DANUBE POLLUTION REDUCTION PROGRAMME
STRATEGIC ACTION PLAN
FOR THE DANUBE RIVER BASIN
1995 - 2005
REVISION 1999
Programme Coordination Unit
UNDP/GEF Assistance

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DANUBE POLLUTION REDUCTION PROGRAMME
STRATEGIC ACTION PLAN
FOR THE DANUBE RIVER BASIN
1995 ­ 2005
REVISION 1999
Programme Coordination Unit
UNDP/GEF Assistance

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Preface
The present Report of the SAP has been prepared on the basis of existing analytical documents, in
particular the National Review Reports and the results of the National Planning Workshops. A
genuine bottom-top approach has associated in the elaboration of this SAP about 300 professionals
and experts from all Danube countries, from central and local Governments, from Non
Governmental Organizations (NGOs), from universities and research institutions and from the
private sector.
This planning process has allowed to reflect national considerations concerning the analysis of
problems, the formulation of objectives and targets and the identification of appropriate measures
for pollution reduction. Transboundary effects of pollution have been identified and the need for
regional cooperation has been defined.
The first draft of the SAP has been reviewed in the frame of Hernstein II Workshop, Austria, from
12 to 16 May 1999. Experts from all Danube Countries and invited specialists from international
and financing institutions have thus contributed to produce a coherent document reflecting
genuinely policies and strategies of the Danube River Protection Convention.
The ICPDR Steering Group, at the Meeting in Vienna on 10 and 11 June 1999 has agreed on the
following statements:
The ICPDR Steering Group
recognizes the efforts of the UNDP/GEF Project Team for having drawn up and
organized a new approach of participating planning in using logical framework
methodology for the elaboration of the revised SAP;
appreciates the consultative, iterative planning process of the Revision 1999 taking into
account the results of the National Reviews and in particular the results of the National
Planning Workshops from 1998 as well as the review of the document at the Hernstein
Workshop in May 1999;
realizes that through this process account was taken of all national objectives and targets
aggregating them to joint regional ones;
encourages that the identified impact indicators and targets are reflected and translated
into national objectives and targets for implementation;
appreciates the close linkage the Revision 1999 holds as to the relevant provisions of the
DRPC, demonstrating the complementary tool function of the SAP and Pollution
Reduction Programme for implementing the DRPC;
strongly welcomes the approach opened up for developing financing mechanisms
supporting the implementation, in particular regarding investment for pollution reduction
measures;
agrees to hand over this document to all delegations for revision and comments until end
of September 1999; the S/EG, whose competence should be adopted to the circumstances,
shall examine the results and propose a draft version to the forthcoming ICPDR meeting
in November for consideration and for final adoption.
Overall conceptual guidance, supervision and technical advice for the elaboration of the present
Document was given by Joachim Bendow, UNDP/GEF Project Manager.
The compilation of information and analytical treatment of documentation has been carried out by
Mihaela Popovici (Land Use - Agriculture and overall objectives), Gyorgy Pinter (Municipalities),
Miroslav Spasojevic (Industry and Mining), Wilhelm Kittinger, (Preamble, Introductory framework
and institutional and policy issues), Reinhard Wanninger (Demographic, social and economic
characteristics) and Alexander Zinke (Hydrological and ecological factors of the DRB). The
document was edited by Michael Sokolnikov.

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Kiev
Prague
Nürnberg
Morava
CZECH REPUBLIC
Main-Danube Canal
0
0 4 Regensburg
2
Geisling
Brno
Strausing
Thaya
h
Bad Abbach
2300
Va
0
SLOVAK REPUBLIC
0
5 2
Kachlet
2200
GERMANY
Jochenstein
00
Passau
2000
Aschach
Altenworth
Ottensheim-Wilhering
6
Greifenstein
2
Hron
Uzgorod
Melk
0
2100
Ipel
UKRAINE
0
Abwinden-Asten
9
Tisza
Wallsee Mitterkirchen
Ybbs
Tulln
1
0
0 72
Munich
Persenbeug
Vienna
Bratislava
Tiszalök
Gabcikovo
Costesti
1700
Som
1800
es
AUSTRIA
Tisza
MOLDOVA
Kisköre
Inn
Salzach
Budapest
Mura
Raab
1600
Cris
HUNGARY
Prut
Kishinev
Drava
Odesa
Siret
1500
Mures
ROMANIA
Ljubljana SLOVENIA
CROATIA
1400
Zagreb
Izmail
Jalomitsa
0
0
3
100
1
Sava
200
Belgrade
BOSNIA - HERZEGOVINA
1
2
0
0
Olt
Arges
Iron Gates I
1100
900
Iron Gates II
300
Sarajevo
Morava
Bucharest
4
00
Danube - Black Sea Canal
800
0 0 5
700
6
00
Greater
Timok
Lom Ogosta
BULGARIA
YUGOSLAVIA
Iskar
Adriatic Sea
Yantra
Black Sea
Sofia
0
100
200
km
Catchment boundary
Danube Basin Map
State boundary
Date: January 1996
City
River
Water level measuring station
Hydropower dams
Prepared by:
delft hydraulics

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Table of Contents
1. Introduction and Framework ....................................................................... 1
1.1. The Danube River Basin............................................................................1
1.2. The Environmental Programme for the Danube River
Basin (EPDRB) ...........................................................................................1
1.3. The Danube River Protection Convention (DRPC) ................................2
1.4. Related International Agreements and Programmes .............................3
1.5. Principles of Environmental Protection...................................................4
1.6. Aspects of Integrated Basin Water Management....................................5
2. Demographic, Social and Economic Characteristics.................................. 7
2.1. Introduction ................................................................................................7
2.2. Population ...................................................................................................8
2.3. Economic Activities and Employment....................................................11
2.4. Water Demand and Water Tariffs .........................................................15
2.5. Waste Water Management......................................................................17
2.6. Particular Situation of Transition Countries ........................................20
2.7. Particular Situation of the EU Accession Countries .............................21
2.8. Development Prospects ............................................................................22
3. Hydrological and Ecological Factors of the Danube River
Basin .............................................................................................................. 23
3.1. Basic Hydrological and Ecological Characteristics...............................23
3.1.1. Hydrological and Ecological Factors in the Danube
River Protection Convention (DRPC)..........................................23
3.1.2. Description of Hydrological and Ecological Factors ...................23
3.2. Description of River Basin Areas............................................................39
3.2.1. River Basin Management Approach ............................................39
3.2.2. Hydrological and Ecological Factors of Sub Basin
Areas ............................................................................................40
4. Regional Policies and Strategies ................................................................. 45
4.1. Analysis of Problems and Identification of Causes of
Water Pollution and Water Management..............................................45
4.1.1. Core Problem ...............................................................................45
4.1.2. Direct Causes of the Core Problem..............................................45
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4.1.3. Root Causes of the Core Problem ................................................47
4.1.4. Direct Effects of the Core Problem ..............................................50
4.1.5. Ultimate Effects of the Core Problem ..........................................50
4.1.6. Analysis of Hot Spots and Diffuse Sources of
Pollution (Causes) ........................................................................52
4.1.7. Analysis of Significant Impact Areas and Transboundary
Effects within the Danube River Basin (Effects within
the Danube River Basin) ..............................................................53
4.1.8. Effects on Black Sea Ecosystems (Regional Transboundary
Effects) .........................................................................................53
4.2. Analysis of Objectives and Targets for Pollution Reduction
and Sustainable Water Management .....................................................60
4.2.1. Description of Objectives.............................................................60
4.2.2. Expected Results (Outputs) and Targets by Sectors of
Intervention ..................................................................................61
4.2.3. Important Assumptions for the ICPDR Program and
Sector Objectives..........................................................................63
4.2.4. Impact Indicators for the ICPDR Program and Sector
Objectives.....................................................................................64
4.2.5. Impact Indicators for Nutrient Reduction in the Black
Sea ................................................................................................65
5. Sector Strategies ........................................................................................... 69
5.1. Municipal Sector.......................................................................................69
5.1.1. Situation Analysis ........................................................................69
5.1.1.1. Importance of the Sector, Analysis of Stakeholders
and Activities Leading to Water Pollution and
Environmental Degradation................................................... 69
5.1.1.2. Current Strengths/Assets ....................................................... 72
5.1.1.3. Analysis of Transboundary Effects ....................................... 73
5.1.2. Problem Analysis .........................................................................73
5.1.2.1. Sector Core Problem.............................................................. 73
5.1.2.2. Causes Leading to Environmental Problems ......................... 73
5.1.2.3. Environmental Effects ........................................................... 74
5.1.3. Description of Sector Objectives..................................................77
5.1.3.1. Description of Sector Objective ............................................ 77
5.1.3.2. Expected Results (Outputs) and Targets by Sector
of Intervention ....................................................................... 77
5.1.3.3. Important Assumptions for the Sector Results ...................... 79
5.1.3.4. Impact Indicators for the Sector Results................................ 80
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5.2. Industry and Mining ................................................................................81
5.2.1. Situation Analysis ........................................................................81
5.2.1.1. Importance of the Sector, Analysis of Stakeholders
and Activities Leading to Water Pollution and
Environmental Degradation ...................................................81
5.2.1.2. Current Strengths/Assets ........................................................84
5.2.1.3. Analysis of Transboundary (TDA) Effects ............................85
5.2.2. Problem Analysis .........................................................................87
5.2.2.1. Sector Core Problem ..............................................................87
5.2.2.2. Causes Leading to Environmental Problems..........................88
5.2.2.3. Environmental Effects............................................................90
5.2.3. Description of Sector Objective ...................................................93
5.2.3.1. Description of the Sector Objective .......................................93
5.2.3.2. Expected Results (Outputs) and Targets by Sectors
of Intervention........................................................................93
5.2.3.3. Important Assumptions for the Sector Results.......................96
5.2.3.4. Impact Indicators for Sector Results ......................................97
5.3. Land Use - Agriculture ............................................................................99
5.3.1. Situation Analysis ........................................................................99
5.3.1.1. Importance of the Sector, Analysis of Stakeholders
and Activities Leading to Water Pollution and
Environmental Degradation ...................................................99
5.3.1.2. Current Strengths/Assets ......................................................102
5.3.1.3. Analysis of Transboundary Effects ......................................104
5.3.2. Problem Analysis .......................................................................105
5.3.2.1. Sector Core Problem ............................................................105
5.3.2.2. Causes Leading to Environmental Problems........................106
5.3.2.3. Environmental Effects..........................................................107
5.3.3. Description of Sector Objectives ...............................................110
5.3.3.1. Description of Sector Objective ...........................................110
5.3.3.2. Expected results (Outputs) and Targets by Sectors
of Intervention......................................................................110
5.3.3.3. Important Assumptions for the Sector Results.....................113
5.3.3.4. Impact Indicators for the Sector Results ..............................114
6. Financing Mechanisms for Implementation of the
ICPDR Action Plan.................................................................................... 117
6.1. Existing Financing Mechanisms and Resources..................................117
6.1.1. Funding Mechanisms at National Level ....................................117
6.1.2. National Funding Resources ......................................................118
6.1.3. International Funding Resources ...............................................119
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6.2. Appraisal of Financial Requirements for the Implementation
of the ICPDR Investment Programme .................................................120
6.2.1. General .......................................................................................120
6.2.2. Financial Requirements by Sector and Priority..........................120
6.2.3. Financial Requirements by Effects ............................................121
6.3. Concepts and Actions for Financing Implementation ........................122
6.4. Development of Funding Mechanisms .................................................124
6.4.1. Program Implementation Facility (PIF) .....................................125
6.4.2. Project Appraisal Group (PAG) .................................................125
7. Institutional and Policy Issues .................................................................. 127
7.1. Introduction ............................................................................................127
7.2. Policy Making Tools and Processes ......................................................127
7.3. Criteria and Mechanisms of Implementation......................................128
7.4. Specific Institutional Components Carrying Implementation...........129
7.5. System of Plans and Programmes under the DRPC ...........................131
7.6. Cooperation with the Black Sea Convention Countries .....................132
Annexes
Annex I
Organizational and institutional components for implementing
the DRPC
Annex II
High and medium priority hot spots in Sub-Basin Areas
Annex III
Sector Planning Matrix:
- Municipality
- Industry and Mining
- Land Use - Agriculture
Annex IV
Livestock and cereal statistics
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Executive Summary
With its entry into force on 28 October 1999, the Danube River Protection Convention (DRPC), to
which the ECE-Convention for the protection and use of transboundary waters (Helsinki
Convention 1992) is the framework, became the overall legal instrument for cooperation in the
Danube River Basin. Its main objective is the protection of water and ecological resources and their
sustainable use. Hence the prevention, reduction and control of water pollution and measures for
environmental impact abatement form the central part of policies, strategies and actions in
particular with transboundary relevance.
In this context the need to cooperate with national and international organizations is emphasized
aiming at their contributions in form of legal, financial and technical inputs to respond to regional
and global concerns. The related International Agreements based on the principles of the Agenda
21 and Programmes, as well as the commonly acknowledged guidelines for environmental
protection as the operational principles of the Global Environmental Facility are referred to.
Particular emphasis is given to integrated river basin management and, in this respect, to the
European Union/Water Framework Directive (EU/WFD).
1.
Complementary Tools of the Strategic Action Plan
The joint multilateral cooperation for the protection and sustainable use of the Danube River is
performed through three main instruments, which are complementary to each other.
The Danube River Protection Convention (DRPC) is a legally binding instrument, which
provides for the substantial framework and the legal basis of cooperation, including enforcement.
The main objective is the protection and sustainable use of waters and of ecological resources,
directed to basin-wide and sub-basin-wide cooperation with transboundary relevance. Joint
activities and actions are focused on coordination and enhancement of policies and strategies,
whereas the implementation of measures lies mainly with the executive tools at the national level.
The institutional arrangements for the joint part of implementation are established together with the
main procedures; the International Commission (ICPDR), entrusted with steering and decision
making, is mandated to take up additional tasks under the DRPC. The Conference of the Parties is
mandated to decide upon policy issues.
The Strategic Action Plan provides for guidance concerning policies and strategies in developing
and supporting the implementation of measures for pollution reduction and sustainable
management of water resources, enhancing the enforcement of the Danube River Protection
Convention and the political will to provide the required resources. It specifies the legal framework
by setting priorities and quantifying the progress to be achieved in terms of targets and pertinent
time frames. Its planned actions and proposed activities can be modified with a certain flexibility as
far as they remain compatible with the legally binding determinants. Hence, it is designed to
become politically obligatory although not legally binding.
The Action Programme of the ICPDR is the framework for coordination and executive
implementation of pollution reduction measures by the DRPC Contracting Parties. It becomes
legally binding if the ICPDR so decides. It contains technical development and operation of joint
networks, systems and non-structural action. First of all, it contains structural measures, i.e., the
well-prepared and committed projects among which priority actions are selected (Selected
Programmes) to form the Investment Programme of the ICPDR.
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2.
Approach and Methodology of the SAP Update
The applied approach, called "Guided Democracy Approach", is intended to involve all the
concerned stakeholders in a comprehensive but tightly built -up process. The process starts from a
broad planning basis at the national level. It is then aggregated in a joint, basin-wide framework
planning process, and returns to the national level again for its executive implementation. This
allows the integration of all partners cooperating and supporting the implementation of the DRPC
and the SAP, in particular NGOs, governmental and local authorities as well as International
Financing Institutions (IFIs) and donor organizations. In order to achieve this goal, their active
participation was mobilized through a series of joint action, such as workshops at the national and
regional levels.
The very well-developed methods are intended to focus on the core issues, such as measures for
pollution prevention, reduction and control as well as the development of appropriate financing
mechanisms and economic incentives. Broad account was taken of essential factors, influencing the
planning process and its executive implementation, such as demographic, social and economic
characteristics as well as the specific hydrological and ecological factors prevailing in the Danube
River Basin or in particular Sub-river Basins. From this, planning elements such as sub-river basin
areas and significant impact areas have been identified for tailor-made sector programmes and
priority projects.
Regarding the analysis of prevention, reduction and control of water pollution, a logical framework
methodology was applied in order to confirm and further develop the pertinent policies, strategies
and actions. Based on the input from the national reviews and planning workshops, a chain of
planning steps was performed starting with the problem analysis, defining the objectives and
arriving at quantified targets and time frames.
3.
Features and Results of the SAP Update
The declared purpose of the SAP as the "Policy Plan" of the ICPDR and the need to clearly
distinguish it from the other two main planning and implementation instruments called for
substantial changes regarding its content. The role of SAP as a policy and strategic tool has been
emphasized, whereas typical programme-elements, such as hot spot lists, have been shifted to the
Danube Pollution Reduction Programme (DRPC). The part of SAP related to its implementation
has also been substantially updated, in particular with reference to its institutional and financing
mechanisms.
Reference to the Convention (DRPC) is made in all sections of the SAP to demonstrate the close
relationship between both instruments and to emphasize their complementarities for
implementation. Particular reference to the Convention is in the following sections:
the overall objective of cooperation being the protection and sustainable use of water in
the Danube River Basin refers to Articles 2 and 3 concerning objectives and principles of
the Convention;
prevention, control and reduction of transboundary impact refers to Article 5 concerning
domestic conditions and measures (legal, administrative and technical) for efficient water
quality protection and sustainable water use;
the protection measures for specific water and ecological resources, in particular ground
water and wetlands refers to Article 6;
water quality objectives and criteria refer to Article 7 and Annex III in respect to specific
reaches of Danubian surface waters;
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emission limitation, emission inventories, action programs and progress reviews refer to
Article 5, 7 and 8 and Annex I and II of the Convention;
monitoring and assessment of the riverine conditions in the Danube river basin , refering
to Article 9 concerning water quality, sediments and ecosystems to be analyzed as to the
present state and the progress made.
The first chapters of the SAP contain an analysis of the most outstanding facts and figures about
the Danube River Basin with reference to both the water and ecological resources as well as to the
manifold branches of their utilization. Integrated policies and actions are required in order to
implement the environmental protection plan and achieve sustainable management of water
resources.
The subsequent three chapters present, by sector, the main results concerning policies, strategies
and actions for the prevention, reduction and control of water pollution. The three sectors of
pollution origin are at the same time the three main sectors of intervention. They include: (i)
Municipalities, (ii) Industries including Energy and Mining and (iii) Agriculture and Land Use. In
order to develop appropriate sector strategies, an analysis has been carried out of the current
strengths and assets, problems with particular attention to transboundary environmental effects, and
their causes. The Programme Planning Matrix represents the overall objective and summarizes the
results by sector of intervention in terms of objectives, expected results or outputs and required
measures and actions. Finally quantified targets and time frames have been identified.
The outstanding components and results are the following:
(i)
Problem analysis identifying the degradation of water and ecological resources and the
declined quality of life resulting from unsustainable human activities and resources
management, which are specified by the three main sectors of origin. Significant Impact
Areas (SIAs) are determined considering the accumulative effects of pollution from point
and diffuse sources. In most cases, the areas targeted by protection and rehabilitation projects
are the site of wetlands. Regarding the impacts affecting the Black Sea ecosystems, the entire
Danube Basin and its regional transboundary effects are to be taken into consideration. The
main features of the analysis are presented below:
CORE PROBLEM:
Ecologically unsustainable economic activities
and inadequate natural resources management
SECTOR PROBLEMS:
Municipality:
Inadequate management of wastewater and solid
wastes
Industry and Mining:
Ecologically unsustainable industrial and mining
activities
Land Use - Agriculture:
Inadequate land management and improper
agricultural practices
ROOT CAUSES:
Socio-political transition, reforms and general economic recession
War and displacement of population
Price liberalization and free trade
Unclear land ownership in many of the transition countries
Ineffective implementation of structural adjustment strategies
Incomplete legislation, regulations, standards and norms
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Low public ecological awareness, education and training
Lack of financial sustainability of institutions
Absence of a national strategy for water management
Lack of economic instruments and incentives
Lack of master plans for water resources management at the sub-river basin level
Inefficient environmental management, enforcement and compliance
MAJOR EFFECTS
Pollution of surface and ground water
Eutrophication
Accelerated run-off and erosion
ULTIMATE EFFECTS
Reduced availability of water
Degradation of biodiversity
Human health risk
Economic decline
(ii)
The Scheme of Development Objectives defines specific Sector Objectives for the three
sectors of intervention, taking into account the Overall Objective, which has been identified
in all National Planning Workshops as the "Achievement of sustainable development in the
Danube River Basin" and the Core Objective of the DRPC concerning "Protection and
sustainable use of waters in the Danube River Basin". In order to achieve these objectives,
sector specific outputs have been identified, and measures and actions have been defined
aimed at reducing pollution from point and diffuse sources, protecting natural habitats and
restoring wetlands in the Danube River Basin with effects extending to the Black Sea
ecosystems.
OVERALL OBJECTIVE:
Achievement of sustainable development in the
Danube River Basin
ICPDR CONVENTION OBJECTIVE: Protection and sustainable use of waters of the
Danube River Basin
BLACK SEA PROTECTION
OBJECTIVE:
Reduction of pollution loads in particular
nutrient transport to the Black Sea
SECTOR OBJECTIVES / OUTPUTS:
Municipality:
Improvement of the wastewater and solid waste
management
Extension and upgrading of public sewer
system
Appropriate treatment of wastewater
Proper management of solid wastes
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Industry and Mining:
Introduction of BAT, BEP and abatement of
water pollution
Introduction of clean technologies and
abatement of water pollution
Implementation of pre-treatment facilities for
industrial wastewater
Appropriate treatment and disposal of
hazardous substances
Land Use - Agriculture:
Implementation of good agricultural practices
and mechanisms for sustainable land
management
Integrated approach for land and water
management
Adequate use of pesticides and fertilizers
Proper treatment of wastewaters discharged
from animal farms
Prevention of accelerated run off and erosion
Protection and restoration of wetlands and
floodplains
(iii)
Specific measures and actions have been developed for each expected result or output in
order to ensure that sector-specific objectives and targets for pollution control and
sustainable management of resources are met. These identified actions are translated into
structural and non-structural projects defined in the Pollution Reduction Programme and
presented in the form of Project Files. In this way, policies and strategies of the SAP are
achieved through the ICPDR Action Programme and the respective Investment Portolios.
(iv)
The Programme Planning Matrix brings together all the planning components as
identified. The expected results and outputs are listed under the overall and sector objectives.
Pertinent actions and measures necessary to achieve the objectives have been described.
Impact Indicators for objectives and expected results have been developed to enable the
monitoring of the implementation of the programme through quantified targets and within
the set time frames. The indicators describe, in the most comprehensive way, the
quantification of targets for the achievement of pollution reduction and environmental
protection; in some sub-sectors, this can only be done generally or indirectly.
Important Assumptions describe the conditions - such as superposed or flanking policies and
strategies, economic status and financial cooperation - that are assumed to be available for
supporting the implementation of the planned measures and activities.
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Matrix of indicators and assumptions
Objectives
Impact Indicators
Important Assumptions
Overall Objective: Achievement
of sustainable development in the
Danube River Basin
Program Objective: Protection
Significant reduction of surface and groundwater
The willingness for long-term
and sustainable use of waters of
pollution shall reduce health risks and shall enhance
implementation of sustainability
the Danube River Basin
preservation of biodiversity by the year 2005 in the
principles in the governments
Danube basin
policies guaranteed
Strengthening cooperation
between the countries within the
Danube basin
The Black Sea Protection
In short and medium terms, owing to the adoption of
Objective:
appropriate strategies, in particular in the transition
Reduction of pollution loads, in
countries, that will permit economic development,
particular nutrient transport to the
while at the same time assuring a recovery of the
Black Sea
agricultural and industrial sector activities, the
discharge of nutrient and hazardous substances into the
Black Sea shall not exceed its 1997 level;
In the long-term, the Black Sea ecosystems shall
recover to conditions similar to those observed in the
1960s through progressive reduction of loads of
anthropogenically applied nutrients and hazardous
substances in all countries of the Black Sea Basin.
Achievement of the Danube Pollution Reduction
Programme: The nutrient load reaching the Black Sea
from the Danube River Basin will be reduced by the
year 2010, by 13,9 % for nitrogen (from current 566
kt/a to 487 kt/a) and by 27,4 % for phosphorus (from
current 48,8 kt/a to 35,4 kt/a.
Sector Objectives:
1. Municipalities: Improvement
1. Country specific emission reduction of BOD by 2010
1. Achievement of higher levels of
of the wastewater and solid waste achieved. Soil contamination and impact on natural water
environmental compliance and
management
bodies controlled through appropriate solid waste
abatement
management, by the year 2010.
2. Industry and Mining:
2. Organic and inorganic effluents reduced up to 30% by
2. Enforcement of BAT and BEP
Introduction of BAT and BEP
2010, and discharge permits for industrial and mining
regulation in industrial sector by
and abatement of water pollution enterprises with regard to BAT/BEP examined and revised
authorities remains priority
by the year 2005.
3. Land Use - Agriculture:
3. Increased application of good agricultural practices by
3. Governments are progressively
Implementation of good
15% in large farms by the year 2005 and by 20% by the year implementing adequate policies
agricultural practices and
2010
leading to sustainable land use
mechanisms for sustainable land
(wetland restoration) and agricultural
management
practices
4.
Financing and Institutional Mechanisms for Implementing the SAP
The development of suitable financing and institutional mechanisms is vital for the implementation
of the SAP and the ICPDR Action Programme to ensure an efficient application of the Convention
(DRPC) at the regional and the national levels.
(i)
Financing Mechanisms for the implementation of the ICPDR Action Programme must
integrate several constitutive components. The existing financing mechanisms and resources,
in particular those at the national and local levels, are to be mobilized first. The transition
countries, in particular those applying for accession to the EU, can expect financial and
technical support from the EC and International Financing Institutions as well as from
bilateral donors. To facilitate this, a general appraisal of financial requirements by sector and
priority has been carried out by analyzing environmental benefits with particular attention to
transboundary and global effects and taking into account the various possibilities for the best
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available financing concepts and conditions. In this context, institutional arrangements to be
established within the structures of the ICPDR have been proposed and their mandate and
operational conditions have been described.
The Programme Implementation Facility (PIF), mandated with supporting and
assisting the ICPDR and its Contracting Parties, shall develop appropriate investment
models and identify sources of preferential financial conditions for loans and grants.
The PIF shall also assist countries, communities and the private sector to develop
project documents and formulate requests for financial support to IFIs and other
international organizations. Particular assistance shall also be provided to formulate
requests to the Global Environment Fund (GEF) with attention to incremental costs for
the achievement of transboundary benefits.
The Project Appraisal Group (PAG) is envisaged to perform specialized project
preparation, with special attention to examining the conformity of projects with all the
relevant conditions and standards and checking the management plans for financing,
operation and maintenance. This institutional set-up is designed to facilitate funding
and to increase the efficiency of financial support from IFIs and other international
donor organizations.
(ii)
Institutional components under the Convention were to a great extent established during
the transitional period. However, they need to be further developed. The Commission
(ICPDR) - responsible for both the implementation of the DRPC and the SAP - is the main
steering and decision making body under the Convention. It is based on the work of its
Expert Bodies and supported by specific bodies such as the Programme Management Task
Force (PMTF). The latter was established together with the International Financing
Organisations (IFIs), Donors and NGOs for the purpose of reinforcing financial and
technical cooperation. Besides their responsibility for investment preparation and technical
assistance, IFIs and Donors should also support the institutional components under the
DRPC in becoming fully operational and ensuring a full participation of all Contracting
Parties, regarding both the Transition and in Accession Countries in the middle and lower
Danube River Basin.
5.
Co-operation with the Black Sea Protection Commission
The joint ad-hoc Technical Working Group established in January 1998 between the International
Commission for the Protection of the Black Sea (ICPBS) and the International Commission for the
Protection of the Danube River (ICPDR), takes a pragmatic approach to the issue of pollution
control which follows the "paradigm of iterative management". The coastal states of the Black Sea
and the countries of the Danube River Protection Convention, as the co-operating partners, agree in
step by step approach on short, medium and long term targets for nutrients reduction. At the same
time, public understanding of the issues will also gradually improve, as will the public's demands
for tighter criteria for protection and, hopefully, their willingness to pay. Such an approach avoids
creating a stark division between "the public" and "the polluters" and seeks a consensus that
addresses pollution at its root causes.
This general approach was applied by the "Working Group" in the following manner:
by recognising and thus proposing to both Commissions concerned that the ecological
status of the Black Sea to be aimed at should be similar to the one of the 1960s but that it
is not practicable to achieve this in a short time frame;
by considering that in order to start with, an agreement is needed on the limits of the
inputs of nutrients (and in fact also hazardous substances) into the Black Sea (and the Sea
of Azov) and on the ecological status related with these inputs;
xvii

