatment capacity, will increase.
B.6.1.1. Situation with Interventions
Recovery and Restoration of Biodiversity
The introduction of environmentally friendly mining and processing technologies will:
· Facilitate a gradual recovery of damaged surface vegetation;
· Expand forest and grassland areas;
· Increase the number of plant species;
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· Promote food chain recovery;
· Improve ecosystem health;
· Decrease harmful industrial solid waste and noise pollution;
· Improve water quality and ecosystem health for plants and animals;
· Increase the number of aquatic organisms, migratory birds and large mammals.
The management of urban growth and the adoption of green residential zones will:
· Stabilize and gradually increase the number of cities;
· Manage population and land use growth;
· Improve ecosystem health;
· Increase in the number of plant and animal species.
The management of urban growth and the adoption of green residential zones could also:
· Stabilize and gradually decrease the number of cities;
· Lead to a decrease in population and land use;
· Reduce consumption of timber and food.
Restoration of forest, grassland, wetland and aquatic ecosystems will:
· Decrease human activities;
· Improve conditions for plants and animals and increase their numbers;
· Increase vegetation, forest and grassland animals and improve their general well being;
· Restore and increase the volume of wetlands;
· Increase wetland habitat and increase the number of plants and animals and their general
well being;
· Decrease water and soil erosion;
· Decrease vegetation damage;
· Restore ecosystem balance;
· Restore wild rare plants and animals;
· Decrease ecosystem fragmentation.
Restoration of plant and animal communities in nature reserves, improved protection measures
and an increase in plant and animal habitat will:
· Improve the well being of wild and rare forest plants and animals;
· Reduce damage to wild plants and animals;
· Reduce loss of frontier forest;
· Restore forest ecosystem health;
· Reduce plant and animal loss in protected areas resulting from human interventions;
· Stabilize development of natural forest and wetland ecosystems.
Tourist development management plans that include construction of tourist zones and points of
interest that coordinate the relationship between these zones, animal migratory routes and large
eco-systems, that recycle garbage generated from tourists and that prohibit inappropriate
behavior will:
· Reduce damage to plants and animals by tourists in tourist zones;
· Improve living condition for plants and animals in the tourist zones;
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· Improve ecosystem conditions in tourist zones.
Water Resource Conservation and Water Treatment
Water resource conservation and water treatment measures will:
· Reduce municipal sewage discharge into the TRBZ by 30% annually (excluding DPRK);
· Introduce wastewater treatment facilities at several major industrial sites and reduce
discharge volumes into the TRBZ by 60%, thus effectively eliminating the impact of
wastewater pollution on international waters by the Chinese sector of the TumenNET
Area;
· Introduce effective population, urban and industrial growth management and effective
measures to reduce water pollution and increase water quality;
· Expand nature reserves to improve water resources and water quality.
B.7. Proposed Interventions
B.7.1. Coordinating Environmental Protection with International Plans
Coordination of environmental protection with international plans requires that:
· Governments of Northeast Asian complete a common action program to protect
biodiversity and international waters;
· These governments develop a consensus paper adequate to reach this goal;
· The action program include projections of potential impacts on biodiversity and
international waters and provide appropriate counter measures;
· The action program must contain an environmental monitoring system to monitor and
evaluate biodiversity and international waters with the full participation of all northeast
Asian countries;
· An international environmental information system, an environmental evaluation index
system, and a system to coordinate actions and regulate measures (laws, bylaws,
regulations, market prices for resource products, resource consumption profit transfers,
compensation for the loss of biodiversity) be established;
· Conservation and restoration of forest, wetland and coastal ecosystems be emphasized.
B.7.2. Coordinating Environmental Protection with National Economic Plans
Coordination of environmental protection with national economic plans requires that:
· Pollution prevention and treatment projects, urban environmental infrastructure
development be introduced into annual national economic and social development plans
as part of the capital balance sheet;
· Established environmental investment funds fully use earmarked environment protection
loan policies;
· Investments should gradually increase for pollution prevention and treatment, for
expansion of the environmental infrastructure, and for ecosystem conservation;
· Preferential pollution prevention and treatment, environment protection, environment
industries policies, such as low interest loans or interest subsidy loans practiced;
· Coordination between urban construction, forestry, mineral, agriculture, and water
conservancy agencies be improved;
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· International cooperation should be improved to assure the support and assistance of
foreign countries and international financial institutions;
· Transboundary nature reserves be established in the wetlands of the lower TRBZ;
· NPAs be established and managed by each respective country as an immediate priority;
· A unified management and overall protection plan for these reserves be introduced when
feasible;
· Measures to manage and reduce the impact of the Musan Iron Mine of DPRK, a major
source of pollution in the upper Tumen River be introduced and a mechanism to
compensate for the economic losses resulting from water pollution be created;
· A common PRC, RF and DPRK joint strategic action plan be developed to address
transboundary environmental issues;
· The DPRK be encouraged to join the Strategic Action Plan.
B.7.3. Improve Biodiversity Conservation
The creation and management of NPAs will:
· Lead to improvements in facilities and systems and promote biodiversity conservation
objectives;
· Expand protection at newly created reserves, as in the PRC;
· Promote programs that build and protect "green corridors" between reserves, and between
habitat to ensure regular animal migration and reproduction (Figure 39);
· Restore agricultural lands to forest and grasslands and manage mining areas to limit and
decrease erosion;
· Provide support for existing reserves,
· Improve protection capacities and expand the border of existing reserves;
· Reduce the level of poaching and uncontrolled fishing;
· Improve fisheries management;
· Promote adoption of better legal sanctions against poachers and illegal seafood traders;
· Provide ways to develop economic measures promoting environmental management that
use preferential taxation mechanisms, stricter punitive measures and criminal liabilities;
· Improve public awareness of the environment;
· Facilitate development of aquaculture systems based on ecologically balanced
technologies;
· Promote development of ecotourism based on the balneological resources of southwest
Primorye.
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Figure 39.
Proposed Ecological Corridors in the TumenNET Area
Development of scientifically based and sustainable urban planning and construction of Eco-
Cities will:
· Improve and expand plant and animal habitat by improving city planning and urban
management;
· Protect land and water resources;
· Provide methods to project impacts on animal migration from transportation corridors.
B.7.4. Improving International Cooperation in the Management of Tumen River Pollution
Improvements in international cooperation to manage pollution in the TRBZ require the PRC,
RF and the DPRK to:
· Establish a single TRBZ management agency to coordinate water quality standards
· Sign international treaties to protect international waters;
· Increase UNDP awareness of TRBZ development issues;
· Promote more bilateral, multi-lateral and international cooperation on environmental
pollution issues in the TRBZ;
· Create a favorable investment atmosphere to address urgent needs;
· Establish a multidisciplinary environmental monitoring station at the mouth of the Tumen
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River and organize regular multidisciplinary monitoring of atmospheric air, water, soil,
bottom sediments and biotic conditions;
· Create a network of marine monitoring stations in southwestern Peter the Great Bay to
manage the environment and biota.
· Create a contemporary system of accident response and liquidation in Peter the Great Bay
and adjacent waters.
B.7.5. Policy Measures to Prevent and Manage Industrial Pollution
The management of industrial pollution in the TRBZ and the development of policy measures
that coordinate plans, promote reasonable design and quality industrial infrastructures require
that:
· Macro economic development and its industrial structure be sustainable and conform to
regional environmental carrying capacity;
· Industrial policy limit the development of high-energy consumption, high resource
demand, heavy polluting industries.
Key Technical Issues
· Promote clean production technologies and eco-sensitive industries. The Chinese "Ten
Fives Plan", with its emphasis on pulp production and other activities, must respond to a
need for pollution management throughout the entire production cycle must reduce
demand for raw materials, water and energy sources and reduce the total volume of
pollution produced.
· Reliance upon scientific methods to actively introduce and promote advanced industrial
pollution prevention and wastewater technologies is required.
· Promote, in the context of the "Three Wastes" Program, reductions in pollution at each
level.
Industrial Pollution Management
· Expand national and regional pollution management capacity.
· Improve pollution management at new and old enterprises.
· Create a rapid action response mechanism to address industrial pollution.
· Implement a system to select industrial projects with environmental criteria in mind.
· Develop ecotourism by tightly regulating sightseeing areas and transportation corridors in
protected areas and by prohibiting hurting.
Measures and Steps to Protect the Urban Environment
· Use integrated atmospheric pollution management in cities and towns.
· Stress improvements in urban central heating.
· Promote urban tree planting.
· Construct urban drainage systems that separate rain and sewage.
· Achieve 100% treatment of industrial and domestic wastewater.
· Classify, collect, recover and process domestic waste.
· Introduce scientific treatment of urban wastewater and garbage.
B.8. Stakeholder Analysis
Note: No data are available from DPRK.
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Stakeholders in the TumenNET Area can be broken down into the following three categories:
· Stakeholders producing pollution and threats;
· Stakeholders affected by pollution;
· Stakeholders responsible for compliance of laws and pollution management.
The objects of a stakeholder analysis are:
· To study who has interests in the area and to clearly identify those interests;
· To incorporate stakeholder interests and influences in the area;
· To make realistic and realizable recommendations for creation of a Strategic Action
Program.
Stakeholders Producing Pollution and Threats
There are many stakeholders who pollute or who create environmental threats, including industry
and mining companies, agricultural cooperatives, farmers, forest companies, construction firms,
poachers, game wardens and tourists. The primary companies responsible for environmental
threats are: 1) Kaishantun Chemical Fiber Pulp Factory; 2) Shixian Paper Factory; 3) Longjing
Paper Factory; 4) Hunchun Mining Area and Building Headquarters; 5) Hunchun Power station
Stakeholder Interests
Various mechanisms exist to interest industry in reducing pollution, but a key mechanism is to
demonstrate the cost effectiveness of replacing out of date technologies that cause air or water
pollution. Companies must also realize that inexpensive and locally available materials have
external social cost the company does not necessarily incur. The general intention of this group
of stakeholders is to maximize their economic profits at the expense of other costs.
Destructive Behavior and Stakeholder Impacts
For various reasons, stakeholders exert destructive influences on the environment, including
ecosystem loss and modification, ground and surface water pollution, air pollution and landscape
and soil degradation. Table 15 shows major environmental threats in various clusters.
Table 15. Major Environmental Threats by Stakeholders
Area
Stakeholder
Ecosystem
Water Pollution
Air
Hydrological
Landscape
Loss and
Pollution
Change
and Soil
Modification
Degradation
Industry
Industrial
Toxic
Untreated release
Release of Dams and
Landscape
Enterprises
substances
of heavy metals,
toxic gas
water
Modification
decrease water
tailings, toxic
and fumes impoundment by open pits
quality and
substances affect
and mine
affect
ground water;
tailings
ecosystems and Accidental tailing
fish population
pond pollution
Agriculture
Farmer
Expansion of
Use of chemicals
Change of
associations;
agriculture
(fertilizers and
land use
farmers;
lands
pesticides)
patterns
agricultural
(animal
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cooperatives;
husbandry,
poachers
cultivation)
Forest
Forest
Change/destroy
Smoke,
Accelerated
Change of
companies and
ecosystem and
CO2
runoff,
land use and
local residents
resources
release
erosion,
landscape
change in
water regime
Transport
Ministries of
Limits wildlife
Risk of accidental
Road
Road-dams
Changes
department
Transport
movement
pollution in ports,
traffic
landscape
rivers and the sea
emissions
Urban
Municipalities; Reduced water
Inadequate
House
Demand for
Decrease of
construction planning
quality and
wastewater
hold
and use of
cultivated
commission;
impact on fish
treatment; Poor
heating,
water needs
land
real estate
populations
waste disposal
industrial
to be
companies
emissions, balanced
traffic
Tourism
Adm. Bodies
Illegal hunting
Littering
Transport
on tourism,
and fishing,
camping
tourists
collection of
invasion of
plants;
natural parks
litter
Stakeholders Attitudes on Environmental Problems and Threats
Stakeholders responsible for environmental are more concerned with economic interests and tend
to ignore environmental problems. Different stakeholders cause different types of environmental
problems. It is important to mention the role of environmental NGOs actively trying to influence
other stakeholders. This group uses conservation projects and public awareness raising programs
to influence the activities of government environmental management agencies. This group of
stakeholders attempts to focus government agency and international attention on the most serious
regional environmental issues.
The most active environmental NGOs in the Chinese sector of the TumenNET Area are:
· Yanbian Prefecture Environmental Protection Communication Association;
· Yanbian Prefecture Industry Association for Environmental Protection;
· Yanbian Prefecture Environmental Science Society;
· Green Union.
Yanbian Prefecture Environmental Protection Communication Association. The Association is
under the leadership of Yanbian Prefecture Propaganda and Education Center for Environmental
Protection and works on environmental protection, environmental protection regulations and
laws and public awareness of environmental protection needs. It carries out various activities:
propaganda, education and exchange. There are 16 member units, with more than 250 members.
Membership dues are the source of the Association's funding.
Yanbian Prefecture Industry Association for Environmental Protection. The Association is under
the leadership of the Pollution Management Division of Yanbian Prefecture Environmental
Protection Bureau and focuses on environmental protection. The Association plays an important
role in coordinating enterprises and the government and takes an active role in preventing
environmental pollution and increasing public environmental awareness. There are more than 50
member units (enterprises) and more than 250 members. Membership dues are the source of the
Association's funding.
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Yanbian Prefecture Environmental Science Society. The Society is under the leadership of
Yanbian Prefecture Environmental Protection Research Institute and its members are science and
technology personnel, environmental engineers and technicians, and environmental educators.
The Society is an NGO that is part of the Science and Technology Association of the Korean
Nationality Autonomous Prefecture. Its mandate is devotion, innovation and collaboration.
Based on democratic principles, the Society seeks to combine environmental science and
technology personnel, environmental administrators, science and technology industrialists on
environmental protection and to use a multidisciplinary approach to achieve broad social impact.
It seeks to promote new, innovative environmental technologies. In addressing key problems in
the Prefecture, the Society carries out scholarly exchanges, both within and outside the
prefecture, stimulates an exchange of ideas and promotes development of scientific disciplines. It
also provides advice on decision-making and provides information on environmental
development strategies, macro program development and science and technology policy for
government and enterprises. The Society edits and publishes scholarly and popular science books
and periodicals on the environment, carries out international environmental science and
technology exchanges, and represents the suggestions and ideas environmental science and
technology personnel. There are 220 members, 37 directors and 13 managing directors.
Green Union. The Green Union is an environmental protection NGO in Yanbian Prefecture that
works on environmental protection issues, promotes environmental protection laws and
regulations via the media, and disseminates general information on environmental protection
ideas to raise public environmental awareness. The Green Union coordinates and exchanges data
with environmental organizations in the DPRK and is becoming increasingly more influential in
the Asian and Pacific regions. The Green Union and the DPRK held an environmental seminar
for Asian and Pacific regions to motivate and promote further environmental development. There
are currently 100 members. Membership dues, and some grants from foreign countries, are the
source of the Union's funding.
The most active NGOs in the Russian Far East are:
· Wildlife Conservation Society WCS;
· Phoenix Fund;
· WWF RFE RPO;
· Territory of the Future;
· BROK (Bureau of Regional Public Companies).
These NGOs generate and support environmental initiatives and projects that include public
awareness and have numerous partner relationships in southwest Primorye. They target their
conservation efforts to support local stakeholders NPAs (Far Eastern State Marine Reserve,
Barsovii Refuge, Kedrovii Pad Reserve, Nature Park Khasanskii, other), local village
administrations (Andreevka, Zarubino, Slavyanka, Barabash), deer farms (Gamovskii - 1,
Gamovskii 2) and local people. The rural population is made of former and active farm
laborers, and dockworkers. Many are currently unemployed and make a living either by serving
the tourist trade or work at small, privately owned tourism and trade enterprises. For example,
the NGO "Territory of the Future", with grants from larger NGOs (WWF, WCS, Phoenix Fund)
works with local schoolchildren, students and others in such projects as "Beach Cleanup Days",
distributes information on regional sustainable tourist development; install information signs and
billboards to prevent uncontrolled "wild tourism." It has set up special garbage dump areas in an
attempt to limit solid waste pollution on beaches during the tourist season. It has also organized
environmental education summer camps for children.
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Main Stakeholder Functions and Obligations
The government's function in the environment is to formulate laws and regulations on rural
energy, agricultural and environmental protection policy and to prevent water and air pollution.
It is responsible for implementation of laws and regulations, as well as programs. Scientific
organizations provide a scientific basis for environmental management, environmental decision-
making, drawing up environmental laws and regulations, develop concepts of comprehensive
regional environmental policy and protection program, and supply technical advice. NGOs play
an important part as an intermediary between enterprises and the government, and are active in
monitoring environmental pollution and promoting public awareness on environment. NGOs
often carry out education and exchange programs.
Stakeholder Benefits and Losses
Governments both win and lose in this process. Governments increase tax revenues from
offending enterprises. But they must also bear the responsibility to their citizens for the costs of
pollution and must invest in capital improvement projects to mitigate environmental pollution.
Main Relationships among Three Stakeholders
Conflicts of Interest among Three Stakeholders
Table 16 shows stakeholder benefits and losses.
Table 16. Stakeholder Benefits and Losses
Stakeholders
Benefit
Loss
Polluting Stakeholders - Economical interests
- Degraded environment
Affected Stakeholders
- Wages
- Degraded environment
- Quality life style under reasonable
- Loss of economic interests
natural resources management
- Degraded personal health
Government
- Tax income or research funds
- Degraded environment
Stakeholders
- Degraded public health
All stakeholders
- Economic development
- Partial loss of economic
- Improved living conditions and
opportunities
public attitude
- Decreased economic
- Quality environment
development
- Public interesting environmental
issues
There are conflicts among various stakeholders:
· Conflicts between polluting stakeholders and stakeholders affected by pollution;
· Conflicts between polluting stakeholders and stakeholders responsible for compliance
with laws and regulations.
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PART C. DAURIAN STEPPE ZONE
C.1. DESCRIPTIONS / BACKGROUND
C.1.1. Physical and Geographical Context
The Daurian Steppe Zone, based on physical and geographical zoning, is divided into: 1) Baikal-
Djugjurski mountain taiga zone; 2) South-Siberian mountainous and 3) North-Mongolian semi-
desert-steppe zone. The first two areas belong to northern Asia, the last to central Asia.