---

to propose to both Commissions to limit the discharges to the Black Sea to the (only
partially known) 1997 level, in order to learn to know how the Black Sea ecosystem(s)
respond in regard to the already observed improvements.
In order to arrive at the goal to further maintain and hopefully improve the ecological status of the
Black Sea, the following principles for nutrient management measures and strategies will be
necessary:
Nutrients have to be 'kept on land' where they are needed for phototrophic productivity,
and
they have to be kept away from any waterborne transport.
Based on the reported positive signs (reduced input loads and improved ecological status in the
Black Sea shelf), and aware that economic development in the future is expected to take place in
the wider Black Sea Basin, leading to increase of nutrient loads, the `Working Group' defined,
amongst others, the following possible strategies:
The long-term goal for all States in the wider Black Sea Basin is to take measures to reduce
the loads of anthropogenically applied nutrients and hazardous substances to such levels
necessary to permit Black Sea ecosystems to recover to conditions similar to those
observed in the 1960s.
The ecological status of the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov has to be further assessed, and
comparability of the data basis has to be further increased.
Both the reported input loads as well as the assessed ecological status will have to be
reported annually to both the ICPBS and the ICPDR.
The States within the wider Black Sea Basin shall have to adopt strategies that will permit
economic development, whilst ensuring appropriate practices and measures to limit the
discharge of nutrients and hazardous substances, and to rehabilitate ecosystems which
assimilate nutrients.
Based on the annual reports and on the adopted strategies for the limitation of the discharge
of nutrients and hazardous substances, a review shall be undertaken in 2007. It will focus
on the further measures that may be required for meeting the long-term objective (reaching
an ecological status similar to the conditions observed in the 1960s).
The 'Working Group' has proposed some of the low-cost measures that could be taken to prevent
increases in nutrient discharge to the Black Sea. These measures fall into four general categories:
1. Reform of agricultural policies.
2. Improved wastewater treatment, where applicable through the use of alternative
technologies.
3. Rehabilitation of key basin aquatic ecosystems (wetlands).
4. Changes in consumer practices (including use of phosphate-free detergents).
Placing such a "cap" on nutrient discharges would be a bold step towards restoration of the Black
Sea ecosystem. It would give the Black Sea ecosystem a chance to recover and would offer
economic benefits for the coastal countries in terms of improved fisheries and tourism. It would
also offer global and regional benefits, measured in terms of biological diversity. By contributing to
this process, the non-coastal areas within the wider Black Sea's hydrographic catchment ­
including those within the Danube River Basin ­ would also contribute to these non-tangible global
benefits.
xviii

---

1.
Introduction and Framework
1.1.
The Danube River Basin
The main river is 2780 km long and drains 817 000 sq.km. This includes: all of Hungary; nearly all
parts of Austria, Romania, Slovenia, Slovakia and FR Yugoslavia; significant parts of Bosnia ­
Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Moldova and small parts of Germany and
Ukraine. Areas smaller than 2000 km˛, where the DRPC similarly does not apply, are left out of
consideration. The Danube River discharges into the Black Sea through a delta that represents the
second largest natural wetland in Europe.
The Basin is characterised by an aquatic ecosystem with numerous important natural areas,
including wetlands and floodplains. It is not only of a high environmental but also economic and
social value. It supports the drinking water supply, agriculture, industry, fishing, tourism and
recreation, power generation, navigation and the end disposal of wastewater. A large number of
dams, dikes, navigation locks and other hydraulic structures have been built throughout the region.
Utilizing water resources for important human activities, such as municipal ones, industry and
agriculture, has resulted in changes in the hydrological systems. Problems of water quality and
quantity have been created, including significant environmental damage and impaired quality of
life, such as public health problems.
During the period of centralised planning systems, central and eastern European countries failed to
develop adequate environmental protection policies and subsequent measures to fully respond to
the degradation of the river environment. The future development of human and economic
activities must better integrate environmental and water management concerns into municipal,
industrial and agricultural policies and strategies. The transition process to market economy and the
accession to the European Union provide plenty of opportunities for these steps.
1.2.
The Environmental Programme for the Danube River Basin
(EPDRB)
The EPDRB was established in Sofia in September 1991 by the Danubian countries, donors and
international finance institutions, G-24 countries and non-governmental organisations. A Task
Force comprising these partners was established in Brussels in February 1992 and a first
Programme Work Plan was endorsed. Phase I provided institutional and technical building blocks
for short-term action as well as the development of a Strategic Action Plan (SAP). The SAP was
approved through the Danube River Basin Environmental Declaration at the Bucharest Ministerial
Meeting in December 1994, and it is subject to progress review after 3 years. Its updating has
resulted in this Revised Action Plan (SAP 1999). This development was mostly supported by
PHARE/TACIS and by UNDP/GEF.
The Danube Strategic Action Plan Implementation Programme (SIP) has intensified since 1995 the
technical assistance to continue and introduce new demonstration projects and activities for
transboundary issues. The main objective of the EPDRB was to strengthen the operational basis for
environmental management in the Danube River Basin and to support the Danube countries in
implementing the Danube River Protection Convention (DRPC).
With its entry into force in October 1998, the transfer of tasks, results and responsibilities from the
EPDRB under the umbrella of the DRPC was achieved. The Expert Groups developed through
PHARE/TACIS support came under the umbrella of the International Commission (ICPDR). The
financing and investment-oriented tasks were shifted to the Programme Management Task Force
(PMTF) that was established by the Commission together with the relevant international partners.
At the same time, the EPDRB Task Force ceased to exist. The follow-up of the UNDP/GEF

---

2
Danube Pollution Reduction Programme
Danube Pollution Reduction Programme (DPRP: 1997-1999) will also be transferred to the
Commission. The responsibility for the integrated implementation of the objectives and provisions
of both the DRPC and the SAP now lies with the Commission.
1.3.
The Danube River Protection Convention (DRPC)
A suitable framework and mandate for developing the DRPC was the "ECE-Convention on the
Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes (Helsinki Convention
1992)", subsequently referred to in the DRPC context as the "Framework Convention". The
"Convention on Co-operation for the Protection and Sustainable Use of the Danube River" was
agreed in Sofia on June 29, 1994. At the same time, a high-level Declaration of Signatories
provided for a preparatory period the interim implementation of the DRPC in close co-operation
with the EPDRB development, i.a. producing the preceding SAP. Through this, the co-operation
with international donors and IFIs could already be initiated in terms of a "modus operandi". On
October 22, 1998, the Convention entered into force.
The scope of the DRPC and its main objective is reflected in its name: it is on the one hand the
protection of water and ecological resources and a sustainable use of water on the other, the latter
being primarily related to water quantity management, but closely linked with quality management
and protection.
The DRPC is primarily designed for basin-wide and sub-basin-wide co-operation with
transboundary relevance. In terms of emphasis and specification it focuses on pollution prevention,
reduction and control, still covering all the main issues of water-oriented protection and resources
management. The International Commission (ICPDR) can be mandated to further develop and
specify any relevant sector under this broad scope. In addition, the DRPC provides for an efficient
basis, substantial contribution and executive response at the domestic level, and requires the
implementation of integrated river basin management and co-ordination.
Being responsible for the DRPC implementation, the ICPDR is able to join the objectives and
requirements deriving from the forthcoming "European Union Council Directive Establishing a
Framework for a Community Action in the Field of Water Policy (EU Water Framework Directive,
EU/WFD)". This directive is expected to have a strong policy momentum through its competence
and coordinating effect, in particular its guiding role for river basin management. This momentum
will extend beyond the territory of the Community, which in the Danube region will be supported
by the EU accession process.
There are six main pillars supporting the integrated implementation of the DRPC and of the SAP
and its enforcement:
the legal capacity of the DRCP in general and of its particular obligations, including the
ICPDR's decisions assuming binding force;
the political capacity of policies and strategies, jointly declared by the Contracting
Parties, and at a high level supported by relevant GOs and NGOs;
the legal and political domestic capacity of Danubian governments and competent
authorities for setting their priorities and enforcing implementation;
the support resulting from public awareness and participation, in particular at the
domestic level, stimulating all other kinds of support;
the financial support and the economic incentives granted to Countries in Transition and
to Countries in Accession regarding investments and technical assistance;
the legal and political momentum emanating from the EU Water Framework Directive.

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Strategic Action Plan for the Danube River Basin 1995 ­ 2005, Revision 1999
3
The ICPDR is advised to streamline the presently handed down series of Plans and Programmes
under the DRPC. One executive framework Action Programme should be derived from the DRPC,
in addition to one corresponding policy document that would provide the necessary political
momentum and guidance. The latter is intended to be achieved with this Revised SAP, which is,
however, limited to pollution reduction and water quality management. The pertinent executive
framework is the "Danube Pollution Reduction Programme", as developed with the assistance of
UNDP/GEF. Regarding water resources, quantity management and related issues under the DRPC,
equivalent tools should be developed with a view to integrated implementation.
The DRPC provides for getting on board the relevant partners willing to contribute substantial
input. To this end, the ICPDR is mandated to co-operate with international and national
organisations and with other relevant bodies. This is designed to enhance co-ordination and avoid
duplication. The need for this is particularly highlighted by the fact that many existing sub-basin
river agreements have a similar scope as the DRPC. As to financing technical assistance and
investments, the ICPDR has established, together with all its relevant partners, a "Programme
Management Task Force "(PMTF).
1.4.
Related International Agreements and Programmes
Different Contracting Parties or Signatories to the DRPC are at the same time parties to other
environmental and/or water-related instruments, which may directly or indirectly influence the
preparation and implementation of the SAP.
Specifically, they include the following agreements or other arrangements:
Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and
International Lakes (Helsinki Convention 1992; Framework Convention). It provides a
framework for co-operation on transboundary water problems.
Agreements and other arrangements for cooperation on transboundary water
problems to be associated to the Helsinki Convention 1992 or being concluded through
its mandate. They provide for sub-regional and sub-basin-wide cooperation on
transboundary water problems within the Danube Basin.
Europe accession and association agreements. Austria acceded to the EU in 1995; the
membership is connected with the full acknowledgement and implementation of the
"acquis communautaire". Associated Danubian countries include Bulgaria, the Czech
Republic, Hungary, Romania, Slovakia and Slovenia, three of them already involved in
the accession procedure. The association is aiming at a gradual approximation of policies,
laws, EU environmental standards and directives, including the participation in EU
monitoring and networking systems. This will equally apply to the forthcoming EU-
Water Framework Directive (EU/WFD).
Convention on the Protection of the Black Sea against Pollution (Black Sea
Convention). This legal regime for controlling marine pollution including land-based
sources was signed in 1992 and came into force in 1994; several protocols are to be
developed to execute specific fields of protection. A joint Ad Hoc Technical Working
Group between the DRPC and the Black Sea Convention was established in 1998.
Declaration on the Protection of the Black Sea (Odessa Declaration). Adopted in 1993,
it formulates the principles, goals, priorities and actions to be taken in order to rehabilitate
and protect the Black Sea.
Convention on Wetlands of International Importance, Especially as Wildfowl
Habitat (Ramsar Convention). Signed in 1971 and ratified by all the Danubian states; it
sets out the measures for the protection and sustainable use of wetlands ("wise use").

---

4
Danube Pollution Reduction Programme
Convention on Biological Diversity. Signed in 1992 by the EU and some 80 other
countries including all the Danubian states, it aims at the conservation of biological
diversity through a sustainable use of natural resources.
Danube Navigation Convention (Belgrade Convention 1948). Regulates the technical
and nautical handling of the Danubian transboundary inland navigation, including its
water pollution control measures.
Draft Danube Basin Ecological Declaration. Presently negotiated upon, it will be based
on a comprehensive environmental approach and focused on nature conservation. It
recommends that a "Draft Nature Conservation Convention" should be developed.
Environmental Action Programme for Central and Eastern Europe (EAP). Endorsed
in 1993 at the ministerial level, it represents a broad consensus on environment and
development calling for governmental action regarding economic reconstruction and
sustainable development, institutional capacity building and immediate assistance.
Investment projects for priority needs are offered.
1.5.
Principles of Environmental Protection
The main principles and approaches are commonly acknowledged. This applies in particular to the
Contracting Parties to both the 1992 Helsinki Convention (ECE-Framework Convention) and the
Danube River Protection Convention (DRPC). Like these agreements, this Action Plan (SAP) is
based on them and supports their execution, setting out goals and actions tailor-made for the
Danube River Basin.
The following principles need to be emphasised:
Precautionary Principle. Planned and current activities are to take into account the
possible adverse effects, even those whose existence has not yet been conclusively
proven. The principle should be used in policy-making and investment choices.
Best Available Techniques/Best Environmental Practice (BAT/BEP). The principles
are basic options for the DRPC, which describes them exhaustively (DRPC, Annex 1).
They also play a key role in the relevant EU directives.
Control of Pollution at Source. In connection with BAT/BEP, higher priority is to be
given to preventive measures, such as changed consumption patterns, than to curative
actions, such as costly end-of­pipe control technologies. This similarly applies to the
related "Low and Non-Waste Technology" principle.
Polluter Pays Principle (PPP). Together with the related "User Pays Principle", it
states that the costs of maintaining or restoring affected resources are to be borne by the
users and polluters. Using fees or levies, this promotes pollution reduction and rational
water use through setting financial incentives.
Shared Information. The sharing and exchange of information is fundamental to
regional cooperation. The Contracting Parties to the DRPC will use the Information
Management System of the ICPDR as developed with UNDP/GEF support in the
framework of the "Danube Pollution Reduction Programme (DPRP)".

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Strategic Action Plan for the Danube River Basin 1995 ­ 2005, Revision 1999
5
1.6.
Aspects of Integrated Basin Water Management
The basin-oriented character of both the DRPC and the EU/Water Framework Directive (EU/WFD)
provides for a transboundary framework for developing integrated river basin management,
including the basic executive and operative tools which have to be applied at domestic level. The
EU/WFD is intended to achieve an all-European harmonisation; the DRPC emphasises the specific
Danubian conditions for an integrated water management in this region. This Action Plan (SAP) is
intended to initiate close co-operation between both instruments.
Due to the experience already gained under the Bucharest Declaration and through the early phase
of the implementation of the DRPC, the issue of tailor-made methodologies is vital for Danubian
co-operation, both regarding the entire basin and the major sub-basins. Specific water conditions
and the specific structures of cooperation and joint action between the international/supranational
and the national/domestic levels must be taken into account. Both levels must play a substantial
role in the integrated basin water management.
A framework methodology has already been established for water balancing as an important basis
(Article 9(3) and 1(h) DRPC). It provides for national water balances to be based on a harmonised
methodology. From this, all data and information are derived as an input to the neighbouring
countries' national balances and to transboundary co-operation (connecting data). There, the
balances for "international river basins" are developed on the same harmonised methodology. In
the Danubian context, the entire basin balance is addressed regarding specific transboundary
impacts, including the Black Sea, in particular regarding pollution reduction. However, concerning
water quantity management, co-operation will focus on the major tributaries and their sub-basins,
depending on specific conditions and demands, in particular for competing water uses.
According to the forthcoming EU/WFD, Member States will ensure co-ordination with the aim of
producing a single International River Basin Management Plan for the basin concerned. It will
include information covering the following components:
characteristics of the international river basin, including surface and ground waters;
a summary of estimated significant impacts of human activities on water condition;
identification and mapping of protected areas;
monitoring the established networks and the results of the respective programmes carried
out;
a list of environmental objectives for waters and protected areas in the Member States;
an economic analysis of water use, including fees and charges;
a summary of national programmes of measures for achieving the objectives, including
transboundary implications and priority setting; list of competent authorities;
involvement of the public through information and consultation measures.

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6
Danube Pollution Reduction Programme
Table 1.6.1.
Danube states, which have signed or ratified relevant international
conventions as of mid 1999
Transboundary
Convention on
Danube River
Europe Association or
Black Sea
Ramsar
Watercourses
biological
Protection
Accession Agreement
Convention**
Convention***
Convention*
diversity
Convention
in force
1996
1993
1975
1993
1998
since
Association
Accession
signed
ratified
signed
ratified
signed
ratified
signed
ratified
signed
ratified
signed
ratified
Austria
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Bosnia-
Herzegovina
Bulgaria
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Croatia
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Czech
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Republic
European
+
+
+
+
Union
Germany
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Hungary
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Moldova
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Romania
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Slovakia
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Slovenia
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Ukraine
+
+
+
+****
+
+
+
Yugoslavia
*
Convention on the protection and use of transboundary watercourses and international lakes
**
Convention on the protection of the Black Sea against pollution
***
Convention on wetlands of international importance, especially as wildfowl habitat
****
1997 through declaration of continuity after the USSR

---

2.
Demographic, Social and Economic Characteristics
2.1.
Introduction
The Danube River Basin (DRB) can be divided into three major parts:
i. the upper region, which extends from the source tributaries Brigach and Breg to the
confluence with the river Morava at Bratislava;
ii. the middle region, extending from Bratislava to the Iron Gate dams at the
Yugoslavian/Romanian border; and
iii. the lower region, downstream of the Iron Gate dams, and comprising the Danube
River Delta.
Altogether, there are 17 DRB countries, of which 4 countries have an insignificantly small share in
the DRB. In order to better understand the country-specific data and information provided within
this SAP, the remaining thirteen DRB countries can be broadly categorised as follows:
(i)
Germany and Austria
These two countries are located at the upper end of the DRB and, compared to all other DRB
countries, have significantly higher economic development levels, represented by a high per capita
income at about 25,000 USD per annum. They have achieved high standards of emission reduction
and water pollution control and have therefore an exceptional status within the EPDRB.
(ii)
Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Slovenia and Croatia
These countries are located in the middle part of the DRB. They have already overcome the former
central state planning systems and have reached medium economic development levels, represented
by annual per capita incomes ranging between USD 4,000 and USD 9,000. The economic
transformation process has caused significant reduction of industrial and agricultural production,
thus temporarily reducing production-related pollution loads. This has created the opportunity to
establish and integrate environmental objectives into industrial and agricultural policies before
economic activities continue to intensify.
(iii)
FR Yugoslavia and Bosnia & Herzegovina
These two countries, also located in the middle Danube River Basin, are still in the critical phase,
struggling to overcome the war aftermath. In the forthcoming period, their main task will be to re-
organise their political, legal, administrative and socio-economic structures in order to comply with
the requirements of the commencing process of economic liberalisation and privatisation and of
international normalisation. With annual per capita incomes of USD 1,100 (BiH) and USD 1,500
(Yugoslavia), both countries are presently well below their pre-war levels.
(iv)
Romania, Bulgaria, Moldova and Ukraine
These countries located in the lower Danube River Basin are confronted with serious economic and
social problems resulting in environmental pollution and change. However, because of the
economic transformation process during which many of the large industrial or agro-industrial
enterprises were closed or their activities reduced, there was also a significant reduction in the
pollution loads. The investment currently allocated for environmental protection and pollution
control is not at the appropriate level to allow pollution reduction in either the short or the medium
term.
The inferior economic status of these countries is documented by their per capita income ranging
between USD 500 and USD 1,500 per annum.

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8
Danube Pollution Reduction Programme
2.2.
Population
(i)
Population of the DRB countries
According to the officially published or updated figures, the present population of the thirteen DRB
countries is about 223 million.
The average share of urban population in the DRB countries is about 63%. The average population
density of all the thirteen DRB countries is 119 people/km˛.
Based on the national projections, the aggregated size of the 13 DRB countries' population can be
expected to increase slightly to about 226 million by the year 2020, or remain at its present level.
Except for BiH, there is no country for which the projected population figure is expected to vary
more than plus or minus 5% by the year 2020 from its present population figure.
(ii)
Population of the Danube River Basin
According to national estimates, the present population living in the DRB is about 83 million, 37%
of the total population of the 13 DRB countries.
The average share of urban population in the DRB is about 57%, about 6% lower than the average
share in the 13 DRB countries.
The area of the DRB is about 817,000 km˛, about 43% of the territory of the 13 DRB countries.
The average population density in the DRB is 103 people/km˛ , about 14% lower than the average
population density of the 13 DRB countries. The population densities by Sub-basin Areas (without
major cities) are shown on Map 4.
Based on the national projection figures, it can be anticipated that the population living in the
Danube River Basin will by the year 2020 reach about 83 million, i.e. that it will remain at its
present level.
The country-specific development of the population in the DRB countries and in the DRB is
summarised in Table 2.2.1:
Table 2.2.1.
Population of the Danube River Basin Countries (million)
DRB
A
BiH
BG HR
CZ
D
H
MD
RO
SK
SLO
UA
YU
TOT
Countries
Total
1997
8.1
3.8 8.3 4.8
10.3
82.1
10.2
4.3
22.6
5.4
2.0
50.9
10.4
223
Total
2020
8.3
5.2 8.3 4.5
9.5
82.9
9.5
4.1
22.8
5.5
2.2
52.4
10.8
226
DRB
1997
7.7
2.9 3.9 3.2
2.8
9.1
10.2
1.1
21.2
5.2
1.7
3.1
9.0
83
DRB
2020
8.0
3.7 3.9 3.0
2.6
9.2
9.5
1.0
21.4
5.2
1.9
3.2
8.8
83

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Map 4: Population Density in the Danube Sub-river Basin Areas
Bas ed on N ational P lanning W o rk shop Repor ts 1998
CZ
P L
U A
#
S
#
YBrno
#
S
#
S
D
#
S
S K
MD
#
S
#
S
#
S
#
Y
#
S
#
S
#
S
Bratislava
Chisinau
#
S
#
Y
#
S
#
Y
#
Y
#
S
#
S
#
S
Wien
#
S
#
S
Budapest
#
S
#
S
Mün chen
#
S
#
Y
#
SR O
#
S
A
#
S
#
Y
H
#
S
#
Y
#
S
CH
#
Y
#
S
#
S
#
S
#
S
#
S
#
S
#
S
#
S
#
Y
Ljubljana
#
Y
I
#
Y
#
S
Zagreb
#
Y
#
S
#
S
Bu curesti
#
S
S LO
#
S
#
S
#
Y
#
S
#
S
#
S
#
S
Beograd
#
S
LEG EN D
#
S
#
S
HR
Border
Metropolis ( > 1 Million Inhabitants)
#
YSarajevo
#
S
Metropols (> 1 Mio Inhabi tant s)
Danube River Basin
Cities (250 000 - 1 Mil ion Inhabitants)
Cit ys (250 000- 1 Mio I nhabi tant s)
#
S
Sub-river Basin Areas
Towns (100 000 - 250 000 Inhabitants)
Towns (100 000- 250 000 I nhabitant s)
#
S
Po pulation Den sity (rural p opu latio n wtho ut
BI H
cities o ver 1 00 000 inhab itants!)
Sofija
B G
#
S
20 - 4 0 In h abi tan ts /k m ˛
YU
41 - 6 0 In h /k m ˛
61 - 8 0 In h /k m ˛
81 -1 0 0 In h/k m ˛
101 -1 2 0 In h/k m ˛
Danube P ollution Reduction P rogramme
121 -1 4 0 In h/k m ˛
United Nations D evelopme nt Programme
Global Environme ntal Fa cilit y
IC PDR - Programme Coordina tion U nit
1400 Vienn a, P.O. Box 50 0, Austria
50
0
50
100
150 Kilome ters
N
Produced by ZINKE ENVIRONMENT CONSULTING
Scale: 1: 4 500 000
for Central and Eastern Europe, Vienna, 1999
(Cartography by U.SCHWARZ)

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Strategic Action Plan for the Danube River Basin 1995 ­ 2005, Revision 1999
11
2.3.
Economic Activities and Employment
(i)
Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
The extremely different economic development level and the actual status of a particular DRB
country are basically indicated by the country-specific GDP, which varies greatly from country to
country both in terms of absolute figures and sectoral composition.
In 1997, the GDP of the DRB countries ranged from USD 1.9 billion in Moldova to USD 2,034
billion in Germany, i.e. by a factor of more than 1,000.
In 1996, the most recent year with a complete set of data available, the country-specific
composition of the GDP by the main economic sectors varied as follows:
the share of the agricultural sector ranged from 1% in Germany to 34% in Romania;
the share of the industrial sector ranged from 19% in Romania to 45% in Ukraine;
the share of the "tertiary sector" (comprising all residual sub-sectors) ranged from 37% in
Ukraine to 70% in Austria.
The actual figures and sectoral composition of the country-specific GDP are summarised in Table
2.3.1:
Table 2.3.1.
Annual GDP and Sectoral Composition of GDP in the Danube River
Basin Countries
DRB Countries
A
BiH
BG
HR
CZ
D
H
MD
RO
SK
SLO
UA
YU
GDP-1997 (Billion
196.1
4.1
9.9
18.8
48.9
2,034.1
44.5
1.9
34.6
19.5
17.4
49.7
15.5
USD)
Agriculture (%)
2.1
-
11.7
10.3
5.0
1.1
3.0
30.0
34.2
5.3
5.2
17.8
19.9
Industry (%)
27.6
-
28.3
20.3
33.8
31.9
30.3
25.0
19.1
27.0
36.1
44.8
37.8
Tertiary Sector (%)
70.3
-
60.0
69.4
61.2
67.0
66.7
45.0
46.7
67.7
58.7
37.4
42.3
(ii)
National Per Capita Income
In 1997, the GDP per capita (expressed for comparison in USD, therefore not fully reflecting the
country-specific "purchasing power parity") ranged in the 13 DRB countries from USD 500 per
annum in Moldova to USD 25,600 in Germany, i.e. by a factor of about 50.
The development of the country-specific "GDP/capita in USD" between 1996 and 1997 (reflecting
both the economic development in the country, and the variation in the exchange rate between the
national currency and the USD) is compiled in Table 2.3-2 and can be summarised as follows:
3 countries (BiH, Moldova, Ukraine) report increasing GDP/capita (between 10- 40%);
8 countries report approximately stagnating GDP/capita (between -1.0% and +3.5%);
2 countries (Germany and Austria) report decreasing GDP/capita (about 11%).
The decrease in the GDP expressed in USD is, especially in the case of Germany and Austria, the
result of significant changes in the exchange rate between the countries' national currencies and
USD.

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12
Danube Pollution Reduction Programme
Table 2.3.2.
Annual Per Capita GDP in the Danube River Basin Countries
(USD/Capita/Year)
DRB Countries
A
BiH
BG
HR
CZ
D
H
MD
RO
SK
SLO
UA
YU
GDP/c/a -1996
27,950
776
1,114
4,243
5,063
28,790
4,308
455
1,569
3,531
9,254
880
1,477
GDP/c/a- 1997
24,691
1,087
1,227
4,267
5,050
25,606
4,462
504
1,549
3,624
9,101
976
1,462
(iii)
Employment
In all the DRB countries, unemployment is currently a severe problem. In the transition countries
and those affected by the war in particular, the rate of unemployment has continuously increased
during the previous years, mainly due to the fact that the decline in the economic activities in the
agricultural and industrial sector could not be fully compensated for by new job creation in the
tertiary sector.
The officially published figures for the particular countries indicate unemployment rates between
(10)% and (30)%. The actual unemployment rate is certainly higher in most countries, as there is a
significant margin of non-registered unemployment and of actual overstaffing of public enterprises
and publicly-funded organisations.

---

The Danube Countries:
GDP per Capita in US$ (1997)
Germany
25,606
Czech
Ukraine
Republic
4,771
981
Slovak Republic
3,662
Austria
Moldova
24,691
Hungary
1,62
4,382
Slovenia
9,053 Croatia
Romania
3,919
1,532
B&H Yugoslavia
776 1,462
Bulgaria
1,118

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Strategic Action Plan for the Danube River Basin 1995 ­ 2005, Revision 1999
15
2.4.
Water Demand and Water Tariffs
(i)
Domestic Water Demand
Concerning domestic water demand, there is a principal differentiation between population
supplied by individual water sources, and population connected to central water supply systems.
For most of the DRB countries there are no reliable data on the overall, respectively per capita,
water demand of the segment of the population supplied by individual water sources. The main
characteristics can be summarised as follows:
The share of population in the DRB supplied by individual water sources varies between
2% (Germany and Bulgaria) and 61% (Moldova); and for the majority of the countries
ranges between 11% and 43%.
The average per capita water demand is somewhere between 30 l/c/day and 100 l/c/day,
depending on water availability and on ease of access to water supply (tap in the house or
in the yard);
The main problems regarding individual water supply sources are seasonal variations in
water availability and insufficient control of water quality.
Water demand, respectively water consumption, of the population connected to central (mainly
municipal) water supply systems can be seen in Graph 1.
Water demand is in this context defined as the quantity of water to be supplied to cover the
domestic demand (thus usually including consumption by private households and of commercial,
institutional and tourism consumption, as well as losses in the water production and distribution).
Water consumption is narrowly defined as the quantity of water which is actually used by private
households, usually metered and paid for.
Bearing in mind the basic problems of data reliability, the aggregated annual water demand of the
population in the DRB connected to centralised water supply systems is in the order of 6,100
million mł.
The average per capita water demand varies between 165 l/c/day (Hungary) and as much as 409
l/c/day in Romania and 435 l/c/day in Bulgaria. Without Bulgaria and Romania (two countries with
a low degree of consumption metering and with negligably low water prices until 1996), the per
capita water demand varies between 165 l/c/day and 255 l/c/day, which is a reasonable range
compared to international standards.
The share of population connected to central water supply systems varies between 29% (Moldova)
and 98% (Bulgaria and Germany).
Excluding Germany and Austria (with losses of less than 15%), the losses stated for the particular
countries vary between 17% (Ukraine) and 43% (Bulgaria).
Not taking into account the extremely high per capita consumption of 244 l/c/day in Romania and
the extremely low consumption of 98 l/c/day in the Czech Republic (a figure derived from the
actually billed consumption), the average per capita consumption varies between 120 l/c/day
(Hungary) and 190 l/c/day (Bulgaria).

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16
Danube Pollution Reduction Programme
GRAPH 4: AVERAGE LEVEL OF WASTEWATER TARIFFS IN THE DRB COUNTRIES
3,5
3
2,5
2
1,5
USD / m3
1
0,5
0
A
BiH
BG
HR
CZ
D
H
MD
RO
SK
SLO
UA
YU
W aste W ater Tariff for Population
W aste W ater Tariff for Budget Organisations
W aste W ater Tariff for Industry
(ii)
Water Tariffs
The water tariffs in the particular DRB countries (i.e. the price a customer connected to a central
water supply system has to pay to the water utility for one mł of water consumed) are illustrated in
Graph 2.
The figures in this graph represent the average level of tariffs, differentiated for the three customer
categories of the population, publicly-funded organisations and industry. The tariff figures are
given for the most recent year for which data are available and are for the purpose of comparison
expressed in USD (based on the official exchange rate between the national currencies and the
USD).
In most of the countries, the tariffs for publicly-funded organisations are set between the usually
lower tariffs for population and the usually higher tariffs for industry. Agricultural water demand is
usually not supplied by public utilities; the cost of agricultural water supply is usually composed of
a country specific charge to be paid for abstraction of ground or surface water and the cost for
pumping and transmission.
The range of water tariffs to be found in particular DRB countries for population and industry are
compiled in Table 2.4.1:
Table 2.4.1.
Range of Water Tariffs in the Danube River Basin Countries
Water tariffs for population
Minimum water tariff:
USD 0.02 (Moldova)
Maximum water tariff:
USD 0.79 (Slovenia);
Average water tariffs:
USD 0.11 (Yugoslavia) - USD 0.79 (Slovenia);
Water tariffs for industry:
Minimum water tariff:
USD 0.07 (Yugoslavia)
Maximum water tariff:
USD 2.95 (Hungary);
Average water tariffs:
USD 0.42 (Yugoslavia) - USD 1.60 (Hungary);

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Strategic Action Plan for the Danube River Basin 1995 ­ 2005, Revision 1999
17
The main characteristics of water tariffs in the DRB countries can be summarised as follows:
Water tariffs - even when adjusted for the different purchasing power parities ­ vary
greatly from country to country;
In all countries, there is a broad differentiation of tariffs for industries, publicly-funded
organizations and private households, usually reflecting significant cross-subsiding
between industries and population;
The actual tariff levels cover neither the economic nor the financial cost of adequately
maintained and operated water and wastewater services, and are not at all high enough to
enable the utilities to create sufficient internal funds for system rehabilitation,
improvement and extension;
The utilities are usually not in a position to set tariffs according to entrepreneurial
requirements. Tariff setting as well as the application of measures needed to improve the
usually unacceptably low collection rates are rather strictly determined by the existing
legislation, respectively by the control authorities;
In most of the DRB countries water tariffs should be considered as the most promising
source of additional sources of funding for investment in water sector programmes and
projects.
GRAPH 2: AVERAGE LEVEL OF WATER TARIFFS IN THE DRB COUNTRIES
3
2,5
2
1,5
USD / m3
1
0,5
0
A
BiH
BG
HR
CZ
D
H
MD
RO
SK
SLO
UA
YU
Water Tariff for Population
Water Tariff for Budget Organisations
Water Tariff for Industry
2.5.
Wastewater Management
(i)
Domestic Wastewater Generation
Regarding domestic wastewater generation there is a principal differentiation between population
using individual wastewater solutions (e.g. septic tanks, etc.) and population connected to central
sewerage systems. For most of the DRB countries there are no reliable data on the wastewater
generation by population using individual solutions. The main characteristics of the individual
solutions can be summarised as follows:
The share of population in the DRB using individual systems for wastewater collection,
treatment and discharge varies between 11% (Germany) and 86% (Moldova). In 6
countries, more than 50% of the population use some kind of individual solution; in the
rural areas of some countries, this share is higher than 95%.

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18
Danube Pollution Reduction Programme
The average per capita wastewater generation figure is usually not known. If figures are
stated, they are derived from the corresponding water consumption (usually between 30
l/c/day and 100 l/c/day) and based on the assumption that portions between 20% (in urban
areas) and up to 80% (in rural areas) are directly discharged into the underground or used
for agricultural or gardening purposes.
The main problem of the individual wastewater solutions is that the privately owned
facilities are often not properly maintained and operated and therefore constitute a
permanent or periodically relevant hazard of soil and ground water contamination.
Another general problem is that there are usually no appropriate methods and facilities for
adequate disposal of sludge from septic tanks.
The main characteristics of the wastewater generation by the population in the DRB connected to
central sewerage systems can be summarised as follows:
According to the figures provided by the particular National Review Reports the
aggregated annual wastewater generation by the population in the DRB connected to
central sewerage systems is in the order of 2,500 million mł.
The per capita wastewater generation varies between 80 l/c/day (Czech Republic; a figure
which is derived from the "billed" quantities of water supply) and 202 l/c/day (Slovakia).
The share of population connected to central sewerage systems varies between 14%
(Moldova) and 89% (Germany).
(ii)
Total Wastewater Discharge
According to the data provided for the National Review Reports, the total volume of wastewater
discharge to the Danube River system is presently about 12.6 billion mł per year.
This total wastewater volume is composed of 7.4 billion mł (59%) of wastewater from public
sewerage systems and 5.2 billion mł (41%) of industrial and agricultural wastewater directly
discharged into the river system. The ratio between these two categories can substantially vary
from country to country, depending on what portion of the industrial and agricultural wastewater is
in a particular country collected and discharged via the public sewerage systems or directly
discharged into the river system.
The big difference between the annual volume of 7.4 billion mł of wastewater discharge from
public sewerage systems, and the annual domestic wastewater generation of not more than 2.5
billion mł per year, can be explained by the fact that the volume of public wastewater discharge
includes infiltration water (which can be as high as 20 - 30%) and considerable portions of
industrial and agricultural wastewater, collected and discharged via public sewerage systems.
(iii)
Present Standard of Wastewater Treatment
The extent and the standard of wastewater treatment differs greatly from country to country.
Country-specific data are available for either overall wastewater discharge or, in some countries, at
least for municipal wastewater discharge.
According to the provided data, the share of wastewater discharged without any treatment varies
between 0% (Germany) and 86% (Yugoslavia). From this point of view, the DRB countries can be
categorised as follows:
Germany, Austria, Slovakia and the Czech Republic: less than 10% of "non-treated"
wastewater discharge;
Hungary, Moldova: between 10 and 20% of "non-treated" wastewater discharge;

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Strategic Action Plan for the Danube River Basin 1995 ­ 2005, Revision 1999
19
Romania, Ukraine, Bulgaria, Slovenia: between 30 and 40% of "non-treated" wastewater
discharge;
Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Yugoslavia: more than 80% of "non-treated" wastewater
discharge;
Graph 3 illustrates for each DRB country the share of population connected to centralised
wastewater systems and the share of municipal wastewater discharge without any treatment.
GRAPH 3: STANDARD OF MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER COLLECTION AND DISCHARGE
100
90
80
70
60
50
(%) 40
30
20
10
0
A
BiH
BG
HR
CZ
D
H
MD
RO
SK
SLO
UA
YU
% of Population Connected to Central Sew erage Systems
% of Municipal Waste Water Discharge w ithout Treatment
(iv)
Wastewater Tariffs
The actual wastewater tariffs in the particular DRB countries (i.e. the price a customer connected to
a central sewerage system has to pay to the utility for discharge of mł of wastewater) are illustrated
in Graph 4. The range of water tariffs to be found in particular DRB countries for population and
industry are compiled in the following Table 2.5.1:
Table 2.5.1.
Range of Wastewater Tariffs in the Danube River Basin Countries
Wastewater tariffs for population
Minimum wastewater tariff:
USD 0.01 (Moldova)
Maximum wastewater tariff:
USD 0.80 (Hungary);
Average wastewater tariffs:
USD 0.05 (Yugoslavia) - USD 0.46 (Hungary);
Wastewater tariffs for industry:
Minimum wastewater tariff:
USD 0.01 (Yugoslavia)
Maximum wastewater tariff:
USD 4.22 (Hungary);
Average wastewater tariffs:
USD 0.20 (BiH) - USD 2.18 (Hungary);
The figures in this table show that wastewater tariffs are extremely different from country to
country, and that there is usually a significant gap between the relatively low tariffs for population
and in some case extraordinarily high tariffs for industry.

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20
Danube Pollution Reduction Programme
GRAPH 4: AVERAGE LEVEL OF WASTEWATER TARIFFS IN THE DRB COUNTRIES
3,5
3
2,5
2
1,5
USD / m3
1
0,5
0
A
BiH
BG
HR
CZ
D
H
MD
RO
SK
SLO
UA
YU
Waste Water Tariff for Population
Waste Water Tariff for Budget Organisations
Waste Water Tariff for Industry
2.6.
Particular Situation of Transition Countries
Except for Austria and Germany, all DRB countries were during the previous decade confronted
with a transition from the former central planning economy to a more or less modern market
economy. In the meantime, individual countries have reached rather different qualitative levels in
this process. However, in most of the countries, the legal, institutional and administrative
framework is at least to a certain extent still determined by the former structures and therefore not
really in compliance with the requirements of the commencing process of economic liberalisation
and privatisation.
Steps to be taken in order to remedy the common deficiencies of the water sector-related legislation
include:
Restructuring and adjustment of the relevant legislation in compliance with the
requirements of a modern environment-oriented market economy;
Streamlining, simplification and elimination of inconsistent components mostly resulting
from ad-hoc changes during the previous transition period;
Ensuring utmost compatibility of interacting legislation in the various administrative
levels;
Specification of efficient implementing regulations, and elimination of all kinds of non-
justified exemptions.
Further harmonization of national legislation with EU regulations and standards.
Regarding institutional deficiencies, there are usually a number of different authority departments,
institutes and organisations dealing with special administrative, fiscal, scientific, statistical, nuclear,
medical, health and similar issues. Some of them used to wield a lot of power in the former
systems but are now finding that their tasks have either been streamlined or allocated to other
administrative units, or that the shortage of funding is such as to threaten their scientific standards
or their very survival. In addition, their tasks are not always reasonably defined and sometimes
overlap in different ministerial or sub-ministerial authorities as well as to the state-owned, semi-
state-owned or recently-privatised institutes and organisations. Another particular problem in this
context concerns the fact that the mechanisms of co-ordination and co-operation are not always
appropriately defined or standardised, which occasionally results in overlapping activities on the
one side and critical gaps on the other.

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Strategic Action Plan for the Danube River Basin 1995 ­ 2005, Revision 1999
21
However, it must be emphasised that in the less developed DRB countries rehabilitation and
construction of new water supply and wastewater collection and treatment systems, required to
guarantee at least minimum hygienic and service standards, are essential prerequisites supporting
regionally equal living conditions and essential impulses for a country-wide economic
development.
2.7.
Particular Situation of the EU Accession Countries
The potential EU accession countries can be divided in a group of priority countries which
comprise the Czech Republic, Hungary and Slovenia, and a second group of countries consisting of
Slovakia, Bulgaria and Romania. All these countries are interested to join the EU in the following
decade.
The potential accession countries and especially the priority candidate countries are currently about
to:
restructure and modernize their legal and institutional framework and administrative
systems;
establish sector development policies and programmes as well as funding policies and
mechanisms which are more or less in compliance with international standards of modern
market economies; and
encourage privatization and international economic cooperation.
In the priority countries to join the EU, substantial improvement of the existing status of water
supply and wastewater collection and treatment systems is required to fulfil the basic accession
criteria. Especially in these countries, funding policies and strategies are clearly targeted to achieve
the required service levels and quality standards in time. Substantial support will be provided by
the newly established PHARE assistance programmes, especially tailored for EU accession
countries.
Curtly, the most environment and cost relevant EU directives and regulations to be fulfilled by the
accession countries are:
EU directives concerning emissions:
- Council Directive 76/464/EEC of 4 May 1976 on pollution caused by certain
dangerous substances discharged into the aquatic environment of the Community.
- Council directive 80/68/EEC of 17 December 1979 on the protection of groundwater
against pollution caused by certain dangerous substances
- Council Directive 91/271/EEC of 21 May 1991 concerning urban wastewater
treatment
EU directives on Water quality
- Council Directive 76/160/EEC of 8 December 1975 concerning the quality of bathing
water
- Council Directive 75/440/EEC of 16 June 1975 concerning the quality required of
surface water intended for the abstraction of drinking water in the Member States
- Council Directive 78/659/EEC 18 July 1978 on the quality of fresh waters needing
protection or improvement in order to support fish life
- Council Directive 80/778/EEC of 15 July 1980 relating to the quality of water
intended for human consumption

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22
Danube Pollution Reduction Programme
Other EU directives
- Council Directive 86/278/EEC of 12 June 1986 on the protection of the environment,
and in particular of the soil, when sewage sludge is used in agriculture
- Council Directive 91/767/EEC of 12 December 1991 concerning the protection of
waters against pollution caused by nitrates from agricultural sources
2.8.
Development Prospects
Based on the national projections, it can be anticipated that the population living in the Danube
River Basin will approximately remain at its present level within the next 20 years.
Following the projections provided by the National Review Reports, the aggregated water demand
of the population in the DRB connected to central water supply systems is anticipated to increase to
about 7,400 million mł by the year 2020, which is about 20 % higher than the present water
demand of about 6,100 million mł/year.
This projection is based on the assumption that:
per capita water demand will either increase or decrease;
the share of population connected to central water supply systems will increase; and
the water network losses will decrease.
Following the projections provided by the National Review Reports, the aggregated wastewater
generation by the population in the DRB connected to central sewerage systems is anticipated to
increase to about 3,900 million mł per year, which is about 56% higher than the present wastewater
generation of 2,500 million mł per year.
If the projected figures for surface water abstraction provided by eight DRB countries are
representative, it can be anticipated that the overall volume abstracted from the Danube River
system could increase by about 100% between 1997 and the 2020. However, the actual utilisation
of raw water from the Danube River system will depend on the actual quality and availability of
surface water at the river stretches and locations where the water is needed.
If the projection figures for wastewater discharge provided by nine DRB countries should be
representative, it can be anticipated that the total volume discharged into the Danube River system
could increase by about 50% between 1997 and the planning horizon 2020.

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3.
Hydrological and Ecological Factors of the Danube River
Basin
3.1.
Basic Hydrological and Ecological Characteristics
3.1.1. Hydrological and Ecological Factors in the Danube River Protection
Convention (DRPC)
The DRPC as an instrument of international law refers to hydrological and ecological factors of
concern for water management and environmental protection, predominantly in the transboundary
context. They are involved both as subjects to and basic elements for the implementation of the
Convention under the aspect of protection and sustainable use of the Danubian waters.
Impacts likely to change or to impair these factors are to be prevented, controlled or compensated.
This requires a sufficient knowledge and information about the riverine conditions and the
environmental mechanisms involved as a basis for taking efficient measures. Criteria and
objectives must be developed regarding the environmental and hydrological status to be achieved;
changes must be monitored with the purpose of identifying both deterioration and improvement
tendencies.
In this context the DRPC stipulates a suitable legal and technical framework:
The general scope, objectives and principles of cooperation (Articles 2 and 3, DRPC)
provide for joint action and measures to :
- achieve sustainable water management and environmentally sound development,
directed at maintaining quality of life and access to natural resources and at protecting
ecosystems;
- improve, or at least maintain, the current environmental and water quality conditions,
and through this contribute to reducing the pollution loads to the Black Sea;
- prevent transboundary impact of planned or existing hydrotechnical constructions,
including deterioration in the hydrological conditions.
Specific water resources protection measures (Article 6 DRPC), providing for the
protection and the sustainable use of water resources, combined with the conservation of
ecological resources; this especially applies to ground water resources and wetlands.
Water quality objectives and criteria (Article 7 DRPC; Annex III DRPC), provided
to be defined and applied for preventing, controlling and reducing transboundary impact
at the bilateral and domestic level, tailor-made for specific reaches of Danubian surface
waters.
Monitoring and assessment of the riverine conditions in the Danube river basin
(Article 9 DRPC), provided to specify the riverine conditions concerning both water
quality and quantity, sediments and riverine ecosystems; river quality characteristics in
account of the hydrological and ecological character of the water course.
3.1.2. Description of Hydrological and Ecological Factors
Climate and Morphology
The geography of the Danube river basin is very diverse. It includes high mountain chains, large
plains, sand dunes, large forested or marshy wetlands and, very specifically, the karst and the delta.
Similarly, climate and precipitation vary significantly; and they continuously form the basin's
landscapes.

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24
Danube Pollution Reduction Programme
Generally, the Danube basin is dominated by a continental climate (central and eastern regions).
Only the western parts of the upper basin in Germany are influenced by the Atlantic climate and
the south-west of the basin (ex-Yugoslavian countries) by the Mediterranean climate. The Alps in
the west, the Dinaric-Balkan mountain chains in the south and the Carpathian mountain bow in the
eastern center are distinctive morphological and climatic regions and barriers.
These mountain chains receive the highest annual precipitation (1,000-3,200 mm per year) while
the inner and outer basins (Vienna basin, Pannonian basin, Romanian and Prut low plains), the
lowlands of the Czech Morava and the delta region are very dry (350-600 mm per year). The rivers
with their water and moisture from the wet mountains help to balance evapotranspiration deficits,
typical for the Pannonian plain and the delta, in the dry lowlands. 50 to 70 days of annual snowfall
are recorded at high elevations in the Alps and in the Carpathians, while the plains have just 1-3
days/year of snowfall.
In terms of geomorphology and annual precipitation, 45 regions in the Danube basin can be
distinguished, as presented in map 1 ("Geographical Indicators").
After the source of the Danube in the wet Black Forest, rainfall gradually increases from the west
to the east, along the Swabian & Frankonian Middle Mountains (average precipitation 600 ­ 700
mm/year), the Bavarian Forest & Austrian Mühlviertel (over 1,000 mm). There are 3 pre-alpine
and 5 alpine regions, with top rainfalls reaching more than 2,000 mm/year at the Arlberg and the
Kitzbühel and Julian Alps. Downstream the Wachau canyon (Bohemian mountains), the Danube
enters the Vienna basin which is, together with the Moravian hills and lowlands, the driest area
(below 600 mm/yr) of the Upper Danube.
The middle part or "heart" of the Danube Basin is a circle of mountain chains around the huge
Pannonian plain in the center. It is composed of six regions including parts of Austria, Slovakia,
Hungary, Romania, Croatia and Yugoslavia. This inner basin is filled with Miocene marine
sediments, tertiary clays and sands as well as with Pleistocene fluvio-glacial and loess deposits.
This results in little variation in the orography (hilly lands and the Danube and Tisza low plains)
and in precipitation (500-750 mm/year).
The Carpathian mountains in the northern and the central-eastern parts of the Danube basin receive
varying rainfall from 750 mm in the foothills to over 1,500 mm in the ridges, and have quite cold
winters (average temperature in January ­8 to ­10° C). The ridges of the Tatra, the Wood
Carpathians and the Southern Carpathians receive highest precipitation (over 2,000 mm/year
around the highest peaks at over 2,500 m). The Transilvanian tableland is a dry upland (500-700
mm) in between the moist Apuseni mountains (over 1,000 mm) in the west and the Eastern and the
Southern Carpathians (upper reaches of Mures and Olt rivers).
The Dinaric Mountains form the borderline of the south-eastern Danube basin which is under
Mediterranean (southern Sava tributaries) and continental influence (Drava-Mura lowlands).
Precipitation is over 1,000 mm along the Slovene-Croatian border, along the Bosnian mountain
ridges and the Albanian Alps, and goes down below 700 mm in the Danube/Pannonian plains. The
Southern Morava valley (Serbia/Kosovo) is a relatively dry, north-south directed barrier (average
rainfall at 700 mm, evapotranspiration at 550 mm) between the Bosnian mountains and the
Banat/Western Balkan mountains.
The moist Balkan mountain ridges form the southern borderline of the lower Danube and supply
water for the relatively hot and dry Bulgarian hills and lowlands. East of the Carpathians, the huge
plain of the Romanian Lowlands and the Moldova hills are subject to a temperate-continental dry
climate along the lower Danube resp. the Siret and Prut rivers.
The lowlands around the Balta Danube, the Liman lakes and the Danube delta receive an annual
precipitation of slightly less than 400mm/year. Frequent droughts and a very high evapotranspiration
are balanced by riverine moisture (high groundwater, network of islands and lakes, floodplains).

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Strategic Action Plan for the Danube River Basin 1995 ­ 2005, Revision 1999
27
Hydrological Network
The Danube river basin can be divided into four parts: the Upper Danube, from its source to the
confluence with the river Morava at Bratislava; the Middle Danube, ranging from Bratislava to the
Iron Gate dams (Romania-Yugoslavia); the Lower Danube is formed by the Romanian-Bulgarian
lowlands, and finally, the fourth part, the Danube Delta.
The main tributaries of the Danube are listed in Table 3.1.2-1. The most important Sub-River
Basins of the Danube are:
The Inn is only the sixth largest and seventh longest Danube tributary. At its mouth in Passau, it
brings more water into the Danube than the latter itself. However, its catchment area of 26,130 km˛
is only nearly half as big than the Danube at this point. Main Inn tributary is the Salzach.
The Drava is the third largest and fourth longest Danube tributary. It rises in the southern Alps in
Italy but is the dominant river of southern Austria, eastern Slovenia and Croatia. Main Austrian
sub-tributaries are Isel, Möll, Lieser and Gurk, and the Mura with its mouth at the Croatian-
Hungarian border.
The Sava river is the largest Danube tributary. It rises in western Slovenian mountains and passes
through Croatian lowland before forming the border between Croatia and Bosnia Herzegovina. Its
main tributaries are Kupa, Una, Vrbas, Bosna and Drina.
The Tisza river is the longest (966 km) and by catchment (157.200 km2) the biggest tributary of the
Danube river. Its has the second largest flow volume to the Sava river. Its main tributaries are
Hornad, Bodrog, Slana and Bodva in Slovakia; Rica, Teresva, Tereblia, Borjava, Latoritsa and Uz
in Ukraine; Somes, Crisul Repede, Crisul Alb, Mures, Timis, Bega in Romania; Tarna, Koros,
Krasna, Szamos, and Maros in Hungary.
The Morava river basin is one of the major northern tributaries, emptying into the Upper Danube.
Its basin of 26,580 km2 shared by the Czech Republic (20,623 km2), Austria (3,700 km2) and
Slovakia (2,257 km2). Its main tributaries are Becva and Dyje.
The Siret river basin is situated in the eastern part of the basin and of the Carpathians. It has the
third-largest catchment area. The main tributaries are Suceava, Moldova, Bistrita, Trotus and
Buzaul.
The Prut river is the last tributary of the Danube, with its mouth just upstream the delta. Its main
tributaries are Ceremus, Volovat, Baseu, Corogea, Jijia, Chinej, Cigur and Lapusna.
The Danube Delta is largely situated in Romania and partly in Ukraine. The entire protected area
covers 679,000 ha including floodplains and marine areas. The core of the reserve (312,400 ha) has
been established as a "World Nature Heritage" in 1991. The Delta has a canal network of 3,463 km,
with a density of 1.03 km/km˛. The highest density of canals is between the arms Chilia and Sulina,
1,17 km/km˛, while between Sulina and Sf. Gheorghe their density is only 0.71 km/km˛. There are
668 natural lakes larger than one hectare and with 9,28 % of the Delta's surface. The Delta is an
environmental buffer between the Danube River and the Black Sea, filtering out pollutants and
permitting both water quality conditions and natural habitats for fish in the Delta and in the
environmentally vulnerable shallow waters of the north-western Black Sea. Moreover, it is
Europe's largest remaining natural wetland, with unique ecosystems with extensive reed beds,
forests, sand dunes and grasslands. It is home to several rare bird species, an important resting
point for migrating birds, rich in fish and unusual flora.

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28
Danube Pollution Reduction Programme
Table 3.1.2 ­ 1 The main tributaries contributing to the Danube, their length,
catchment area and flows:
Size of Sub-basin
Flow ­ mł/sec
Mouth at Danube
Length
River
in km˛ (larger than
km
in km
Min
Max
Average
4,000 km˛)
Lech
2496
254
4,125
33
1350
114
Naab
2384
191
5,508
8
765
54
Isar
2282
283
8,964
60
1360
173
Inn
2225
515
26,130
195
6700
727
Traun*
2125
146
4,277
30
369
127
Enns*
2112
349
6,080
53
603
200
Morava
1,880
340
26,642
45
229
110
(Czech
Republic)
Raba
1,794
240
14,830
80
Vah
1,766
398
19,131
152
Hron
1,716
260
5,439
54
Ipel
1,708
140
5,145
17
Sio
1,498
124
14,800
30
Drava
1,382
893
40,076
670
Tisza
1,214
966
157,186
380
1,785
813
Sava
1,170
861
100,590
1,022
2,560
1,513
Morava
1,103
430
37,597
236
(Yugoslavia)
Timok
846
180
4,600
15
Jiul
692
240
9,200
80
Iskar
636
400
8,437
28
Olt
604
542
23,282
160
Yantra
537
271
7,850
24
Arges
432
270
9,200
80
Ialomita
244
270
9,900
70
Siret
159
520
44,000
300
Prut
134
950
27,447
150
The river's runoff highly depends on the altitude zones and varies in a broad range: average yearly
runoff compared to dry years varies from 1:8-1:16.
The river network and sub-basin areas are shown in map 2 (chapter 3.2.2). The following chart 1
provides an overview of runoff in the major river systems.

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Strategic Action Plan for the Danube River Basin 1995 ­ 2005, Revision 1999
29
25 0 M990604g
water Km 3/a
G e rm an y
A ustria
C ze ch _ R e
S lo vak ia
20 0
8.6
(4.3% )
H u ng a ry
S lov en ia
C ro a tia
Y u g o slav
1.5
(0.7% )
B os n ia_ H
B ulg a ria
R om an ia
M o ld o va
U k ra ine
35.6
(17.6% )
7.5
(3.7% )
15 0
17.8
(8.8% )
23.0
(11.3% )
10 0
13.0
(6.4% )
6.3
(3.1% )
8.8
(4.3% )
3.9
(1.9% )
2.5
(1.2% )
44.8
(22.1% )
5 0
29.5
(14.5% )
0
n
r
r
a
a
r
s
r
r
ce
e
e
U
e
e
e
w
In
d
Y
v
sa
v
d
t
e
d
d
ur
r
d
a
o
Ti
Sa
a
t
f
l
o
so
Dr
bor
CR/
bor
bor
bor
ou
-
A
H b
o
O
G
O
D
I
r
on G
H t
-
R
-
B
-
R
total 202.8
(100% )
-
SK-
U
U
G
/
A
Y
Y
B
a
v
r
a
o
M
Chart 1
Longitudinal profile of the annual river runoff in the Danube,
subdivided over the countries of origin
Surface Water quality
The results of the eleven national planning workshops (conducted in all the Danube countries
except for Germany and Austria) indicate that the Danube river basin's water quality is under great
pressure from a diverse range of human activities.
In many urban areas, the most significant adverse impacts on water quality are generated by
pollution from largely inadequate wastewater treatment plants and from solid waste disposal
facilities. In addition, a lack of wastewater treatment plants and their inadequate capacity and
technology and/or inappropriate operation have contributed to the increase in water pollution.
In rural areas, the absence of decentralised water supply systems, of sewage networks and
wastewater treatment plants have contributed to the worsening of public health. The modernisation
and intensification of agricultural practices and livestock production are other major sources of
pollution of surface and ground water.
Moreover, industry strongly contributes to both the alteration of water quality and water pollution,
mainly because of the existing, often obsolete technologies and the absence of wastewater pre-
treatment plants.
Therefore, the Danube river discharges substantial loads of nutrients and non-degradable
contaminants into the Black Sea, reaching a serious level of environmental deterioration, including:
an increasing degradation tendency over the last 20 years in terms of water quality values,
as proved by laboratory analyses. The increase of nutrient salts (nitrogen and phosphorus)
and organic matter discharges has caused significant phytoplankton and algae mass
growth, oxygen shortage, both in the Iron Gate reservoir on the Danube itself and in the
Danube Delta;

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30
Danube Pollution Reduction Programme
the presence of herbicides and other pesticides in water (in particular groundwater) is
mainly due to the past use of these substances and their persistence in soil and sediments;
unfavorable effects finally noted in the ecosystem, especially in the ichthyofauna, in the
Danube Delta and in the Black Sea coast, are due to the increase of the navigation traffic
and to harbour activities, as well as to the use of pesticides on agricultural lands;
production of significant natural and anthropogenic inputs along the lower Danube.
Certain industrial sites, as well as the Danube tributaries, are important sources of
different pollutants.
The self-regenerating capacity of the Danube and the filtering role of both the wetlands and the
Danube Delta are important factors for improving the quality of the river water and partially of its
sedimentary load. In the lower section of the Danube and at its mouth, the water quality is clearly
improving. For instance, at Bazias where the Danube enters the Romanian territory, the fluxes for
phosphates, silicates, TOC, detergents, organo-clorinates and certain heavy metals are much higher
than at the point where the Danube empties into the Black Sea.
Groundwater
For selected countries, information on groundwater resources have shown the following situation:
Available Groundwater
Used Resources in
Country
% of Total
in Billion mł (in mł/s)
Billion mł
Austria
28
1,5
6
Czech Republic
0,26 (8,5 mł/s)
0,17
65
Slovakia
2.3
0,50
22
Hungary
1,8
1,10
61
Slovenia
1,6
0,90
56
Yugoslavia
1.4 (45 mł/s)
0,70
50
Romania
9.0
3,00
33
Moldova
0,14 (4,4 mł/s)
0,07
50
Ukraine
1,6
0,90
56
Comparative analyses of groundwater quality dynamics have pointed out an accentuated
depreciation of this water resources' quality, both from the point of view of the spatial extension of
the affected areas and of the pollution phenomena intensity in the main polluted areas. There are
many interesting areas with respect to the groundwater reserves, which have been more or less
affected by the increase of pollutant concentrations. As a consequence, these water resources
cannot be directly used as drinking water and require additional adequate treatment measures,
selected to suit each particular case.
Soil Quality
Soils serve as the base of life for plants, animals and men (food production). Highest alpine soils
and marshy soils in the lowlands provide (economically) important protective and balancing
functions. Dominant soils in the higher Alps are podzolised brown-earths and limestone rendzinas.
For the Carpathians and the Yugoslav mountains, except for the highest regions, brown-earths on
weathered solid rocks are widely distributed. Grey-brown podsolized soils are often found between
300 and 1,000 m, especially around the Carpathians. The Pannonian inner basin is a mixture of
loess chernosems, meadow chernosems and various brown-earths. At the eastern banks of the
middle Tisza in Hungary, wide areas of Solonetzs are established. Ribbons of grey alluvial soils are
found along all middle and lower parts of rivers in the Danube River Basin.