Mid-elevation mountain ranges are characteristic of this territory; elevations rarely exceed 2,000-
3,000 m. Lowlands are found in the upper reaches of the Ulz River valley (295-300 m). Sandy
dunes are covered with pinewoods on high basic terraces to the south of the Onon River. To the
south stretch ancient fluvial and lacustrine terraces 40-60 m high. These are used primarily as
pastures and their soil is extremely vulnerable. This area is located almost nearly at the heart of
Asia and it contributes to the development of a combination of plant and animal characteristic of
the Far East, PRC, Mongolia, Western Siberia and Yakutia.
The territory contains 40 mammal species, 314 bird species, 4 fish species, 6 amphibian and
reptile species in addition to 520 insect species. There are 350 vascular plant species. Annex 13,
Annex 14, and Annex 15 provide a list of the mammal, rare bird and fish species in the DSZ.
The territory has very fragile topsoil. Mosaic landscapes consist of steppe lands, lakes, rivers,
estuaries and gullies; there is also relic pinewood. Three large rivers - the Onon, Kherlen and the
Ulz - flow through the Mongolian potion of the DSZ. Tributaries to the Onon and the Ulz rivers
begin the RF. Much of the DSZ is covered with Ramsar Convention wetlands (Fouad Abo,
2001).
Climate. Annual precipitation is between 290 and 380 mm. Maximum June rainfall reaches 68
mm and is almost 1/3 of annual totals. Evaporation is heavy and in the summer rainy season,
torrential rains scour riverbeds and the land surface. The climate is extreme continental and the
region's temperature range is extreme: -23 to +20o C. The area is windy (usually from the west
and northwest) and sandstorms are a characteristic feature (Mongolian Project Report, 2001).
Average annual humidity is 60 to 62 mm and most precipitation occurs in July and August.
C.1.2. Administrative Structure and Demographic Situation
The DSZ stretches along the border between Mongolia and the RF and covers approximately
135,000 km˛. The DSZ covers 10 soums of Khentii Province, seven soums of Dornod Province
(Mongolian Statistical Yearbook, 2001) and eight districts of Chitinskaya Oblast (RF), and as of
January 1, 2000, the total population was about 270,000 people. Administrative units of the DSZ
are shown in Annex 16 and Annex 17.
The southern DSZ is rural, while small towns dominate the north. Average population density
ranges from 0.8 to 2.8 persons per square kilometer. The population density in the Russian sector
of the TumenNET Area is 2-3 times higher than in the Mongolian sector.
The region's population is scattered in small villages. Thus, anthropogenic impact on landscapes
is rather uniform and is determined by the intensity of agricultural activities. The northern part of
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the steppe zone is the most vulnerable to anthropogenic impact because of both intensive land
use and peculiarities of nature factors.
C.1.3. Environment management
a) Environmental Management in the Mongolian Sector
The Ministry of Nature and Environment (MNE) and Environment Agencies of Khentii and
Dornod Provinces are responsible for formulating environmental policies, laws, procedures and
conventions. There are numerous laws (25), enforcement procedures (500), international
conventions (10), including the RAMSAR convention. There are conventions on wetlands, the
Basel Convention, international endangered species and migratory species conventions, as well
as action programs/plans that include national forestry, environmental, water, desertification,
ozone layer, air quality programs and plans.
The Ministry of Nature and Environment is the ultimate authority on biodiversity policy,
including transboundary biodiversity and international water policy at the national and regional
levels and the MNE must ensure that national priorities are carried out when complying with
international commitments. At the provincial government level, there are local environmental
authorities that are directly or indirectly involved with biodiversity.
The environmental research institutes of the MNE have a national mandate to carry out
environmentally oriented research programs. These institutes have projects and activities that
directly affect the conservation and use of biodiversity.
b) Environmental Management in the Russian Sector
On-going consolidation in the RF that is changing the authority of natural resource use and
environmental protection agencies has led to dramatic reductions in the number of local
Committees for Ecology. The RF Ministry of Natural Resources is now in charge of
environmental protection and natural resource use policy. Chitinskaya Oblast, as a subject of the
RF, has a number of federal agencies: Committee of Natural Resources, Hunting Resources
Management, State Fishery Inspection, Epidemiological Committee, Committee on Mining
Control, Committee on Land Use Policy, Committee on Environmental Monitoring and
Protection. Deputy Heads of local Administrations and a number of departments are usually in
charge of natural resources use policy in Chitinskaya Oblast.
C.1.4. Local Budget for Environment Conservation and Information Resources
An evaluation of the administration's capacities, in light of existing material, technical and
information resources, to carry out environmental protection and conservation programs is in
order. Direct capital investments for environment protection and rational natural resource use are
provided for construction of sewage treatment facilities, for installation of gas scrubbers and for
restoration of eroded soil and to prevent further soil erosion. Primary funding sources are natural
resource use payments and penalties for violation of environmental law (Strategic Development
Outline..., 2001).
The region's technical resources are municipal and industrial sewage treatment facilities,
stationary scrubbers, fire-fighting facilities responsible for preventing and suppressing forest and
steppe fires. In the Russian sector of the DSZ, almost all industrial enterprises - Orlovskii Ore
Mining and Processing Complex (hereinafter OMPC), the Priargunskii OMPC and others have
their own scrubbers and sewage treatment facilities. Similar infractions of environmental law
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also exist in the Mongolian sector of the DSZ. That is why a detailed system of environmental
management must be introduced at each industrial enterprise and why conditions for
environmental policy formation created. To implement this task the idea is to strengthen the
capacity of relevant agencies by training and educating managers.
C.1.5. Protected Areas
The DSZ has a comprehensive network of protected areas and national parks covering 2,576,492
ha area (Mongolian Project Report, 2001). The Mongolian and Russian governments have
recently expended much effort to create protected areas to preserve biodiversity. Current data
show nine protected areas established in the DSZ, five in Mongolia and four areas in the Russian
sector of the DSZ. Table 17 gives the status of NPAs in the DSZ.
Table 17. Nature Protected Areas in the Mongolian and Russian Sectors of the DSZ
Mongolia
Protected Areas
Total area (ha)
Year Established
Mongol Daguur Strictly protected area
103016
1992
Onon Balj National Conservation Park
415752
2000
Ugtam Natural Reserve
48160
1993
Toson Khulstai Natural Reserve
469930
1998
Yakhi Lake
251388
1998
Total (m)
1288246
-
Russian Federation
Sohondinskii State Biosphere Reserve
210985
1979
Alhanal National park
138234
1999
Tsasucheiskii Bor State Complex Reserve of
57900
1988
Federal Significance
Daurskii State Biosphere Reserve
117790
1987
Total (r)
524909
-
Figure 40 shows why bilateral cooperation in establishing parallel transboundary nature
protected zones and management strategies are necessary.
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Figure 40
Active cooperation of transboundary cooperation at two near-border protected natural territories
has begun: State Biosphere Reserve "Sokhondinskii" (RF) and the Onon-Balj National Park
(Mongolia). In the summer of 2000, a joint Russian-Mongolian expedition studied the near-
border territory between the two protected areas and recognized a need to create an ecological
peace zone. The Chitinskaya Oblast law "On Protected Territories and Reserves" provides a
mechanism to designate this territory as a reserve. Local governments should take the initiative
to create a transboundary NPA in this sector of the DSZ.
Mongolian Daurian Protected Area. The Mongolian Daurian Protected Area is divided into
two parts. The largest section is located in the northern, in Chuluunkhoroot Soum of Dornod
Province which is contiguous with the Daurskii Reserve in the RF with its rolling steppe and
wetlands on the south shore of white tinted Tari Lake. The DSZ and its characteristic flora, fauna
and landscape features provide is an endangered species reserve for some of the world's rarest
birds. In 1994 the area became part of an international reserve for several endangered species of
crane. The international reserve also includes nearby protected areas in the RF and the PRC.
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Onon Balj National Conservation Park. The National park is located in Dadal, Binder, Bayan-
Adarga and Norovlin Soums of Khentii Province and Bayan-Uul Soum of Dornod Province. The
area has unique characteristics that reach down from far northern Siberian forests, taiga and
mountains and extend to the arid dessert-steppe and valleys of Central Asia.
Ugtam Mountain Natural Reserve. Ugtam Mountain Natural Reserve includes two holy
mountains - Ugtam and Khairkhan and extends along a frontier area between forest steppe and
steppe regions. The reserve represents the region's natural complexity. A specific feature is that
the eastern part of the forest border extends deep to the south.
Toson Khulstai Natural Reserve. Toson and Khulstai Lakes and Salbariin valley are key
habitat for Mongolian gazelle. The reserve was created to expand Mongolian gazelle distribution
to the north from Kherlen River.
Yakhi Lake Natural Reserve. The reserve takes in the most northern sector of Mongolian
gazelle distribution and contains key migratory bird habitat.
Daurskii State Biosphere Reserve. The reserve covers 117,790 hectares and has as its center
the unique wetland "Toreiski Lakes" which in 1994 was included in a list of waterfowl reserves
of international significance. In 1997 the reserve was included in an international network of
biosphere reserves. Since 1994 the reserve has been a part of Dauria transboundary reserve.
There are 314 bird species (30 species included in the Endangered Species List of the RF (Red
Book) and 20 species are included in the International Union Conservation of Nature's List of
Endangered Species / IUCN). The reserve has 47 mammal species (four in Red Book), more than
600 insect species (about 20 in Red Book), three amphibian species, three reptile species and
more than 360 vascular plant species (20 are rare).
Sokhondinskii State biosphere Reserve. The reserve covers 210,985 hectares of protected area.
In 1985 the reserve received the status of biosphere reserve. The reserve area has steppe, forest
and alpine ecosystems. There are 923 plant and 248 animal species. Two plant species and 12
bird species are listed on various endangered species lists.
Alkhanai National Park. The park covers 138,234 hectares, including 105,355 hectares of
protected area. The park's rich flora and fauna form a junction of steppe, forest and alpine zones.
There are more than 120 animal species (two - amphibians, four - reptiles, 95 - bird, 23
mammal, 18 - fish); and 344 plant species.
Tsasucheiskii Pine Reserve. The reserve covers 57,900 ha areas and is a woodland consisting
primarily of relict pines. There are 18 mammal species (five species are rare), 124 bird specie
(including black stork and bustard), more than 200 steppe and forest zone species. This reserve is
under the authority of Daurskii State Biosphere Reserve.
C.1.6. Sensitive Areas with Natural Risks
The DSZ is very vulnerable to natural disaster and human impacts. There are a number of factors
that account for regional environmental problems (Mongolian Project Report, 2001). These
factors are: 1) a variety of natural risks that affect the economy and environment of the
Mongolian sector of the DSZ, 2) undeveloped transportation and communications infrastructures
and 3) a shortage of resources that handicap the local population in its capacity to effectively
predict and mitigate impacts.
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Fire. In the past 20 years, 356 wild fires have ravaged several million hectares and have
destroyed biodiversity (Annex 18). In the Mongolian sector of the DSZ, vegetation cover is
dying out and fires have reduced the distribution of more than 20 plant species. Fire has
degraded Mongolian gazelle, deer, wild boar and moose habitat and their numbers have declined.
Fires do not respect international borders and greater cooperation and communication is needed
to prevent and fight steppe and forest fires.
Over grazing. Pasture covers approximately 440.4 thousand km2 of the southern DSZ. Livestock
numbers have increased slightly in recent years and livestock is placing increasing pressure on
grasslands. The land's carrying capacity is exceeded and loss of vegetation cover is observed
near settlements, rivers and other sources of water.
Zud. Zud is a Mongolian word for natural calamities or more precisely, a combination of
calamities that prevent livestock from accessing grazing pasture for an extended period. Zud can
be created by wind, snow, cold periods, ice, and is generally related to the intensity, duration and
repetition of snowfalls. Of all the natural disasters in the Mongolian sector of the DSZ, zud
causes the most damage to livestock herds and wildlife such as Mongolian gazelle.
Drought The DSZ gets very little rainfall and is very prone to droughts. More frequent droughts
have been observed in recent years, occurring every 4.5 and 5.3 years. Droughts affecting at least
half of the Mongolian sector of DSZ have occurred 12 times in the last 50 years. They lower
crop growth by 50% and significantly reduce herd fertility. Drought probability is 7-15% in
northern part of Dornod Province and 15-20% in northern part of Khentii Province.
C.2. TRANSBOUNDARY ISSUES AND THREATS
C.2.1. Current Transboundary Issues and Threats in the Daurian Steppe Zone
Human activities have caused changes in ecosystems and in distribution of species and threats in
the DSZ. We have identified the following environmental issues in the DSZ: land and forest
degradation, degradation of wetlands, loss of species, pollution. Environmental threats are shown
in Figure 41.
C.2.1.1. Land and Forest Degradation in the Daurian Steppe Zone
One feature of the DSZ is its huge steppe area. Improvements in land and forest management are
essential for environmentally sound sustainable development of this region.
Land and forest degradation can be divided into four main categories:
· Pastureland degradation: takes a number of different forms ranging from lower fodder
yield, worsening composition of the grasses, roads caused by vehicles;
· Soil degradation on farmed areas: farming in extremely fragile Mongolian conditions is
fraught with environmental dangers, soil erosion foremost among them;
· Forest degradation;
· Loss of productive land from mining and roads.
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Figure 41
Major Land and Forest Threats in the Daurian Steppe Zone
· Grazing pressure is the major cause of land degradation near villages and along
communication and transportation corridors. These areas are the most severely degraded
and have been abandoned, having a negative impact on land ecology and the economy.
· Land and forest degradation, caused by inappropriate and poor land-use practices, is
caused by reduced mobility and overpopulation of humans and livestock near soum / bag
centers. The root cause is a shift to new economic forms. The impact on the environment
is reduced rangeland carrying capacity.
· About 30,000 hectares of cultivated land in the Mongolian sector of the DSZ mostly in
Ulziit and Kherlen Soums of Khentii Province - is severely degraded. The cropland
program of the 1950s created serious problems, destroyed habitat, caused erosion and led
to "sands" covering up other lands.
· Logging techniques and equipment are obsolete and inflict considerable impact. Clear
cutting is common. Even when selective harvested is used, remaining stands are often
damaged.
C.2.1.2. Degradation of Wetlands in the Daurian Steppe Zone
Wetlands in the DSZ are an important nesting site and feeding area for millions of migrating
waterfowl; these wetlands are a branch of very important continental migration corridors (Sector
Report on Loss of Natural Habitats..., 2001).
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Wetlands in the DSZ have global importance and are recognized by the Ramsar Convention. The
DSZ is listed by WWF among its 200 worldwide ecological regions of global significance for
biodiversity protection. It is also included into the AsianPacific Action Plan to protect some
species of migrating cranes. Wetlands in the DSZ are valuable for their role in flood protection,
maintaining stream flows, furthering sediments and other pollutants, and providing wildlife
habitat (Mongolian gazelle and birds) and open space for ecotourism.
Main Threats to Wetlands
· Decreasing water levels resulting from reclamation and excessive use of river runoff,
from over grazing, burning forest-steppe, timber harvest, wind erosion and from the
application of agro chemicals are the major threats to wetlands. These threats are against
a background of negative economic impacts in newly developed areas and water
pollution from industrial discharges.
· Anthropogenic impact affects waterfowl species in different ways.
· Habitat is lost for rare and endangered bird species.
· Exceeding the carrying capacity of pasture around wetlands degrades habitat.
C.2.1.3. Species Loss in the Daurian Steppe Zone
The DSZ is home to hundreds of endemic plant species and some of the world's rarest wildlife
species.
There are 17 steppe birds in Eastern Mongolia such as Northern Harrier (Circus cyaneus),
Upland Buzzard (Buteo hemilasius), Steppe Eagle (Aquila nipalensis), Lesser Kestrel (Falco
naumanni), Japanese Quail (Coturnix japonica), Demoisella Crane (Antrhopoides virgo), Great
Bustard (Otis tarda), Oriental Plover (Charadrius veredus), Greater Short-toed lark (Calandrella
cinerea), Lesser Short-toed lark (Calandrela rufescens), Mongolian Lark (Melanocorypha
mongolica), Common Skylark (Alauda arvensis), Tawny Pipit (Anthus campestris), Northern
Wheatear (Oenanthe oenanthe), Isabelline Wheatear (Oenanthe isabellina), Tree Sparrow
(Passaer montanus), Pere David's Snow Finch (Pyrgilauda davidiana). Rare species distribution
in the DSZ is shown in Figure 42. Four mammal species and 35 bird species were registered in
the RF Red Book and the International Red Data Book.
The DSZ is habitat for such rare mammal species as manul and Mongolian gazelle. In the 1999-
2000 and 2000-2001 winters Mongolian gazelle populations migrating from Mongolia to the RF
exceeded 40,000 head.
In 1998 the Project of the East Mongolia steppes biodiversity Conservation (UNDP /GEF/
Government of Mongolia) began to support the work of protected territories. At the initiative of
the Project participants, an International meeting on problems of studying and protecting
Mongolian gazelle populations was held in March 1998. Support was given in May 1999 for an
international training workshop for specialists at the international reserve to teach methods for
studying waterfowl and near-water birds.
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Figure 42
Ongoing Mongolian gazelle migration research in transboundary areas, advancing mechanisms
to monitor migrations and practical activities at the Daurskii Reserve to restore the species in the
RF are indications of how the RF and Mongolia are meeting their environmental protection
obligations (Sectorial Report on Large Predators, Ungulates..., 2001).
Major Threats to Species Loss in the Daurian Steppe Zone
· Poaching resulting from poor law enforcement. People cross national borders to poach
and cross-border trade in poached animal and plants exists.
· Over harvest resulting from a lack of quality data on species-population.
· Habitat loss and water pollution from overgrazing, mining, cultivation, roads, stream
modification, dams, stream and lake sedimentation.
· Unsound conservation management practices threaten, and does not protect, biodiversity.
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C.2.2. Causes of Land and Wetland Degradation and Wetland Loss
CAUSE 1: Increasing Numbers of Domestic Livestock
Population growth has occurred in urban areas of the DSZ. The number of domestic livestock
also exceeds grazing capacity of pasture resources in the Mongolian sector of the DSZ. The
previously relatively undisturbed natural environment has been damaged because of the rapid
growth of domestic livestock. The most serious environmental threat from livestock herding is
overgrazing, caused by too many animals grazing the land. When land is grazed beyond its
structural and nutritional carrying capacity, there is a decline in total vegetation cover, a
reduction in the number of plant species, soil erosion, and a decline in land productivity.
Overgrazing is particularly severe near settlements and administrative centers where herdsmen
settle to access markets in new free-market economy.
CAUSE 2: Mining
The DSZ has significant deposits of coal, gold and tin. Economic development and job creation
is in conflict with environmental protection needs and the water / toxic pollutions from metals
processing, the need for rehabilitation and re-vegetation during the mining stage that result from
mining. Strip mining and waste disposal from mining operations cause widespread habitat and
wetland destruction. There have been improvements in mining practice as result of the
environmental impact assessment process. Mines cause substantial soil and wetland degradation.