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Strategic Action Plan for the Danube River Basin 1995 ­ 2005, Revision 1999
31
Other soils locally found within the Danube river basin are gley soils along the Sava, Drava and in
the Pannonian region; low and high moors in the Alps, the Bavarian pre-Alps, near lake Balaton
and Upper Tisza; Vertisoles in small areas in Yugoslavia and Romania.
Large quantities of water and of pollution from point and diffuse sources can be retained in intact
soils. When that capacity is exhausted, soil and pollution is washed or blown away ­ both as a
natural phenomenon and as a result of human interference: Erosion was severely increased after
intensive land use activities.
Most pronounced down-wash erosion occurs in many upstream river parts in mountains and in hill
regions throughout the Danube basin. River bed straightening, bank fortification, canalisation and
damming enhances downstream bed erosion. Excavation of gravel and sand is another factor. Bad
forest management, deforestation and inappropriate agriculture trigger and increase large-scale
erosion problems which can lead to a complete local loss of top soils, to floods, mud avalanches
and land slides. High erosion risks exist in particular in the Alps, in the entire chain of the
Carpathians and in the Yugoslav-Balkan mountains.
Various Danubian regions are moderately or strongly endangered by aeolian erosion. This
particularly refers to large parts of Morava-Dyje catchment area, the Pannonian plain (between
Budapest and Szeged; east of Bratislava up to the Ipel river; around the upper Tisa between Kosice
and Debrecen) and to the Romanian plain (between Iron Gate and mouth of the Olt; south of Braila
city and in parts of the delta).
Wetland Ecosystems
The remaining floodplains and wetlands of the Danube basin are unique ecosystems of European
and partly even global importance (the karst and the delta). The fluctuating river discharge is the
determining factor for life along the river banks and adjacent floodplains. The living spaces created
by the Danube and its tributaries host a unique diversity of species, with about 2,000 higher plants
and more than 5,000 species of animals (including 41 mammals, 180 breeding birds, 100 fishes,
eight reptiles and twelve amphibians). The remaining large floodplain forests and the Danube Delta
are last refuges in Europe for the white-tailed eagle and the white pelicans, the beaver was
successfully reintroduced.
In addition, there are some special ecosystems such as lakes (Neusiedl, Balaton, liman etc.), moors,
marshes, drylands (puszta, sand dunes) and the karst, all connected to water forces and home to
partly endemic fauna and flora.
Many of these species require very special living conditions in terms of velocity, turbidity, depth,
temperature and nutrient values of water, or in terms of eroded banks, gravel beds and dead tree
trunks. Intact water dynamics (regular low water and inundation periods) and open connections
between side-arms and the main bed are crucial conditions for their life-cycles (e.g. feeding,
reproduction, sheltering, migration).
During the last two centuries in particular, most large floodplain areas within the Danube basin
have disappeared. Primeval riverine forests, which take some 6.000 years to develop, are almost
extinct in Europe. Since these were the most fertile and productive areas, they were the first to be
settled; their resources were used early on (e.g. for hunting, fishing, boat building) and they were
the site of vigorous economic activities (timber, hay and various products from arable lands). Later,
the wild rivers were "tamed" to increase flood protection, navigation, agricultural production, and
to allow energy production. Such interference has, for instance, shortened by 21% the length of the
Bavarian Danube and from 1,419 to 966 km the length of the Tisza river in Hungary. About 3.7
million hectares of permanently or seasonally inundated land were diked in Hungary in the 19th and
20th century, and in Romania in the 1960s and `70s, 435,000 ha (80%) of the floodplains were
diked to allow intensive agriculture.

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32
Danube Pollution Reduction Programme
Today, only a few floodplain areas are still near-natural. They include large parts of the Danube
Delta, along the lower Prut river, several Bulgarian Danube Islands, the central Sava, the Gemenc ­
Kopacki Rit border area (H-HR-YU), the lower stretches of the Mura and Drava rivers (A, HR, H),
the Danube-Morava-Dyje floodplains between Vienna, Bratislava and south-east Czech Republic,
and the mouth of the Isar river in eastern Bavaria. Many floodplain areas are protected as nature
reserves, national parks, biosphere reserves, Ramsar sites and Important Bird Areas, but at the same
time, they are subject to degrading river bed erosion, pollution, intensive forestry and hunting,
intensive recreation etc.
Within the Danube Pollution Reduction Programme, an evaluation of floodplain areas in the
Danube River Basin was conducted by WWF in order to identify those wetlands best suited for
restoration, as shown in Map "Ecological potential of floodplains in the Danube River Basin".
Altogether 17 wetlands with a total of 619,000 ha in 11 countries were proposed, including small
floodplains next to Ingolstadt (D), at the mouth of the Isar (D), on the Morava river, in the Drösing
Forest (A) and next to Hodonin (CZ). Large wetlands were identified at the Gemenc-Kopacki Rit,
at the central Sava (Makro Polje, mouth of Drina), the upper (mouth of Bodrog) and lower Tisa
(YU). The proposed areas also include three along the Romanian-Bulgarian Danube (Balta Potelu,
Danube Islands and the Balta Greaca/Tutrakan), the Kalarasch area downstream the Romanian city
of Calarasi, parts of the Lower Prut and of the Liman Lakes (UA), and, in the delta, the Pardina
polder(RO) and the Ukrainian part of the delta.
To maintain and restore these wetlands means to save the gene pool, preserve habitat diversity, and
benefit from "free" economic services (filtering and purification of polluted waters; sediment and
erosion control; space for recreation, timber production; flood retention and refilling of
groundwater; balance of the local climate). Were it not for the wetlands, these services would have
to be technically provided at a much higher cost.

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Strategic Action Plan for the Danube River Basin 1995 ­ 2005, Revision 1999
35
Hydraulic Works
Hydraulic works in the form of dams and reservoirs are found in all mountainous areas of the
Danube basin, while most navigation canals, dyke and irrigation networks concentrate on the
lowlands along the central and lower Danube.
The building of large dike systems for flood protection started in the 16th century in Hungary. Old
networks of drainage/irrigation systems exist in all basins, for instance in the Banat (northern YU)
and in southern Romania. The first major Danube regulation works started in 1830 in Upper
Austria; the first Danube hydro dam was built in 1927 at Vilshofen (lower Bavaria).
Today, hydro-power utilisation and energy production varies substantially from country to country,
e.g.
Hungary:
28 MW = 0.6% of power generation,
Romania:
5,200 MW = 30% of power generation; more than 400 large dams;
Austria:
14,200 MW (DRB) = 70% of electricity production; 78 large dams (DRB);
50.9% of all rivers (catchment > 500 km˛) are impacted by hydropower
(impounded, residual flow, or peak operation).
The totally installed hydropower capacity in the Danube basin is in the order of 29,200 MW.
The biggest hydropower dam and reservoir system along the entire Danube is located at the
Djerdap (Iron Gate) gorge (117 km long). It is a peak operation system with two dams, jointly
operated by Romania and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (average Danube flow: 5,500 mł/sec,
overall drop: 34 m; installed capacity: 1,266 MW, annual production: 6,490 GWh.
The Iron Gate system has transboundary effects. The reservoirs (volume 3.2 billion mł; length: 270
km) catch some 20 million tons of sediments per year, thus serving both as an important nutrient
sink and a deposit of hazardous and toxic matter for pollution originating in the upstream Danube
catchment. At the same time, sediments are missing downstream and have created erosion
problems since the dam was put into operation in 1970.
The second largest dam system is Gabcikovo near Bratislava, in operation since 1992. It is located
near one of the once-largest Danube wetlands. Today, 8,000 ha of floodplain forests and a network
of side-arms are artificially irrigated: They are disconnected from the river which receives only 10-
20% of its water; 80-90% are directed to the power plant, producing some 10% of Slovak
electricity.
A few more dams are planned to be built e.g. on the Bavarian Danube, on the Sava and on the
Drava along the Croatian-Hungarian border, where the Novo Virje dam (planned capacity: 121
MW) would dissect the still largely pristine Mura-Drava river continuum of altogether 370 km
between the Austrian border and the confluence with the Danube.

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36
Danube Pollution Reduction Programme
Main environmental impacts and effects of hydraulic works in the Danube basin are:
Environmental Impact of a Dam
Lasting Effect for the River Environment
Alteration of the hydrological regime of Impoundment ("from a river to a chain of ponds")
surface and groundwaters
Loss of regular soil ventilation and moistening, of soil fertility
Need for artificial wetland and back-country irrigation and
drainage
Change of the sediment regime (natural
Filling-up of the upstream reservoir with silt and toxic substances
balance of erosion and sedimentation
Bed erosion of downstream river sections and subsequent drying
processes)
up of surrounding landscapes (need for irrigation)
Reduced economic productivity (no free nutrient input) in
forestry, agriculture and fisheries
Loss of pioneer habitats (gravel / sand banks, islands); ageing of
ecosystems
Reduced flood retention capacity
Increased flood hazard and damage downstream of the dam
Reduced self-purification capacity
Reduced water quality
Increased need for technical water purification
Dissection of the river continuum
Impeded animal migration and plant dispersal
(longitudinal and lateral)
Loss of shelter, feeding and reproduction habitats
Loss of typical, rare riverine habitat and species diversity
Isolation of populations; spreading of monotonous landscapes,
invasion of "ordinary" and alien species
Altered recreational value
Effect (back water) of the hydraulic works can be seen in Map "Symbolized view of floodplains in
the Danube River Basin".

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Strategic Action Plan for the Danube River Basin 1995 ­ 2005, Revision 1999
39
An example of the impact on rivers is the upper Danube between the source and Bratislava (the
first 1,000 km) with a chain of 58 dams (in average one dam every 17 km), and with only three
important free-flowing sections left (Straubing-Vilshofen in Bavaria, the Wachau in Austria and
Vienna-Bratislava). Cataracts of dams have produced a similar situation in most alpine and
Carpathian tributaries (e.g. Lech, Isar, Inn, Enns, Mura, Drava, Sava, Vah, Somes, Crisuri, Jiu, Olt,
Arges, Ialomita or Siret/Bistrita).
Environmental Effects of Navigation
Navigation is a traditional activity on the Danube, facilitating the region's economic development.
The first tow path was built by the Roman emperor Trajan in 100 A.D. at the Iron Gate. Intensive
works started in 1834 but the dangerous passage through the cataracts ceased with their
impoundment over 270 km. In 1972, the Iron Gate I dam was completed and Iron Gate II dam was
added in 1984. In the delta, the Sulina arm was made navigable for large sea ships between 1857
and 1902, shortening its formerly meandering route from 85 km to 62 km.
The Danube countries have co-operated in navigation since 1856. In 1948, the Danube
Commission was founded in Belgrade. In an annex to the 1988 Danube Convention on Navigation,
a further moderate expansion of the navigation route was recommended for the waterway between
Regensburg and the delta. All Danube dams between Regensburg and the Iron Gate serve
navigation needs. The tributaries also used for navigation include the Drava (up to Cadrice at rkm
1015), the Tisza (up to Dombrad at rkm 600), the Sava up to Sisak at rkm 583 and a short section
of the Prut.
Three artificial waterways have been built on the Danube:
the Danube-Tisa-Danube Canal (DTD) in the Banat region (northern Yugoslavia)
the 64 km long Danube-Black Sea canal between Cernavoda and Constanta (RO) was
built in 1984;
the Rhine-Main-Danube canal (altogether some 700 km) was built in 1992, providing a
link to the North Sea.
While navigation is widely perceived as a cheap, environment-friendly means of transportation, it
must be recognised that it contributes to water pollution through accidental and illegal release of
toxic substances (bilge oil, wash waters).
3.2.
Description of River Basin Areas
3.2.1. River Basin Management Approach
The concept of river basin management provides that decisions affecting the river should be taken
within the context of the basin as a whole. Transboundary co-operation requires that issues such as
water use, pollution discharges, flood control and the protection of ecosystems should not be
considered in isolation from each other or from a local/national perspective but that they should be
jointly assessed and agreed between two or all the basin countries.
The Danube River Protection Convention expresses in its preamble and objectives the intention to
intensify bilateral and multilateral water management co-operation that shall be oriented towards
sustainable water management and pollution control. Six DRB countries are either members of the
European Union or in the process of approximating their water and environmental legislation to EU
standards. The EU proposal for a framework directive on water policy requires river basin
management that includes the establishment of international river basin districts by more than one
member state and joint administrative arrangements (e.g. the establishment of relevant river basin
district authorities).

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40
Danube Pollution Reduction Programme
The EPDRB also promotes international co-operation in the international watersheds in the Danube
River Basin. In addition, transboundary co-operation is one of the key objectives of the Strategic
Action Plan Implementation Programme (SIP) and of the Danube Pollution Reduction Programme
(PRP). During the Transboundary Analysis of the Danube Pollution Reduction Programme, problems
and alternative interventions were identified aimed at reducing pollution and transboundary effects in
the Danube River basin and the Black Sea. In a new planning approach which started on the national
level through the elaboration of National Reviews and National Planning Reports (collection of viable
water quality data, social and economic framework conditions, financing mechanisms and national
priority projects for pollution reduction) and continued on the regional level (transboundary issues,
regional strategies and actions), the Danube Basin was assessed from a transboundary perspective
which resulted in the identification of Aggregated Sub-basin Areas. Further, various basin-wide
information was put together on economy, population, agriculture, hot spots, priority wetlands for
restoration and significant impact areas.
3.2.2. Hydrological and Ecological Factors of Sub-river Basins
Fifteen Sub-river Basins (map 2) have been identified within the Transboundary Analysis of the
Danube River Basin, mainly based on hydrographic facts (catchment areas). All these areas include
mountains and lowlands ending at least at the mouth of the main river at the Danube, except for the
Pannonian Central Danube Area.
In the Upper Danube Sub-river Basin, the Danube rises at the confluence of the two source
rivers, Brigach and Breg. The river character in this region is only partly near-natural, as it is
impounded by a chain of small hydrodams. The economy is dominated by manufacturing industry,
intensive agriculture and the service sector. Population density is at around 130 persons/km˛. The
area touches some foot-hills of the Alps, which are also typical of the Inn, Austrian Danube and
Drava-Mura Sub-basin areas. There are no significant impact areas (SIA) but there are seven
municipal and one industrial source of pollution in this region.
The Austrian part of the Inn Sub-river Basin in particular is a high mountain alpine landscape
within the Northern Alps with some peaks reaching over 3.000 meters. The Inn, and its side-river,
the Salzach, are the main tributaries to the Danube. In the upper and middle river reaches, only the
valleys are densely populated while the steep mountain slopes are dominated by protective forests.
The service sector with intensive winter and summer tourism is the main economy. Major cities
with more than 100,000 inhabitants are Innsbruck and Salzburg. There are two major sources of
pollution (a municipal WWTP and chemical industry) at the middle Inn in need of upgrading.
The Austrian Danube Sub-river Basin is one of only two non-transboundary areas within the
Danube Basin. All larger tributaries discharge directly into the Danube, and those coming from the
Alps have a big elevation change between their source and mouth. While the alpine regions can be
compared in economic and natural facts with the Inn Area, the low mountains north of the Danube
are sparsely populated uplands in a mainly continental climate. High population density can be
found in some big cities along the Danube ­ especially at Linz, the site of Austrias' biggest primary
and secondary industry. There are no SIA reported for this area except for one major source of
pollution (Linz WWTP) in need of upgrading.
Two smaller river basin areas are located north of the Pannonian plain: The Morava and the Vah-
Hron Sub-river Basin, covering the main parts of the Czech Republic and of Slovakia. The relief
of the Morava basin mainly consists of lowlands, Bohemian high lands, limestone hills and some
extended valleys. It is one of the driest regions throughout the basin. About 14% of the Czech area
is protected. Mechanical engineering and chemical industries, complemented by the processing of
local resources (food, leather, wood, etc.) and by the manufacturing of building materials are
typical of the Morava area. 2,78 million people live within this area; the regional capital is Brno
(390,000 inhabitants). Altogether seven high priority Hot Spots (four municipal, two agricultural
and one industrial) and two SIAs have been identified within the Sub-river Basin.

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Map 2: Sub-river Basins
Based on Transboundary Analysis Workshop 1999
CZ
PL
UA
4
#
S
#
Y
#
S
Brno
#
S
D
#
S
#
S
MD
#
S
#
S
5
#
Y
#
S
SK
1
#
S
#
S
Chisinau
#
S
#
Y
#
Y Bratislava
#
S
#
S
#
S
#
Y
Wien
#
S
#
S
14
2
#
S
Budapest
#
S
#
S
München
9
#
S
3
A
#
Y
#
S
6
#
S
15
#
S
H #S
#
Y
#
S
#
Y
7
CH
#
Y
#
S
#
S
#
S
#
S
#
S
#
S
RO
#
S
I
#
Y
#
S
#
Y
Ljubljana
#
S
#
Y
Zagreb
#
S
#
Y
#
S
10
Bucuresti
LEGEND
SLO
#
S
Border
#
S
8
13
#
S
#
Y
Danube River Basin
#
S
#
S
#
S
Sub-river Basins
#
S
Beograd
#
S
#
S
#
S
Metropolis ( > 1 Million Inhabitants)
HR
#
YSarajevo
#
S
Cities (250 000 - 1 Mil ion Inhabitants)
12
#
S
Towns (100 000 - 250 000 Inhabitants)
#
S
11
Sub-river Basins
BIH
1: Upper Danube (D,A)
2: Inn (A,D)
BG
3: Austrian Danube (A)
Sofija
4: Morava (CZ,A,SK)
#
S
5: Váh - Hron (SK,CZ,H)
YU
6. Pannonian Central Danube (A,SK,H,HR,YU)
7: Drava - Mura (A,SLO,HR,H)
8: Sava (SLO,HR,BIH,YU)
9: Tisa (SK,UA,RO,H,YU)
10: Banat - Eastern Serbia (YU,RO)
Danube Pollution Reduction Programme
11: Velika Morava (YU,BG)
12: Mizia - Dobrudzha (BG)
13: Muntenia (R0)
United Nations Development Programme
14: Prut - Siret (UA,MD,RO)
Global Environmental Facility
15: Delta - Liman (MD,UA,RO)
ICPDR - Programme Coordination Unit
1400 Vienna, P.O. Box 500, Austria
50
0
50
100
150 Kilometers
N
Produced by ZINKE ENVIRONMENT CONSULTING
for Central and Eastern Europe, Vienna, 1999
Scale: 1: 4 500 000
(Cartography by U.SCHWARZ)

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Strategic Action Plan for the Danube River Basin 1995 ­ 2005, Revision 1999
43
Most of the Vah-Hron Sub-basin Area is under the influence of the High Tatra mountain. The
upper river stretches are characterized by largely forested mountains with intensive uses in the
valleys. The industrial sector is highly developed (mainly chemical, heavy and food processing)
which affects the valuable natural resources. The area is sparsely inhabited (Vah catchment: 50
persons/km˛) and influenced by two high priority (industrial and municipal) and four medium
priority Hot Spots.
The Pannonian Central Danube Sub-river Basin with five contributing countries (A, SK, H, HR,
YU) and three capitals (Vienna, Bratislava and Budapest) is one of the two most international
Areas of the entire region. It includes the Vienna basin, the small Hungarian plain and the (western)
Hungarian low mountains, and extends down the Danube as far as the mouths of the Tisa and the
Sava rivers (Belgrade). The Pannonian climate leads to water shortages in this largely rural region.
Human activities have cleared most forests and are based today on agriculture and on heavy and
manufacturing industries. The area includes some of the largest Danube floodplain forests and the
two steppe lakes of Neusiedl and Balaton. Due to many Hot Spots in the area (six high priority
industrial and municipal alone) no less than four SIAs (Gemenc-Kopacki Rit, Szigetköz, Danube
Bend before Budapest and in Novi Sad) were identified.
The Danube tributaries of the Drava-Mura Sub-river Basin are also of Alpine origin. The area
itself stretches along both rivers from the southern Alps in Austria (high mountains with forests and
alpine pastures) across Slovenia (from alpine to subalpine, karst and sub-Pannonian landscapes)
and the Hungaro-Croatian border (Lower Drava lowlands and valleys) to the confluence with the
Danube near Osijek. The lowland Drava is still quite unchanged due to its long years of functioning
as a strict border line. With the cities Graz (240,000 inhabitants) and Klagenfurt, two Austrian
regional centers are within the area. It is in the middle reaches of both rivers in Slovenia and
upstream the mouth of the Drava that several hot spots create pollution problems which led to its
identification as three SIAs.
The Sava Sub-river Basin includes the entire Danube river catchment area of Bosnia-Herzegovina
and parts of the catchment area of Slovenia, Croatia and Yugoslavia. The Sava is the biggest tributary
by volume and one of the biggest by pollution loads it carries into the Danube due to a big number of
hot-spots and a chain of Significant Impact Areas along its entire stretch. Large parts of the river flow
through a lowland plain with large meanders, extended meadows and old forests (partly protected
wetlands). With 95,020 km˛, it is the second largest sub-basin area in the Danube region. Again, there
is a big elevation difference between the source of the river and its tributaries on the one hand and
and their mouths in the lowlands on the other. The latter have a higher density of population,
concentrated in three capitals: Ljubljana, Zagreb, and Sarajevo and the town of Banja Luka.
The Tisa Sub-river Basin is the largest (size ca. 157.220 km˛) and the center of the entire Danube
basin. It belongs to parts of five countries (H, RO, SK, UA, YU) with the biggest share in the first
two mentioned countries. The area is the second-largest tributary of the Danube (average discharge of
794 mł/s), and only the upper parts of the tributaries and the Tisa itself are largely forested. The
middle and lower parts of the Tisa Sub-basin Area are characterized by open grassland and arable
land, bigger cities and industries. As a result, the area has a large number of Hot Spots and a high
pollution impact on the rivers. Sewage systems in this area are either missing or in a poor condition ­
a cause of many environmental problems. Nearly all the tributaries to the Tisa were identified as
SIAs.
The Banat - Eastern Serbia Sub-river Basin is located south of the Tisa basin. It compromises
hilly and mountainous terrain and includes the Djerdap gorge (Iron gate). The area encompasses
highly-populated parts of Yugoslavia and Romania with the Timis as the biggest tributary. The
three Significant Impact Areas are the Middle Banat ­ Bega & Birzava, the area along the Iron
Gates and the region around the lower Timok. Two municipal high priority Hot Spots were
identified within the area.

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44
Danube Pollution Reduction Programme
The two branches of the Morava river dominate the Velika Morava Sub-river Basin which is
almost entirely located in Yugoslavia. Important branches of metal, chemical, wood and paper
industry endanger the rivers water quality, especially along the main valleys. Therefore, the SIA
Western and Southern Morava SIA is one of the biggest in the entire basin. The Area is highly
populated and has three big cities (Nis, Pristina and Kragujevac). Intact nature with forests can only
be found in the higher mountains.
The Mizia-Dobrudzha Sub-river Basin in Bulgaria includes its capital Sofia. It is characterized
by a low mountain or hilly profile and by many small rivers, with a continental and particularly dry
climate in the lowlands. The population is exceptionally concentrated in big cities (especially Sofia,
Rousse, Pleven and Dobritsch), while the average population density in rural areas is only 50
persons/km˛. The cities are places with a high environmental impact, which has led to the
identification of many small Significant Impact Areas due to municipal pollution hot spots.
The Muntenia Sub-river Basin in the east of the Danuibe basin represents about 40% of Romania.
The relief varies from very high mountains in the north to high hills (Pre-Carpathians) and to high
and low plains in the south along the Danube river and the Black Sea. The plain is the most fertile
part of the country with intensive agriculture. Industry dominates the economic activity in the
municipalities. Therefore, a lot of problem zones (Hot Spots) have been identified, mainly around
Bukarest and Ploiesti. Altogether six cities with more than 150,000 inhabitants lie within the area.
Three Significant Impact Areas were identified in Muntenia: at the river Ialomita near Ploiesti, at
the Arges and upstream the Danube delta (mouth of tributaries Siret and Prut).
The Prut-Siret Sub-river Basin north-east of Muntenia encompasses the north-eastern part of
Romania, western Moldavia and south-western Ukraine. Again, the relief descends from mountains
to high hills (Siret area), as well as to plains (Prut). Economic activities are predominantly
agricultural and include large-scale crop production. Among industrial activities, the food
processing industry (canneries, dairies, sugar and wine production) is widely spread. Two big cities
(Braila and Galati) at the mouth of the two rivers into the Danube are pollution centers and mark
the upper end of the Lower Danube SIA.
Compared to the other regions, the Delta ­ Liman Sub-river Basin is quite small (about 9,330
km˛) but it is a separate area and a unique natural landscape. It has with its habitats (reed beds,
inner lakes, forests and sand dunes, steppe, sea-side and flood-plain areas, etc.) and biodiversity
global importance. However, many environmental problems occur for different reasons (former
conversion of wetlands in agricultural land, impact of fertilizers and of urban and industrial
wastewater, etc.). The delta is a big natural filter for Danube waters before they enter the Black
Sea. The Ukrainian part of the Delta together with the Liman Lakes was identified as a Significant
Impact Area. The population density in this part of the basin is very low (between 20 and 40
inhabitants/km˛).

---

4.
Regional Policies and strategies
4.1.
Analysis of Problems and Identification of Causes of Water
Pollution and Water Management
4.1.1. Core Problem
The eleven DRB countries that have held national planning workshops have identified in their
reports the core problem considering that: (i) the unsustainable approach of the past decades, when
the size and output volume by the enterprises and farms were the only measures of prosperity, has
resulted in polluted soil and water bodies, and that (ii) the sub-optimal performance in the natural
resources management and pollution abatement and control, has in various water sub-sectors
resulted in high costs, declining services, environmental degradation and weakened benefits. The
two factors have combined to lead to the unsustainable development of the region. The core
problem was identified as:
"ECOLOGICALLY UNSUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND INADEQUATE WATER
RESOURCES MANAGEMENT IN THE DANUBE RIVER BASIN"
4.1.2. Direct Causes of the Core Problem
The following direct causes leading to the core problem were identified:
Inadequate management of wastewater and solid waste due to: improper drainage of
wastewater (46% of households in the middle and lower Danube regions connected to
central sewerage systems); discharge of 31% of municipal wastewater without previous
treatment; absence of central wastewater treatment plants in 62% of townships of more
than 100,000 inhabitants; insufficient capacities of treatment facilities; improper operator
performance at treatment facilities; inadequate control of individual wastewater treatment
(septic tanks) in 89% of households not branched to collective systems, and improper
disposal of solid wastes.
Ecological unsustainable industrial and mining activities due to: use of dirty and
obsolete technologies; inappropriate management of resources; discharge of wastewater
without pre-treatment into municipal systems; inadequate functioning of existing
treatment facilities, and inadequate disposal of solid hazardous substances.
Inadequate land management and improper agricultural practices due to:
inadequate use and application of pesticides and fertilizers; discharge of liquid waste
from farms without pre-treatment; leakage of on-site septic tanks; inappropriate forest
management leading, in some areas, to deforestation; improper cultivation practices and
accelerated run-off generating erosion.
These direct causes have led to deterioration of water quality in terms of nutrient load, in particular
phosphorus and nitrates, contamination with hazardous substances, organic and microbiological
contamination as presented in Chart 2, Chart 3 and Graph 6. In many areas of the Danube basin, the
water availability is endangered not only by pollution, but also by an inappropriate allocation
among the users that compete for water and water structures.

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46
Danube Pollution Reduction Programme
n itro g en (kt/a )
60 0
2 7
(5 .0% )
G E R M A N Y
A U S T R IA
C Z E C H _ R E
S L O V A K IA
8
(1 .4% )
50 0
H U N G A R Y
S LO V E N IA
C R O A T IA
Y U G O S L A V
11 5 (2 1 .3 % )
B O S N IA _ H
B U L G A R IA
R O M A N IA
M O L D O V A
40 0
U K R A IN E
2 1
(4 .0% )
3 4
(6 .4% )
30 0
6 9 (1 2 .8 % )
2 2
(4 .1% )
1 9
(3 .6% )
3 0
(5 .6% )
20 0
3 0
(5 .5% )
1 5
(2 .8% )
7 7 (1 4 .4 % )
10 0
7 0
(1 3 % )
0
e
n
a
a
a
r
s
r
c
U
e
e
w
In
der
der
Y
v
s
v
a
t
e
Ti
rd
a
r
d
der
our
Sa
o
o
t
f
l
o
s
Dr
bor
bor
CR/
b
b
ou
-
A
-
H
o
O
G
O bor
D
K
t
I
r
on G
H
-R
-
B
-
R
-
S
U
G
total
5 3 7 (1 0 0 % )
YU
/
A
Y
B
a
v
r
a
o
M
Chart 2
Longitudinal profile of the annual Nitrogen load in the Danube (in
kt/a), subdivided over the countries of origin, with a high estimate
for the in stream denitrification (=removal rate)
ph osph oru s (kt/a)
50
4.0 (8.1% )
45
1.4 (2.9% )
G E RM A N Y
A U S TRIA
C ZE CH _RE
S LO V A K IA
40
H UN G A R Y
S LO V E N IA
C RO A T IA
YU G O S LA V
12 .7 (26 .0 % )
B O S NIA _H
B U LG A RIA
R O M A NIA
M O L D O V A
35
U K R A IN E
30
4.0
(8.1% )
2.2 (4.6% )
25
7.0 (14 .4 % )
20
2.2 (4.5% )
15
1.3 (2.7% )
3.8 (7.7% )
10
1.7
(3.5% )
1.1 (2.2% )
3.8 (7.7% )
5
3.7 (7.6% )
0
e
n
r
a
a
a
s
r
c
er
e
U
er
e
er
w
In
v
s
v
r
d
r
d
Y
a
te
Ti
r
d
a
rd
r
d
our
o
Sa
o
t
f
l
o
s
Dr
bo
b
CR/
G
n
b
bo
ou
-
A
-
H
o
O bo
o
G
O
D
K
Ir
H t
-
R
-B
-
R
-S
U
U
G
Y
Y
B
to tal
48 .9 (10 0% )
/
A
a
v
ra
o
M
Chart 3
Longitudinal profile of the annual phosphorus load in the Danube (in
kt/a), subdivided over the countries of origin

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Strategic Action Plan for the Danube River Basin 1995 ­ 2005, Revision 1999
47
Graph 6
Total load of COD per country and sector from point sources of
pollution (EMIS List)
250,00
industrial sector
200,00
municipal sector
150,00
KT / Y
100,00
50,00
0,00
D
A
H
CZ
SK
HR
BH
YU
BG
RO
MD
UA
SLO
Source: Emission Inventory - Danube River Basin, Municipal and Industrial Discharges, October 1998
4.1.3. Root Causes of the Core Problem
In the frame of the analysis of the core problem, the following root causes were identified:
Socio-political transition, reforms and general economic recession
In the middle and lower Danube regions, the strategy of transition from excessive
centralization and rigid planning to market economy has combined a paced reform
process in the state enterprises with a phased approach to market-based instruments.
However, the policy of self-sufficiency at any cost, pursued before the transition, had
rendered the entire economy inefficient. The continuous efforts by the policy makers to
keep inflationary pressures under control, stop the decline in production and the
displacement of labor, have combined with efforts to abate the accompanying social cost
of the reforms to produce a general economic recession in the region. As a result,
transition became a threat - through poverty, inflation and unemployment ­ to a
convergent evolution of the resources and an efficient and sustainable development of the
economy.
War and displacement of population
The war in some parts of the middle Danube region became responsible for intensifying
migration of the population in search of an increased social security and stability. Both
during and after the war, the signals of economic decline were accompanied by social
injustice and the destruction of public, social, environmental and economic assets.
Price liberalization and free trade
Trade liberalization has interacted with pricing and privatization reforms in setting the
pace of adjustment for the middle and lower Danube economies. The introduction of
policies that force producers to compete in open markets has led to a switch from heavy

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48
Danube Pollution Reduction Programme
industries towards less polluting, lighter industries and services. The policy changes
(price liberalization and removal of subsidies, creation of competitive markets, tax
reforms, change in interest and exchange rates) have resulted in a reduction in operations
in a number of industrial enterprises or their complete closures for reasons of
unacceptably low efficiency or competitiveness and high pollution impacts. In the free
world agricultural market, the accelerated and profitable export of fertilizers, tractors and
food items, has impeded the achievement of the country's sustainable agricultural goals,
depriving the farming population of a proper income while meeting physical production
targets and affecting the quality of the environment. Besides the removal of subsidies, the
elimination of barriers to both domestic and foreign trade has played an important role in
attaining and maintaining input prices at their economic levels in most of the Danube
countries that joined the European Community (EC) and signed free trade agreements
with the European Free Trade Association (EFTA). Moreover, the lower countries set the
rules for free trade zones in the Danube-Black Sea Canal area as well as near the border
crossing points.
Unclear land ownership in many transition countries
Agricultural transition depends on a diversity of political and social factors that determine
the need of marked institutions. While agriculture has changed completely from
collective to individual throughout the Danube river basin, there are situations where
private ownership is not recognized so that a distinction must be made between
privatization of land resulting in individual ownership and individualization, i.e. a shift to
individual tenure (the right to use land) without ownership rights.
Ineffective implementation of structural adjustment strategies
Structural adjustment programmes in the countries of middle and lower regions illustrate
the special implementation constraints of these programmes in terms of the attention paid
to the scale of pricing reforms and resource reallocations induced by the economic
reforms, on the dominant role of privatization and on the scope for restructuring and
rationalization. However, the governments aim at linking the scope and the timing of
environmental policy measures with the pace of the adjustment programmes.
Incomplete legislation, regulations, standards and norms
The need for an adequate environmental legislation has emerged as a consequence of the
requirements the countries of the middles and lower regions have to meet in order to achieve
the ambitious goal of the European integration. The absence of a strong regulatory/legal
framework that would define and enforce pollution control policies, water management
objectives and enforceable norms, has in several parts of the basin increased the
environmental concerns and the conflicting demand for water.
Low public ecological awareness, education and training
The achievement of the sustainable development objective calls for large-scale consultations
over the best way to integrate environment and economy in each sector. The involvement of
the public and its ecological understanding are crucial to the establishment and
implementation of a realistic and enforceable environmental protection regime. The countries
of the middle and lower Danube regions have only partially addressed the problems of public
access to government documents and participation in decision-making processes.
Lack of financial sustainability of institutions
The implementation of full-cost pricing of natural resources and self-financing of
regulatory institutions represent the only options able to ensure sustainable development.
Very few regulatory institutions responsible for the enforcement of environmental
protection policies in the Danube basin have managed to cover the administrative costs

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Strategic Action Plan for the Danube River Basin 1995 ­ 2005, Revision 1999
49
involved in permitting systems including permits issuance, compliance, monitoring and
inspection. The obvious solution is to recognize that the permitting system is necessary in
order to protect the environment and that the permitted sources are being awarded a
valuable right for which they should pay. The polluter pays principle should be applied to
the issue of administrative cost recovery, by recovering the cost of operations from the
charges levied on polluting discharges.
Absence of a national strategy for water management
In view of the significant damage done to the natural environment, the governments of
the middle and lower Danube regions are committed to a development policy that
integrates environmental considerations. Such a policy enables the conservation of water
resources, the avoidance of irreversible damage to the aquatic environment and the
achievement of long-term economic growth on a sustainable basis. Without such a
development strategy, the cost of restoring the aquatic ecosystem will be prohibitively
expensive in the future, while the investment choices cannot be justified within the
context of a cost-effective strategy that balances cost and benefits, social and
environmental values and long-term sustainability.
Lack of economic instruments and incentives
The absence of economic instruments or incentives for improved management of
resources and treatment of solid and liquid wastes and for pollution control, the ones that
would internalize the external damage cost of pollution due to unsustainable use of
natural resources, has impeded the implementation of the "polluter-pays" and the
"beneficiary-pays" principles in the middle and lower Danube regions. If correctly designed
and applied, such economic instruments will assist the market forces, integrating economic
and environmental policy and leading to sustainable financing.
Lack of master plans for water resources management at the sub-river basin level
The introduction in the river basin water legislation of a multipurpose approach to water
management that links social and economic development with pollution of the natural
ecosystem, integrates water quality and quantity aspects, and balances in an economically
optimal way the use of water by different users and sectors represents the essence of a
sustainable, integrated water resources management. There have been some initiatives by
the PHARE and TACIS programmes concerning the need for a river basin management
approach to be applied on the entire river basin level. However, the absence, in many parts of
the basin, of comprehensive river basin development and actions plans impedes the planning
process, the prioritization of the investments or a clear allocation of duties and
responsibilities among the parties.
Inefficient environmental management, enforcement and compliance
The lack of an environmental policy framework or an implementation mechanism that
would reinforce the credibility of the environmental requirements and the efforts made by
the regulatory agency, has undermined the effectiveness of environmental management. In
the absence of enforcement of environmental regulations and standards and following a
cost-benefit analysis of pollution control, many profit-driven enterprises have decided not
to invest their resources in pollution abatement since the expected penalty imposed by
regulators is lower than the cost of such investment. The regulator's willingness to
undertake strong enforcement actions as well as the possibility for capital markets to rank
and compare firms with respect to their environmental performance is negatively
influenced by the absence of compliance actions. The application of a compliance
schedule in all the Danube countries will increase the flexibility for polluters, provide
opportunities for the least costly solutions to compliance problems and reduce the regulatory
agencies' implementation and enforcement burden.

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50
Danube Pollution Reduction Programme
4.1.4. Direct Effects of the Core Problem
The following direct consequences of the core problem have been identified:
Pollution of surface and groundwater
Increased concentrations of nitrate, ammonia, iron, and magnesium and changes in
hydrological regime as a result of existing hydraulic works, have raised serious-concerns
over various sources of water supply both in terms of accessibility and quality. The
deterioration in the quality of groundwater may be irreversible. In some areas of the
Danube basin, groundwater has already been abandoned as a potential source of drinking
water or for industrial use because of the existing contamination of aquifers.
Eutrophication
Eutrophication of natural and artificial lakes is considered one of the most important
direct consequences of surface water pollution. It is a direct result of inadequate water
and soil resources, as well as an immediate cause of water resources degradation.
Accelerated runoff and erosion
The process of soil erosion due to inappropriate forest management and land use, and
environmentally unsound industrial activities cause an aggravation of water pollution
through carried sediments, an alteration of the river beds and a decrease in reservoir
capacities, thereby restricting navigation and reducing the recreation and scenic value of the
surrounding area. The flow coefficient has increased as a result of deforestation, leading in
its turn to an increase in the degree of surface flow and, to a lesser extent, micro-climatic
changes, including through reduction of lake area in wet areas. Soil productivity in the
Danube countries cannot be economically sustained unless erosion is reduced.
4.1.5. Ultimate Effects of the Core Problem
The following ultimate or indirect direct consequences of the core problem have been identified:
Decline in the quality of life
The quality of life of the population in the DRB countries is an ultimate effect of the
deterioration of ecosystems, including changes in the water quality and water regime,
negative effects of soil pollution, pressure on land and limited financial resources. Five
factors have combined to pose a serious threat to the welfare of the population in the
contaminated areas: the existence of real and potential health hazards in various working
and living environments, a lack of resources that would facilitate the identification,
evaluation and control of the potential safety and health hazards, an absence of personnel
trained in the science of occupational health and safety, a lack of monitoring equipment
for quantifying the potential stress agents and a lack of funding for the implemention of
the controls necessary to alleviate exposures. The consequences are reflected in the lower
birth rate, shorter life expectancy and genetic changes. They have become responsible for
the decreased living standard. The estimates of wealth reveal significant national
imbalances throughout the economies of the riparian countries of the upper, middle and
lower regions among the three forms of wealth: human capital, produced assets, and
natural resources
Human health risk
Environmental hazards to human health are mediated by air, soils, and by water. The key
causes of the increase in public health risks include: heavy pollution of surface and
groundwater by sewage, excessive application of agrochemical, emissions and spills of
industrial chemicals and pathogenic pollutants, a lack of central public water facilities and
a lack of proper treatment of drinking water.

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Strategic Action Plan for the Danube River Basin 1995 ­ 2005, Revision 1999
51
Degradation of biodiversity
The lack of balance between the structure and composition of biocenosis has led to
degradation of fauna and flora in the watercourses. The high concentration of pollutants
has led to a disruption of ecosystems. The pollution of surface water has also affected the
recreation potential of the rivers and the riparian areas. The inappropriate location of solid
waste landfills, polluted effluents from wastewater pre-treatment plants and inefficient
management of municipal wastewater has produced disturbances in the biodiversity and
in the overall functioning of the ecosystems. Uncontrolled or degraded land use has
triggered a chain of repercussions having adverse effects on biodiversity, with the risk
that, under extreme environmental conditions, the superimposed impacts may in several
locations in the region lead to a degradation of arable land, eutrophication of natural and
artificial lakes and a loss of biodiversity.
Economic decline
A lack of appropriate water demand management has not encouraged the adoption of a
cost-effective mix of supply and resource conservation measures in the agricultural and
industrial sectors. The current pricing incentives have failed to provide a motivation to
use water efficiently. The water services are under-priced owing to the use of subsidies
and the current market prices that ignore the damage caused by pollution emissions.
Tourism represents an important source of income for the local people in some areas. The
environmental destruction, the significant disruption of the well being of local
communities, the deteriorated lifestyle and the reduced security of access to local
resources all point in the direction of reduced development possibilities of the middle and
especially the lower Danube regions.
Reduced availability of water
The surface and groundwaters are affected by pollution by nitrates, heavy metals, organic
matters, or microbiologically contaminated due to the use of inadequate agricultural
practices, discharge of wastewater from the municipal sector, and inefficient pre-
treatment of toxic and other untreated waters released from the industry. Inadequate
storage, handling and especially transportation are the main causes of pollution by
industrial chemicals. Heavy pollution of surface and ground water by untreated or
insufficiently treated sewage poses a serious threat to numerous sources of drinking water
supplies. Increased concentrations of phosphorus and nitrogen have resulted in latent
eutrophication of the main watercourses and have led to a critical level of eutrophication
in the Black Sea. In some regions, water availability is endangered not only by pollution,
but also by inappropriate reallocation among the users.
Diagram of Problem Analysis
DEGRADATION OF ECOSYSTEMS AND
DECLINE IN QUALITY OF LIFE
ECOLOGICALLY UNSUSTAINABLE ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES AND
INADEQUATE NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT
Municipality
Industry and Mining
Land Use ­ Agriculture
Inadequate management of
Ecologically unsustainable industrial
Inadequate land management and
wastewater and solid wastes
and mining activities
improper agricultural practices

---

52
Danube Pollution Reduction Programme
4.1.6. Analysis of Hot Spots and Diffuse Sources of Pollution (Causes)
The major pollution sources referred to as "hot spots" are identified and grouped by sector
(municipal, industrial and agricultural) according to their determined characteristics. The
description of the hot spots and diffuse sources of pollution is based on the existing factors such as
types of activities involving pollution release, common practices causing transboundary effects or
size of the load of critical parameters.
The hot spots that, as emitters, bear the primary responsibility for the environmental disturbances
include:
i. insufficiently dimensioned water supply schemes that may develop negative impacts
on human health;
ii. municipal water sewage treatment plants discharging low quality water, and
iii. non-existing or under-dimensioned industrial and agricultural wastewater treatment
plants.
Other hot spots, which as receivers of pollutants represent secondary sources of environmental
degradation, include biodiversity reservoirs, wetlands, ecosystems and habitats or population. The
hot spots are prioritised into three levels: high, medium or low priority, in order to facilitate their
comparison, technical and economic evaluation and their ranking in a systematic and unified
format. For each existing hot spot, the emissions are updated for critical parameters concerning
nutrients such as N, P, BOD or COD as well as other parameters such TOC, pathogens, specific
metals and other particular hazardous chemicals, including oil.
A list of high and medium priority hot spots is given in Annex II, and a list of data indicating
estimated pollution from point sources is presented in table 4.1.6-1. Map No. 9 shows the location
of hot spots by country and by sub-basins area.
Table 4.1.6-1
Estimation of pollution from point sources t/year
Sector
Municipality
Industry
Agriculture
Total
Pollution
BOD
250,683
73,072
323,755
COD
605,667
245,183
850,850
N
179,000-222,000
43,000-55,000
10,000 - 15,000
232,000 - 292,000
P
34,900 - 44,000
6,200-10,700
2,000 - 4,100
43,100 - 58,800
Concerning diffuse pollution, estimations are taken from the Mass Balance Model indicating the
following results:
Table 4.1.6-2
Estimation of pollution from diffuse sources in kt/year
Country
D
A
CZ
SK
H
SLO
CR
YU
BIH
BG
RO
MD
UA
pollution
N
100
72
19
40
63
12
27
74
29
16
157
12
31
P
5.8
4.6
0.8
2.6
7.8
1.4
2.7
7.9
1.9
2.5
15.6
2.0
4.6

---

Strategic Action Plan for the Danube River Basin 1995 ­ 2005, Revision 1999
53
4.1.7. Analysis of Significant Impact Areas and Transboundary Effects within
the Danube River Basin (Effects within the Danube River Basin)
The locations in the Danube basin marked by a distinct combination of cumulative pollution effects
have been identified and classified as Significant Impact Areas. The simultaneous presence of
i. one or more sources of pollution,
ii. adverse impacts of the pollution sources on recipient water or other natural receiver,
iii. environmental significance of valuable wetlands or various ecologically sensitive
places, and
iv. major transboundary effects
represents examples of categories of effects on the favoured significant impact areas.
The analysis and comparison of the significant impact area has been used to facilitate the selection
of the possible alternative interventions in the Danube basin. The size of the fifty-one selected
significant impact areas varies from 5,029 km2 (Western & Southern Morava) to 20 km2 (Rossitza
at Sevlievo). The identified significant areas are shown in Map 10.
4.1.8. Effects on Black Sea Ecosystems (Regional Transboundary Effects)
The anthropogenic pollution, the change in the hydrological regime and the intensified fishery
capture have contributed to nutrient enrichment, overfishing and a loss of biodiversity in the Black
Sea region. The eutrophication-overfertilization of the sea by nutrients from land-based sources is
one of the most serious environmental problems of the Black Sea, one of the key explanations for
its environmental decline over the past decades, and the principle cause of degradation of the Black
Sea environment.
The main causes of regional transboundary effects on the Black Sea ecosystem include:
pollution caused by unsound agricultural activities,
deforestation,
industrial discharges threatening the existing wetlands.
Evidence of extensive studies shows how the structure of the ecosystem has been damaged at every
level, from plants to fish and mammals.
The required interventions involve nutrient discharge control measures that need to be implemented
in line with the expected economic growth. These measures fall within four categories:
improvement of wastewater treatment technologies
rehabilitation of essential aquatic ecosystems
reform of agricultural policies and legislation
changes in the consumer practices
These measures are taken into account in the Danube Strategic Action Plan and its related
investment programmes, which will contribute towards the improvement of the Black Sea
ecosystem.

---

---

Map 9: Distribution of Hot Spots in the Danube Sub-river Basins
Based on Natio nal Pla nnin g W ork s hop Rep orts 19 98, Upd ates Ma rch 1999
UA
P L
#
S
#
S5
#
S
1 4
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1
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1
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#
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D
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%
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2 #
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1 8
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U
11
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S89
$
T#Y$
T $
T
#
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T$
T19
#
S
23
1 2 %
#
S
1
U
%
U
%
U
%
1 4
6
U
%
U3
$
T
1 $
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T
11
20
%
#
S
#
Y
2 #
S
$
T
$
T
#
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1 2
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5
13
%
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4
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U 15
13
$
T #
S
13 #
S
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S $
T
7
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#
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S6
5
$
T
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16
7
$
T
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1 5
6
%
U
#
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3
$
T $
T
#
S
LE GE ND
#
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21
%
U
2
1
1 0
#
S#
S
22
2 1
3
4
%
U3
$
T
%
U
#
S
$
T
Bu curesti
24
6
#
S $
T
#
S
#
S
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5
3
4
SLO
#
S
16
#
S
7
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19 $
T
$
T
$
T
3
#
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1 5
2 5
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$
T
1 4
9
4
%
U
29
%
#
S
UBeograd
9
%
U $
T
2
#
S
Danube River Basin
%
U
2
#
S
4
#
S
1
28
% #
S
$
T
#
S
1
U
4
2 #
S
#
S3
12
#
Y
$
T
#
S
8
%
U
10
#
S
#
S
$
T1
18
7
7
#
S
$
T
Metropolis ( > 1 Million Inhabitants)
$
T
%
$
T
5
$
T
4
$
T
$
T
U5
S
#
S
#
S#9
20
%
#
S
1
$
T 18 %
U
8
U
6
%
$
T
#
S
U
1 0
$
T
#
S
#
S
7
6
#
S
#
S
Cities (250 000 - 1 Mil ion Inhabitants)
30
$
T #
S8
%
U
1
3
3
#
S
26
17
1 1
7 $
T
$
T
1 7
$
T
#
S
3
#
S
#
S
HR
#
S
27
2 #
S
Towns (100 000 - 250 000 Inhabitants)
#
Y
#
S9
#
S
8
1 9
#
S
1 0
Sarajev o
%
U
2
#
S
Border
Sub-river Basins
16 #
S
#
S2
%
1
U2
#
S3
#
S7$
T
#
S
#
S
17
#
S3
#
S
10
#
S
2
#
S
Danube Ri ver Basin
#
S
5
Hot Spo t Typ e:
9
$
T
#
S
#
S$
T
6
2
4
#
S
1
5
1 3
% 4
#
S
#
S4
#
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1 8
U
1
#
S
Municipal (Mun)
#
S
#
S
3 1
#
S6#
S
#
S8
#
S
BIH
#
S
7
14
#
S
32
$
T
$
T
3 $
T
Indus trial (Ind)
#
S
15
15
#
S
3 3
#
S
4
11
#
S
$
T
#
S
14
#
S
10
1
8
$
T
Sofija #
S1
BG
#
S
#
S
%
U Agricultural (Agr)
#
S
1 6
YU
2
#
S
#
S
9
13
#
S
12
Hot Sp ot Priorities w ith Nu mbers:
see Lis t f or H ot Sp o ts i n Su b- riv e r Bas in s
Danube P ollution Reduction P rogramme
#
S
9
$
T %
U
7
High P riority (HP)
United Nations D evelopme nt Programme
12
Global Environme ntal Fa cilit y
#
S 1
1
$
T %
U
4
Medium Priorit y (M P)
IC PDR - Programme Coordina tion U nit
(I n Ge r m a ny an d Au st ria : " So ur ce s o f Po llut io n" )
1400 Vienn a, P.O. Box 50 0, Austria
N
50
0
50
100 Kilomete rs
Produced by ZINKE ENVIRONMENT CONSULTING
for Central and Eastern Europe, Vienna, 1999
Scale: 1: 4 500 000
(Cartography by U.SCHWARZ)

---

---

Map 10: Significant Impact Areas and Priority Wetlands for Restoration
Based on Transboundary Analysis Workshop 1999
and Wetland Study 1999
PL
UA
CZ
#
S
1
#
Y
46
#
S
Brno
12 #S
#
S
11
4
SK
44
#
S
MD
#
S
13
9
#
S
D
14
#
Y
2
3
#
S
2
1
8
Chisinau
#
S
#
S
Bratislava
#
S
#
Y
#
Y
#
S
#
S
47
#
S
#
Y
10
3
#
S
Wien
4
#
S
#
S
#
S
#
S
München
49
#
S
#
Y
45
Budapest
48
#
S
16
#
S
51
15
A
RO
14
17
#
S
#
Y
#
S
15#S
#
Y
16
H
#
Y
7
#
S
#
S
18
#
S
CH
#
S
#
S
6
21*
50
#
S
I
#
S
17
#
Y
#
S
Ljubljana
19
#
Y
9
43
24
5
#
S
#
Y
Zagreb
5
20
#
S
LEGEND
23
#
Y
#
S
21
26
Bucuresti
#
S
Border
Metropolis ( > 1 Million Inhabitants)
SLO
22
7
8
13
#
S
18*
6
33
#
S
Danube River Basin
Cities (250 000 - 1 Mil ion Inhabitants)
25
#
Y
19*
20*
42
12
#
S
Towns (100 000 - 250 000 Inhabitants)
27
28
30
31
#
S
#
S
#
S
#
S
Beograd
41
#
S
34
10
#
S
Significant Impact Areas (SIA's)
HR
#
Y
11
1. Middle Morava (CZ)
27. Middle Sava - Una & Vrbas (HR,BIH)
Sarajevo
#
S 37
2. Lower Morava (CZ,A)
28. Lower Sava - Bosna (HR,BIH)
32
39
40
3. Szigetköz (H,SK)
29. Tara Canyon (YU)
35
4. Danube Bend (H)
30. Lower Sava - Drina (BIH,YU)
#
S
5. Gemenc - Kopacki Rit (H,HR,YU) 31. Sava at Beograd (YU)
38
6. Middle Drava (SLO,HR)
32. W estern and Southern Morava (YU)
#
S
7. Lower Mura - Drava (SLO,H,HR)
33. Danube at Iron Gate (YU,RO)
8. Danube at Novi Sad (YU)
34. Lower Timok (YU,BG)
36
BIH
9. Upper Tisa (UA,RO)
35. Ogosta at Vratza (BG)
29
10. Somes (RO,H)
36. Iskar at Sofija (BG)
BG
11. Latorita (UA,SK)
37. Ossam at Troyan (BG)
Sofija
12. Uzh (UA,SK)
38. Ossam at Lovetch (BG)
#
S
13. Bodrog - Tisa (SK,H)
39. Rositza at Sevlievo (BG)
YU
14. Sajo - Hornad (SK,H)
40. Middle Yantra (BG)
15. Körös (H,RO)
41. Lom Rivers (BG)
16. Upper Mures (RO)
42. Arges at Bucuresti (RO)
17. Middle Mures (RO)
43. Ialomita near Ploiesti (RO)
18. Lower Mures - Szeged (RO,H)
44. Upper Siret (UA)
19. Palic & Ludos Lakes (YU)
45. Middle Siret - Bistrita & Trotus (RO)
Priority Wetlands for Restoration
20. Upper Banat (YU)
46. Upper Prut (UA)
21. Vrbas - DTD Canal (YU)
47. Middle Prut at Iasi (RO)
1: Ingolstadt Floodplain (D)
11. Danube Islands (RO,BG)
22. Middle Banat - Bega
48. Lower Prut (RO,MD)
2. Mouth of the Isar (D)
12. Balta Greaca/Tutrakan (RO,BG)
Danube Pollution Reduction Programme
& Birzava (RO,YU)
49. Yalpugh (MD)
3: Drösing Forest (A)
13. Calarasi Floodplain (RO)
23. Upper Sava (SLO,HR)
50. Lower Danube - Siret
4. Hodonin Floodplain (CZ)
14. Lower Prut (MD,RO)
24. Sutla (SLO,HR)
& Prut (RO,MD,UA)
5. Gemenc - Béda - Karapancsa (H),
15. Liman Lakes (UK,MD)
United Nations Development Programme
25. Kupa (SLO,HR)
51. Ukrainian Delta
Kopacki Rit (HR,YU) & Ormánság (H)
16. Polder Pardina (RO)
26. Middle Sava - Kupa (HR)
& Liman Lakes (UA)
Global Environmental Facility
6. Mouth of the Drina River (BIH,YU)
17. Ukrainian Danube Delta (UA)
& Bosut Forest (YU)
18. Kupa Floodplain (HR)*
ICPDR - Programme Coordination Unit
7. Floodplain next to Mokro Polje (HR)
19. Mouth of the Vrbas River (BIH)*
1400 Vienna, P.O. Box 500, Austria
N
8. Lower Bodrog (H,SK)
20. Obedska Bara (YU)*
50
0
50
100
150 Kilometers
9. Lower Tisa (YU)
21. Palic and Ludos Lakes (YU)*
10. Balta Potelu (RO,BG)
Produced by ZINKE ENVIRONMENT CONSULTING
Scale: 1: 4 500 000
for Central and Eastern Europe, Vienna, 1999
* added on Transboundary Analysis W orkshop
(Cartography by U.SCHWARZ)

---

---

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---

60
Danube Pollution Reduction Programme
4.2.
Analysis of Objectives and Targets for Pollution Reduction and
Sustainable Water Management
4.2.1. Description of Objectives
The specific programme and sector objectives contribute to the Overall Development Objective,
which was defined in the National Planning Workshops as follows:
"ACHIEVEMENT OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
IN THE DANUBE RIVER BASIN"
For the ICPDR-Action Plan, the Objective as described in the Convention is as follows:
"PROTECTION AND SUSTAINABLE USE OF WATERS
OF THE DANUBE RIVER BASIN"
Starting from this as an overall ICPDR programme objective, specific objectives have been
identified for the following sectors:
Municipalities: Improvement of wastewater and solid waste management
Industry and Mining: Introduction of Best Available Techniques (BAT), Best
Environmental Practices (BEP) and abatement of water pollution
Land Use ­ Agriculture: Implementation of good agricultural practices and mechanisms
for sustainable land management
All these objectives will contribute to improvement of water quality in the Danube River Basin and
mitigate effects of pollution on ecosystems not only in the DRB, but also in the Black Sea.
In this context, the objective as stipulated in the Convention is:
"REDUCTION OF POLLUTION LOADS, IN PARTICULAR NUTRIENT
TRANSPORT TO THE BLACK SEA"
Diagram of Objective
OVERALL OBJECTIVE :
ACHIEVEMENT OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN
THE DANUBE RIVER BASIN
ICPDR Convention Objective : Protection and sustainable use
of waters of the Danube River Basin
Sector Objective
Sector Objective
Sector Objective
Municipalities
Industry and Mining
Land use - Agriculture
Improvement of the wastewater
Introduction of BAT, BEP and
Implementation of good agricultural
and solid waste management
abatement of water pollution
practices and mechanisms for
sustainable land management