They cause water pollution, especially gold mining operations (Mongolian Project Report,
2001). Restoration of abandoned mines is a key environmental protection need at mines in the
DSZ.
CAUSE 3: Light Industry
Light industry has traditionally specialized in processing the raw materials from animals, such as
wool washing, weaving, felt making, knitting and tanning. Since 1990 many new enterprises
have opened that do not have adequate environmental safeguards and that are often poorly sited.
The same is true of the food industry and other branches of industry, such as metal processing,
drug preparation, printing, and glass and porcelain production. Light industry causes substantial
environmental degradation, including water pollution.
CAUSE 4: Transportation Corridors and Oil and Gas Pipeline Corridors
Transportation and pipeline networks in the DSZ are limited and serve to move goods and people
internally and internationally. Fragmentation of Mongolian gazelle habitat as a result of
transportation infrastructure development, the disruption of animal migratory routes (Figure 43),
the environmental impact from traffic noise and exhausts and water pollution from oil spills
(Fouad Abo, 2001) are the key threats. Industrialization policy in the 1960-1980 period should
have included provisions for developing a road network to meet increased cargo and passenger
traffic demands. No road network was developed, however, and the present chaotic sprawl of
unpaved multiple tracks that scar the landscape causes severe soil and plant cover damage.
Roads have an impact on biodiversity by reducing habitat and disrupting migration routes.
CAUSE 5: Urbanization
Concentrating populations is the key feature of urbanization. Urbanization increases industrial
and human waste levels, contaminates water resources (rivers, lakes, and groundwater),
diminishes recreational areas and destroys wildlife species habitat.
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CAUSE 6: Steppe Tourism
The rapid increase in the numbers of foreign and domestic tourists will increase pressure on wild
areas and wildlife unless adequate controls are put in place (Sector Report on opportunities and
impacts of ecotourism, 2001). Off-road driving, inadequate sanitary facilities and overuse of
water where water is scarce are just a few examples of the problem that must be resolved.
CAUSE 7: Forest and Steppe Fires
Forest and steppe fires cause the reduction of habitat of many rare and endangered animal
species such as Zeren (Procapra gutturosa), Deer (Cervus elaphus), Wild Boar (Sus scrofa),
Moose (Alces a. cameloides) and their abundance is starting to decrease. It is also causing losses
of habitats of rare plants species.
CAUSE 8: Pollution
Poorly developed social and economic policies that did not consider environmental realities and
the threat to pristine environments have damaged and polluted the DSZ and have affected human
health in urban areas in the Russian sector of the DSZ. The primary air pollutants - automobile
emissions, power plant emissions and house smoke and dust - common in provincial centers.
Water pollution is also a serious problem, particularly in industrial and mining areas in the DSZ.
Other poor practices such as cutting trees and willows along riverbeds, and diverting streams and
rivers reduce water quantity and quality.
CAUSE 9: Water Development Wells and Irrigation
Water developments such as wells in steppe and irrigation can have a devastating effect on
biodiversity through destruction of habitat and disruption of migration of Mongolian gazelle and
birds.
CAUSE 10: Poaching and Illegal Trade
The main threats include unemployment, low income of local people, the hunting tradition, lack
of a regulatory system, low public environmental awareness, lack of environmental information,
and over exploration of living resources.
Mongolian pastoral peoples rely primarily on their livestock for food, complementing this diet
when possible with wild meat and edible plants. The most commonly hunted wildlife for
domestic use are Marmot (Marmota sibirica), Zeren (Procapra gutturosa), Argali (Ovis
ammon), Ibex (Capra sibirica) and in some areas the wild ass (Equus hemionus) and wolf (Canis
lupus).
There is also illegal harvest of wild medicinal plants in rural areas, usually for sale in nearby
cities. The key fact in Mongolia is increasing poverty. The major threat to medicinal plant
species is illegal harvest resulting from poor law enforcement.
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Figure 43
C.2.3. Future Development
The DSZ is a remote area in both the RF and Mongolia and conventional forms of economic
activity as agriculture, livestock grazing and mining will continue to develop.
Although tourism is a brand new kind of activity and has been recently launched in the DSZ, its
development may have an adverse impact on some areas of the DSZ. Functional zoning and
establishment of rules and regulations for recreation areas (maximum tourist capacity, preferred
seasons, tourist's routes) will be necessary to prevent any increase of anthropogenic impact on
nature complexes. These impacts are critical on native fauna in the northern part of the DSZ as
tourist trails run close to rare animal species habitat.
The current wave of out-migration from Chitinska Oblast will continue to draw people out of the
DSZ. New urban areas in the DSZ will arise with the construction of an oil and gas pipeline from
the Khovykta natural gas field and the Angarsk Refinery (Irkutsk Region) to the PRC. Its
construction is the primary environmental threat in the near future. According to one of the
alternate routes, this pipeline will run through the northern part of the DSZ, traversing
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Mongolian gazelle migration corridors and will be the most important factor disturbing the
resting and feeding places of migratory birds.
C.3. CONSTRAINTS
· Lack of national and international legislation on transboundary biodiversity and
international water conservation and enforcement of such legislation.
· Inadequate regional (in the aimag, region levels) and local (soum and district level)
cooperation for transboundary biodiversity conservation.
· Inadequate enforcement of the existing laws.
· Shortage of financial resources at regional and local levels (shortage in central and local
budgets for environmental protection) and cost of technology to combat land degradation.
· Inadequate human resources in the field of environmental protection.
· Inadequate control of the growth, health and structure of livestock herds which are a
major source of income in the southern part of the DSZ.
· Lack of knowledge and technology to rehabilitate mining sites and the scope of
rehabilitation activities.
· Inadequate control over deforestation, extensive use of wood burning as a source of
household energy.
· Poverty diverts concerns from environment problems.
· Information sharing system and quality control are inadequate.
· Shortage of public awareness on transboundary biodiversity and international water
conservation and no encouragement of indigenous people are involved in environment
conservation.
· Ineffective regional planning (weak environmental impact assessments and strategic
environmental assessments) and inadequate urban planning and zoning codes.
· Faulty partnerships amongst stakeholders and government.
· Low level of managerial training in the field of environmental protection.
· Inadequate environmental education programs adapted for various sectors of the
population.
· No public awareness of the relationship between a decent standard of living and
environmental quality.
· Environmental problems secondary to socio-economic development of territories.
C.4. CAUSAL CHAIN ANALYSIS
C.4.1. Agricultural Development
Key Impacts
· Land degradation: change of gazelle habitat, wind erosion and ablation; grass burning;
use of heavy agricultural machines; hill-side cultivation.
· Wetlands degradation: domestic livestock occupy wetlands; draining and cultivation of
wetlands.
· Loss of ecosystem integrity: expanded plough-lands; domestic livestock occupy water
sources: rivers and springs, or destroy pasture that negatively affect ungulate habitat.
· Factors endangering migratory birds: occupation of wetlands by herders and domestic
livestock; engineering constructions; land irrigation; use of herbicides and pesticides.
· Water use: spring water is a scarce commodity due to over concentration of domestic
mammals
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· Water quality: impact of animal dung; washing and killing of animals in autumn for
exporting animal products.
Key Constraints
· Climatic conditions: drought, winds, podzol soils.
· Inadequate legislation and enforcement of existing laws.
· Domestic animal populations exceed the carrying capacity of pastures.
· Herders are very far from market.
· Inadequate institutional capacity to implement the provisions of agriculture acts at
national and international levels.
· Inadequate information to make decision in transboundary areas.
· Inadequate agriculture and environment laws.
· Lack of regional prioritization of agricultures values.
· Lack of government and local budgets to restore degraded land.
· Inefficient conservation and rehabilitation methods.
· Violation of instructions for the use of weeds and pests killers.
· Inadequate information sharing and quality control systems.
· Lack of public awareness of environment conservation in agriculture area.
· Ineffective regional planning of agriculture development.
· Water shortages in pasture areas.
C.4.2. Mining
Key Impacts
· Change habitats of species: change of breeding places of gazelles.
· Wetland degradation: decreasing wetland water levels due to use of water resources in
mining sites; degradation of land/pasture near wetlands as a result of keeping domestic
animals near geological survey parties.
· Loss of ecosystem's integrity: water sources - rivers and springs - occupied by mining
sites.
· Change in species migration patterns as a result of new roads in and out of mining sites.
· Water use as a scarce natural resource in transboundary areas; sand and gravel excavation
in riverbeds.
· Water quality: tailings, acid mine drainage and cyanide and other hazardous substances in
international waters: Onon, Ulz rivers.
· Economic impacts resulting from clean up of international water pollution or savings
from water conservation.
· Air pollution caused by dried tailing dumps; dust; smoke from heating houses, blasting.
· Construction of engineering structures and communications laying: development of
social infrastructure.
· Local mercury and radiation pollution in gold and uranium mining areas.
Key Constraints
· Inadequate legislation system and enforcement of existing laws on mining.
· Inadequate institutional capability to implement provisions of mining acts at national and
regional levels.
· Lack of information to support a decision making in transboundary areas.
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· Lack of integration of mining laws in the countries.
· Lack of regional prioritization of the value of mining.
· Lack of government and local budgets to rehabilitate mining sites.
· Lack of conservation technology.
· Inadequate information sharing system and quality control.
· Lack of public awareness of environment conservation in mining sites.
· Ineffective regional planning.
· Poor mining technologies.
C.4.3. Transportation Corridors and Oil and Gas Pipeline Corridors
Key Impacts
· Habitat shifts: Mongolian gazelles shift breeding grounds in response to motor vehicle
noise.
· Loss ecosystem integrity: transportation corridors across ecosystem (rivers and springs).
· Disruption of migration zones: new transportation corridors cut across habitat.
· Land and pasture/grassland degradation: transportation corridors for oil and gas pipeline
construction.
· Impact on wildlife, especially on the steppe habitat of Mongolian gazelle.
· Change in natural landscape requiring some form of mitigation.
· Air pollution from exhaust gas and green house gas emissions: ozone depletion and
global warming issues.
· Noise caused in villages.
· Water run off and related erosion issues.
· Access for poachers to habitat of the Siberian marmot and the Mongolian gazelle
populations.
Key Constraints
· Inadequate legislation and enforcement of existing laws.
· Inadequate institutional capability to implement provisions of transportations acts at
national and international levels.
· Inadequate local and national government budgets to restore land affected by road
construction.
· Lack of public awareness of environment conservation in transportation corridors.
· Ineffective regional planning.
· Social demand for transportation facilities and power supply (power stations).
· Undeveloped alternative sources of power: solar energy, wind power.
C.4.4. Steppe Tourism
Key impacts
· Fires in the steppe areas; decline of plant species diversity, increased soil erosion.
· Excessive concentrations of wildlife; excessive vegetation damage.
· Increased pollution in water bodies.
· Soil and vegetation damage.
· Environmental stress; changes in behavior of animals.
· Changes in species composition; extinction of rare species.
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· Disruption of wildlife and migratory birds; impact on nesting habitat of rare birds.
· Disruption of feeding and breeding; disruption of predator/prey relationships.
· Removal of natural attractions; stimulation of illegal poaching; disruption of natural
processes.
· Construction of tourism structures.
Key Constraints
· Lack of guidelines and criteria for ecotourism.
· Lack of organizations to develop guidelines and standards of ecotourism.
· Lack of safety standards for ecotourism and/or nature oriented tourism.
· Lack of guidelines to develop tourism on traditional nomadic pastureland.
· Lack of human resources (or displacement of human resources to other business sectors
as a result of economic incentives).
· Lack of integrated institutions to develop tourism and environment/nature conservation.
· Poorly developed infrastructures to support tourism at internationally accepted standards.
· Lack of educational institutions to train and professionally develop personnel in the field
of ecotourism.
· Local authorities underestimate economic role of ecological tourism.
· Poorly developed marketing of local tourist agencies.
C.4.5. Urbanization
Key Impacts
· Loss species: species habitat loss as a result of deterioration and pollution of suburban
and rural ecosystems: steppe, meadows, and water pollution; change of migration
corridors; decline of bird, mammal and insect species.
· Land and pasture degradation: deterioration of ecosystem integrity; ongoing land seizure;
change of natural processes in terrestrial and aquatic systems operating near settlements.
· Forest degradation: misuse use of natural resources; extensive deforestation: cutting trees
for heating; poaching.
· Pollution: changes in underground and surface water quality; untreated sewage discharge;
underground water pumping; human caused accidents: discharge of highly toxic
contaminants, oil spills.
Key Constraints
· Historical developed pattern of settlements.
· Inefficient activity of municipal administration.
· Low level of ecological education.
· Industrial enterprises equipped with obsolete machinery.
· Local (municipal) level of ecological legislation is imperfect.
· Violation of ecological laws; water and forest controlled inefficiently by local authorities.
· Minor penalties and brief jail terms for violations of ecological law.
· Inefficient urban planning.
· Lack of garbage collection and recycling programs.
· Living standard independent of level of environmental protection.
· Lack of functional zoning of settlements and their suburbs.
· Local authorities consider urban environmental problems a minor issue.
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C.4.6. Energy
Key Impacts
· Species loss: habitat loss resulting from deterioration and pollution of ecosystems -
steppe, forests, meadows, and water pollution - in the vicinity of power stations and other
power supplying facilities.
· Land and forest degradation: misuse of natural resources: coal mining for heating, water
pumping for cooling facilities; land annexation for dumps and ash pits; reduced land
productivity in areas where power facilities are located; landscape degradation; reduction
in ecosystem productivity.
· Pollution: change in underground and surface water quality; heated waste water and
sewage discharge; underground water pumping; risk of human caused accidents:
discharge highly toxic contaminants; oil spills; industrial noise; electromagnetic
emissions; industrial transport: aircraft, automobiles, railroads; power supply sub-
stations; transmission lines; transformer plants; air pollution; stack effluents transferred
to areas far distant from point of origin; acid rains in the area of pollution plume;
contaminant accumulation and fish poisoning in city ponds; birds and animals die in ash
pits, deep mines and quarries.
Key Constraints
· Lack of regulations for infrastructures that cross the territories.
· Shortage of power supply facilities and environmental priorities neglected.
· Lack of federal, regional and agency environmental protections laws and instructions
regulating environmental power facility safety, including quarries and coal mining
enterprises.
· Local authorities lack control over environmental safety at power facilities.
· Local communities lack control over environmental safety at power facilities.
· Power generating equipment is out of date.
· No economic interest to develop alternative sources of power: solar energy, wind power.
· Energy consumers fail to demand environmental measures from producers because of a
shortage of regional power.
C.5. POLITICAL, LEGAL, SOCIOECONOMIC ANALYSIS
C.5.1. Government Political Agenda, Plans and Strategies
The DSZ, as a peripheral and boundary areas of the RF and Mongolia, is an important political
region. In addition to established global biosphere importance, the DSZ has a number of notable
historical, natural, social and economic attributes.
The Mongolian Action Program for the 21st Century and Russian Development Strategy
represent a process with a vital strategic purpose. Building on insights provided by the 1992 Rio
Earth Summit, Mongolia and the RF launched an effort to provide insights and values on what is
now known as sustainable development. These strategic documents could be used to guide
further action on sustainable development in the DSZ.
The governments of Mongolia and the RF have prepared several Action Plans in the past four
year that have a direct and indirect bearing on environmental issues: The National Development
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Plan, Biodiversity Protection Action Plan, and Plan of Action for Protected Areas, Forestry
Action Plan, and national Plan for Desertification control.
Mongolia and the RF signed the Convention on Biological Diversity and will implement the
Convention's agenda via its Ecology Strategy, based, in turn, on other plans including this
current one, the National Environmental Action Plan, the Mongolian Action Plan for the 21st
Century (Capacity 2l), State Ecological Plan and other functional plans addressing protected
areas, desertification and climate change.
The DSZ's vast agricultural lands (pastures in the south and arable lands in the north)
compensate for its low industrial development level. The zone's agricultural production has an
unlimited commodity market in adjacent areas of the RF and Mongolia. The favorable
environmental conditions in the region make the quality of its agricultural production
competitive on world markets.
The DSZ's geopolitical position must also be mentioned since is has traditionally enjoyed good
relations with the Russians and Mongolians living in this zone. This circumstance is an important
factor in decision making on questions concerning the conservation of biological and natural
conditions and in the implementation of international wildlife conservation obligations.
In recent decades, government policy favoured industrialization and economic development,
with little attention paid to environmental impacts. Now, however, there is a Ministry of the
Environment (Mongolia) and Ministry for Natural resources (RF), both responsible for all issues
affecting the natural environment of these countries and the DSZ. The mandate of both ministries
covers conservation and management of natural resources, maintenance of environmental
quality, and mitigation of natural disasters.
C.5.2. Demographic Data
Radical reforms in the political and economic systems of the RF and Mongolia and the curtailing
of trade and economic relations of the former socialist states have sharply reduced mutual
relations between the two nations. A shift from a command/administrative economy to a market
economy, with privatization of the state property and an orientation toward development of a
private economic sector are common problems faced by politicians in both countries. The
transformation has been accompanied by a general economic recession, growth in
unemployment and a sharp impoverishment of the population.
As of January 1, 2000 the total population of Mongolian sector of the DSZ was 68,900, of which
21,5000 were in soums of Dornod Province and 47,400 in Soums of Khentii Province. In the
Russian sector of the zone live 203,600. By 1999 real population growth (per 1,000 people) was
10.1 in Dornod Province and 13.6 in Khentii Province (Mongolian Human Development Report,
2001). In the north, an opposite trend is observed in the last five years with a steady decline in
population from boundary areas: from-1.1 up to-3.9 (per 1000 people).
C.5.3. Socio-Economic Statistics
The rate of unemployment in the northern part of the DSZ had tended to reduce between 1997
and 2000. If the beginning of this period, unemployment increased from 10.1 to 14.5% of the
able-bodied population, then by 2002 unemployment dropped to 1.8 - 7.3% in some areas.
Women have the highest rates of unemployment (in Chitinskaya Oblast up to 43%); in the
countryside the rate reaches 65.8%. Young jobless people have a serious impact on social
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stability at the individual, society the state levels. An increase in the number of people below
poverty level results in increases of poaching, the number steppe and forest fires.
In 2000 the Socio-Economic Development and Financial Stabilization Program for Chitinskaya
Oblast for the Period from 2001-2005 was delivered to improve social policy of local authorities
and to modernize the region's economy. The program is envisaged to activate key factors that
result in the steady growth of living standards. Program developers do not correlate an increase
in living standards raising and improvement in environmental protection.