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Strategic Action Plan for the Danube River Basin 1995 ­ 2005, Revision 1999
61
4.2.2. Expected Results (Outputs) and Targets by Sectors of Intervention
In order to achieve the programme objective, measures have to be undertaken in the following
priority sectors:
A.
Municipalities
The absence of municipal wastewater treatment plant for the majority of the settlements, improper
operation of the existing ones and obsolete and insufficient sewage systems have led to substantial
pollution of the surface and groundwater with nutrients. The objectives of the sector include:
implementing environmentally sound waste management practices by developing funding
mechanisms; introducing a proper monitoring system; considering appropriate legislation,
including technical and financial regulations; raising public awareness and commitment;
eliminating weaknesses in the operation of wastewater treatment plants by optimising technologies
and sludge treatment, developing human resources and managerial skills; operating sewage systems
efficiently by expanding the existing network and developing an information system, introducing
sound management of the systems and optimising operation activities by introducing modern repair
equipment. A major weakness of the past approaches has been excessive reliance on the
centralised structures to manage the water resources. The unsatisfactory performance has caused
many countries of the Danube basin to seek efficiency gains through decentralisation and greater
reliance on pricing and incentives.
The expected results/outputs in relation to the Sector Objective include:
Operation of extended and upgraded public sewer system
Assurance of appropriate wastewater treatment
Application of proper solid waste management
B.
Industry and Mining
The structure of industrial production in the countries of the Danube basin, developed under the
centrally planned economy was heavily distorted by a rigid pricing system, subsidies to producers
and consumers, monopoly and strict administrative regulation.
The policies of growth with no regard to environmental costs are of the past for governments and
the diversity of three perspectives: economic, socio-cultural, and environmental needs and concerns
suggests that there is no universally "right" or "wrong" policy path to achieve environmentally
sustainable development in any country in the Danube river basin. The impacts of the policy
changes can be seen in the down-sizing of operations in a number of enterprises in this region and
outright closures for reasons of unacceptably high inefficiency, low competitiveness and pollution
impacts.
The general lack of sustainability of industrial practices due to the heavy economic frame caused
by the transition has also led to unfavourable environmental consequences to the extent that they
pose serious threats to health in many parts of the middle and lower Danube regions. In industrial
areas, the wastewater is often discharged into the municipal sewage system. This peculiarity (in
combination with the absence of economic mechanisms for water supply adjusting) stipulates the
principal difference in designing, construction and operation of water supply, sewerage and water
cleaning equipment.
The major polluting industries are: ore mining activities; chemical and petrochemical industries;
pulp and paper; metal works and machinery; food industry and textile industry. In view of the
significant damage done to the natural environment, the governments of the Danube basin are
committed to a development policy that integrates environmental considerations. Such a policy
enables the conservation of natural resources, the avoidance of irreversible damage to the

---

62
Danube Pollution Reduction Programme
environment and the achievement of long- term economic growth on a sustainable basis. Sector
industrial policies have been set up together with a programme of rationalisation of the production
system and investments in the new macroeconomic environment. The introduction of policies that
force producers to compete in open markets leads to restructuring away from heavy industries and
towards less polluting lighter industries, clean technologies and services. Favourable impacts on
the environment come from price liberalisation and removal of subsidies, privatisation, competitive
markets, fiscal reform, and a new interest and exchange rate policy.
The expected results in relation to the Sector Objective include:
Introduction of clean technologies and abatement of water pollution
Implementation of wastewater pre-treatment
Ensuring adequate management of enterprises
Treatment and disposal of hazardous substances in proper landfills
C.
Land Use - Agriculture
Since most of the countries of the Danube region have a significant agricultural potential and a
long agricultural tradition, agriculture is today their most important economic branch.
Unfortunately, the present farming system, known as "conventional farming", has produced
progressive social and economic results on the one hand and serious environmental damage on the
other, mainly on water and soil, the countries' vital resources, and consequently on bio-diversity as
the genetic basis, and on human health. The main problems caused by agricultural activities in all
the countries of the Danube basin are due to the inappropriate use of fertilizers and pesticides
causing alteration in the nitrogen balance and an increase of pesticides in soil and water. If the
potential synergetic effects are considered, there are several pieces of evidence testifying to the
irrational and uncontrolled use of land resources, with considerable anthropogenic pressure, which
calls for an essential improvement of the land management system.
The main polluters include large animal husbandry units, crop and fruit-tree farms, mechanical
companies, and agricultural land and forest units. Disposal of animal waste on platforms or drying
beds with inappropriate or no treatment (mainly at pig farms, which generate large volumes of
wastewater) has prevented it from being reintroduced in the natural energy cycle through
fertilization in the field and has resulted in its disposal beyond the safety capacities or - more
seriously - in the drainage canals, from which it reaches the emissary.
The inappropriate land use, together with extensive deforestation, has led to soil erosion. The
recently-developed private agricultural sector is very fragile, without sufficient support and laden
with innumerable obstacles, which has resulted in substantial positive economic changes,
benefiting the new owners, and in stopping or even decreasing pollution of water and soil as natural
resources. This paradox is explained by the decrease in the amount of fertilizers and pesticides used
in agriculture as a consequence of their excessive prices as compared to the financial power of the
new farmers, as well as by quite frequent subsistence farming.
The expected results/outputs in relation to the Sector Objective include:
Application of integrated land and water management
Adoption of adequate use of pesticides and fertilizers
Proper treatment of wastewater discharged by farms
Prevention of accelerated runoff and erosion
Adequate protection and restoration of wetlands and floodplains

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Strategic Action Plan for the Danube River Basin 1995 ­ 2005, Revision 1999
63
4.2.3. Important Assumptions for the ICPDR Programme and Sector
Objectives
Important Assumptions are essential for the implementation of policies and strategies of the ICPDR
Action Programme (pollution reduction measures), but they lie outside the scope of the ICPDR
rather than under its direct control. Therefore, they are external factors, which will ensure the
success of the implementation of the policies, strategies and actions and the sustainability of its
results.
The following important assumptions for the implementation of the ICPDR Programme objectives
have been identified:
Guaranteed willingness for long-term implementation of sustainability principles in
the governments policies
The diversity of economic, socio-cultural, and ecological needs and concerns suggests
that there is no universally "right" or "wrong" policy path to achieve environmentally
sustainable development. The governments have considerable knowledge and experience
in designing environmental policies to make the world wealthier while at the same time
preserving its environment for future generations. The excessive use of the ecosystem as
a pollution sink is likely to undermine the health of ecosystems, impose constraints on
economic development, and above all, jeopardize human health. The governments of the
countries located in the Danube basin need to include environmental concerns among
their top priorities and target with their efforts those activities that are likely to bring
about the greatest health improvements at the lowest cost. Moreover, the national
governments pursue a sound environmental policy by enacting environmental laws and
regulations that support measurable environmental progress and include principles
embraced at the 1992 Rio Earth Summit, such as "polluter and beneficiary pay,"
"intergenerational equity," "environmental impact assessment," "public participation,"
and the "precautionary principle." Finally, some measure is also needed as concerns the
budgetary resources allocated for environmental protection.
Strengthened cooperation between the countries within the Danube basin
Given both the inadequate state of empirical evidence regarding the impact of human
activities on natural resources and the need for technical experts to provide policymakers
with advice about trade-off among competing long-term goals and actions, the
policymakers, technical experts, and the public must all share both knowledge and
responsibility. Effective cooperation and open discussions of the transboundary effects,
impacts and priorities and countries' most pressing current concerns is therefore an
essential first step toward achieving pollution reduction and environmentally sustainable
development in the basin and to support cooperative work between riparian countries.
The following assumptions have been identified for the Sector Objectives of the ICPDR Action
Plan:
Municipalities:
Achievement of higher levels of environmental compliance and pollution abatement
The main challenge for the countries in the Danube basin is to stimulate an optimal level
of investment in environmental compliance and abatement. A lot of attention needs to be
paid to the choice and design of economic instruments with the aim of "getting the price
right" as to generate a more efficient allocation of environmental goods and services and
reduce the society-wide costs of environmental compliance.

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64
Danube Pollution Reduction Programme
Industry and Mining:
Enforcement of BAT and BEP regulation in industrial sector by authorities remains
priority
The adoption of BAT and BEP regulations, i.e. of modern production technologies that
generate much less waste and consume minimum of energy is the most satisfactory long term
solution and has economic as well as environmental benefits (win-win). The use of incentives
for adopting technologies to increase efficiency of water allocation and distribution can
encourage firms to adopt water saving technologies, including reuse systems.
Land Use - Agriculture:
Progressive implementation by the governments of adequate policies leading to
sustainable land use (wetland restoration) and agricultural practices
Integrating land use policies and practices with water management in the Danube river
basin plays an important role in the formulation of the countries' water strategies. The
application of sustainable land use practices needs to be seen in the context of political
structures and the newly-introduced privatization policies in the agriculture. The
governments should intensify their efforts directed towards introducing a combination of
market incentives and regulatory policies with a view to reducing pollution, soil erosion,
waterlogging and runoff. The governments should commit to introducing economic
incentives for the adoption of land use practices leading to a better protection of the
environment and to a significant increase of social and economic stability.
4.2.4. Impact Indicators for the ICPDR Programme and Sector Objectives
Impact Indicators have been developed for both the ICPDR Programme Objective (implemented
through the Action Plan) and the sector objectives. They define the contents of the objectives in
operationally measurable terms (quantity, quality, target groups, partner institutions, time period
and place) offering a realistic picture of the situation. Furthermore, they are measurable in a
consistent way at an acceptable cost (follow-up and monitoring).
The impact indicators for the implementation of the Programme and the Sector Objectives of the
ICPDR Action Plan have to be identified:
For the programme objectives:
Significant reduction of surface and groundwater pollution shall reduce health risks
and enhance the preservation of biodiversity by the year 2005 in the Danube basin
Efforts at the national level related to pollution abatement and policy reform should
focus on targeted enterprises and communities. Plants need to reduce emissions and
improve occupational health and safety measures, while at the same time making
communities adjacent to the pollution sources aware of the health hazards and assisting
them in addressing these problems.
Municipalities:
Country-specific emission reduction of BOD achieved by the year 2010. Soil
contamination and impact on natural water bodies controlled through appropriate
solid waste management by the year 2010
There are large differences between the countries of the Danube Basin in the field of
municipal public supplies. Because of the different development levels in the countries, it
is not possible to use basin-wide overall impact indicators for measuring the extent to

---

Strategic Action Plan for the Danube River Basin 1995 ­ 2005, Revision 1999
65
which a sector objective has been met. Quantifiable indicator is considered in this respect
as country specific indicators on emission load reduction percentages coming from the
sector results in each Danube countries.
Industry and Mining:
Organic and inorganic effluents reduced up to 30% by the year 2010, and discharge
permits for industrial and mining enterprises with regard to BAT/BEP examined
and revised by the year 2005
Industry and mining represent the major sources of pollution in DRB, but efforts are
being made to reverse this negative effect. It is of the utmost importance to achieve this
impact indicator which can only be reached by introducing a system of issuing and
continuously reviewing discharge permits for significant industrial and mining enterprises
with regard to BAT/BEP.
Land Use - Agriculture:
A 15% and 20% increase in the application of good agricultural practices in large
farms by the year 2005 and 2010 respectively
By establishing agricultural extension services (modern control systems for soil fertility,
prevention and quarantine services and pest control services, ecological education of
farmers, etc.) and by properly using the land, conditions will be created for producing
high quality food products. The EU has been struggling to develop indicators, but has so
far failed to agree to establish any additional statistical services. The Danube basin
countries should start by following the lessons learned from the EU debate and its
outcome. They should monitor the progress indirectly through the measurement of
discharges and N, P and sediment concentrations and loads in the river as well as the
concentrations of pesticides in the river and groundwater.
4.2.5. Impact Indicators for Nutrient Reduction in the Black Sea
Considering the results of the Joint Ad-hoc Technical Working Group of the ICPDR and the
ICPBS and taking into account the limited historical data available on nutrient inputs to the Black
Sea, it is difficult to set clear ultimate targets for the reduction of nutrient from the Danube River
Basin. It seems that the collapse of the Black Sea ecosystems occurred rather abruptly, but it is
difficult to establish a linear cause-effect relationship for the eutrophication process. However, the
partial recovery of the Black Sea ecosystems is attributed to a reduced nutrient load in particular
that coming from the Danube River. Due to the construction of modern waste-water treatment
plants in the Danube upstream countries (Germany and Austria) and due to the social and economic
changes leading to reduced agricultural and industrial activities in the middle and downstream
Danube countries, nutrient loads have decreased since 1992. The effects are remarkable but still
need to be further analyzed and confirmed.
In this context, the Joint Ad-hoc Technical Working Group has formulated a series of goals that
can be expressed in the following indicators:
In the short and medium terms, owing to the adoption of appropriate strategies, in
particular in the transition countries, that will permit economic development while at the
same time ensuring a recovery of the agricultural and industrial sector activities, the
discharge of nutrient and hazardous substances into the Black Sea shall not exceed its
1997 level;

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66
Danube Pollution Reduction Programme
In the long term, the Black Sea ecosystems shall recover to conditions similar to those
observed in the 1960s through a progressive reduction in the loads of anthropogenically-
applied nutrients and hazardous substances in all the countries of the Black Sea Basin.
Taking into account the measures and actions identified in the frame of the Pollution Reduction
Programme (pollution reduction from point sources of pollution), it can be assumed that:
The nutrient load reaching the Black Sea from the Danube River Basin will by the year 2010 be
reduced by 13,9 0% for nitrogen (from the current 566 kt/a to 487 kt/a) and by 27,4 % for
phosphorus (from the current 48,8 kt/a to 35,4 kt/a).

---

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---

---

5.
Sector Strategies
5.1.
Municipal Sector
5.1.1. Situation Analysis
5.1.1.1.
Importance of the Sector, Analysis of Stakeholders and Activities Leading
to Water Pollution and Environmental Degradation
Importance of the sector
The municipal sector has an important influence on the environmental quality of the Danube River
Basin (DRB). A significant part of the pollution load entering the river systems originates from
urban areas in the form of major point source discharges. The generated domestic and industrial
wastewater, which is collected by the public sewer systems from the towns and urban settlements
and discharged into the river basin usually contributes to a great extent to the nutrient load and
microbiological pollution of the recipient water bodies. The rate of applied wastewater treatment
varies widely between the Danube countries. Germany and Austria, the Upper Danube Basin
(UDB) countries, have achieved a level of emission reduction and water pollution control.
Countries in the Middle Danube Basin (MDB), and especially in the Lower Danube Basin (LDB)
have been able to afford much less development in the field of municipal wastewater treatment
facilities. Because of its close similarities with MDB countries in this respect, the Czech Republic,
otherwise a UDB country, is herein discussed in the group of MDB countries.
The pollution load of the municipal sector originating from rural areas has had a much smaller
impact on the river system, because much of the generated municipal wastewater is handled by
individual treatment/disposal solutions. These methods involve the danger of soil and ground water
contamination in the first place.
Municipal solid waste disposal sites are also a common cause of potential hazard for water
resources, especially in cases which involve the application of improper technology or
inappropriate location of the disposal site, often close to the river bank or watercourses and ground
water aquifers.
Approximately 60 per cent of the overall amount of wastewater generated in the DRB comes from
the municipal sector. This underscores the crucial role the sector has to play in the pollution
reduction programme.
Sector policies
The main objectives of the general strategic approach adopted by the countries in the Danube Basin
concerning the related municipal developments include:
To increase sewerage and municipal wastewater treatment capacities;
To reduce the pollution load of recipient water bodies in the DRB;
To establish environmentally sound sectoral policy to protect the aquatic ecosystems and
important water resources against pollution impacts;
To establish efficient funding, legislation and control systems in compliance with the
international standards for the implementation of development strategies.
The Danube countries are differently involved in the realisation of the above strategies, depending
on the level of their economic development and their existing municipal infrastructure.

---

70
Danube Pollution Reduction Programme
Provisions of the Convention
The provision on emission limitation for the municipal sector is contained in Article 7. of the
Convention which states that the emission limits for municipal wastewater shall be based on the
application of at least biological or an equivalent level of treatment. This provision is basically in
accordance with the principles of the EU Council Directive 91/271/EEC concerning urban
wastewater treatment. An important provision of the Convention requires the countries to define
water quality objectives and apply water quality criteria for the purpose of preventing, controlling
and reducing transboundary impact. Wastewater discharges should be based, without exception, on
permits issued by the competent authorities. Another important provision, contained in Article 8,
concerns the establishment of emission inventories and action programmes for the reduction of
pollution loads and concentrations from both industrial and municipal point sources. The step-by-
step implementation of these provisions in the Danube countries could substantially contribute to
the reduction in the pollutant load in the river system.
The provisions of the Convention are generally included in the municipal sector objectives and in
the corresponding development objectives of the countries. However, the planned implementing
schedules highly depend on the economic, legal and institutional capabilities of the different
Danube countries.
Recent changes in the Danube countries.
Germany and Austria,
Public w ater supply and sew erage
upstream countries and
members of the EU,
98
89
86
have already reached a
100
75
much higher level of
80
municipal public
W ater supply
supplies (drinking
60
Sew erage
%
water supply,
40
sewerage and
Untreated
wastewater treatment)
20
0
0
w astew ater
than the middle and
0
lower Danube
D A
countries. Their future
development activities in the field of urban wastewater management will focus on activities geared
towards meeting the specific requirements of the 91/271/EEC Directive on urban wastewater
treatment. The graph shows the ratio in these two countries of the population in the territory of the
Danube Basin connected to a central drinking water supply and a sewerage system. It also shows
that all municipal wastewater is treated (biological treatment) before being discharged into the
recipient.
All other countries of
Public w ater supply and sew erage
the Danube Basin face
some specific
100
problems associated
80
89
78
71
W ater supply
with the transition
80
53
process triggered by
60
45
Sew erage
the change of their
%
40
19
political and socio-
Untreated
economic systems.
20
6
6
w astew ater
0
The process of
0
economic
C z Sk H

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Strategic Action Plan for the Danube River Basin 1995 ­ 2005, Revision 1999
71
transformation has caused a significant decrease in industrial and agricultural production, resulting
at the same time in a reduction in the related pollutant discharges. These countries have reached a
different level of progress. At present, the countries located in the MDB (the Czech Republic,
Slovakia, Hungary, Slovenia and Croatia) are in a more advantageous situation from the point of
view of institutional and economic developments and municipal public supplies.
However, the relatively high ratio of the population supplied by central drinking water systems is
coupled with a lower ratio of sewerage. The volume of untreated municipal wastewater is between
6-12 per cent of the total discharge, as illustrated, but in the case of Slovenia and Croatia it is
higher than 40 per cent. All these countries are interested in joining the EU in the following decade.
The Czech Republic and Hungary are priority candidates in this respect. These two accession
countries are faced with difficulties in trying to meet the severe basic accession requirements,
among others in the field of environmental protection and municipal wastewater treatment. Given
the present situation in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Yugoslavia, also located in the MDB, pollution
control is currently not high on the priority list of these two countries, in which the ratio of
untreated municipal
Public w ater supply and sew erage
wastewater ranges
85
86
100
81
81
between 85-86 %.
62
80
41
57
Countries of the
52
45
W ater supply
60
46
LDB (Romania,
33
40
%
Bulgaria, Moldova
Sew erage
40
and Ukraine) are
Untreated
20
currently focusing on
w astew ater
the essential
0
questions of the
Slo Hr B& H Yu
transition process
and are consequently placing much less emphasis on pollution control investments. The ratio of
untreated municipal wastewater discharges is as much as 40-60 per cent, with the exception of
Moldova, which reported about 14%.
Estimates regarding
Public w ater supply and sew erage
the prospects for
population growth
98
100
predict only minor
70
65
80
61
51 60
changes in the next
W ater supply
41
15-20 years period
60
42
40
%
29
Sew erage
compared to the
40
14 13
present situation: 1-3
Untreated
20
% growths in UDB
w astew ater
countries, stagnant or
0
decrease in MDB
Ro Bg Ukr M ol
countries except the
forecast 11 % increase in Slovenia. A slight increase is expected in LDB countries, except for a
stagnant value in Bulgaria and a slight decrease in Moldova. Estimates on future (up to 2015-2020)
municipal water demand show a decreasing tendency in UDB countries with a stagnant value of
domestic per capita wastewater generation. The estimated municipal water demand provides a
mixed picture in the countries of MDB and LDB; wastewater generation shows a general increase
due to the planned intensive developments in sewerage systems and treatment plants.

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72
Danube Pollution Reduction Programme
Stakeholders
Sector stakeholders in the field of pollution impact are primarily those municipal sewerage and
wastewater treatment systems in the Middle and Lower Danube Basin which supply only a limited
portion of the population in urban areas, or which don't meet the required levels of pollutant load
reduction. In many cases, untreated wastewater effluents have loaded the recipients in the MDB
and LDB. Industrial discharges into the municipal sewer systems without proper pre-treatment
have also generated pollution problems. In rural areas, the population itself could often be blamed
for inadequate individual handling of domestic wastewater.
Authorities have a significant role to play in municipal pollution control. National government
organisations should provide an effective legislative background and issue operating licences,
while control of pollution belongs to district authorities (environmental, water and public health).
Municipalities are responsible for local issues (sewerage, waste management). There is still a
strong need in the countries of the Middle and Lower Danube Basin for further developments and
harmonisation in these fields.
Pollution impacts from the municipal sector have adverse effects on the quality of surface and
groundwater resources. Significant impact areas include difficulties in the sustainable use of water
resources caused by an increase in chemical and microbiological pollutants in the recipient waters,
health risk for the population, and a deterioration of the aquatic environment and biodiversity.
Main activities
The main activities (causes) contributing to water pollution in the municipal sector include:
Untreated or inadequately treated municipal wastewater;
Industrial discharges into public sewer systems without necessary pre-treatment;
Unsuitable management/treatment of solid and liquid wastes;
Operational and maintenance problems in the management of sewerage and treatment
facilities.
5.1.1.2.
Current Strengths/Assets
The most important strengths and assets currently available or under development for the pollution
reduction in the Danube countries are as follows:
Know-how on wastewater treatment and waste reduction technologies. The best
available technologies are accessible for practical application as well as the best
environmental practice. The Convention (Article 12) calls on the Parties to exchange
information in this field for their own benefit.
Legislative tools for pollution reduction. Efforts are made by the MDB and LDB
countries to develop and harmonize the legislative and institutional support, considering
among others the polluter pays principle (Article 2. of the Convention).
Financial resources for development and operation. National action plans outlining
financial resources are available in most of the countries. MDB and LDB countries have
emphasized the importance of international financial assistance.
Public awareness raising activities, which provide critical support in reaching the sector
policy goals, are under way in all the Danube countries.

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Strategic Action Plan for the Danube River Basin 1995 ­ 2005, Revision 1999
73
5.1.1.3.
Analysis of Transboundary Effects
The major towns situated directly along the river system and discharging large amount of untreated
wastewater (hot spots) may cause transboundary pollution effects in the municipal sector.
The transboundary effects include:
Deterioration of water and sediment quality, increase in pollutant load
The increased nutrient load has a special significance for the Danube Delta and the
eutrophication process of the Black Sea.
Accidental spills from urban areas
Water pollution incidents having transboundary nature usually cause problems and
damage for downstream water users.
The following transboundary effects lead to problems faced by the downstream countries:
Limited use of water resources
First of all, drinking water intakes are endangered.
Risk for human health and biodiversity
The microbiological pollution originating from untreated municipal wastewater causes
health risk for the population. Toxic pollutants can negatively affect the aquatic
environment and its biodiversity.
In accordance with the principles of the Convention ­ as expressed in Article 16 ­ the Danube Accident
Emergency Warning System was set up to provide early information on transboundary accidental water
pollution incidents in the Danube Basin affecting the downstream countries. The System, which
involves the co-operation of nine Danube countries, has been in operation since April 1997.
5.1.2. Problem Analysis
5.1.2.1.
Sector Core Problem
The countries of the MDB and LDB have defined the general core problem as follows:
"INADEQUATE MANAGEMENT OF WASTEWATER AND SOLID WASTE"
Due to the significant differences in the ratio of public supplies (primarily sewerage and
wastewater treatment) between some of the countries in the Danube Basin, the consequences of the
above core problem have varied. Efforts by the UDB countries Germany and Austria, for instance,
have concentrated towards meeting the very strict requirements of the EU Council Directive
91/27/EEC on urban wastewater treatment.
5.1.2.2.
Causes Leading to Environmental Problems
Direct causes of the above core problem, which have led to environmental problems, are similar in
the countries of the MDB and LDB. Essential direct causes are as follows:
Improper drainage of waste water
Several major towns whose public sewer systems are not served by a treatment plant have
been identified as hot spots in the MDB and LDB countries' pollution reduction
programme. Moreover, the percentage of the population supplied by a public sewer
system is low. The sewers are in a bad condition, which allows the runoff of urban
wastewater into the recipients.

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74
Danube Pollution Reduction Programme
Discharge of municipal wastewater without pre-treatment
Treatment technology is either obsolete or short of the needed capacity. The applied
technology is often not in compliance with the quality requirements of the recipient.
Inadequate sludge treatment and disposal is a common problem. Additional problems are
caused by insufficient pre-treatment of industrial wastewater discharged into public
sewers.
Improper operator performance at treatment facilities
Insufficient budget to cover operation costs contributes to this cause.
Improper disposal of solid waste
Obsolete technologies used in the disposal of municipal solid waste, uncontrolled leaches
and improper location of dumping sites and landfills leads to environmental problems.
Most important root causes of the sector's core problem in the countries of the MDB and LDB
were identified as follows:
Economic recession accompanying the transition period
This has caused shortages of available funds to carry out the essential developments in
sewerage, wastewater treatment and municipal waste management. However, in most of
the MDB and LDB countries, the investments in these areas had been inadequate even
prior to the transition period.
Incomplete legislation, regulations and planning
Pollution control and abatement programmes are generally not backstopped by strong
regulatory-legal-institutional framework able to promote effective measures. The lack of
a national strategy or regional master plans for municipal developments remains a
prevailing problem to be addressed by the LDB countries.
Lack of economic instruments and incentives
The necessary economic/financial structures and incentive systems have either not been
developed or have not yet entered into force.
Low public awareness
Low public awareness has impacted the allocation of environmental responsibilities, the
integration of environmental considerations into municipal developments, the safety
measures and institutional-managerial systems.
5.1.2.3.
Environmental Effects
Direct environmental effects caused by the core problem of the municipal sector in the MDB and
LDB are as follows:
Polluted surface and ground water resources
Quality of life can be affected by water pollution causing poor quality of drinking water,
water-born diseases, deteriorated aquatic environment and constraints for recreational
activities.
Eutrophication
Increase in nutrient load results in increased eutrophication in surface waters. Untreated
wastewater discharges cause increased nutrient levels in the river systems.
Human health risks
Human health risks arise along the river stretches downstream of wastewater spills
without treatment and disinfection, due to the generally high microbiological pollution of
municipal wastewater.

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Strategic Action Plan for the Danube River Basin 1995 ­ 2005, Revision 1999
75
Ultimate effects of the core problem have been identified as:
Limitation in the use of water
Due to their deteriorated quality, the water resources fail to meet the water quality
requirements set for water uses and cause problems in the operation and quality of
products. The supply of drinking water to areas along the Danube is often jeopardised by
the presence of nitrogen compounds and different micropollutants that increases the costs
of drinking water treatment. Polluted water resources have resulted in reduced
development potential of the affected areas.
Reduced biodiversity
Unfavourable changes caused by water quality deterioration can cause damage in the
aquatic ecosystems and adversely affect biodiversity.
The general hierarchy of problems in the municipal sector faced by the countries located in the
Middle and Lower Danube Basin is illustrated in Chart 6.

---

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Strategic Action Plan for the Danube River Basin 1995 ­ 2005, Revision 1999
77
5.1.3. Description of Sector Objectives
5.1.3.1.
Description of SECTOR Objective
The development objective of the municipal sector is in accordance with the main goals of the
Strategic Action Plan and has been formulated as:
"IMPROVEMENT OF WASTEWATER AND SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT"
This specific sector objective should contribute to the ICPDR-Convention Objective:
"PROTECTION AND SUSTAINABLE USE OF THE WATERS OF THE DANUBE RIVER
BASIN"
The sector objective is directly in line with the provisions of the Convention on municipal
wastewater treatment (Article 7), and with the guidelines of the corresponding EU Directive
91/271/EEC. The Directive sets an important requirement to be met by the Danube countries
aspiring to join the European Union in the future.
The core problem and the hierarchy of problems (Chart 6) in the municipal sector clearly indicate
the direction the most important measures and actions in the different problem-areas of the sector
need to take if the development objective is to be achieved. Once the sector objective has been
attained, it will contribute in two main ways towards fulfilling the provisions of the Convention and
the Strategic Action Plan:
By ensuring that the quality of water in the Danube River Basin is improved and
maintained,
By ensuring that aquatic ecosystems and biodiversity in the Danube River Basin are
improved and that the pollution loads entering the Black Sea are reduced.
5.1.3.2.
Expected Results (Outputs) and Targets by Sector of Intervention
Article 2 of the Convention outlines the specific objectives and principles that are essential for
achieving the ultimate objective, i.e.: "to improve the current environmental and water quality
conditions of the Danube River system and prevent and reduce, to the highest possible degree, the
adverse impacts and changes". Since a significant pollution load is caused by the present situation
in the municipal sector, these objectives are of special importance for the sector's policy
concerning the measures that need to be taken in order to realise the expected results/outputs of the
municipal pollution reduction programme. Special issues underlying the objectives set forth in
Article 2 of the Convention and taken into consideration in the programme developments are as
follows:
Water pollution abatement measures;
Polluter pays principle;
Precautionary principle.
The development objective of the municipal sector involves the improvement of wastewater and
solid waste management. The expected basic results/outputs, which could ensure that the sector
objective is met, include:
Operation of extended and upgraded public sewer systems.
A growing portion of the population connected to a public sewer system has facilitated an
efficient collection of municipal wastewater in urban areas of the MDB and LDB
countries. Keeping a balanced ratio between piped drinking water supply and sewerage
systems is essential for decreasing uncontrolled disposal - mostly into groundwater

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78
Danube Pollution Reduction Programme
resources - of individual domestic waste. This task is faced primarily by the MDB
countries such as Hungary, Slovakia and Slovenia, which have reported a substantial
difference between the ratio of public water supply and sewerage.
Measures concerning the optimized operation and maintenance of sewer systems ensure
the proper management of wastewater collection and stop wastewater spills through
overflows into recipients. National Planning Workshop Reports generally do not indicate
the planned increased ratio of population supplied by urban sewerage in the different
countries, but significant developments are planned in all of the MDB and LDB
countries. The Upper Danube countries - Germany and Austria - have less responsibility
concerning the relevant output due to their already high ratio of public sewerage supply.
Projects (existing and planned) to support the achievement of the result generally depend
on the development level of the related area in the countries and focus on extending and
improving the management or establishing new sewerage systems in municipalities
viewed as the national priorities.
Assurance of appropriate wastewater treatment
Efficient wastewater management is planned in the MDB and LDB countries by
upgrading the capacity, efficiency and maintenance of the existing treatment plants of the
municipal sewer systems. New establishments of wastewater treatment plants will be
based (as far as possible) on the application of the best available technologies.
Measures related to the improved wastewater management mostly eliminate those direct
and untreated municipal discharges into recipients that currently constitute a significant
pollution load for the Danube river and its tributaries. The implementation of appropriate
pre-treatment of industrial wastewater discharges to protect treatment technology against
harmful constituents is expected.
Application of proper sludge treatment and disposal methods, as well as the increase of
sludge utilization is also necessary. An important feature of the planned activities in the
MDB and LDB is that not only the accession countries (the Czech Republic and
Hungary) but also most of the other countries seriously take into consideration the
principles of the EU Directive 91/271/EEC on urban wastewater treatment in designing
their development strategy. In rural areas, the introduction of improved individual
wastewater management serves to protect the recipient groundwater resources.
Projects developed in MDB and LDB countries are geared towards the extension and
upgrading/intensification of the existing treatment plants or the establishment of new
ones depending on the known national priorities. Projects addressing adequate pre-
treatment of industrial wastes have also been proposed.
Application of proper solid waste management
The introduction of separated solid waste collection, use of environmentally sound
disposal sites and the application of optimal solid waste management methods are the key
elements and outputs. Ecological rehabilitation has been carried out at old disposal sites
and landfills causing pollution. Control of pollution impacts coming from urban
transportation and traffic is necessary.
Measures aimed at the development of optimal and applicable systems for solid waste
management contribute to the achievement of the output, as well as the establishment of
the supporting institutional-technical background.
Projects proposed by the Danube countries in this field mainly address the rehabilitation
and re-cultivation of landfills and municipal solid waste disposal sites located in
environmentally sensitive areas.