A brief analysis of the socio-economic situation of the countries in which the DSZ is located
show that these countries are going through the recovery stage of their economies. However, one
can conclude that these countries will not adequately address environmental protection problems
because of high unemployment levels and poverty in the northern part of the DSZ, and the high
rate of migration in its frontier areas.
C.5.4. Laws and Regulatory System for Investment (National and International)
The Mongolian and RF governments pay much attention to foreign, direct investments,
understanding their significant role in overcoming economic difficulties and in eliminating the
economic backwardness of the countries. At the same time, the volume of investments in the
economic developments of enterprises in the northern and southern parts of the DSZ remains
quite low.
Mongolia has in recent years made tremendous progress in creating a legal framework for
foreign direct investment. RF remains unattractive for foreign investments because a federal law
on production sharing does not exist. This fact is the main reason for the failure to implement a
number of projects establishing joint-venture gold mining companies in Chitinskaya Oblast.
The current Foreign Investment Law of Mongolia, which came into effect on 1 July 1993, was
an improvement over the previous, 1990 Law, for the new law provides more favorable
conditions and provides benefits for foreign investors. This Investment Law has more detailed
institutional provisions than its predecessor and prescribes Mongolian foreign investment policy.
The RF has a number of laws that facilitate investment of foreign capital in the countries. Some
of these laws are analogous to Mongolian laws. The following laws have relevant provisions
dealing with direct foreign investment: Law on foreign Investment, Constitution, Patent Law,
Copyright Law, Company Law, Cooperative Law, Civil Code, Bankruptcy Law, Labor Law and
Regulations, Tax Laws, Banking Law, The Minerals Law, Law of Legal Profession (Advocacy),
Antimonopoly Law, Customs Law, Pension Law, Social Security Law.
Poor infrastructure development in Mongolia is one constraint on foreign businesses entering the
country's market. The government of Mongolia pays special attention to investment directed at
developing essential infrastructure, including energy supply, transport and telecommunications
for further attraction of foreign capital investments.
C.5.5. Environmental Laws and Management Systems
C.5.5.1. Legislation: Laws, Regulations and Resolutions
In the early 1990s the RF and Mongolian Constitutions established the right of Mongolian and
Russian citizens to live in a safe and healthy environment. The adoption of environmental laws
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in conformity with the constitutions created a legal basis for the environment protection of
species.
Almost all laws have some relevance to transboundary biodiversity and international water
conservation. The related laws are given in Annex 19.
Practically all the laws were adopted in the middle of the 1990s and about half of approximately
sixty regulations for the implementation of these laws have been issued in the Mongolian sector
of the DSZ.
C.5.5.2. Environmental Impact Assessment
The Mongolian Law on Environmental Protection (1995) established the Environmental Impact
Assessments process to identify possible adverse effects on human health and the environment,
and to determine measures to minimize and mitigate them (Fouad Abo, 2001; Mongolian Project
Report, 2001). The environmental impact assessment procedures divide projects into twelve
categories according to the type of industry involved. The last category, Special Projects,
includes commercial fishing and hunting, forestry, translocation of animals and plants, use of
poisonous chemicals and radioactive substances, and any activities near the boundaries of
protected areas. This category is exclusively under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Nature and
Environment. In the RF, the basic principles of environmental impact assessments were included
into regulatory documents more the 20 years ago. The procedure of environmental impact
assessment is the basic one for forming up-to-date ecological policy of the states.
Research carried out to estimate current state environmental protection and decision-making
effectiveness of land use policy supports a need to develop institutional decisions and basic
legislation to protect the area in question, and namely:
· Coordination of activities of the authorities at all levels of responsibility in the field
of environmental protection;
· Coordination of interrelated efforts of districts and soums to protect natural
complexes;
· Coordination of efforts of adjacent countries to protect the environment;
· Drafting mutual proposals to create "ecologically intact zones" on the border of both
countries;
· Reinforcement of environmental education of native peoples;
· Integration of effective initiatives providing for environmental protection into Action
Plans of Socio-economic Development to be implemented by all levels of
administration.
C.5.6. Bilateral, Regional and International Treaties and Conventions
Major International Environmental Conventions to which Mongolia and the Russian Federation
are Party
· Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, Vienna.
· United Nations framework Convention on Climate Change.
· Convention on Biological Diversity.
· United Nations Convention on Combat Desertification.
· Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of wild fauna and flora,
Washington.
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· Basel Convention on Control over transboundary movements of hazardous wastes
and their disposal, Basel.
· Convention on Wetlands of International importance especially as waterfowl habitat,
Ramsar.
· Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals, Bonn.
· Rotterdam Convention on the Prior informed Consent Procedure for Certain
Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade.
The countries making up the DSZ have maintained active commercial, economic and public
relations over the years, though a downturn in contact was observed in the 1980s. Some activity,
however, does continue.
Since the mid 1990s, against a background of deteriorating ties between Chitinskaya Oblast and
the bordering aimags, interactions on environmental protection work began to actively develop.
Creative cooperation between Daurskii Reserve and Mongol-Daguur Reserve led to the
establishment of a transboundary reserve, the only such reserve in eastern Russia.
The initiative of Russian scientists and the active work of the Government of Mongolia to widen
the protected areas network resulted in the signing in 1994 in Ulaanbaatar of an Agreement to
establish a joint reserve. The PRC later joined the agreement and the reserve got the name
Daurian International Russian-Mongolian-Chinese Reserve.
C.5.7. Institutional Environmental Management System
Legislative bodies and governments in the RF and Mongolia have a responsibility to enact
national policy and law. However, environmental technical capacity resides with the Ministry of
Nature and Environment of Mongolia and the RF Ministry of Natural Resources. The main
responsibility of Ministry of Nature and Environment of Mongolia and the RF Ministry of
Natural Resources are:
· Organize the implementation of national policy on environmental protection,
resource use, and sustainable development;
· Monitor implementation of environmental legislation;
· Organize the restoration or rehabilitation of resources damaged by unlawful actions;
· Approve, monitor, and provide technical assistance to local authorities and state
agencies for implementation at the local level;
· Provide coordination across sectors and among regions;
· Establish limits on resource use and to develop and have approved appropriate
standards of environmental quality;
· Promote research and development, international cooperation, and dissemination of
information on environmental issues.
C.6. SCENARIOS
C.6.1. Economic Growth Forecast for the 2001-2015 Period
Economic growth rates in the DSZ are based on the following economic development
assumptions (Mongolian Action Program for 21st Century, 1999):
· Per capita growth on the MPZ will exceed per capita GDP per capita of the middle-
income countries by 2020;
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· Economic growth will be based entirely on private sector; export-oriented processing and
mining industries;
· Mining and animal husbandry product processing, and their export will be developed;
· Mining and forestry in the north will be of great importance and will stimulate growth in
other sectors of the economy;
· Additional investments for energy, transportation, information, and finance structures in
the north. The DSZ will completely satisfy its needs for coal and will stabilize its energy
complex. The current economic structure will continue to exist at least until 2005. The
region will maintain low material specialization and maintain high profile mining. New
industries could be cost-effective light industry, food industry, service, tourism, and
commerce.
Scenario
· Establish chemical and mixed metal complex in Mardai, Ulaan and Tsav to export
product to northeast Asian countries starting in 2006.
· Production of animal husbandry products, wool and leather, will recover fully.
· Create gold mining and mixed metal industries in Umnudelger, Binder, Dadal Soums of
Khentii Aimag, Bayandun Soum of Dornod Aimag, Etyke, Orlovskii concentration mill
(Chitinskaya Oblast). The Zhirekenskii concentration mill will be completely remodeled.
The construction of the Yasnogorskii cement works is envisaged.
· Develop environmentally sound ecotourism such as bird watching and gazelle watching.
· Soil erosion and desertification processes likely to maintain current levels until 2020.
· Increase living standards of all people in the DSZ to world levels and create a
harmonious social and natural environment consistent with the interests of future
generations and that emphasizes a stronger commitment to fighting desertification and to
alleviating poverty.
· The Kharanor power station will reach project capacity and bring energy stability to the
DSZ.
· Mapping and multi-disciplinary environmental assessments of the DSZ will be carried
out, including in transboundary areas.
· Electrification of the final section of the Karymskaya-Zabaikalsk railroad.
· Greater cooperation among agricultural producers and mutually beneficial commodity
distribution in the DSZ.
C.6.2. Economic Development Projection for the Daurian Steppe Zone
The economic development projection was developed using RMSM-X model, based on the
assumptions in C.6.1. This projection shows that real GDP per capita is expected to be:
· If real economic growth exceeds 3-5 percent per year, prices and exchange rate stabilize
and export increase dramatically, real per capita GDP is expected to be around $4,000 in
2020, only slightly lower than per capita GDP of developed countries. This is, however
the highest growth scenario;
· The forecasted per capita income in Chitinskaya Oblast is expected to be $1,000 by 2005,
lower than in developed countries. Unemployment is expected to exceed 60%;
· Service sectors such as transport, communication, energy and trade will play a key role in
this economic growth;
· Industry, mining and partial processing of raw materials, will experience high economic
growth;
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· Animal husbandry will increase and create a reliable food supply base. A network of
information and consulting centers promoting sustainable agricultural development, using
new technologies for ecologically safe production, will be created. The oil and mineral
sector in southern art of the DSZ will increase exports and will play an important role in
reducing and eliminating the foreign trade deficit. Economic growth will improve the
fiscal situation and budget deficits will be reduced and eliminated.
This scenario forecasts a budget surplus, which means the Government will have an opportunity
to invest capital in social and business sectors, and in environmental protection. Economic
growth will lead to an increase in savings and corporate bank deposits.
C.6.3. No Intervention in the Daurian Steppe Zone
· Much of the land used to raise crops has been exposed to soil erosion.
· Intensive mining operations, especially gold mining, have degraded land resources.
Mining activities have contributed positively to economic growth but degraded land.
Land rehabilitation by mining companies does not take place.
· In urban areas, especially in the Russian sector of the DSZ, there is also increased soil
pollution from wastes.
· Forest loss affects erosion, increases evaporation, lessens snow retention, causes
desertification, has a negative impact on groundwater and decreases agricultural
productivity. Forests influence and are influenced by development and conservation
issues, including soil and water conservation, biodiversity protection and mitigation of
greenhouse gas emissions and climatic changes).
· Wildlife habitat loss and degradation are especially severe on rangelands where human
population pressure is the greatest. Habitat degradation leads to declines in wildlife
populations.
· Most wildlife species are officially protected, but poaching is widespread and
threatens remaining populations.
· Solid and hazardous waste is an all too visible problem in most urban areas. Causes
are fairly common: incomplete disposal of household and industrial waste,
uncontrolled dumping of waste, no provisions for separating hazardous and toxic
wastes, inadequate financing.
· Land and forest degradation threaten plant species. Many plants have medicinal value.
Currently over 50 species are used for various treatments.
· An increase in the impact of urban caused air pollution and could general ecosystem
collapse. This problem is coupled with pollution and irrational use of fish in rivers and
wetlands. Solid waste is dumped directly into rivers and into wetlands.
· Negative impact of agricultural development increasing with the unwise use of
pesticides and herbicides, overgrazing, rodent increase and land restoration.
· Desertification and soil degradation annually continue to increase as a result of
breeding animal species in unsuitable areas. Water and wind erosion results from poor
cultivation practices.
· Transboundary steppe and forest fires occur annually due to natural and human causes.
· Transboundary poaching and illegal trade damage plant and animal species.
· The negative impact of urban development increases from inadequate infrastructures:
small budges, no plans, poor land management.
· Poor forest management and social conditions destroy forest resources.
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C.6.4. Interventions in the Daurian Steppe Zone
· Technological innovation in all industrial sectors including mining will be advanced
by developing ecologically cleaner technology which is appropriate to the DSZ's
unique conditions in natural resources.
· Sustainable use protection of land resources should be achieved through creating an
integrated approach to land use planning.
· Effective management of natural resources through such approaches as strengthening
planning management systems.
· Promote public participation in transboundary biodiversity and international water
conservation.
· Increase biodiversity and water protection and restoration activities in mining areas.
· Improve of current capacity of existing protected areas and national parks and increase
the number of protected areas and the national areas in the border areas.
· Improve road design to reduce off-road traffic that is damaging vulnerable areas and
increasing erosion.
· Assess the current conditions and threats of biodiversity.
· Develop species protection policies programs on the base of causes of species decline.
· Develop ecotourism at local, regional and international levels.
· Enact and enforce rules against mining activity in vulnerable areas.
· Wastes and sewage management will be required in new industrial areas must be
designed to eliminate and minimize wastes.
· Create waste management infrastructure in both the Governmental and private sector.
· Minimize environmental costs created by exploitation of mineral resources by
requiring fees and other action designed to ensure that developers pay the whole cost
of resource use exploration.
· Protection in the careful use of forest resources involves.
· Educating people about the importance of protecting Mongolian forest reserve.
· Developing better human resources in forest management.
· Create conditions for the development of ecotourism.
· Reducing harmful natural disasters requires creation of programs to help those harmed
by natural disasters.
C.7. Proposed Interventions to Prevent Land and Wetland Degradation and Species Loss
C.7.1. Proposed Agricultural Interventions
Implementers: Ministry of Nature and Environment, Ministry of Agriculture (Mongolia),
Agricultural Department of Chitinskaya Oblast (RF), local administrations, agricultural
enterprises, farmers.
· Place land use planning experts in local governments, and provide the necessary
education and in-service training for them.
· Implement the national action plan to combat desertification.
· Develop and implement restoration programs (of planting grass, shelterbelts, other
plants along soil erosion) for certain particularly critical abandoned cultivated areas.
· Improve cultivation on currently cultivated areas that are subject to particularly
serious erosion.
· Introduce improved irrigation methods; give special attention to the problems of salt
loading and water logging.
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· Undertake research to identify the location and to estimate groundwater volumes,
giving priority to areas where local communities do not have suitable water.
· Develop regulations and standards for sustainable groundwater use.
· Obtain or develop equipment for demineralization and softening water for rural
water supplies, especially in steppe areas where the water quality is a great threat to
health.
· Train and retrain agricultural specialists (managers, machine-operators).
C.7.2. Proposed Mining Interventions
Implementers: Ministry of Nature and Environment, Ministry of Infrastructure Development,
Committee of Natural Resources of Chitinskaya Oblast, State Technical Supervision Committee,
State Technical Supervision Committee of Russia.
· Enhance the capacity to manage environmental disturbance caused by mining
activities: review existing laws and provisions, establish mining rehabilitation fund.
· Ensure close and regular coordination among the countries in transboundary areas.
· Require the submission of a comprehensive international plan developed with local
stakeholders in transboundary areas.
· Overcome inadequate institutional capability to implement provisions of mining acts
at national and international levels.
· Streamline the procedures in permitting systems adequate to international standards.
· Institutional involvement of the community and experts from the countries into
environmental monitoring.
· Conduct training on environmental auditing and environmental monitoring.
C.7.3. Proposed Transportation Corridor Interventions
Implementers: Ministry of Nature and Environment, Ministry of Infrastructure Development,
Ministry of Finances, Ministry of Health, city and local administrations, local environment
agency, private sector
· Incorporate environmental considerations fully into the Transportation Master Plan
and develop a comprehensive transportation policy that includes environmental
considerations.
· Inventory and evaluate air pollution sources from vehicles; develop a system to
monitor motor vehicle pollutants; establish urban automatic air pollution monitoring
station.
· Improve roads between cities/settlements and water resources/herders.
· Improve rural road standards to restrict traffic off established roads to reduce the
damage to lands from the multiplication of dirt tracks.
· Conduct environment impact assessments for transportation corridors in
transboundary areas.
· Develop a system of citizen monitoring and state supervision for the construction,
running of the transboundary product conduit. Stakeholders are local administrations,
private sector.
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C.7.4. Proposed Tourism Interventions
Implementers: Ministry of Nature and Environment, Ministry of Infrastructure Development,
local administrations, Private Sector / Tour Companies, NGOs, Protected Area Administrative
Units, Universities and Institutes
· Develop high quality ecotourism activities with little or no impact on the ecosystem
of natural resources, the environment, forests, society and the cultural heritage of the
transboundary community.
· Prepare a management plan for international tour development in the DSZ. Provide
environmental protection and cultural conservation in tourism areas that provide
employment and income from tourism development to the rural population of the
DSZ.
· Workout guidelines for development of integrated and local sustainable ecotourism.
· Develop sustainable steppe tourism facilities that minimize environmental damage.
· Develop a DSZ tourism resources data base system by sharing information on
regional tourist resources, mutual tourism development projects.
· Strengthen capacity building through training of local environment rangers and
tourism guiders and increase public awareness.
· Link ecotourism with local environment conservation in protected areas and
promotion of livelihood options of local communities in buffer zones of protected
areas in the DSZ.
· Support to the development of tourism at the initial stage (investments, taxes,
information, organization and legislation) by leaders of provinces and cities.
C.8. Stakeholder Analysis
C.8.1. The Role of Central Government in Environmental Management in the Daurian
Steppe Zone
Mongolian and RF environmental protection laws place legislative bodies in charge of the
following environmental issues:
· Determine government policy on environmental protection;
· Promote environmental conservation;
· Promote proper utilization of natural resources;
· Restore natural resources;
· Carry out ratification and control enforcement of environmental laws;
· Endorse and change endangered species lists;
· Designate protected areas;
· Set maximum and minimum fees for natural resource use.
The Standing Committee on Agriculture and the Environment of the Mongolian legislature
handles all preparatory work for ratification of pending environmental issues and laws. The
Ministry for Nature and Environment and legislature are charged with formulating and
implementing state policy on the environment, including development and enforcement of
environmental laws, and regulation of the utilization and protection of natural resources and their
restoration. Sectorial Ministries, such as the Ministry of Agriculture, are charged with
development and exploitation of natural resources and has to work closely with the Ministry of
Nature and Environment of Mongolia and the RF Ministry of Natural Resources. Relevant
departments of RF Environment Protection Agency will also play a key role at national level
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C.8.2. Role of Local Government
The RF and Mongolian Constitutions establish frameworks for local government, and local
authorities are responsible for environmental protection measures in their areas. They must also
report environmental data to the central government, control or prohibit activities with adverse
environmental impacts and equip state environmental inspectors and rangers with equipment and
transportation adequate to carry out monitoring and enforcement activities.
Local legislative bodies are responsible for approving and funding environmental protection
measures, for setting maximum limits for natural resource use in each soum, for deciding the
status of local protected areas and for setting their boundaries. Local authorities also determine
actual limits on natural resource use and locally approve environmental protection measures.
The main stakeholder at the aimag level is Dornod and Khentii Province government, and
specifically, the Industry, Trade, Agriculture and Environment Department. At the local level,
authorities of Dadal, Binder, Kherlen Soums of Khentii Province and Bayan-uul, Bayandun
Soums of Dornod Province and their Bags (smallest administrative unit in Mongolia),
administrations of protected areas located in the DSZ and buffer zone committees of Mongol
Daguur Strictly Protected Area are the key stakeholders. Significant effort is made to involve
individual herder families and also the Mongolian Border Patrol.
Environment Protection Agency and local protection agencies of Chitinskaya Oblast of the RF
and the administrations of the State Biosphere Reserve "Daurskii", the State Biosphere Reserve
"Sokhondinskii" and "Alkhanai" National Park provide linkages in the protection of
transboundary biodiversity.
C.8.3. Role of Private Sector
The private sector plays a crucial role in environmentally sound regional development. The
business community recently formed the Business Council for Sustainable Development and has
close ties with the Mongolian Chamber of Commerce, and has ties with the international
Sustainable Development Business Council based in Geneva, Switzerland. Members are
interested in learning more about clean production methods and in ways to reduce environmental
impacts.
C.8.4. Role of Non Governmental Organizations
Local NGOs will be important stakeholders in this area. Main NGOs in the DSZ includes:
· Unit of the Mongolian Gazelle Society, which is concerned with conservation of the
Mongolian Gazelle;
· Local Women Federation;
· Local Youth Federation in Khentii and Dornod Provinces;
· Local Veteran Federation in Khentii and Dornod Provinces;
· Fish Breeding and Conservation Society in Dornod Province;
· Meteorological Society in Khentii and Dornod Provinces;
· Hunting Society in Khentii and Dornod Provinces;
· Ecotourism Association of Khentii Province;
· "Baikal Foundation" Environmental & Ecological NGO in Chitinskaya Oblast;
· "Dauria" Regional Ecological Center in Chitinskaya Oblast;
· Ecological Expertise Agency in Chitinskaya Oblast;
· Biodiversity Protection Center in Chitinskaya Oblast.
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Indigenous peoples and local communities have an historical relationship with their lands and are
generally descendants of the original inhabitants of such lands and local biodiversity. They have
developed over many generations a holistic traditional scientific knowledge of their lands,
natural resources and environment.
Some indigenous people and local communities may require, in accordance with national
legislation, greater control over their lands, self-management of their resources, participation in
development decisions affecting them, including, where appropriate, participation in the
biodiversity.
In the rural communities Mongolian herders have a heavy workload, for the greater part
composed of reproductive and household tasks.
Local Government, in full partnership with indigenous people and local communities should,
were appropriate:
· Develop or strengthen national arrangements to consult with indigenous people and with
local communities to reflect their needs and incorporate their values and traditional and
other knowledge and practices in national polices and programs for transboundary
biodiversity conservation and international water protection;
· Strengthen research and education program aimed at:
o Achieve a better understanding of indigenous peoples' knowledge and
management experience relating to biodiversity conservation;
o Contribute to the endeavors of indigenous peoples and local communities in
biodiversity resource management and conservation strategy for transboundary
biodiversity and international water resources.
C.8.5. Conflicts of Interest
There are various conflicts that exist between different stakeholders:
a) Between agriculture and environmental protection agencies (reserves, environmental
NGOs):
· Claims made by agricultural producers for the damage caused to crops by cranes,
from bans on the use of pesticides, herbicides near NPAs, from the damaged caused
by wolves;
· Claims by environmental protection agencies for the damage caused by over grazing,
field burning, chemical and household pollution, economically and environmentally
unjustified cultivation of virgin lands, irrational use of arable lands.
b) Between mining and processing industries and environmental protection agencies, public
health agencies, environmental and social NGOs and others:
· Claims by the industry of reduced opportunities (including near NPAs), of increased
sanctions;
· Claims by environmental protection agencies of pollution, soil, ecosystem and
landscape degradation, of a lack of landscape restoration, of a decline in human
health near mine sites.
c) Between hunters, fishers, local residents, private business and environmental protection
structures, environmental NGOs (potentially customs, veterinarian service):
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· Claims by those using wildlife and plant resources of limits and bans on harvest or
collection, on export or import, of increased sanctions;
· Claims by environmental protection agencies of poaching and illegal export, of
irrational collecting, hunting, and storing methods.
d) Between tourists, tourist firms and environmental protection structures (a potential conflict):
· Claims by tourists of restrictions on use of natural sites, of degraded landscape
conditions;
· Claims by environmental protection agencies of pollution, fires, unauthorized use
and disturbance to animals.
e) Between transport and road services, population and environmental protection agencies:
· Claims by industry and users on inadequate road systems;
· Claims by environmental protection agencies of soil and ecosystem degradation.
This TDA does not take into account periodically occurring interstate conflicts: intentional and
unintentional cattle drives across adjacent pastures, transboundary water pollution, purchase of
Siberian marmot skins trapped in Mongolia.
C.9. Additional Study of the Daurian Steppe Zone
· No detailed data on transboundary air and water pollution, on pollution sources
collaborative monitoring systems and possible transboundary protected areas are
available.
· A key information gap in the DSZ is the lack of data on actual biodiversity
conditions.
· The current condition of plant and animal biodiversity is the basis for future natural
resource use and development decisions in the transboundary region.
· Data on the condition of biodiversity in the DSZ should evaluated using the same
criteria and indicators used in other regions of the TumenNET Project.
· Data is lacking on many species in the DSZ, on the diversity and distribution of
species in different parts of the DSZ; on relative species abundance both in the DSZ
and in other zones.
· Study of transportation corridors, current and proposed, in the DSZ.
· Create an ecologically oriented tourism plan.
· Create an international transboundary commission.
· Establish intergovernmental transboundary agencies.
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PART D. MONGOLIAN PLATEAU ZONE
D.1. DESCRIPTIONS/BACKGROUND
D.1.1. Global significance of the Mongolian Plateau Zone
The biodiversity of the Mongolian Plateau Zone is not only regionally important it is also
globally significant. The MPZ plays a strategic role in regional biodiversity and international
waters. Its arid and semi-arid areas have long been recognized as globally significant. The high
grass steppes of the MPZ are the world's last un-fragmented natural grasslands and their
protection represents a significant contribution to the natural heritage of humankind.
Many MPZ wetlands are recognized under the RAMSAR Convention. There are 327 bird
species, including 212 migratory birds: black stork, marsh duck, red crested poochard, green
plover, godwit, Indian cock, rock thrust, yangtze crowtit, titmouse, yellow small bird. The list of
rare birds in the Mongolian sector of the MPZ is given in Annex 20. Large water bodies - Buir
Lake (Mongolia PRC) and Dalai Lake (PRC) - are sites for nesting birds: Daurian, Japanese
and Black cranes, Mandarinca duck, numerous geese and ducks. This area is the starting point
for many seasonally migrating birds headed south to overwinter in the southern provinces of the
PRC.
The Chinese sector of the MPZ records 330 bird species, including 13 first category and 46
second category protected species. The Mongolian sector of the MPZ is rich in plants and
animals. There are 23 species of higher plants. The major pasture types are feather grass,
cleistogenes, meadow grass, agropyrfum, hair grass, fescue, steppe wheat grass, mixed grass-
sagebrush, filifolium and sedge. A list is given in Annex 21.
The MPZ is diverse in mammals: wolverine, elk, Manchurian aspalax, Eastern bat, black tailed
gazelle, wild sheep, marmot, five toed dwarf Jerboa, three toed dwarf Jerboa, midday gerbil.
Differences in relief, climate, and especially vegetation, support a diverse range of animals.
Mountain-steppe fauna shifts to forest fauna (wolf, fox, hare, wild boar). Steppe fauna is the
most broadly distributed: gazelle, numerous rodents (marmot a highly sought after commercial
species). There are numerous birds of prey due to the abundance of rodents. The list of mammals
in the Mongolian sector of the MPZ is given in Annex 22. A list of freshwater fish species in the
Mongolian sector of the MPZ is given in Annex 23. The Chinese sector of the MPZ has 127
species of mammal, including eight first class protected species and 16 second class.
Siberian tansy, Baicalian needle grass and Chinese quitch grass meadow steppe are found in
meadow steppes in mountainous territory. Tansy meadow steppe (grasses Siberian tansy, tansy
Baicalian needle grass) dominates meadow vegetation formations and represent 21% of
Dornod Aimag pasturelands. The tansy meadow steppe formation on the MPZ is a relic
community from early Manchurian vegetation. Plant cover in tansy meadow steppe is on the
average 70-90%. Single hectare species composition is 111 species belonging to 70 genera of 28
families. Forage production varies between 800-1400 kg/ha.
Dominant grassland species are Aneurolepidium Chinese, Stipa baicalensis, Stipa capillata,
Stipa grandis, Filifolium sibiricum, Cleistogenes squarrosa and Festuca ovina. Annual
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productivity is 600-1500 kg/ha. There is, nonetheless, in Aershan, a large area of forest on the
Da Xingan Mountains.
D.1.2. Physical Condition
The dominant landscape type on the MPZ is plateau, averaging 1000 m above sea level. This is
the most extensive plateau in the region (Annex 24). The MPZ is covered in plain and mountain
steppe. Climatic conditions are harsh. The western slope of the Da Xingan Mountain is part of
the gently sloping portion of the MPZ. Most of the MPZ is temperate dry or semi-dry grassland,
with chestnut and brown carbonate soils. The southern portion of the territory is represented by
semi-desert and dry steppe.
On the Mongolian sector of the MPZ there are two large rivers: Kherlen and Khalkh Gol. They
are considered the headwaters of the Amur River. The Kherlen River flows into the Dalai Lake
with an surface area of 2,339 sq km in the IMAR (PRC) and which is connected by the
Dalanerlanmu canal and HailaEr River to the Argun River. The Argun River is a tributary of
Amur and is the farthest distance from the mouth of the Amur. Buir Lake is recognized for its
large size (610 km2). Khalkh gol River, the source of which is located on the western slope of
DaXingan mountain, empties into this lake. WuErXun River connects Buir Lake to Dalai Lake
in the Chinese sector of the MPZ. This system of rivers and lakes is part of the Amur River basin
and plays a significant hydrologic role in the Amur basin and is important in the support of
unique regional flora and fauna habitat. There are many seasonal rivers in other parts of the
Chinese sector of the MPZ, such as Xilingol River and Wulagai River in Xilingol League.
Approximately 12 rivers run through across the MPZ. Transboundary rivers and lakes are
Kherlen, Khalkh Rivers and Buir Lake.
Climate Features
The MPZ has dry and harsh climatic conditions. Annual precipitation in Dornod and Sukhbaatar
provinces of the MPZ is between 24.4 and 295.2 mm. 67~74% of the annual precipitation is in
the summer. Maximum rainfall in June can reach 63-655 mm, almost 1/3 of annual totals. The
climate is severe continental, with four distinct seasons and very contrasting temperature ranges:
-20 to 20o C. It is windy, usually west and northwest. There are storms, including sandstorms.
Average annual rainfall is 200 to 300 mm; 85-90% of annual precipitation accumulates between
July and August. The mean annual temperature range in the Chinese sector of the MPZ is
between -2° C and -6° C, increasing from northeast to southwest. Mean January temperature is
between -20°C to -28°C. Annual precipitation decreases from 400mm to 150mm from east to
west.
D.1.3. Administrative Structure
A detailed administrative structure for provinces/leagues/banners/soums is shown in Figure 44
and some pertinent statistics are given in Annex 25. Two provinces of Mongolia and eleven
banners/cities in the three leagues of the PRC are included in the MPZ. The MPZ consists of
Matad, Khalkhgol, Soumber, Choibalsan soums of Dornod Province, Erdenetsagaan, Dariganga,
Naran, Ongon and Bayandelger soums of Sukhbaatar Province of Mongolia and Manzhouli City,
Xinbaerhuyou and Xinbaerhuzuo banners of Hulun Buir League, Aershan City of Xingan
League, Erlianhaote City, Xilinhaote City, Abaga, Sunitezuo, Suniteyou banners of Xilinguole
League in PRC
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The MPZ is bordered by the southern portion of Sukhbaatar Province and the southern and
eastern regions of Dornod Province of Mongolia and the northern and western regions of the
Xilinguole, Xingan, Huun Buir leagues of the PRC. The MPZ has 760,703 people.
Figure 44
D.1.4. Environmental Management
a) Environmental Management on the Mongolian Plateau Zone
Environmental protection is an important national issue in Mongolia. The Ministry of Nature and
Environment (MNE) of Mongolia is responsible for environmental policies, laws, procedure, and
conventions. The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is a national focus and Mongolia
fulfils its national commitment by participating in the Conferences of Parties to the CBD
(COPs). The CBD provides a broad-based policy framework for national and international
efforts to protect and rationally use biological resources. The Ministry of Nature and
Environment (MNE) is the ultimate referral authority on biodiversity policy, including
transboundary biodiversity and international water policy at the national and regional levels and
it monitors practices to ensure that national priorities are abandoned to meet international
commitments. Local provincial governments have authority to directly and indirectly manage
and protect biodiversity. The Environmental Research Institutes of the MNE have a national
mandate to conduct environmentally oriented research programs and these institutes have
projects and activities on the conservation and use of biodiversity. Mongolia is attempting to
decentralize its administration and there is a need to introduce changes in existing legislation and
policy. Mongolia has many laws (25), enforcement procedures (500) and is party to international
conventions (10).
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b) Environmental Management in the Peoples Republic of China
The PRC believes environmental protection to be a basic national policy (Chinese Agenda 21,
Beijing, 1996). The State Environmental Protection Administration (SEPA) plays a key role in
combating environmental pollution, ecosystem and environment damage. Its major role is to
formulate policies, guidelines and procedures, and make recommendations to the State Council.
SEPA is also responsible for implementation of international environmental treaties. SEPA
coordinates different sections in cases when environmental problems fall into the jurisdiction of
other ministries or bureaus, such as the Ministry of Agriculture, the State Forestry
Administration, the Ministry of Territory Resources. At the local level, provincial governments,
autonomous regions and cities have their own environmental protection organizations. At the
prefecture level, most government agencies have administrative and technical divisions that are
responsible for environmental protection. The local Environmental Protection Bureau (EPB) is
responsible to the local government.
D.1.5. Local Budget
Province, league, soum, and banner budgets arise from the central government and local budgets
(Mongolian Statistical Yearbook, Ulaanbaatar, 2001). The local budget is an integral part of the
State budget of the PRC and Mongolia and province governors administer it as a centralized
expenditure. The local budget is a budget of provinces/league and a budget of banner/soum or
district. Local soum, banner and city budgets on the MPZ are given in Annex 26 and Annex 27.
D.1.6. Protected Areas
There is a comprehensive network of protected areas and national parks covering more than 12%
of the MPZ. There are 15 protected areas (976,407.9 hectares) that are evenly distributed across
the MPZ (Figure 45). According to available data, two strictly protected areas, one Nature
Reserve and one Natural Monument had been established on the MPZ.
a) Protected Area Management Policy in the Mongolia Plateau Zone
A management plan for the Numrug Protected Area was completed at the end of 2001.
Management plans for the Eastern Mongolian Strictly Protected Area, national parks and
national monuments will be completed in 2002. The Eastern Mongolian Strictly Protected Area
is a home to 25 mammal species, dominated by herds of gazelle (over 70% of the white gazelle
population in Mongolia live here). The Numrug Strictly Protected Area is relatively wet and one-
fifth of the area is forested by small groves of Scotch pine, white birch and willow. Manchurian
flora and fauna, which occur nowhere else in Mongolia, are found here, including the Ussurian
moose, black-napped oriole, white-breasted rockthush, and great black water snack. The
Lkhachinvandad Mountain Natural Reserve is located in Erdenetsagaan Soum territory of
Sukhbaatar Aimag. The main purpose of the establishment of the natural reserve is to protect elk
habitat in the mountain steppe.
Ganga Lake Natural Monument is the area surrounding the lake, which was formed as a result of
sand block formed by wind movement, with a territory 32860 hectare. It is a beautiful fresh
water lake located between the mountainous steppe and Gobi regions.
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Figure 45
a) Protected Area Management Policy in the People's Republic of China
The PRC is planning to improve its network of protected areas and nature reserves. The process
will include a comprehensive examination of the distribution and current status of nature
reserves and will assess the effectiveness of the current national system of nature reserves. The
process will discuss measures to strengthen the conservation capacity of existing nature reserves
and identify needs for new nature reserves to protect biodiversity in forest, grassland, wetland
and fresh water ecosystems (People's Republic of China's project report on Implementation of
the Convention on Biological Diversity, People's Republic of China Environmental Science
Press, 199).
Local governments in the PRC have established a Mongolian gazelle reserve in Hulunbeier
League, a marmot and Mongolia gazelle nature reserve in Xilingole League and Aershan nature
reserve in Xingan League. A group of nature reserves are now being established along the
Chinese border to emphasize the special significance of transboundary biodiversity conservation.
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D.1.7. SENSITIVE AREAS (NATURAL RISK)
The MPZ is very sensitive and susceptible to natural disaster and human caused impacts. There
are a number of natural factors that aggravate environmental problems on the MPZ. Poor
transportation and communication infrastructures and a lack of resources handicap local
populations in their effort to effectively predict and mitigate these problems.
Blizzards: Blizzards harm wildlife, forest resources, livestock, agriculture, as well as humans
directly, and the poor infrastructure makes relief efforts difficult.
Zud: Zud is a Mongolian word for natural calamities or more precisely, a combination of
calamities that prevent livestock from accessing grazing lands for extended periods. Zud can
result from wind, snow, cold periods, ice, and is generally related to the intensity, duration and
repetition of snowfalls. Of all the natural disasters in MPZ, zud inflicts the most damage to
livestock herds and wildlife as Mongolian gazelles.
Dust storms: Most of the MPZ is affected by dust storms for at least 40 days per year, and in
some areas, for up to 100 days per year.
Drought: The MPZ has a very low rainfall and is very prone to droughts. Droughts appear to be
increasing frequency and in the steppe zone they occur every 4.5 to 5.3 years. Droughts affecting
at least half of the Mongolian sector of the MPZ have occurred 12 times in the last 50 years, and
on average kill 350,000 head of livestock.
Wildfires: The MPZ's dry climate is a contributing factor to the high incidence of wildfire.
Annual steppe and forest fires affect biodiversity. There have been about 200 wild steppe fires in
the Mongolian sector of the MPZ in the last 20 years. Fire has reduced the range of more than 20
plant species.