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Strategic Action Plan for the Danube River Basin 1995 ­ 2005, Revision 1999
79
There are several common non-structural measures concerning the results/outputs discussed above,
outlined by the Danube countries of the MDB and LDB during the National Planning Workshop
series:
Establishment of operation, maintenance and training possibilities for personnel dealing
with up-to-date technological methods;
Development of comprehensive monitoring and control methods;
Harmonisation of legislation and applied standards with EU procedures;
Public awareness raising.
These measures are essential prerequisites for the achievement of the above results.
5.1.3.3.
Important Assumptions for the Sector Results
The basic assumption concerning the realisation of the municipal sector objective:
Achievement of higher levels of environmental compliance and abatement
Several general assumptions play a significant role in assuring the realisation and success of the
strategy in municipal pollution control developments. The following assumptions were outlined by
the countries of the MDB and LDB, which are in coincidence with all the three sector results
discussed previously:
Existence of an effective legal-economic-institutional structure and support system that
promote the necessary developments within the sector;
Favorable economic conditions and availability of funds for the planned developments
together with related effective and differentiated taxation and tariff policy;
Effective international financing support mechanism in operation.
These assumptions are considered to be essential pre-conditions for the success of the planned
development strategy in the municipal sector.
The most important assumptions corresponding to the sector results are:
Implementation of strategy for urban sewerage
Applied strategy on the best feasible development of urban sewerage, proportional to
piped drinking water supply. Increased public awareness concerning the management of
individual handling and disposal of wastewater in rural areas.
Introduction of best available treatment technologies and polluter pays principle
Enforced priority of environmental protection in setting priorities; introduction of the best
feasible or available treatment technologies; improved pre-treatment of industrial
discharges in practice; polluter-pays principle entered into force to promote
environmental clean-up activities.
Implementation of solid waste management strategy
Effective co-operation of all stakeholders; integrated approach applied in decision making
on solid waste management strategy; introduced separation technique; rehabilitated old
landfills affected by pollution.

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80
Danube Pollution Reduction Programme
5.1.3.4.
Impact Indicators for the Sector Results
The main objective of the Convention is the harmonised co-operation in the Danube Basin in order
to achieve conditions of sustainable water management, including the improvement of the current
environmental and water quality conditions. This objective can be met only by launching basin-
wide, intensive pollution control activities. The municipal sector is currently a significant source of
pollution loads entering the Danube river system. The measures planned by the countries of the
MDB and LDB for the reduction of municipal pollution load and for the improvement of the
aquatic environment were discussed and evaluated during the 11 National Planning Workshops.
Impact indicators related to the municipal sector objective:
Country-specific emission reduction of BOD by 2010 achieved. Soil contamination
and impact on natural water bodies controlled through appropriate solid waste
management by the year 2010
There are major differences between the countries of the Danube Basin in the field of
municipal public supplies. Because of the countries' different development level, it is not
possible to measure the extent to which the sector objective has been met by using basin-
wide overall impact indicators. Only country-specific indicators on emission load
reduction percentages coming from the sector results in a specific Danube country can be
used as.quantifiable indicators in this respect.
Impact indicators related to sector results are as follows:
Extended and improved management of existing sewerage systems and
establishment of new ones achieved by the year 2005 in 90 % of the municipalities
with population over 5000
An increase in the percantage of the population connected to public sewer systems will be
achieved by the countries, taking into account a balanced ratio between drinking water
supply and sewerage systems.
Special attention is given to the implementation of optimized operation and maintenance
of the public sewer systems to ensure operational safety.
Integrated approach to sewer systems and treatment of wastewater applied by the
year 2010 in 70% of the settlements in the DRB with population over 5000
Municipal sewer system and its wastewater treatment plant form an integral sanitation
system. Extended sewerage programmes in the MDB and LDB countries increase the
quantity of municipal wastewater to be treated. The increase of treatment capabilities has
got a special consideration. Therefore in the development programme of the countries.
The quantity of untreated wastewater discharges will be decreased to a possible minimum
(for example in case of Hungary, in Budapest it will be only 10 % in 2010, and the ratio
of properly treated wastewater in all the settlements above 2000 inhabitants will be 67
%). Several of the countries harmonise their development efforts in the field of
wastewater treatment also with the regulations of the corresponding EU Directive. The
decrease in emission loads in the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia and Romania is
connected to selected quality parameters.
Implementation of programme for environmentally sound individual wastewater
management systems in rural areas could contribute to the decrease of pollution load at
the recipients, being mostly groundwater resources.

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Strategic Action Plan for the Danube River Basin 1995 ­ 2005, Revision 1999
81
Separation of solid wastes by 3 components implemented by the year 2010 in 90 %
of areas with population over 50 000
Improved municipal waste management systems will be introduced in most of the MDB
and LDB countries. Pollution impacts caused by leaching and inadequate management of
solid waste disposal sites will be decreased up to 25-50 % in Slovakia, Czech Republic,
Slovenia, Romania and Bulgaria. Separation of solid wastes by 3 components will be
introduced in 90 % of the settlements having more than 50 000 inhabitants in the
countries of the Danube River Basin
The time horizon of these indicators varies between 2005 and 2020 depending on the medium and
long range planning methods of the countries. The impact indicator for the sewerage and
wastewater treatment reflects the pollution load reduction effects mostly on surface water
resources. The positive influences are represented by the lower level of harmful pollutants in the
emissions, decrease of microbiological pollutants causing water contacted health risks for the
population, better possibilities for water uses with higher quality requirements. The impact
indicator for proper solid waste management implies the reduction of pollutants, most importantly
those reaching the groundwater resources that are being primarily utilised for drinking water
supply.
5.2.
Industry and Mining
5.2.1. Situation Analysis
5.2.1.1.
Importance of the Sector, Analysis of Stakeholders and Activities Leading
to Water Pollution and Environmental Degradation
Importance of the sector
Industry1 and mining represents, after services, a major economic sector throughout the region and
its participation in GDP varies from 31% (Slovakia) to 42 % (Romania). Very similar is
participation of this sector in the total structure of employment, from 29% (Austria) to 50%
(Bulgaria). Nevertheless, there are quite important differences between upper, middle and lower
Danube (UD, MD, LD) countries in connection with the sector itself and its impact on environment
as a whole i.e. to water pollution.
The importance of the sector from an environmental point of view is evident from the following
facts: the total volume of abstracted water from Danube River System is currently 12,7-billion m3/
year; for cooling purposes an additional 15, 4 billion m3/year are abstracted. Out of the first figure,
62% is abstracted for industrial and mining purposes (not including cooling water for power
purposes).
Economic strength is in direct relation with industrial capacities and its performance and outputs.
Moving from the upper towards the lower Danube countries, there are visible differences organized
in a pattern between the EU member countries, the accession countries, and lastly, the transition
countries. This pattern is also visible in the socio-economic and environmental relations. Better
economic results are accompanied by better environmental performances.

1 Under industry the energy generation is included

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82
Danube Pollution Reduction Programme
Since the beginning of the nineties, with the socio-economic changes in the whole CEE region and
the shift from centrally to market-oriented economies, this sector has been passing through
systematic reforms, including structural changes, privatization reform, foreign investment etc. After
the initial problems that resulted in a great decline in production, some of these countries have been
improving their industrial output, which has combined with legal, institutional and market
developments to make a positive impact on the solution of major environmental problems.
General sector policies and policies and strategies in relation to the control and reduction of
water pollution.
All the DRB countries actually have a more or less comprehensive system of environmental and
water sector policies and strategies, which usually reflects:
the capability of the country to contribute to the solution of TDA problems;
the significance and evidence of country specific environmental problems;
the importance and indication of environmentally related health hazards;
the level of economic development of the country.
In this context, all the countries have developed a hierarchic system of medium and long-term
objectives and principles that usually reflect the key environmental problems and the sector
priorities on the national and regional level. Industry and energy, together with transport and
agriculture, are key sectoral "Driving forces" that impact the environment. The industry and energy
sectors are reasonably well covered by policies, but some areas still need attention (e.g. energy
efficiency; renewable energy) particularly in the middle and lower Danube countries.
Provisions of the Convention relating to the sector objective (Industrial water pollution reduced
through the use of clean industrial technologies)
Since the Convention supports, promotes and enforces, in legal and technical sense, the protection
and sustainable use of the Danube river, it also responds to the needs of this sector. The Convention
directly or indirectly deals with the issue of industrial end energy sector, from articles defining the
objectives and principles of cooperation (art. 2), to those dealing with prevention, control and
reduction of TDA impact (art. 5.), those introducing principles of the BAT and BEP in emission
limitations (art.7.) to the very concrete parts that define the principles of BAT and BEP (Annex I,
part 1 and 2), Industrial sectors and hazardous substances (Annex II, part 1 and 2) to General
guidance on water quality objectives and criteria (Annex III).
Recent changes in upper, middle and lower Danube countries
Austria and Germany are implementing EU environmental legislation which has been developed
over the last 30 years and today comprises some 300 legal acts, including directives, regulations,
decisions, and recommendations. Included in this is a large number of communications and other
policy documents of relevance for EU environmental policy.
However, the body of EU environmental legislation that the associated countries in Central and
Eastern Europe will eventually have to align their national legislation and administrative practices
with as a condition for their membership of the EU ­ the so-called environmental acquis - is
considerably smaller, and most of it is encompassed in the Commission's White Paper.
Water is one of the most comprehensively regulated areas of EU environmental legislation. It
covers, inter alia, Surface Water Directive; Drinking Water Directive; Dangerous Substance
Directive and other Daughter Directives. But the impact of the industrial and mining sector on the
quality of the water is in close relation with the directives in the field of industrial pollution control
and risk management, waste management and chemicals.

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Strategic Action Plan for the Danube River Basin 1995 ­ 2005, Revision 1999
83
The process of approximation, i.e. of alignment of national laws to those of the EU, is complex and
challenging and the pre-accession approximation process has become an opportunity for the
countries to organize their institutions and procedures and to train their staff for the daily processes
and responsibilities of EU law making, implementation and enforcement.
Hungary, the Czech Republic and Slovenia are most likely to be the first of the CEE countries to
become members of the EU. Together with Slovakia, Romania and Bulgaria, they are considered as
accession countries, while Ukraine, Moldova, FRYugoslavia, Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina,
all in the process of transition, are considered as a third "wave" accession countries. Harmonization
of the legal systems, policy measures and instruments, accommodation of industrial and
environmental infrastructure to EU standards and practices is common for all, but the results differ
from country to country as a consequence of the specific socio-economic situation of each country.
Stakeholders of the sector
The stakeholders involved in the industrial and mining sector are:
Polluters, economic actors that cause pollution (industrial and mining enterprises);
State (central, regional and local) authorities responsible for legal measures and control;
Affected by pollution.
The polluters pursuing the main activities leading to pollution and waste production include:
industrial and mining production; industrial and mining waste dumping (and consequences of
mining activities). Pollution from industry depends on the technologies applied and on the
treatment of wastewater. The major part of industrial wastewater is treated in municipal WWTP,
unfortunately with a small percentage of pre treatment before discharging. Dumping is the most
frequent form of industrial waste disposal. Industrial wastes dumped both on special and municipal
dumpsites endanger the ground water, as well as the surface water, particularly in the case of
chemical and hazardous waste. Old dump sites with unknown locations and contents are potentially
very hazardous. A variety of mining activities (coal, oil, gas, ore, radioactive ores etc.) also have
very negative impacts on water quality and water regime. In addition, some other activities,
differing from country to country, are identified as potentially important sources of pollution, such
as: inland and water transport, hydraulic structures and its activities; sand and gravel excavations;
abandoned military sites etc.
Typical organizations responsible for environmental protection are state ministries (for
environment; water protection; energy and industry; public health etc.); regional or local authorities
(organizations for water management or river basin authorities; inspectorates etc.) and management
structures of industrial and mining enterprises responsible for making decisions in connection with
investments, technological processes and production activities.
Affected groups are the most numerous, from the population as a whole, to downstream industrial
enterprises; (aquatic ecosystems) river basin authorities in charge of river water quality; water and
sewerage companies responsible for drinking water quality and public sewerage and WWTPs;
special target groups such as farmers; fisheries; tourists etc.
Prospects for social and economic development
Unlike EU members Germany and Austria, the countries of the DRB have not participated in the
process of structural adjustment that was being implemented in developed market economies
during the 1970s and 1980s, and have instead continued to implement a traditional industrialization
strategy and the concept of central planning. (The only exception was former Yugoslavia, in which
the concept was based on a semi-developed market.) Therefore, the structure of these countries'
economies remained unchanged and unfavourable, with a high proportion of primary and
secondary sector in the generation of the GDP, and a prominent share of energy and raw materials

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costs in the industrial sector. Raw material and energy expenditures per product unit remained high,
while product quality and the utilization of modern technology become secondary concerns, thus
resulting in decreased competitiveness and negative impact on the environment.
The history of the transition period started at the beginning of the 90s. The steady and often
difficult application of new macro-economic instruments, traditionally called "structural
adjustment" has been a necessary part of the adaptation process. Since economic indicators in
almost all the countries of the DRB started to improve around 1994-1996, the falling GDP trend
started to be reversed, and many countries started to realise their true potential.
Main activities (causes) contributing to water pollution
The main activities in this sector contributing to water pollution are to a great extent shared by the
whole region, with the exception of the two upper Danube countries. There is a long list of
activities contributing to water pollution, such as: obsolete industrial and mining technologies
producing large amounts of liquid and solid waste; inadequate treatment of industrial solid and
liquid waste; discharge of industrial wastewater into municipal sewers without any or adequate
treatment; inadequate closure of industrial sites and plants: improper management of industrial
hazardous waste; inefficient operation of industrial cooling systems; construction and operation of
big dams and hydropower systems. Some countries, which define this sector in a broader way,
point out some additional activities, such as: pollution of water and soil due to transportation
(shipping); inadequate road infrastructure; inadequate behavior of tourists and transport
organizations.
5.2.1.2.
Current Strengths/Assets
As a result of the analysis of industrial and mining activities leading to water pollution, a number of
strengths/assets have been identified as critical in mitigating the negative effects on the
environment. These strengths/assets should be used by appropriate legal, technical, economic and
public/NGO authorities and entities to set up priorities which will help to identify appropriate
policies and strategies to meet the goal of prevention and control of pollution.
Although numerous, all the legal, institutional, technological, physical and geographical
strengths/assets could be structured as follows:
In relation to the provisions of the Convention
Existing monitoring system: water quality is monitored under a fairly developed
inspection and control system that will help in the prevention, control and reduction of
transboundary pollution;
Environmental legislation: the process of harmonizing the legislation with the EU
directives has either already started or has been adopted at the policy level;
Mutual cooperation: the countries of the region have established regular contacts based
on a number of bilateral and multilateral agreements concerning water regime, water
quality and information systems, including emergency systems.
In relation to the main activities leading to water pollution
Formulation of sustainable industrial and mining strategies: Benefiting from the
latest, state-of-the-art insight into the issues affecting the environment, the countries have
developed short and medium-term sustainable industrial and mining strategies as key
elements for pollution reduction in this sector of the economy;
Local technical knowledge and capabilities for technology transfer: A significant
number of experienced professionals and scientists, familiar with the latest achievements
of industrial practice and science, have been engaged in this field

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85
Existence of research programmes for the development of new methods for waste
treatment, processing and disposal: State (universities, institutes, academia) and
industry (R&D programmes) have been supporting research & development projects in
this field;
Physical plans and legislation for the exploitation of natural resources: Large and
small-scale physical plans, developed at both national and regional level, are a factor
limiting the misuse of land. Environmental impact assessment is required and exploitation
of natural resources is subject to legal supervision;
Implementation of environmental management system: There is a system of standards
in place that define criteria for environmentally sound operations.
In relation to sector objective and expected results /outputs
Change in production patterns: The socio-economic transition process does not favor
inefficient industrial enterprises that are in many cases the big polluters and/or energy
users. In spite of the negative economic consequences, from an environmental point of
view, this change in production patterns will lead to a substantial decrease in water
pollution;
Industrial pre-treatment facilities and municipal WWTP: The existing industrial pre-
treatment facilities and municipal WWTP represent an important asset for further
improvement of industrial wastewater and, at the same time, reduce the impact of
industry on the environment;
Economic mechanisms in favor of clean technologies: A number of economic
instruments has been introduced (water use and polluted water charges; penalties for
water degradation; supplementary taxation for environmentally dangerous technologies
and tax reduction for "clean" technologies) to favor environmentally friendly
technologies
Implementation of international conventions dealing with hazardous substances:
The readiness of the countries to become parties to the appropriate international
conventions dealing with hazardous substances provides a legal and technical background
for a proper disposal of such substances.
5.2.1.3.
Analysis of Transboundary (TDA) Effects
Analysis of TDA effects of pollution coming from Germany and Austria2 were not taken into
consideration since these two UD countries have not identified any hot spots that could cause
significant TDA effects, except in the case of accidental pollution. Inadequate management of
industrial and mining facilities and of the waste they generate, combined with an overall
unsatisfactory environmental protection, have significantly influenced water quality conditions in
terms of TDA, both in MD and LD countries. Out of the total of 51 Significant Impact Areas, more
than 20 are affected by the industrial activities with TDA consequences (11 in the MD region, 5 in
the LD region and 6 in the area that is shared by the MD and LD countries). This corresponds with
the results of situation analysis concerning the industrial and mining hot spots. There is evidence
that the Black Sea and the wetlands have also been affected by TDA pollution, as a cumulative
effect of the pollution from a number of different industries in the whole region. Most often, the
sources of pollution come from basic industries (iron and steel works, pulp and paper mills,
metallurgy, machine tool, electrical, wood-processing, chemical, oil industry, tanneries etc.), food
industry and mining activities.

2 In the later stage Germany and Austria contributed each, two industrial sites for inclusion in PRP

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The most important effects include:
Surface and ground water polluted with toxic substances
This effect has been observed in the whole DRB, but it is much more pronounced in the
MD and LD countries. The presence of heavy metals, mercury and oil products, has been
observed in the Morava river basin with TDA effects from Slovakia to Hungary
endangering the Zahorie Ramsar site.
This effect has been reported all along the Sava river which is shared between four former
republics of Yugoslavia, with TDA effects from Slovenia to Croatia, Croatia to Bosnia-
Herzegovina and vice versa, and Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina to Yugoslavia. In the
upper, Slovenian part, the hot spots include: Vrhnika (leather industry) and Krsko (pulp
and paper industry and nuclear power plant). The middle part is suffering pollution from
the highly-industrialized areas of Bosnia-Herzegovina (textile, food, leather, chemical,
wood, metal processing and mining industries located in Banja Luka, Prijedor, Jajce and
Bihac) and of Croatia (chemical, oil refinery, metal works, fertilizers, and food industry
located in Zagreb, Sisak, Kutina and Vrbovec). In the lower part of the Sava river, the
pollution originates from similar types of industries with hot spots located in Bosnia-
Herzegovina in the cities of Tuzla, Maglaj, Zenica, Doboj, Teslic, Brcko and Foca, with
TDA effects reaching Croatia and Yugoslavia. In this region, important SIAs exposed to
pollution include the Kupa floodplane, Mokro Polje, the mouth of the Vrbas and the
mouth of Drina river with Bosut forests. TDA consequences are also very much
pronounced in the LD countries. Industrial activities (wood processing, metal processing,
metalwork, oil and chemicals etc.) with hot spots in Yaremcha, Kolomya and especially
Chernevica in the Prut river catchment area which is divided between Ukraine, Romania
and Moldova, endangering a number of priority wetlands in the region, such as the Lower
Prut Wetland and the Liman Lakes. A similar situation is found in the Tisa catchment
area that extends across five countries.
Industrial hot spots in Ukraine (Rakhiv, Velyky Byckhiv and Tresva), Romania (Terepia,
Clusana, Baia Mare), Hungary, Slovakia (Bukocel Hencovce), Hungary (Miskolc), and
Yugoslavia produce TDA effects leading to a limited water supply, increased water and
soil pollution and reduced biodiversity as a result of cumulative impact of the hot spots
located upstream. Priority wetlands endangered by these TDA pollution effects include
the Calarasi floodplain and the Lower Tisa.
Accidental pollution events
The existence of a large number of industrial facilities near the borders means a constant
threat of industrial accidents that can produce negative TDA effects, such as water supply
interruptions, poisoning of the flora and fauna and others. Due to a high concentration of
industrial hot spots, this effect is present throughout the MD and particularly in the LD
region.
Deterioration of water quality due to continuous discharges
Uncollected and improperly disposed industrial waste represents a threat to public health
and impedes surface drainage. The consequences of untreated or partially treated
wastewater from industry pose a constant risk to human and environmental health.
Moreover, the performance of most of the treatment facilities in the region is far below
the design specifications due to inadequate capacity, poor maintenance and a lack of
spare parts. The resulting cumulative effect could have TDA consequences in the whole
region.

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Deterioration of ecological equilibrium
The presence of hazardous wastes has long-term consequences for human health and for
regional flora and fauna, particularly in the wetlands. In spite of the variety of habitats
and the efforts to protect them, the rich bodiversity of the DRB suffers, especially in the
MD and LD regions, with many species being endangered or threatened with extinction.
Changes in the water regime
Considerable industrial consumption of water (including cooling water) that is not
returned in the water streams, as well as landscape changes produced by mining and
quarrying, have changed the complex water regime. The quantity of water in the streams
is closely connected with its quality because it influences the self-purification ability of
water.
Limited water use
Limited water use is a negative consequence of TDA importance. The river streams and
infiltrates transfer pollution into alluvial zones. As a consequence, surface and ground
water use becomes limited because of their high pollutant content.
5.2.2. Problem Analysis
5.2.2.1.
Sector Core Problem
In spite of the many differences between the UD, MD and LD countries, which mainly originate in
their different socio-economic, historical and cultural development, the core problem for the
industry and mining sector has been identified as:
"ECOLOGICALLY UNSUSTAINABLE INDUSTRIAL AND MINING ACTIVITIES"
Industrial and mining activities and their consequences negatively impact water quality and water
regime. Water pollution and unfavorable changes in the water regime can cause a disruption of
ecosystems, pose a health risk and limit the possible use of water. All this ultimately leads to a
decrease in the quality of life.
Socio-economic changes and the process of privatisation are of vital importance for overcoming
the environmental consequences of past activities. In order to achieve the sector objective, it is
necessary to reduce the impact of past pollution, undertake measures for improving management at
all levels and ensure funds for eliminating the consequences of past pollution.
Furthermore, it is necessary to implement appropriate measures to limit the discharge of wastes by
introducing efficient technologies, constructing treatment facilities and improving the operation
and maintenance of the existing ones. Another sector objective is to adopt sustainable industrial
practices through appropriate stakeholder involvement, establishment of programmes aimed at a
reduction in the use of hazardous materials and prevention of the risk of accidents, introduction of
environmental management in enterprises and implementation of modern manufacturing strategies.

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5.2.2.2.
Causes Leading to Environmental Problems
Although there are numerous main causes and their cause effect-relations leading to degradation of
the environment, they may be roped around four key causes, which include:
(i)
Use of dirty and obsolete technologies
The existence of obsolete technologies as a legacy of the past is one of the most important causes
of pollution.
a. Use of outdated technologies
Large investments are necessary in order to replace the obsolete, energy-demanding and
raw material-demanding technologies with modern, environmentally sound ones.
b. Excessive deterioration of the environment
High energy consumption has a worsening effect on the environment, and raw material
demand technologies usually produce high amounts of waste, either solid or discharged
into water or air and usually with a high content of harmful substances. These
technologies very often have a low safety level and the likelihood of accident and
operational failures occurring is higher.
In order to eliminate this problem, it is necessary to focus on the following activities:
- Research the possibility of financial support,
- Define instruments for control and inspection,
- Impose penalties and introduce measures for preventing production in case of
violation of regulation.
(ii)
Discharge of wastewater without pre-treatment
Discharge of wastewater without pre-treatment is the result of a number of factors. The primary
cause is the insufficient number of WWTPs for industrial pre-treatment.
The first concern when building industrial plants should be to meet the legal obligation that state-
of-the-art wastewater and solid waste treatment system should be installed. The relevant legal
obligations should be urgently defined and set down along the polluter pays principle. This would
at least partially provide sources of financing the construction of new treatment plants and the
maintenance of the existing ones.
a. Lack of WWTPs
In most DRB countries, there is a relatively small number of WWTPs built in the existing
industrial facilities in the region.
b. Existing treatment plants not used
A large number of the existing treatment facilities are not used, for a variety of reasons
including shortage of maintenance resources, outdated technologies, negligence,
inadequate motivation and lack of market.
c. Inadequate compliance with legislation
Although legal regulations are in place, the instruments for their enforcement are not
strong enough to ensure implementation. Fines for non-observance of the regulations are
low, and inspections are rare and inefficient. Besides the weak inspection services, it is
necessary to underline in this context the low penalties.

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(iii)
Shortcomings of the management system
The absence of an appropriate self-monitoring system, based on an internal control system, and the
lack of interest of beneficiaries in enforcing the environmental regulations and compliance with
legislation, is important in creating favourable conditions for pollution to take place. Many
companies are still benefiting from not complying with the set standards at the expense of those
that did change their industrial behavior and practice in order to comply.
a. Negligence on the part of some managers and employees
A negligent attitude towards production and pollution is also a result of the unresolved
question of ownership. Since the process of privatization has not yet been completed, the
personnel - unlike the personnel in most of today's privately-owned enterprises - is not
motivated for profitable and successful operations or for the procurement of financial
incentives.
b. Financial constraints (costly treatment)
Lack of funds is an element that appears most frequently among the observed causes.
Shortage of financial resources is understandable in view of the fact that there is a high
competition for available resources. Under such conditions, the building of expensive
WWTPs and their costly maintenance sometimes meet with resistance, both on the part of
management structures and employees.
(iv)
Inadequate disposal of solid hazardous substances
Most of the disposal sites for hazardous industrial and chemical waste are not appropriately
located, organized or managed. Most of the toxic industrial waste is stored at industrial sites while
waiting for an appropriate solution. A very low percentage of industrial waste is sent to proper sites
and most of it is dumped on communal sites together with municipal waste. Monitoring data on
leachate emissions from landfills are missing. There are many concerns over illegal and
uncontrolled dumping of industrial wastes at numerous locations, particularly in the LD region.
a. Lack of landfills for hazardous substances
There is currently a very limited number of properly organized landfills for disposal of
hazardous and toxic substances. Many countries in the region do not have a single landfill
designed for this purpose. Therefore, these substances are inadequately and
unprofessionally disposed using city dumps, or simple green-field dumps. These
circumstances combine to create conditions for potential soil pollution and ­ indirectly -
for ground and surface water pollution.
b. Absence of classification of industrial waste
The first step in overcoming this problem is to pass the relevant legal regulations
requiring a proper disposal of such waste, in accordance with a prescribed methodology.
Another problem that needs to be addressed is the lack of classification of types of waste
and the absence of designated, suitable disposal sites for special types of hazardous solid
waste.