Aridization: Average annual temperature has increased by approximately 0.70 C in the past 60
years. Soil moisture, energy supplies have changed and plant and animal habitat is growing in
support of life (Mongolian Project Report, 2001). Climate change has increased desertification in
most of the MPZ.
Brand's vole is one of the most abundant mammals of the MPZ; its average per hectare density is
60-80 individuals. This mammal is distributed throughout the Mongolian sector of the MPZ and
sometimes its density increases to 200-250 individuals per hectare. At peak densities, brand's
vole can consume 90-95% of all vegetation cover and thus having an affect on other herbivore
density.
D.2. TRANSBOUNDARY ISSUES AND THREATS
D.2.1. Present Tansboundary Issues and their Threats on the Mongolian Plateau Zone
Prior data collection efforts (Project Reports, Sectorial Analysis and this report), show that the
most critical transboundary conservation issues of the MPZ of both Mongolian and the PRC are
land degradation, deforestation, loss of biodiversity, air and water pollution. These complex
issues are of both natural and anthropogenic origin. The detailed interplay of these factors, and
their origin and influence on the environment of border areas of adjacent countries are
considered below in separate chapters. Table 18 gives general characteristics of the main
environmental issues of the MPZ.
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Table 18. Summary of the Major Environmental Issues
Environmental Problems
Natural Issues (Causes)
Human Issues (Causes)
Land degradation
- Low rainfall
- Livestock herds too big in
(desertification, loss of topsoil
- High winds
some areas
and other erosion, decrease in
- Extreme temperature
- More horses, cattle and goats;
fertility of pasture and
- Thin topsoil
fewer sheep
croplands)
- Steep slopes
- Inappropriate mining and
- Fires
industrial practices
- Aridization
- Inappropriate cultivation
practices
- Off-road vehicles
- Fires
Deforestation (depletion of
- Fires
- Destructive and unregulated
limited but available forest
- Insects
commercial logging techniques
resources)
- Slow growth rates for
- Insufficient and poorly managed
natural and replanted
reforestation
regeneration
- Unregulated cutting for
domestic fuel wood needs
- Fires
Loss of biodiversity
- Same natural causes
- Hunting
as for land degradation
- Poaching
leads to loss of species
- Overgrazing
and habitat
- Pollution
- Deforestation
Air and Water pollution
- Fires
- Overall manufacturing
(generally localized problem)
- High winds
inefficiency that results in
- Low flow-rates in
excessive energy use and
rivers for most of year
production
- Temperature
- Coal burning in power plants
inversions in localized
and industrial boilers
situations
- Increase in the number of
vehicles, many of which are old
and poorly maintained
- Inappropriate use and disposal
of chemicals
- Inappropriate disposal of solid
and liquid waste
Key Threats
Intensification of the trends listed in Table 18 will increase the environment problems and
conservation threats in border:
· Ecosystem fragmentation on the MPZ;
· Loss and decline in ecosystem quality, such as steppe, forest steppe and wetlands;
· Aggravation of natural processes of aridization due to irrational nature management.
These trends will:
· Increase the loss of biodiversity;
· Endanger and threaten plant and animal species;
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· Endanger and threaten migratory species such as birds and gazelles
· Increase the loss of habitat and breading places for these species.
Key environmental issues on the MPZ are shown on Figure 46.
Figure 46
Land degradation is the most critical environmental issue on the MPZ. Factors are:
· Land degradation on the MPZ: 26,502 hectares of land is cultivated in the Mongolian
sector of the MPZ, 21,702 hectares in the Khalkhgol Soum of Dornod Province and much
of this land is severely degraded. Approximately 90% of the cultivated land has lost its
original fertility (TDA for the MPZ, 2001);
· Degradation continues as a result of poor agricultural practices in some places, but is
slowing in others through the use of traditional soil conservation methods (TDA for the
MPZ, 2001);
· 46.5% of cultivated land is eroded, and in particular, 41.1% is moderate to severe. Soil
erosion is a major cause of a decline in harvest figures in recent years. Most fertile soils
on the MPZ are cultivated (TDA for the MPZ, 2001);
· Grasslands account for 85% of the MPZ and though estimates vary, there can be no doubt
that a significant proportion of these lands is overgrazed, causing a loss of biodiversity,
soil erosion and economic losses that could become very serious if present trends
continue (TDA for the MPZ, 2001).
The wetland map for the MPZ shows the interplay of land degradation, habitat loss and
economic activities.
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MPZ wetlands are of important international significance as areas of nesting, resting and feeding
for many rare and endangered migratory birds. Steppe zone wetlands are significant in
maintaining hydrological balance of surface and underground waters. Wetlands are natural areas
for watering wild animals and livestock and their high concentrations near watering holes cause
over grazing that leads to extermination of steppe and forest steppe ecosystems, reduced fertility
and increased erosion. Livestock over grazing in these areas exceeds the natural capacity of
steppe ecosystems to recover. Forests and bushes are being liquidated as a source of firewood for
heat.
The result of irrational economic activities in a background of natural climate aridization is
causing the desertification of large areas of steppe. This process increases the frequency and
intensity of dust storms that contaminate lake and river water. A similar situation is also
observed near settlements, especially near Buir Lake (Mongolia), Dalainor Lake (PRC cities of
Choibalsan and Sumber (Mongolia), Lubin Soum, Tsagan Chulut, Asar, Honggor (PRC).
Figure 47 shows the main wetlands on the MPZ and areas of desertification around wetlands and
settlements.
Figure 47
There is an urgent need to develop land conservation program that is coordinated among
participating countries. This program must emphasize a strategy to reduce anthropogenic factors
of desertification and land degradation on the MPZ.
B. Future Developments and Possible Transboundary Issues and Threats
Note: No detailed data from the Peoples Republic of China's sector of the Mongolian
Plateau area available.
The MPZ has a great potential for further economic development, based on its:
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· Favorable geographic location;
· Rich natural resources potential;
· Uniquely rich and diverse ecosystems.
Further economic development of the MPZ presumes the following industrial development:
· Mining development (zinc, coal and gold), oil explorations;
· Improving and constructing transportation infrastructures (new transportation corridors),
new airports, pipelines);
· Intensive agriculture;
· Steppe tourism;
· Urbanization (for the IMAR).
Mining development will open new deposits and increase extraction volumes in existing deposits
and further aggravate land degradation, lower and change subsurface water balance, increase
pollution, including heavy metals in areas of extraction and transportation of minerals. Figure 48
shows a distribution of mineral deposits on the MPZ. There are currently no data for the Chinese
sector of the MPZ.
Figure 48
These factors will lead to the following threats:
· Loss of natural ecosystems;
· Land degradation;
· Increase number of anthropogenic conditioned diseases and modified genetic features of
animals and people;
· Wetland degradation and decline;
· Increased soil and water salinity.
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The same factors are relevant to intensifying oil and gas extraction of existing deposits and
exploration and drilling at new deposits. Other threats to those above mentioned are:
· Oil spills near drilling sites;
· Increased air pollution with flaring of well gas; increased air temperature, worsening
aridization problems.
Increased extraction of mineral resources will require further development of transportation
infrastructures, new road construction and improvement of existing roads, and opening of oil and
gas pipeline corridors. Figure 49 shows zinc and oil transport along or through the MPZ in the
direction of the PRC
Figure 49
Both routes run through the Eastern Steppe protected area and have an impact on the biodiversity
conservation on this area. Alternative routes to transport mineral resources in this area of the
MPZ (TDA for the MPZ, 2001) are necessary.
If appropriate measures are not taken, these economic activities pose the threat of:
· Ecosystem fragmentation;
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· Mongolian gazelle migration disturbance;
· Increased air and soil contamination from the burning of petroleum products and dust;
· Decreased biodiversity;
· Soil, surface and subsurface water contamination from oil spills.
Planned agricultural development of the territory could:
· Degrade land resources;
· Degrade forest resources;
· Lead to habitat loss, including wetlands;
· Fragment ecosystems;
· Increase soil and water contamination through the use of chemical fertilizers;
· Increase air pollution, including dust storms.
The MPZ has great potential to develop ecotourism. However, development of environmentally
insensitive tourism will be threat by:
· Increasing pressure on wildlife populations from poaching and trade in wildlife, from
uncontrolled or poorly managed hunting;
· Leading to the indiscriminate eradication of predators;
· Increasing disturbance factors near rare bird nesting sites and breeding grounds of the
Mongolian gazelle;
· Aggravating natural ecosystem contamination;
· Degrading land resources at campsites.
Of specific importance in the Chinese sector of the MPZ is population growth and urbanization.
Further urbanization represents serious threats:
· Increased impact on natural ecosystems;
· Loss of habitats;
· Loss of biodiversity;
· Land degradation;
· Aggravation of soil, waters and air contamination with solid, liquid and gas products of
anthropogenic activities.
Development of aquaculture planned in the Chinese sector of the MPZ can enhance threats of:
· Loss of wetland biodiversity;
· Increase in contamination;
· Violation of hydrological regimes for rivers and a lowering subsurface waters;
· Possible disturbance of fish migrations from dam construction;
· Habitat loss (resting, breeding, nesting) for rare and endangered birds from disturbance.
D.3. CONSTRAINTS
The following environmental constraints on economic activities are the first that should be noted
for the MPZ:
· The MPZ has a high level of ecosystems biodiversity of global significance;
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· A natural aridization conditions that deteriorates environment quality is observed on the
MPZ.
Economic development of the MPZ could impact considerably environmental quality.
Constraints for ecologically sound economic activities on the MPZ can be divided into three
levels:
· International;
· National;
· Regional.
International Constraints
· Absence of real actions to create a set of regional environmental protection measures.
· No international agencies, including international intergovernmental organizations to
manage and coordinate economic activities on the MPZ.
· Absence of international intergovernmental treaties to coordinate economic activities on
the MPZ and to conduct environmental monitoring
· Low levels of funding for nature protection measures.
National Constraints
· Absence or inadequate laws regulating economic activities, including environmental
impact.
· Ineffectiveness of state bodies to implement existing legislation.
· Absence of criteria and indicators for environment impact assessment that are in
accordance with acknowledged international practice.
· Inadequate financing of activities to prevent negative environmental impacts.
· High population density and urbanization in the Chinese sector of the MPZ.
· Irrational natural resources management (fires, pastures digression, high growth of
population in the Chinese sector of the MPZ).
· Low level of public awareness on environmental issues.
Regional Constraints
· Ineffectiveness of existing environmental legislation.
· Inadequate local financing of environmental measures.
· Varied criteria for allowable environmental impacts (MAC).
· Different current economic management practices that result in transboundary
environmental impacts.
· Absence of necessary infrastructures to develop ecologically sound tourism, to treat
wastewater and industrial discharge.
Based on environmentally sustainable development principles, the following factors restrict
natural resource management on the MPZ.
Impact from Agriculture
· Lack of control over livestock growth, over its health and structure.
· Natural factors: fires, high winds, thin topsoil.
· Inappropriate cultivation practices, water and land use.
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· Growing land degradation.
· Land ownership regulation (mainly in the Chinese sector).
· Livestock deceases.
· Financial constraints.
Impact from Industry and Mining
· Insufficient institutional and legal environmental management frameworks.
· Lack of mining site restoration.
· Inadequate monitoring systems.
· Lack of new technologies
· Lack of financial resources.
· Lack of human resources (in the Mongolian sector).
Impact from urbanization
· Fast growing urban population (in the Chinese sector).
· Inappropriate water and land use management.
· Lack of control over deforestation.
· Insufficient monitoring systems.
· Lack of legal frameworks.
· Financial constraints.
Impact from transport
· Lack of regulations for environmental impact assessments.
· Lack of monitoring stations.
· Lack of public awareness on environment conservation in transport areas.
· Ineffective regional planning.
· Lack of financial resources.
Impact from tourism
· Inappropriate policy and regulatory systems for ecotourism.
· Undeveloped infrastructures.
· Lack of human resources.
· Lack of financial resources.
· Lack of adopted plans between the adjacent countries for tourism development.
Transboundary protected areas
· Insufficient cooperation for management of transboundary protected areas.
· Insufficient cooperation in creation of new transboundary protected areas.
· Missing control of transboundary poaching and illegal trade of animals.
· Lack of employers with high qualification.
· Lack of financial resources.
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D.4. CAUSAL CHAIN ANALYSIS
The negative impacts of the agricultural and mining industry, transboundary transportation
corridors, and tourism are the main reasons for a decline in environmental quality on the MPZ.
Economic activities first lead to land degradation, then to wetland degradation and finally, to a
loss of animal and plant species.
The main reasons for the negative influence of natural factors (aridization, strong winds, natural
fires, catastrophic increases in rodent populations) are:
· Ineffective regional, and especially transboundary, planning of economic activities that
affect conservation efforts;
· Inadequate legislation, including intergovernmental, to solve environmental problems in
border areas;
· Inadequate implementation of existing legislation;
· Absence or insufficient attraction of communities into the discussion of environmental
issues.
Inadequate financing of environmental conservation measures, use of outdated technologies and
no developed system of environmental monitoring in border areas greatly exacerbate the reasons
for negative environmental impact mentioned above.
Agricultural activity on the MPZ, mainly cattle breeding, has the greatest negative environmental
impact. No control over livestock numbers, poor pastureland planning, and a nascent land
ownership system result in overgrazing, in a decline in the quality of steppe ecosystems, and can
cause ecosystem destruction. The impacts of soil erosion and salinization, of fertility loss and
from dust storms are increasing. There are observable modifications in steppe and wetland
ecosystems. There is habitat loss and a decline in the quality of plant and animal species.
Mineral extraction is growing in importance on the MPZ. The region has rich deposits of zinc,
tin, tungsten, molybdenum, coal and oil. Exploration and extraction of these deposits are often
carried out without site restoration and without measures to protect the environment from
contamination. There is significant surface and subsurface water contamination and air pollution.
Development of new deposits is often carried out without appropriate environment impact
assessments. Environmental legislation governing extraction is inadequate and there is a failure
to comply with any existing legislation. No site restoration financing mechanisms exist. Mining
technologies are outdated. Border areas lack planned or coordinated policies on development of
deposits. Increasing contamination, changing subsurface water level, increased soil erosion are
causing land and wetland degradation and are destroying fertile agricultural lands and increasing
habitat loss.
Transportation systems exert a considerable impact on the condition of the environmental on the
MPZ. No well-defined transportation systems currently exist for transboundary traffic (Figure
50). Geographic features make travel possible anywhere along steppe ecosystems. These
unplanned roads cause fragmentation and add considerably to the contamination of steppe
ecosystems and to the loss of land productivity. Construction of the Millennium Road will
improve the situation considerably.
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Figure 50
Tourism development on the MPZ offers great potential. Figure 51 shows tourist routes in the
Mongolian sector of the MPZ.
Figure 51
The lack of intergovernmental (Mongolia PRC) policies to develop tourism development in
border areas and no coordinated plans to develop ecotourism retard development. The poorly
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developed service infrastructure, few qualified staff and no tourist routes complying with
ecotourism principles further degrade habitat, including resting and nesting sites. Disturbance
and poaching increase and land, and especially wetlands are polluted.
D.5. POLITICAL-LEGAL-SOCIO-ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
D.5.1. Government Agenda, Plans, Strategies
The Mongolian Action Program for the 21st Century and Chinese Agenda 21 are strategic
processes. Building on ideas developed during the 1992 Rio Earth Summit, Mongolia and the
PRC launched their own efforts to apply the insights and values of what has come to be known
as sustainable development. These strategic documents would be used as a guide for further
actions on sustainable development on the MPZ.
The Government of Mongolia has prepared several action plans in the past four years, including
ones that have a direct or indirect environment focus:
· National Security Plan; National Development Plan;
· Mongolian Action Program for the 21st Century (MAP 21);
· Biodiversity Protection Action Plan;
· National Plan of Action for Protected Areas;
· Forestry Action Plan;
· National Plan to Combat Desertification;
· National Ecology Policy.
Others efforts focusing on environmental issues include:
· Water Resources Action Plan;
· Comprehensive Ecological Education Plan;
· Action Plan for Ecologically Clean Production;
· National Plan for Pollution Standards.
Each aimag also has its own Environmental Action Plan.
Environmental harmonization with the framework of the strategy if the following measures are
promoted:
· Create an economic basis for environmental protection by using natural resources to gain
maximum effectiveness and minimum damage to the environment;
· Strengthen the social and psychological foundations of rational natural resource use to
improve living standards and to instill cultural attitudes about the environment;
· Limit environmental imbalance through environmental restoration and by improving the
basis for environment protection.
A development strategy for the western part of the IMAR is now being implemented and
environmental protection is a key component. The strategy will adjust industrial structures and
return cultivated lands to forest and grasslands in an effort to improve environmental conditions
in the western region. Most of this region is very arid, with little rainfall and strong sandy winds.
The environment is very fragile. This region is also blessed with vast grasslands, precious oasis
ecosystems, and many rare and endangered species. The development of the western region and
the maintenance of a beautiful and healthy environment will not only contribute to national
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sustainable development and reduce the gap between the west and east, it will also bring benefits
to neighboring regions such as Mongolia.
D.5.2. Demographic Data
In January 2000 the total population of the Mongolian sector was 68,900. The total population of
the Chinese sector was 735,103 thousand (Mongolian Project Report, 2001). According to
statistical data for 2000, there were 2,543 unemployed people in the Mongolian sector of the
MPZ. The unemployment rate declined from 6.3% to 6.2% in the Mongolian sector of the MPZ
between 1995-2000.
D.5.3. Socio-Economic Statistics
Mongolia has plans for the poverty alleviation or elimination. Development and implementation
of a country-specific program, full mobilize of domestic resources, and support and assistance
from international agencies and donor countries is crucial to addressing poverty in Mongolia.
Table 19 lists basic socio-economic features for the Mongolian sector of the MPZ.
Table 19. Basic Socio-Economic Characteristics
ITEM
MONGOLIAN SECTOR OF THE MPZ
Area (sq. Km)
82,577
Population
68,900
Population density (sq km)
0.8
GDP (million)
$28.1 USD
GDP per capita
$140.2 USD
Unemployed
4,300
Employed
21,698
Number of livestock
1,268,000
*Data on the Chinese sector of the Mongolian Plateau Zone is currently unavailable.
Poverty and inequity are serious issues in Mongolia, even with improvements in overall living
standards and per capita GNP (Mongolian Human Development Report, 2001). Despite slight
decreases in the ratio of per capita poor, the gap between the rich and poor will widen and
poverty will have a different look. Poverty alleviation is part of a general plan to increase
industrial production, reduce social burdens on the state, and stabilize the country's economic
growth.
D.5.4. Laws and Regulations for National and Foreign Investment
The Mongolian Constitution (1992) defines basic property rights for foreign investors. These
constitutional provisions are the key preconditions for promoting foreign direct investment and
for greater foreign investment in the privatization of state owned enterprises. The Mongolian
legislature adopted a new Foreign Investment Law in 1993. Key elements of the Foreign
Investment Law are: 1) protection of foreign investors from nationalization and illegal
confiscation of foreign capital brought into the country; 2) determining priority sectors and
incentives for foreign investors; 3) determining basic conditions of land use and the
establishment of joint ventures. Poor infrastructure development on the MPZ constrains foreign
investment on the MPZ. Central and local governments pay special attention to investment
directed at essential infrastructure development of natural resources in the private sector as well
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as the promotion of export oriented enterprises, transport and telecommunications for further
attraction of foreign capital investments in the Mongolian sector of the MPZ.
D.5.5. Environmental Laws and Regulatory Systems
D.5.5.1. Legislation: Laws, Regulations, Resolutions, Conflicts
The 1991 Mongolian Constitution establishes the right of Mongolian citizens to live in a safe and
healthy environment and states that all land and natural resources of Mongolia are subject to
state protection. The Government of Mongolia and its Ministry of Nature and Environment have
made significant strides to create legal, policy, and institutional frameworks for environmental
management in a market-oriented system. Comprehensive and effective environmental
management techniques prior were virtually non-existent to 1990, and those that existed were
limited in scope and not widely applied. Adopting environmental laws that conform to
constitutional provisions create a legal basis to protect species. Since 1994, the Government of
Mongolia has adopted sixteen, and the PRC has adopted six laws environmental protection laws.
The lists of relevant laws and years in which they were adopted are presented in Annex 28.
D.5.5.2. Environmental Impact Assessment
The Law on Environmental Protection (1995) established Environmental Impact Assessments in
order to identify possible adverse effects on human health and the environment, and to determine
measures to minimize and mitigate them. An environmental impact assessment is required prior
developing, implementing or operating projects or programs, and prior to expanding economic
activities or services or entering into contracts. Environmental impact assessment procedures
divide projects into twelve categories according to types of industry. The last category, Special
Projects, includes commercial fishing and hunting, forestry, transport of animals and plants, use
of toxic chemicals and radioactive substances, and any activities near the boundaries of protected
areas. This category is exclusively under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Nature and
Environment. Responsibility for the other eleven categories is delegated to the Ministry of
Nature and Environment, to aimag governments or soum governments, depending on the size,
location and complexity of the project.
D.5.5.3. Conclusions on Legislative Status
Mongolia has adopted legislation to protect the environment. Current weaknesses are:
· Inadequate information about new laws among the public and government officials;
· Incomplete state regulatory systems;
· Officials responsible for implementation of laws and regulations are slow to act;
· Public is unconvinced of the serious consequences of violating the law, punishment for
violations of environmental law is rare and enforcement mechanisms (arrest, charging,
trial and sentencing) need improvement;
· Environment remains unprotected, despite the existence of laws to protect the
environment;
· Conflicts between commercial interest using wild species and stakeholders with a
conservation agenda occur;
· Illegal use of natural resources is rampant, made possible, in part, through bribes;
· Economic and environmental laws need closer coordination.
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D.5.6. Bilateral, Regional and International Treaties and Conventions
Since 1989 the PRC and Mongolia have signed several treaties and entered into various
agreements on economic and other forms of cooperation. Mongolia joined several international
conventions and has several agreements with the RF and the PRC on various environmental
issues. Limited financial resources and internal concerns preclude a high level of observation of
international agreements.
Below is the list of major international environmental conventions joined by Mongolia:
· Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, Vienna, 1985;
· United Nations framework Convention on Climate Change;
· Convention on Biological Diversity;
· United Nations Convention on Combat Desertification;
· Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of wild fauna and flora,
Washington, 1973;
· Basel Convention on Control of Transboundary movements hazardous wastes and their
disposal, Basel, 1989;
· Convention on Wetlands of International importance especially as waterfowl habitat,
Ramsar, 1971;
· Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals, Bonn, 1979;
· Rotterdam Convention on the Prior informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous
Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade.
D.5.7. Institutional System for Environmental Management
The Ikh Khural (Mongolian Legislature) and Cabinet of Ministers have responsibility for
enacting national level policy and law. However, environmental technical capacity resides with
the Ministry of Nature and Environment. The Ministry of Nature and Environment has seven
basic responsibilities:
· Organize the implementation of national policy on environmental protection, resource
use, and sustainable development;
· Monitor implementation of environmental legislation;
· Organize restoration or rehabilitation of resources damaged by unlawful actions;
· Approve, monitor, and provide technical assistance to local authorities and state agencies
for implementation at the local level;
· Coordinate activities across sectors and among regions;
· Establish limits on resource use and develop and seek approval of appropriate
environmental quality standards;
· Promote research and development, international cooperation, and the dissemination of
information on environmental issues.
The burden of implementation of all environmental laws and policies rests at the local level.
Although Aimag Governors are responsible for these laws and policies, they do not have the
necessary training and resources to competently carry them out. Their responsibilities include:
· Development of environmental protection measures;
· Submit information on the environment stored in local information databanks to the
Ministry of Nature and Environment;
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· Control activities of local business entities, and if necessary, prohibit activities that have
adverse effects;
· Coordinate activities of the local environmental organizations;
· Equip chief inspectors with required tools and transportation.
D.6. SCENARIOS
D.6.1. Forecast of Economic Growth for the Period 2005-2010
By 2005 people in the Chinese sector of the MPZ will be well off, and by 2010 the per capita
GDP of the region will reach average national levels, making the IMAR a key economic growth
region in the PRC (Western Development Historic Opportunity for Inner Mongolia, 2001).
By 2005 the decline in environmental quality will be under control, and by 2010 improvements
in environmental quality will be seen. A beautiful landscape will reappear in the IMAR by the
mid 21st century (Western Development Historic Opportunity for Inner Mongolia, 2001).
D.6.2. Economic Growth Forecast for the Mongolian Sector in the Period 2005-2020
Economic growth rates in the Mongolian sector of the MPZ are based on the following economic
development assumptions:
· Per capita growth on the MPZ will exceed per capita GDP per capita of the middle-
income countries by 2020;
· Economic growth will be based entirely on private sector; export-oriented processing and
mining industries;
· Tourism will be further developed;
· Mining and animal husbandry product processing, and their export will be developed.
Scenario:
· Exploration of Sukhbaatar zinc deposit will start in 2004;
· Oil production will reach 100-200 thousand million barrels or 4.5-15 million barrels per
year by 2002-2010;
· Production of animal husbandry products, wool and leather, will recover fully;
· Brown coal mining industries in Erdenetsagaan, Bayandelger, Ongon Soums of
Sukhbaatar Aimag and Khalkhgol Soum of Dornod Aimag will begin;
· Fodder farming in Khalkh River regions of Dornod Province and export of that
production to northern (Erdenetsagaan, Ongon, Dariganga Soums) and southern sectors
of the MPZ will begin;
· Develop environmentally sound ecotourism such as bird watching (Ganga, Buir Lakes
and others) and Gazelle watching (Erdenetsagaan Soum);
· Intensity of soil erosion-desertification process likely to remain at present levels until
2020.
This development vision increases the living standards of all people on the MPZ to world
standards and creates a harmonious social and environment framework consistent with the
interests of successive generations, while at the same time emphasizing a stronger commitment
to combat desertification and alleviate poverty. In this scenario, the budget has a surplus and this
surplus will provide the Government an opportunity to invest large amounts in social and
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business sectors, as well as in environment protection. Economic growth will lead to an increase
in savings and corporate bank deposits.
D.6.3. Results of Economic Development Projection for the Mongolian Plateau Zone
Economic development projections were developed using the RMSM-X model, based on certain
forecast assumptions. According to the projection, real per capita GDP will grow to 3,500 USD
in 2020 if:
· Economic growth is greater than 3-5% per year, prices and exchange rate stabilize and
exports increase dramatically;
· Service sectors such as transport, communication, and trade play a key role in the above
economic growth;
· Industrial sectors provide high economic growth;
· Animal husbandry production and processing industries increases;
· Oil production and mineral processing sectors increase exports and thus play a key role in
reducing and eliminating the foreign trade deficit.
Economic growth will improve the Mongolian fiscal situation and budget deficits will be
reduced and eliminated, though per capita GDP growth will remain a bit lower than in developed
countries. This forecast, however, is a maximum growth rate scenario. In this scenario, the
budget has a surplus and this surplus will provide the Government an opportunity to invest large
amounts in social and business sectors, as well as in environment protection. Economic growth
will lead to an increase in savings and corporate bank deposits.
D.6.4. Situation with No Interventions
· The expansive grasslands of the MPZ represent a complex ecosystem with extensive
resources. These grasslands are currently at risk from habitat degradation, excessive
water extraction, unrestricted mining, and from overgrazing. Dramatic social and
economic changes in the past decade, including rapid population growth, urbanization
and the move toward market economy, have dramatically accelerated these trends.
· The biodiversity of the MPZ is increasingly under pressure and its quality is declining.
· Grazing land is under pressure. Research shows that 50% of the land in Mongolian sector
of the MPZ has to some extent been degraded. This is in part a result of growing
livestock numbers in recent years as herding communities exploit land more intensively.
The volume of suitable grazing land is steadily shrinking.
· Intensive mining operations, especially for gold, have degraded lands. Mining activities
have contributed to positive economic growth but they have also left several thousand
hectares of land degraded. Land restoration by mining companies does not occur. It is
less expensive for mining companies to pay fines than to restore sites and it is highly
unusual for fines to be assessed for failure to comply with contract obligations.
· Massive invasions of grasshoppers and large numbers of rodents such as the Brandt's
vole have laid waste to millions of hectares of land. In the extreme case, land degradation
results in desertification.
· There are increasing concerns about pollution of rivers where located mining activities.
Much of this results from the mining that increasing of different effluents.
· Groundwater across most of the MPZ has an extremely high mineral content (fluoride,
calcium, magnesium) that has a negative impact on the health of these areas.
· Loss of bushes and Gobi forest aggravate land degradation processes and increased
evaporation leads to desertification on the MPZ.
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· The key issue is wildlife habitat loss and degradation that is especially severe in lower
elevation rangelands where human population pressure is the greatest.
· The loss and degradation of habitat have reduced wildlife populations since land can
simply no longer support wildlife.
· Despite officially protected wildlife, poaching is widespread and threatens remaining
populations.
· Solid and toxic waste has become an all too visible problem in most urban areas, a result
of less than complete disposal of household and industrial waste, uncontrolled dumping
of waste, absence of any provisions to separate hazardous and toxic wastes, a shortage of
financing, and insufficient cost-recovery.
· Land and forest degradation also threatens plant species.
· Solid waste is being dumped directly on to riverbanks and into valuable wetlands.
· The environment of Buir Lake has deteriorated dramatically in terms of biodiversity,
habitat, fisheries resources, recreational value and water quality.
· Grassland resources on the MPZ have suffered catastrophic degradation.
· The negative impacts of agriculture development are increasing from improper pesticide
and herbicide use, overgrazing, increases in rodents and agricultural land rehabilitation.
· Naturally occurring and anthropogenic transboundary steppe and forest fires occur every
year.
· Transboundary pouching and illegal trade damage flora and fauna.
· Negative impact of urbanization increases due to a lack of infrastructure: no funding, no
plans, and poor land management planning.
· Poor forest management is destroying forest resources due to a lack of forest
management and poor social condition of local people.
D.6.5. Situation with Interventions
· Technological innovations in all industrial sectors, including mining, based on advanced
technologies appropriate to the MPZ's unique conditions will be developed.
· Sustainable use of land resources should be achieved by creating an integrated approach
to land use planning.
· Effective management of natural resources by improving planning management systems.
· Promote public participation in transboundary biodiversity and international water
conservation.
· Improve current capacity of existing protected areas and increase the number of protected
areas and national parks in border areas.
· Combating desertification should be focused on development programs designed to aid
local people most affected by desertification.
· Study the primary causes and effects of desertification and promote public involvement
in actions to halt desertification.
· Conduct reforestation and planting programs in vulnerable areas.
· Improve road design to reduce off-road traffic that damages vulnerable areas and that
increases soil erosion.
· Assess current conditions and threats to biodiversity.
· Develop species protection policies programs based on minimizing species decline.
· Develop ecotourism at local, regional and international levels.
· Create waste management infrastructures in both the Governmental and private sector.
· Create conditions to promote ecotourism.
· Reduce the threats from natural disasters by creating programs to help those harmed by
natural disasters.
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D.7. Proposed Interventions to Prevent Land and Wetland Degradation and Species Loss
Agricultural Sector
Implementers: Ministry of Nature and Environment, Ministry of Agriculture (Mongolia),
Agricultural Department of Chitinskaya Oblast (RF), local administrations, agricultural
enterprises, farmers.
· Implement national action plan to combat desertification.
· Develop and implement land and pasture use plans at the local level.
· Develop and implement restoration programs (plant grass, shelterbelts, other plant in
areas of soil erosion) for certain particularly critical abandoned cultivated areas.
· Develop technologies to restore and improve degraded land.
· Create legislative mechanism individual and community use of pastureland.
· Set pasture use fees in accordance with the natural zones, soil quality and plant cover.
· Restore degraded pastureland and abandoned cropland for grazing.
· Develop and carry out land management plans for interagency land holdings.
· Create economic mechanisms to involve local citizens, economic entities and
organizations in pastureland improvement.
· Establish centralized funds to improve degraded land.
· Place land use planning experts in local government and provide them adequate training.
· Improve cultivation practices on currently cultivated lands with serious erosion problems.
· Use environmentally sound, waste free agricultural technologies.
· Pursue a balanced, sustainable use policy for pastures to enhance their protection.
· Improve land rotation systems and introduce modern soil protection technologies for
croplands.
· Improve pasture and anti-desertification projects.
· Repair water sources in pastures.
· Environmental and economic land evaluations.
· Accurately establish land carrying capacities.
· Develop technology to restore and improve degraded land.
· Provide restricted or protected area status to areas with ecologically valuable
significance.
· Improve field research equipment and conditions.
Mining Sector
Implementers: Ministry of Nature and Environment, Ministry of Agriculture (Mongolia),
Agricultural Department of Chitinskaya Oblast (RF), local administrations, agricultural
enterprises, farmers.
· Improve the capacity to manage environmental disturbance caused by mining by
reviewing existing laws and provisions and establishing mining rehabilitation fund.
· Ensure close and regular coordination among transboundary countries.
· Require comprehensive international plans that are developed with local stakeholders in
transboundary areas.
· Institutionalize community and expert in environmental monitoring of mine sites.
· Conduct trainings in environmental auditing and environmental monitoring.
· Develop and implement an Integrated Regional Mining Program.
· Increase funds for environmental management and restoration, and improve the recovery
of commercial mineral resources via improved technologies and equipment.
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· Establish laboratory facilities, when needed, at mine sites to facilitate monitoring and
environmental assessment.
· Solve mine site restoration issues through the following actions:
o Require mining companies to have a reclamation fund;
o Improve the quality of environmental planning and enforcement;
o Develop restoration plans and projects;
o Develop restoration technologies;
o Develop economic incentives for mine reclamation;
o Establish professional teams to carry out rehabilitation work by contract;
o Enforce restoration standards and guidelines;
o Catalog technological waste sand with gold content.
· Improve environmental monitoring for mining activities via the following actions:
o Introduce permanent and mobile environmental laboratory;
o Develop and enforce monitoring plans for mines
Transport Sector
Implementers: Ministry of Nature and Environment, Ministry of Agriculture (Mongolia),
Agricultural Department of Chitinskaya Oblast (RF), local administrations, agricultural
enterprises, farmers.
· Fully incorporate environmental considerations into the Transportation Master Plan and
develop a comprehensive transportation policy incorporating environmental
considerations.
· Inventory and evaluate air pollution sources from vehicles, develop a system to monitor
motor vehicle pollutants, and establish automatic air pollution monitoring stations in
cities.
· Establish emission standards for motor vehicles.
· Develop a system of auto emission pollution taxes and reduce or prohibit lead
compounds in motor vehicle fuel.
· Improve roads between cities/settlements and water resources/herders.
· Improve rural road standards to limit traffic to established roads to reduce land damage
from proliferation of dirt roads.
· Conduct environment impact assessments for transportation corridors in transboundary
areas.
· Improve transportation and communication infrastructures to levels compatible with
international transportation and communication standards.
· Develop and implement the Master Plan for Eastern Road Network.
· Implement the construction of the Millennium Road.
· Establish a control system to revise auto emissions and set fees depending on pollution
volumes.
· Study opportunities to build a paved road in the direction of Undurkhaan-Baruun-Urt and
improve roads in soums.
· Construct a railway in Choibalsan-Tamtsag-Rashaant to connect to the TumenNET Area
infrastructure.
Tourist Sector
Implementers: Ministry of Nature and Environment, Ministry of Industrial Development,
tourism authorities, local and provincial governments, NGOs, private sector.
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· Develop ecotourism skills and tap international experience.
· Estimate anticipated impact on the environment from tourist volumes.
· Develop a base line understanding of existing biodiversity as the basis for managing
ecotourism and to establish impact benchmarks.
· Assess existing infrastructure and services to study potential environmental impact
(sewer systems, sewage treatment plants, impact of construction on water resources).
· Assess potential transboundary opportunities for tourism in view of different landscapes
and wildlife in border areas.
· Develop and implement ecotourism licensing and environmental auditing for tourist
camps as part of the licensing conditions.
· Carry out an environmental impact assessment as part of developing a master plan.
· Set up and implement environmental management plans for nature reserves designated
for tourism.
· Develop high quality ecotourism activities with limited impact on ecosystems, natural
resources, society and the cultural heritage of transboundary communities.
· Prepare a management plan for international tourism on the MPZ.
· Provide environmental protection and cultural conservation in tourism areas.
· Provide employment and income opportunities from tourism to rural people living on the
MPZ.
· Develop guidelines for integrated and local sustainable ecotourism development on the
MPZ.
· Develop sustainable steppe tourism facilities that minimize environmental damage.
· Develop a MPZ tourism resources database with regional information sharing on the
tourist resources.
· Develop mutual tourism development projects.
· Strengthen capacity building by training local environment rangers and tourism guides
and by increasing public awareness.
· Link ecotourism with local environment conservation in protected areas and promote
livelihood options for local communities in buffer zones of protected areas.
· Support initial stage tourism development - investments, taxes, information, organization
and legislation with provincial and municipal leaders.
· Preserve the biodiversity and ecological balance of the MPZ and establish tourist centers
specific to local capacity and that create no adverse environmental impacts based on a
combination of modern tourist structures and national traditions.
· Establish fixed travel and tourist routes to ensure environmental protection.
· Develop different types of tourism, including ecotourism, research, sport, health, hunting,
cultural and adventure tours.
· Create tourist information system, statistical indicators and mechanisms for information
exchange.
· Connect regional tourism infrastructure development with national policy, network
development and master plans.
· Train service personnel, including guides and interpreters, waiters, and establish a central
training system and provide internships.
Promotion of Bilateral and International Cooperation
· Create an environmental framework based on the existing protected area system (in
agricultural development zones, not less than 30% of the remaining wetlands).
· Comply with international conventions and treaties on migratory bird protection and
conclude bilateral agreements between provinces and regions.
· Improve relevant legislation at national and regional level.
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· Carry out a unified environmental policy in the region.
· Develop NGOs for public control of environmental quality and nature management.
· Raise public awareness on environmental issues.
· Eliminate inadequate institutional capacity to implement the provisions of mining acts at
national and international levels.
· Streamline permitting system procedures to comply with international standards on
environmentally sound mining management.
D.8. STAKEHOLDER ANALYSIS
D.8.1. Role of Central Government in Environmental Management on the Mongolian
Plateau Zone
The Mongolian Environmental Protection Law makes the lkh Khural (Mongolian Legislature)
responsible for the following environmental issues:
· Determining government policy on environmental protection;
· Environmental protection;
· Rational use of natural resources;
· Restoration of natural resources;
· Ratification and enforcement of environmental laws;
· Endorse and change endangered species lists;
· Design protected areas;
· Set maximum and minimum fees for natural resource use.
The Standing Committee on Agriculture and the Environment of Ikh Khural handles all
preparatory work for ratification of pending issues and laws in the environment field. The
Ministry for Nature and the Environment is charged with formulating and implementing state
environmental policy, including development and enforcement of environmental laws, and
regulation of the utilization and protection of natural resources and their restoration. The
Ministry for Trade and Industry is charged with development and exploitation of natural
resources, so has to work closely with the Ministry for Nature and the Environment. The main
government stakeholders in the Chinese sector of the MPZ will be the Chinese Environmental
Protection Agency of the IMAR. Other relevant agencies of the PRC Environmental Protection
Administration will play a key role at the national level.
D.8.2. Role of Local Governments
Mongolia administrative and territorial division are 1) aimag, 2) soum and 3) bag, and each has a
governor (executive), peoples Khurals (legislative), and courts (judiciary).
The Aimag Khural is responsible for enforcing environmental protection measures and the
budget, for setting maximum limits for natural resource use in each soum, for deciding the status
of local protected areas and setting their boundaries. Soum Khurals determine actual limits for
natural resource use and approve environmental protection measures at the local level.
Aimag governors are responsible for environmental protection in their jurisdiction, develop
measures and submit them to the local Khural, and then organize their implementation. They
submit ecological information to the central government, control or prohibit activities with
adverse environmental impact and equip State Environmental Inspectors and Rangers with the
equipment and transportation needed to carry out monitoring and enforcement activities.
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Key stakeholders at the aimag level are local Dornod and Sukhbaatar provincial governments
and in particular, the local branches of the Industry, Trade, Agriculture and Environment
Department. Local authorities of Erdenetsagaan, Dariganga Soums of Sukhbaatar Province and
Khalkhgol, Matad Soums of Dornod Province and their Bags (smallest administrative unit in
Mongolia), the administrations of protected areas located in border areas and buffer zone
committees of Numrug and Eastern Mongolian Strictly Protected Areas are also key
stakeholders. A significant effort will be made to involve individual herder families and the
Mongolian Border Patrol.
The Environmental Protection Agency and local protection Agencies of Hulunbeier, Xingan,
Xilinguole Leagues of the IMAR in the PRC, and administrative units in Dalai Lake Nature
Reserve, Xilinguole Nature Reserve will provide linkages to protection transboundary
biodiversity.
D.8.3. Role of Non Government Organizations
Local NGOs are important stakeholders in this area. The main NGOs on the MPZ are:
· Branches of the Mongolian Gazelle Society concerned about gazelle conservation;
· Local Women Federation;
· Local Youth Federation in Sukhbaatar and Dornod Provinces;
· Local Veteran Federation in Sukhbaatar and Dornod Provinces;
· Fish Breeding and Conservation Society in Dornod Province;
· Meteorological Society in Sukhbaatar and Dornod Provinces;
· Hunting Society in Sukhbaatar and Dornod Provinces.
Indigenous people and local communities have an historical relationship to the land and they are
generally direct descendants of the original inhabitants. Over the years these stakeholders have
developed a holistic traditional scientific knowledge of their land, its natural resources and
environment. Some indigenous people and local communities require, in accordance with
national legislation, greater control over their lands, self-management of their resources,
participation in development decisions affecting them, including, where appropriate,
participation in biodiversity conservation. In rural communities Mongolian herders have a heavy
workload that is focused on livestock breeding and household tasks.
Local Government, in full partnership with indigenous people and local communities should,
where appropriate:
1. Develop and strengthen national mechanism to consult with indigenous people and local
communities and to reflect their needs and to incorporate their values, traditional
knowledge and practices in national polices and programs that protect biodiversity and
international waters;
2. Strengthen research and education programs to:
· Achieve better understandings of indigenous knowledge and management experience
in the area of biodiversity conservation;
· Contribute to the efforts of indigenous peoples and local communities to develop
biodiversity, resource management and conservation strategies for transboundary
biodiversity and international water resources.
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D.8.4. Role of Private Sector
A Sustainable Development Business Council was recently established to look at opportunities
to introduce environmentally clean industrial technologies and to work out economic
mechanisms that reduce the negative impacts of human activities on the environment.
D.9. Additional Studies Needed for the Mongolian Plateau Zone
· No detailed data about transboundary air and water pollution are available, nor is there
information on sources of pollution;
· There is not integrated monitoring system for transboundary protected areas;
· No detailed data from the Chinese sector of the Mongolian Plateau are available;
· Biodiversity studies to gather fresh data necessary to manage diseases and catastrophic
changes in the number of individual species (for example, Brand's vole);
· Confirm development plans for the transportation network on the Mongolian Plateau;
· Create plans for ecotourism;
· Create an international transboundary commission and set up intergovernmental
transboundary agencies.
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CONCLUSIONS
Transboundary features in the TumenNET Area are:
1. Regular forms of transboundary activity experienced by two or three adjacent countries:
· Similar natural features and patterns (Tumen River mouth, most of the TRBZ,
Changbaishan Mountain, Selenga River, parts of the DSZ);
· Similar infrastructure patterns: railways and roads, pipelines and electric power
line corridors.
2. Existing forms of transboundary activity that either regularly or periodically shift from
one country to another:
· Shifts of atmospheric elements, including industrial gases and aerosols;
· Animal migrations, including large predators, ungulates, fish and birds;
· Drifting plants seeds from one country to another;
· Transfer of surface runoff during snow melt, rains, floods;
· Ocean tides in the Tumen River mouth;
· Frequent border crossings by human beings;
· Transportation border crossings, including planes, trains, automobiles, river
and ocean going boats;
· Cargo transfers, including petroleum, liquid, general and bulk, fuel, food.
Economic and environmental impacts can be calculated based on assessments, optimization
ratios, allowable standards and limitations placed on transboundary social activities. A special
monitoring network should be created to manage transboundary activity.
Transboundary Environmental Issues and Threats Identified in the TumenNET Area
Tumen River Basin Zone (prioritized)
Very high Priority:
· Impact from industry;
· Impact from urbanization;
· Impact from agriculture;
· Inappropriate water and land use management.
High Priority:
· Unsustainable forest exploitation;
· Forest fires;
· Transportation network.
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Low Priority:
· Unsustainable management of protected areas and species;
· Impact from tourism.
Daurian Steppe Zone
Issues (Prioritized)
Environmental Threats
· Erosion and land degradation
· Ecosystem loss and modification
(steppe, wetland, forest)
· Mining industry
· Desertification and soil degradation
· Poaching and illegal trade
· Ecosystem Pollution
· Forest/steppe fires
Mongolian Plateau Zone
Issues (Prioritized)
Environmental Threats
Very high Priority
· Impact from agriculture
· Ecosystem loss and modification
· Erosion and land degradation
· Water, air and soil pollution
· Wetland degradation
· Hydrological changes in rivers and
· Mining
lakes
· Desertification
High Priority
· Habitat loss and fragmentation
· Transportation network
· Steppe and forest fires
Low Priority
· Impact from urbanization
· Impact from tourism
· Poaching and illegal trading
· Forest exploitation
Supra Regional Zone Issues
Transboundary Issues and Threats:
a. Transboundary shifts of pollution (atmospheric, river, marine);
b. Transboundary migration:
· Migratory birds in the Asiatic-Pacific Flyway;
· Inland migratory animals;
· Marine migratory animals;
c. Forest, wetland, steppe, marine and rivers ecosystem degradation.
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Required Interventions
Tumen River Basin Interventions:
· Increase international cooperation to stop pollution of the TRBZ;
· Strengthen ecosystem conservation and protect biodiversity in coastal and inland zones;
· Conserve large predators and ungulate species by establishing ecological corridors;
· Develop green transportation technologies;
· Increase pollution treatment;
· Harmonize urban development and environmental protection; Promote scientifically
based and rational urban planning; Improve and build new urban infrastructures;
· Improve legislative efforts;
· Raise public awareness of the environmental.
Daurian Steppe Zone Interventions:
· Develop new mechanisms for land use planning and management;
· Carry out a land inventory;
· Revise and enforce mining and natural resource laws;
· Conduct community based public awareness campaigns and environmental education
programs;
· Advance biodiversity conservation by creating transboundary NPAs;
· Maintain ecological corridors between northeast Mongolia and the RF;
· Improve fire prevention and develop multilateral fire management agreements;
· Create working groups with representative stakeholders.
Mongolian Plateau Zone Interventions:
· Develop a NPA system on the MPZ;
· Create transboundary NPAs and ecological corridors;
· Reduce existing volume of cultivated lands and shift to perennial grasses, as the long-
term aridization is registered;
· Develop forest ecosystem protection plans since forest ecosystems are top-priority
conservation measures in mountain forest-steppe zones;
· Develop wetland ecosystem protection plans since wetland ecosystems have international
significance for migratory birds;
· Develop steppe ecosystem protection plans to fight fires, reduce overgrazing, and limit
land degradation;
· Develop ecotourism plans;
· Create an international commission (Mongolia-PRC) to plan for economic activity and
to solve current environmental problems.
Supra Regional Zone Interventions:
· Create international transboundary NPAs and ecological corridors;
· Promote forest, wetland, steppe, and coastal ecosystem conservation and restoration;
· Protect TRBZ freshwater and marine resources;
· Promote pollution control;
· Create multi-national environmental monitoring networks;
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· Create a biosphere polygon: Marine State Reserve Kedrovaya Pad Reserve (RF);
Jilin Province (PRC);
· Limit potential damage to biodiversity and international waters and take appropriate
counter measures;
· Implement community based public awareness and environmental education
campaigns;
· Support the establishment of an Environmental Information System;
· Establish mechanisms for regional cooperation;
· Create an international commission to effectively resolve transboundary issues.
Topics for discussion and resolution in the context of the TumenNET Area Strategic Action
Program (TDA for Supra Regional Zone Issues, 2001)
1. TumenNET Area / Northeast Asian Environmental Issues
· Expansion of NPAs
· Wetland conservation
· Water pollution
· Land degradation
· Wildlife habitat and biodiversity
· Coastal/marine areas/seas
· Air pollution and acid deposition
2. Legal/Institutional
· Regional environmental impact assessments
· National environmental laws and their enforcement
3. Capacity Building
· Regional stakeholder targeted workshops
· Training courses
· Exchange of specialists
4. Policy
· Integration of economy and environment in national policies
· Environmentally sound agricultural practices
· Increased role of local autonomous bodies
5. Regional Cooperation
· Establishing regional cooperative bodies
· Regional information center
· Regional meetings and professional exchanges
6. Environmental Information System
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7. Awareness Raising and Stakeholder Participation
Russian Federation
· Establish international protected areas at the national level through cooperation among
neighboring countries
· Optimize structure and management of national protected areas
· Reduce pollution levels in the TRBZ
· Protect coastal areas and waters from solid waste pollution
People's Republic of China
· Integrate environmental protection with socio-economic planning
· Reduce pollution in the TRBZ through international cooperation
· Protect natural ecosystem caused by development/construction activities
· Improve environmental laws/regulations
· Promote environmental protection through new technological innovations
Mongolia
· Improve the capacity of existing protected area systems
· Create protected areas in wetlands
· Improve transboundary conditions for the Mongolian gazelle
· Promote ecotourism
· Improve natural resource management
· Reduce impact of natural disasters on the environment
· Improve solid waste management
· Improve national environmental impact assessment procedures
Republic of Korea and the Democratic People's Republic of Korea
· Expand protected areas for ecosystem conservation
· Reduce pollution in the Tumen River and adjacent coastal marine ecosystems
· Protect wetlands for migratory birds
· Reduce transboundary air pollution
· Protect forest ecosystems
· Establish regional environmental cooperation mechanisms with the participation of
TumenNET Area countries and international agencies
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THE REQUIRED ADDITIONAL STUDIES
1. Transboundary Air Pollution:
· Detailed assessment of atmospheric circulation patterns in the Tumen River Basin to
identify regional sources of air pollution;
· Develop recommendations to reduce emissions;
· Establish a mechanism to monitor transboundary air pollution;
· Identify sources of contamination and implement methods for their monitoring
throughout the network.
2. Transboundary Water Pollution and International Aspects of Freshwater Shortage:
· Detailed assessment of the hydrology of the main rivers in the Tumen River Basin;
· Determine demand for drinking and technical water;
· Detailed assessment of anthropogenic impact of regional surface and subsurface waters;
· Identify main factors and sources for water quality degradation;
· Develop a program to improve drinking water quality;
· Create a network to monitor surface and subsurface water composition;
· Determine range of existing pollutants and implement a mechanism to monitor pollution
throughout the network.
3. Transboundary Coastal Water Pollution:
· Detailed assessment of the hydrological and hydrochemical regime of coastal areas in
the Tumen River Basin;
· Detailed assessment of anthropogenic impact on coastal ecosystems;
· Identify key factors for declining water quality;
· Create a multi-national network to monitor coastal water composition;
· Identify existing pollutants wit the aim of implementing an integrated monitoring
program throughout the Tumen River Basin.
4. Inland Ecosystem Biodiversity Conservation:
· Detailed assessment of the condition of biodiversity to identify reasons why regional
biodiversity is in decline;
· Determine migrations patterns for migratory species, primarily in border areas;
· Develop program and recommendations that ensure open migration in border areas;
· Develop the ecological and economic rationale for an ecological framework to ensure
conservation, and, if necessary, to restoration of native biodiversity;
· Conduct studies to determine maximum ecological loads on individual areas intended
for key activities;
· Develop recommendations for environmental management of the region
· Determine priority, permissible and prohibited activities for each area of the TumenNET
Area
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5. Coastal Ecosystem Biodiversity Conservation:
· Detailed assessment of biodiversity in the Tumen River Basin to identify reasons for
continued decline of biodiversity;
· Determine routes for migratory species, primarily in border water areas;
· Develop ecological and economic rationale for an environmental framework and its to
ensure conservation and recovery of native biodiversity in coastal ecosystems;
· Water zone maps to identify best possible use patterns;
· Identify and analyze undesirable environmental management systems.
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ANNEXES
LIST OF ANNEXES
Annex 1
Map of Coastal Hydrometeorological Stations; Air Quality Control Stations;
Water Quality Control Stations Measuring Flow into Peter the Great Bay
Annex 2
Map of Marine Environment Monitoring Stations
Annex 3
Surface Water Sampling Stations in the Tumen River Basin
Annex 4
National and Nature Parks in the Southwest Primorye of the Russian Federation
Annex 5
Proposed System of Transboundary Natural Protected Areas (Miquelle, Zhang,
2000)
Annex 6
Distribution of the Main Mass of Flatfish in Peter the Great Bay (1 December, 2
January, 3 February, 4 March
Annex 7
Distribution of the Main Mass of Flatfish in Peter the Great Bay (1 April, 2
May, 3 June, 4 July
Annex 8
Distribution of the Main Mass of Flatfish in Peter the Great Bay (1 August, 2
September, 3 October, 4 November
Annex 9
Distribution of the Main Mass of Pollack (Theragrahalcogramma) in Peter the
Great Bay (1 February April, 2 May, 3 June-August)
Annex 10
Crane Migration in southwest Primorye. Location and Number of Cranes from
Five Successive Aerial Surveys
Annex 11
Migration Routes of Red-Crowned Cranes Tracked by Satellite from Lake Khanka
to the Korean peninsula in 1993 and 1994, and from Khinganskii Nature Reserve
to the Yangcheng Marshes in 1993 (Higuchi et al., 1998)
Annex 12
Laws and Regulations on Environment; Bilateral, Regional and International
Treaties and Conventions and Institutional Environmental Management Systems
Annex 13
List of Mammals in the Daurian Steppe Zone
Annex 14
List of Internationally Listed Rare Bird Species in the Daurian Steppe Zone
Annex 15
Freshwater Fish Species in the Rivers and Lakes of the Daurian Steppe Zone
Annex 16
Detailed Subdivisions Used in the TDA Daurian Steppe Zone
Annex 17
Geographic Map of the Daurian Steppe Zone
Annex 18
Potential Dangerous Zones of Forest and Steppe Fires
Annex 19
Environmental Laws and Regulations
Annex 20
Rare and Endangered Bird Species in Mongolian Sector of the Mongolian Plateau
Annex 21
Vegetation Types of Mongolian Sector of the Mongolian Plateau
Annex 22
Mammals in Mongolian Sector of the Mongolian Plateau
Annex 23
Freshwater Fish Species in the Rivers and Lakes in the Mongolian Sector of the
Mongolian Plateau
Annex 24
Geographic Map of the Mongolian Plateau
Annex 25
Detailed Subdivisions Used in TDA - Mongolian Plateau
Annex 26
Local Budget of Mongolian Sector
Annex 27
Local Budget of Chinese Sector
Annex 28
Environmental Laws and Regulations
Annex 29
List of Abbreviations
Annex 30
List of Figures
Annex 31
List of Tables
Annex 32
Contributors to this Document
184