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5.2.2.3.
Environmental Effects
Immediate and ultimate environmental effects as a result of unsustainable industrial and mining
activities have affected a number of SIAs as well as the Black Sea ecosystem. The effects on
individual SIAs are more pronounced and visible in the LD than in MD regions, as a result of the
higher concentration of activities focused on mineral and energy resources (heavy, chemical and
petrochemical industry and mining activities) with a very negative effect on the environment. The
Black Sea area is also damaged by the activities of this sector. However, this is the result of a
cumulative, long-term pollution by substances present in amounts that by far exceed those found in
the natural ecosystem.
The industry and mining sector is responsible for a significant portion of air, soil and water
pollution. Besides the negative impact on human health via worsening of the drinking water
quality, the pollution of air, soil, surface and ground waters have led to the degradation of
ecosystems and the reduction of biodiversity.
All these effects involve a high social and economic cost, despite the fact that some of these costs
are difficult to estimate. Unsustainable practices in industry, and especially in mining, lead to
significant changes of the physical environment .The activation of landslides and soil erosion, the
degradation of the natural landscape, the changes of the riverbeds and bank erosion have led to an
irreversible destruction of habitats and amenity loss, entailing high social and economic risks.
Immediate environmental effects identified in this sector include:
Pollution of surface and ground water
All industrial and most mining activities generate wastewater, resulting in the
deterioration and pollution of the nearby surface and ground waters. In some cases, the
pollution is caused by a single pollutant and, in others, by a combination of different
types of industrial waste such as chemical, thermal, mineral, sediment, oil, hazardous
substances etc.
Pollution of soil and air
Soil and air pollution is mostly the result of unsustainable industrial and mining activities
and particularly of accidental events. Contamination of soil from regular industrial activities
present a diffuse source of pollution caused by the uncontrolled use of protective means as
well as by the presence of ashes, SOx and NOx compounds generated by thermal power
plants, cement plants and some other industries. Concentrated pollution is caused by flue
gases such as heavy metals, or by flooding of polluted rivers. Local pollution is the result of
accidents, incidental situations or disaster situations (natural, or man-caused such as wars)
when harmful and hazardous substances uncontrollably released or spilled from plants,
sewerage, dump sites or landfills are discharged into the soil or the air.
Reduced availability of water for different purposes
The surface and groundwater are affected by pollution from the inefficient pre-treatment
of toxic and specific waters released from industry. Inadequate storage, handling and
especially transportation, are the main causes of pollution from industrial chemicals.
Erosion
Erosion is caused by industrial, mining, hydro-technical, transportation, and military
activities in combination with natural processes (floods, winds, riverbed changes).
Powerful erosion processes are triggered by deposit exploitation and by sand and gravel
extraction in the river basins, in combination with mineralized mining waters discharged
into the rivers. This process can aggravate the situation in the Danube riverbed and its
tributaries, and can even lead to processes in watersheds such as karst phenomena. A
massive deterioration of the landscape is another result of erosion.

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Strategic Action Plan for the Danube River Basin 1995 ­ 2005, Revision 1999
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Ultimate environmental effects identified in this sector are:
Depletion of natural resources
The results of environmental pollution are disturbances in biodiversity and in the
functioning of all ecosystems. Discharging of the wastewater into the river streams has
resulted in deterioration of the physical, chemical and biological quality of the water.
This, in turn, has led to the degradation of species and the loss of some varieties in favor
of those less sensitive to pollution. Specific pollutants are very dangerous once they enter
the food chain and their long-term consequences still remain unknown.
Limited water use
Changes in hydrological regime as a result of the existing hydraulic works and increased
levels of chemical pollutants have raised serious concerns over various water supply
sources, both in terms of their quality and accessibility. Deterioration of the ground
waters may be irreversible and may prove to have high social and economic
consequences. In some areas of the DRB ground water has been abandoned as a potential
source of drinking water or for specific industrial use.
Landscape degradation and biodiversity reduction
Landscape degradation, reduction of biodiversity and destruction of ecosystem are
environmental effects observed as a result of both improper locations of industrial sites
and non-sustainable industrial practices. Deforestation and erosion processes triggered by
industrial and mining activities and hydraulic structures, both direct and in combination
with natural processes, represent significant ultimate effects of the pollution.
Reduced development potential
Environmental destruction, caused by industrial and mining pollution, has significantly
influenced the well being of the local communities, reducing the development potential of
many affected regions.
Population migration
The deterioration of the whole ecosystem, the reduction of available water and soil
resources impacts the socio-economic development of the region and contributes to the
population migrations. The existence of real and potential hazards in the professional and
living environment poses a serious threat to the welfare of the population in contaminated
areas, which sometimes leads the local inhabitants to decide to migrate to less polluted
areas.
Quality of life affected
Pollution from industrial activities has a direct negative impact on the quality of potable
water and the food chain, which creates health risks for the population. Consequences
could be reflected in a reduced birth rate, reduced life expectancy, genetic changes, etc.
Human health risk
The consequences of pollution are reflected in the reduction of life expectancy, genetic
changes and increased health cost. Health risk is a direct environmental effect of the
deterioration of water quality and water regime.

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Strategic Action Plan for the Danube River Basin 1995 ­ 2005, Revision 1999
93
5.2.3. Description of Sector Objective
5.2.3.1.
Description of the SECTOR Objective
The development objective of the industry and mining sector has been defined as:
"INTRODUCTION OF BEST AVAILABLE TECHNIQUES (BAT) AND BEST
ENVIRONMENTAL PRACTICES (BEP) AND ABATEMENT OF WATER POLLUTION"
This Sector objective, as well as the result, fully and naturally contributes to the realization of
ICPDR Convention objective that has been defined as:
"PROTECTION AND SUSTAINABLE USE OF WATERS OF THE DANUBE RIVER
BASIN"
The SAP that supports and complements the Convention and contributes to the implementation of
EAP for Central and Eastern Europe has four equally important goals that are derived from the
objectives of the convention and the principles of integrated water management:
Improvement of aquatic ecosystem and biodiversity in DRB and reduction of pollution
loads entering the Black Sea;
Maintenance and improvement of the quantity and quality of water in the DRB;
Control of damage from accidental spills;
Development of regional cooperation in water management.
In order to achieve these goals, common strategies and policies have been adopted by the
Convention. In view of the problems identified by problem analysis, the following policies and
strategies have been identified.
It is necessary to develop industrial and economic policies that integrate environmental
considerations. Such policies should enable the conservation of natural resources, avoidance of
irreversible damage to the environment and achievement of long-term economic development and
growth on a sustainable basis. The underlying message is that environmental protection, industrial
development and competitiveness can be compatible provided the right policy, technological and
institutional measures are adopted at the national and regional level.
5.2.3.2.
Expected Results (Outputs) and Targets by Sectors of Intervention
The Convention sets out that all parties shall strive to achieve, to the greatest possible degree, the
goals of sustainable and equitable water management, including the conservation, improvement
and rational use of surface and ground waters in the catchment area. In order to attain that goal,
emission limits will be set, applicable to individual industrial sectors or industries in terms of
pollution loads and concentrations and based in the best possible way on low and no-waste
technologies at source. Where hazardous substances are discharged, the emission limits shall be
based on the best available techniques for the abatement at the source and/or for wastewater
treatment.
Based on the Sector Problem analysis following Sector Objective has been identified:
"INTRODUCTION OF BEST AVAILABLE TECHNIQUES (BAT) AND BEST
ENVIRONMENTAL PRACTICES (BEP) AND ABATEMENT OF WATER POLLUTION"

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In order to achieve this objective (significant reduction of pollution generated from industry and
mining), the following results/outputs are foreseen:
Introduction of clean industrial technologies and abatement of water pollution
Implementation of pre-treatment of industrial wastewater
Ensuring adequate management of the enterprises
Treatment and disposal of hazardous substances in proper landfills
(i)
Introduction of clean industrial technologies and abatement of water
pollution
The implementation of the principle adopted ­ to select and introduce clean technologies, both in
the existing and newly-planned industries, and the adoption of legal regulations that would ensure
that the above principle is respected, either through enforcing the closing down of plants or
imposing penalties at the corporate or individual level in case of non-observance, would either
result in a decrease in the level of pollution or preservation of the situation.
In order to achieve this result, it is necessary to:
Eliminate hot spots. In order to eliminate hot spots it is necessary to define and adopt
legal regulations that will set the rules and conditions for obtaining certificates for
commissioning particular industrial facilities. It is necessary to pass the legislation
defining priorities and guidelines regarding the elimination of hot spots. The priorities
should involve the introduction of new technologies and the replacement of obsolete
technologies with new ones, incorporating at the same time in all production processes
the norms recognized and recognizable worldwide.
Replace old technologies with new ones. In order to replace the old technologies with
new ones, it is necessary to design and pass consistent laws mandating the elimination of
outdated processes or the closing down of certain plants, providing at the same time the
financing instruments that would encourage producers to adopt state-of-the-art solutions.
Within the framework of these laws, priorities should be established concerning the
introduction of new technologies, in harmony with EU standards and acceptable from the
point of view of environmental protection.
To obtain this result, the following measures and activities have been identified:
Measures: Introduction of new economic and financial instruments for water, air and
solid wastes, that will include solutions for the introduction, use and enforcement of this
incentive scheme; legislative harmonization Aquis Communautarie according to the
stages imposed by the EU; preparation of environmental impact studies and case studies
for all hotspots; creation of clean technology centers and their networking to ensure the
flow of information and transfer of lessons learned from success stories.
Activities: Development of institutional framework for implementation as a consequence
of the introduction of the legal framework; projects for reconstruction and modernization
on up-to-date technologies in existing industrial and mining enterprises using "dirty"
technologies: chemical industry; iron and steel works; petrochemical; metalwork; pulp
and paper; ore extraction and mineral processing, etc.

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(ii)
Implementation of pre-treatment of industrial wastewater
In order to successfully start building WWTPs, a registry of polluters will be prepared that would
serve to rank hot spots on the basis of their impact on the environment, and a list of priorities will
be developed, that would locate the industrial facilities in need of an urgent intervention.
In order to achieve this result, it is necessary to:
Install waste treatment plants
Put in operation the existing treatment plants
Enforce legal regulations, by adopting the polluter pays principle and cost efficient
operation
Employ monitoring system, installed at the wastewater outlet in all the industrial plants
that have proved to be of extraordinary importance
To obtain this result, the following necessary measures and activities have been identified:
Measures: Preparation of studies that will register all localities that do not have WWTPs
or are inadequately operating, analyze reasons for such situations and prepare a basis for
decision on the priority actions to be taken.
Activities: Completion and achievement of all optimum operational parameters of
WWTPs at the economic agents; realization of projects for the construction of new
WWTPs at the most vulnerable sites, rehabilitation and modernization of existing ones,
i.e. improvement of operational parameters, extension of capacities or adding another
stage in the treatment process.
(iii)
Ensuring adequate management of enterprises
Following the privatisation, i.e. after changes had been made in the ownership structure of the
companies which were previously state or socially owned, adequate management of enterprises
was ensured through the introduction of technological discipline by means of incentive measures.
Training and education of employees has been performed, whereby the level of responsibility of
staff has been raised, incentive funds have been provided and modern management instruments
have been applied in practice.
In order to achieve this result, the following should be undertaken:
Adapt the status of enterprises to market economy policies
Upgrade the performance of enterprises
Make available financial resources
To obtain this result, the following measures and activities have been identified:
Measures: Strengthening of institutional and management capacities in the industry and
mining; preparation of instructions and guidelines for proper management of industrial
plants; training of managers on introduction of environmental management system in
industrial enterprises;
Activities: Setting up a legal framework encouraging capital investment in environmental
protection facilities; development of standardization programme of methodologies and of
equipment for environmental quality control.

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(iv)
Treatment and disposal of hazardous substances in proper landfills
Through a consultation process, an agreement has been reached on the location and building of
environmentally appropriate landfills for hazardous substances, which represents a safe and long-
term solution to the problem of industrial waste. Substantial progress has been made in the overall
efforts to protect water from pollution.
In order to achieve this result, the following should be undertaken:
Ensure landfills for hazardous and harmful substances,
Classify industrial waste
Enforce of regulations
To obtain this result, the following measures and activities have been identified:
Measures: Development of national physical plans defining land use; creation of national
registers of toxic wastes
Activities: Rehabilitation and/or closing of the abandoned industrial dumpsite areas;
planning and construction of new, environmentally friendly landfills for hazardous and
useful substances.
5.2.3.3.
Important Assumptions for the Sector Results
Important assumptions are essential for the implementation of policies and strategies of the ICPDR
Action Plan, but they are external factors, outside the scope of the ICPDR rather than under its
direct control. They will ensure the success of the implementation of policies, strategies and actions
and the sustainability of the results.
Important assumptions described in the national reports and essential for the implementation of the
ICPDR policies and strategies focus on: economic issues (transition, free market, economic
stability) legal issues (harmonization with EU, legal and institutional frame implemented) and
environmental issues per se (environmental management, environmentally friendly policies,
sustainable economy and policies; state of environment improved). These assumptions, which are
of great importance for the realization of expected results, will in turn make an important
contribution towards the realization of the goals of the ICPDR. Most of these assumptions are in
close connection with the creation of a sound institutional and policy framework that involves
modern environmental laws, environmental management practices and efficient administrative
arrangements. All this could be achieved if the sector-level assumption is approved and realized in
practice, that is:
Enforcement of BAT and BEP regulation in industrial sector by authorities remains
a priority
The adoption of BAT and BEP regulations, i.e. of modern production technologies that
generate much less waste and consume a minimum amount of energy is the most
satisfactory long-term solution and has economic as well as environmental benefits (win-
win). The use of incentives to promote the switch-over to technologies to increase
efficiency of water allocation and distribution can encourage firms to adopt water saving
technologies, including reuse systems.

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The important assumptions for achieving results and outputs that are necessary to achieve the
sector objectives include:
Favorable economic conditions in the country
In much of the region, and particularly in some MD and LD countries, the economic
situation makes it impossible for business organizations to finance from their own sources
the process of transition and the process of replacement of outdated technologies with
modern ones and to realize, in that way, the objectives of the industry and mining sector.
Since the industry does not posses sufficient financial means that could be earmarked for
this purpose, favorable economic conditions need to be created.
Continuation of cooperation with international financial institutions
Favorable economic conditions could be realized by promoting cooperation with
international financial institutions and continuing the cooperation over a longer period of
time. This would serve as a support to the processes of transition to a market-oriented
economy.
Implementation of environmentally sound industrial policy of the Governments
For successful implementation of the ICPDR, it is necessary to design at the government
level an environmentally sound policy of industrial development, while continuously
attempting to raise the awareness and responsibility of the staff regarding industrial
production and environmental protection.
Elimination of war effects
The elimination of war effects is a basic prerequisite for the realization of the ICPDR
objective. None of the above objectives can be reached without a prior elimination of war
consequences.
5.2.3.4.
Impact Indicators for Sector Results
Important indicators at the sector level outlined in the national reviews involve attempts to establish
very direct connections between the implementation of national environmental standards,
harmonised with or upgraded to the EU level, with the improved quality of the water, while at the
same time enhancing or scaling up the achieved level of production activity, within an appropriate
time frame. If these indicators are approved in real situation they will directly indicate that two out
of four goals of the Convention have been realised i.e.
Negative impact of activities in the DRB and on the riverine ecosystem and the Black Sea
is reduced; and
Availability and quality of water in DRB is maintained and improved.
Impact indicator for the whole sector have been defined as follows:
Organic and inorganic effluents reduced up to 30% by 2010, and discharge permits
for industrial and mining enterprises with regard to BAT/BEP examined and
revised by the year 2005
Industry and mining represent the most important sources of pollution in the DRB, but
efforts are being made to reverse this negative effect. It is of the utmost importance to
achieve this impact indicator which can only be reached by introducing a system of
issuing and continuously examining discharge permits for significant industrial and
mining enterprises with regard to BAT/BAP.

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Impact indicators for the implementation of the results/targets necessary to achieve the sector
objective, have been identified as follows:
Decreasing pollution (heavy metals and micropollutants) in line with the EU norms,
at industrial plants with discharge bigger than 0.1 t COD/day, by using BAT/BEP,
by the year 2010
It is expected that through the introduction of BAT and BEP regulations and taking into
account EU norms in identified hot spots, the pollution will be reduced by the year 2010.
Successful implementation of BAT/BAP will be assessed through the established system
of monitoring of effluents and registering the values of pollution parameters.
Decreasing pollution in line with BAT and BEP, by the year 2010, by the
construction of pre-treatment plants
Results obtained by building and using the WWTPS in line with BAT and BEP will be
evaluated through the established control system against the monitoring standards and
specific pollution parameters.
Adoption by industrial enterprises of internationally approved quality and
environmental management systems (e.g. EMAS; ISO 9000/14000), by the year 2005
Through the policy of adoption and application of internationally approved quality and
environmental management systems, enforced through legal regulations, successful
production in line with principles of sustainable development will be achieved, and
consequently, required level of protection of DRB secured.
Establishment of inventory of existing and abandoned landfills and application of
appropriate measures to eliminate pollution of surface and ground water in old and
newly constructed landfills, by the year 2010
Resolving the problem of hazardous and harmful industrial waste leads to a decrease in
pollution of ground water. Through periodic monitoring of water quality and control of
potable water sources, particularly on localities where toxic and hazardous substances
were observed, the effect of achieved results will be determined.

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5.3.
Land Use - Agriculture
5.3.1. Situation Analysis
5.3.1.1.
Importance of the Sector, Analysis of Stakeholders and Activities Leading
to Water Pollution and Environmental Degradation
The whole Danube river basin has an important fraction of the world's agricultural resources,
agriculture having a long and well-known tradition. Fertile areas along the middle and lower parts
of the Danube rank among the most important agricultural regions in Europe. Agriculture, a
traditionally prominent branch of economy, covers different activities, including crop production,
livestock, fish farming and forest management. Intensification of land use was made possible
through conversion of large parts of wetlands. Except for Germany and Austria, the countries of the
Danube basin entered transition in 1989-1990 with a common heritage in agriculture: exceptionally
large cooperative-size state-owned farms and collective production.
In the middle and lower Danube countries, size and production were under the former communist
regime the only measures of success in the agricultural sector philosophy, known as conventional
farming. The consequences of too little attention being paid to sustainable agricultural practices,
waste management or water pollution, were the creation of very large intensive pig farms that
produced large quantities of waste. Wastewater containing pollutants were discharged directly into
the rivers and contaminated solid wastes were dumped in landfills close to water courses where
leachate polluted soil and groundwater. Discharges to rivers contaminated sediments. Pollutants
damaged the ecosystems and contaminated drinking water sources ultimately endangering human
health. Collective farms destroyed trees and created extensive fields where the same crop was
grown repeatedly. This approach to farming was not sustainable and large quantities of cheap
fertilizers and pesticides were used, polluting rivers and groundwater, while the absence of
windbreaks encouraged soil erosion. The pesticides were dumped on land with minimum
protection. A consequence of the reduction in the use of mineral and organic fertilizers is a
negative humus balance resulting in a decrease in soil fertility and agricultural crop productivity.
The collapse of historical markets has reduced the price of products. The return of the land to
private owners, who could not afford newly expensive agrochemical, had improved the situation
but there is still an urgent need to return to land use patterns which will be sustainable in the long
run.
The goals of the sector policies aim to permanently reduce the use of agrochemical, reduce soil
erosion and ensure effective management of manure from intensive animal farms. The awareness-
raising campaign and training of the farmers focus on good agricultural practices, ways to reduce
erosion from agricultural land and the reduction in pollution from large pig farms by adopting
innovative technologies and using nutrient rich manure as fertilizers.
The concepts of sustainable development and sustainable agriculture have been identified as long-
term goals of the Danube River Protection Convention having a world-wide perspective, some of
which have found a permanent place in the national and international policy making of the
countries in the Danube river basin. The first significant step in the agrarian reform supported by
all the parties involved in the middle and lower parts of Danube was made when privatisation
started in 1990-1991. The process was accompanied by changes in the ownership configuration,
crop structure, animal production and technologies applied.
The most important essential elements of the reform process in the macro-agrarian economy of the
whole Danube basin included (1) price and trade liberalisation, (2) land privatisation, (3) the
establishment of the institutional structures required by transition economy and (4) considerably
improved agrarian financing since 1994. The region's agrarian economy is still struggling to
reconcile the requirements of transition with the overall economic situation, with most progress

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being made by the EU candidate countries (CEFTA countries) in particular. However, the
agriculture reform is still incomplete in the countries of the Danube basin aspiring to EU accession
in the next few years, the largest gaps being in the institutional framework and in rural financial
systems.
Since the beginning of 1990, as a result of the economic transition to a market-oriented economy, a
significant reduction in the total agricultural production and livestock has been observed (see
Annex IV).
The relatively rapid decrease in agricultural production had already stopped in 1993-1994 and
continued to decrease from 1995 on, as presented in table 5.3.1-1.
Table 5.3.1-1
Production indices for agriculture 1989-1991 = 100
Country/
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
year
Austria
97.4
103.2
99.2
100.0
100.7
99.4
100.3
104.1
104.7
99.6
100.7
99.9
Bulgaria
106.2
105.4
110.2
101.7
88.1
87.4
69.9
69.0
78.0
63.8
60.5
60.6
Croatia
64.7
61.2
56.6
58.2
60.0
54.3
55.2
Czech
98.7
81.4
85.9
84.7
80.1
80.2
Republic
Germany
101.1
101.2
101.1
101.6
97.3
94.0
90.1
88.2
89.9
91.8
103.4
93.9
Hungary
100.1
105.1
102.7
96.7
100.6
78.5
71.0
71.7
70.8
79.7
61.4
79.8
Moldova
74.6
79.9
62.7
65.9
59.4
62.8
61.4
Republic
Romania
105.8
110.9
108.0
94.7
97.3
79.3
96.8
93.8
101.7
91.9
99.5
93.6
Slovakia
81.4
77.2
73.1
75.9
77.2
66.9
Slovenia
75.7
85.9
93.6
98.1
102.7
98.3
101.3
Yugoslavia
94.6
89.3
92.5
96.4
101.9
100.5
101.2
The recent change has resulted in substantial positive economic corrections, helping the new
owner and stopping the pollution of natural resources. The switch to sustainable agricultural
practices is a long-term target of the Strategic Action Plan and Danube River Protection
Convention. The Convention was one of the first initiatives taken by the Danube countries towards
the conservation, improvement and rational use of surface and ground water, control of hazards and
contributing to the reduction of polluting loads of the Black Sea from the sources in the Danube
basin. A significant change has occurred in the market behavior of agrochemical producers: they
have started providing their products on credit, thus creating opportunities for an increased use of
agrochemical by farmers, with a direct effect on pollution. The recently- developed private sector is
very fragile and lacks sufficient support. Finally, the institutional reforms have been accelerated
since 1995, spurred by the challenges of the prospective EU accession. However, due to the general
economic recession, the actual institutional structures of agriculture still call for substantial
improvements.
Since 1989, the countries have oriented their commercial priorities and adopted the line of
integration into European economic structures. The process started in 1993 with the signing of the
European Agreement for the accession to the European Communities, which aims at the gradual
establishment of free commercial zones. The foreseen process of EU integration greatly depends on
the approximation and harmonisation of the agricultural legislation with EU legislation in several
main areas: veterinary medicine, plan protection, quarantine and agrochemistry, standards and
metrology and agrarian policy. One main point of reference is the White Paper for preparation of
associated CEE states for integration into the uniform EU market developed by the European
Commission. The White Paper contains a list of approximately 200 main agricultural acts of
primary significance for the harmonisation process. In 1998, positive trends became visible in the
sector. The private sector faces serious obstacles due to unfavourable legislative, financial and

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organisational conditions. The new owners have still no experience in the field of agricultural
technology and land management. The countries preparing for EU membership introduced the EU
Common Agricultural Policy. Moreover, the land privatisation is largely moving closer to
completion in all the regions of the Danube basin. A particular task facing all the countries located
in the Danube basin is the harmonisation of their national water and environmental legislation with
EU regulations and standards. The legal framework for environmental management of water
resources and ecosystems established by both Germany and Austria, the only EU members in the
Danube basin, is perceived as fully adequate and compatible with the EU provisions.
The pressure on water resources resulting from the intensification of agricultural practices and the
intensity of inorganic nitrogen fertilizer use have contributed to the extension of the controlling
agricultural water pollution policies. In the EU member countries located in the Danube basin,
Germany and Austria, with market-oriented economies and high level of economic development,
policies for controlling agricultural water pollution incorporated a mix of voluntary regulatory and
incentives based measures. A recent Agreement on Agriculture, along with the planned
enlargement of the EU to include countries of the middle and lower Danube regions, paves the way
for the introduction of efficient supplementary incentives for agricultural pollution abatement.
The legislation is mainly harmonized with the regulations of the EU, but economic situation caused
by economic sanctions (Yugoslavia) or transition period (the other Danube countries) has greatly
disrupted its implementation. Those countries in which the general economic restoration has also
been instituted have made the greatest progress in reforming the sector.
The stakeholders responsible for the agricultural sector are the key players in the implementation
of the Strategic Action Plan and the National Action Plans. The key change agents include the
public authorities, public and private enterprises, NGOs and the general public, all acting as both
citizens and consumers. The stakeholders can be classified in three groups of organizations, (1)
decision -makers (2) polluters and (3) affected stakeholders.
(1) The organizations in charge of the development and implementation of policy guidelines and
legislation and their enforcement include ministries such as ministry of the environment, of natural
resources, of agriculture and forestry and ­ in some countries ­ the ministry of regional
development. The governments of the countries are responsible for creating favorable conditions
supporting intersector co-operation. Municipalities, environmental and water inspectorates,
scientific and professional bodies, research and educational institutions, river basin committees,
project sponsors and funding agents, mass media and NGOs belong to the same group of
organizations having a role in promoting pollution reduction measures.
(2) The group of polluters consists of large public and private farms, household crops and animal
and fish farms that are based on intensive production and lack the knowledge of the appropriate use
of agrochemicals.
(3) The affected parties include population exposed to high health risks, living in intensively used
agricultural areas and the farmers themselves, all relying on the contaminated local drinking water
sources. The ecosystem is also adversely influenced by the environmental consequences of
inappropriate agricultural activities. The water supply and sanitation utilities and the water users
(including forest and farmland owners) may be also negatively influenced by the absence of cost
coverage and high water prices.
The impact of the agricultural sector on the surface and groundwater quality mostly originates from
non-point sources - particularly farming and intensive crop production in the lowlands - and point
sources - primarily large livestock and fish farms.
The main activities contributing to water pollution include inappropriate land and water
resources management (large-scale production farming, improper inland water management,
environmentally unfriendly exploitation of forests, inappropriate wetlands management, inefficient

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flood prevention and control hydraulic structures; elimination of buffering and self-purification
elements; soil erosion); improper fish farm management (fish farming through inadequate use of
piscicol ponds); inadequate use of pesticides and fertilizers (plant cultivation, viticulture, fruit
growing); inadequate treatment of animal farm wastes (unsuitable manure disposal, improper
storage of wastes from livestock farming, discharge of liquid waste without pre-treatment);
transport through waste oil from agricultural machinery; the war effects and the changes in
ownership and the economic conditions.
5.3.1.2.
Current Strengths/Assets
The use of natural resources, trade liberalization, the development and the use of knowledge, and
the role of the governments represent important policy issues in sustainable agriculture. There is a
general agreement that the implementation of the concepts must involve not only ecological
aspects, but also economic and socio-cultural circumstances. The countries have been paying
increasing attention to human health effects when setting regulations for the use of pesticides and
their trade. In many countries of the basin, the regulators have banned the import and use of
pesticides classified as potentially toxic.
In addition, several successful integrated pest management programmes are under way, especially
in the countries of the upper and middle parts of the Danube basin.
Macroeconomic framework development for agricultural sector
Some features of the macroeconomic framework facilitates the creation of private market
institutions, market information systems, viable financial institutions serving the
agricultural sector efficiently and adequate infrastructure and logistics. The national
policies of self-sufficiency at any cost or of growth with no regard to environmental costs
are of the past. In view of the significant damage done by agricultural activities to the
natural environment, the governments of the Danube basin are committed to a
development policy that integrates environmental considerations. Such a policy enables
the conservation of natural resources, the avoidance of irreversible damage to the
environment and the achievement of long term economic growth on a sustainable basis.
The introduction of policies in some countries during transition, that force producers to
compete in open markets leads to restructuring away from conventional farming and
towards less polluting agricultural practices. Favorable impacts on the water resources
quality protection came from price liberalization and removal of subsidies, privatization,
competitive agroprocessing and services for agricultural markets, reform of taxation,
interest and exchange rates in some countries. The impacts of these policy changes
include the downsizing of operations in a number of large farms, outright closures for
reasons of unacceptably high inefficiencies, low competitiveness and pollution impacts.
Besides the removal of subsidies, the elimination of barriers to both domestic and foreign
trade has played an important role in attaining and maintaining input prices at their
economic levels in some countries of the region.
Qualified training and scientific centers
There are qualified training and scientific centers for implementing a sustainable and
integrated approach to agriculture and land use management. They represent a nucleus of
knowledge and technical competence necessary for promoting sustainable agriculture.
The transition has provided a unique opportunity for farmers to improve their knowledge
on farming that uses low agrochemical input or extensive biological farming. There is a
sufficient level of scientific expertise that easily translates into advice on the rational use
of pesticides and fertilizers and the preservation of genetic diversity. There is a large body
of qualified experts able to develop educational and informational programmes on
successful models for sustainable land use or on adjusting agricultural methods to avoid

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excessive fertilization due to the overuse of nitrates. Applied research programmemes
provide the scientific information needed by both farmers and policy makers in order to
manage and improve the quality of the environment throughout the river basin by
focusing on the national priorities of the Danube countries.
Agricultural extension services
In some countries of the basin, the agricultural extension services represent a valuable asset
required for reducing the negative influences of agricultural practices, improving the
farmers' knowledge and providing them with training in new technologies and advice on
technical and management issues. Sustainable farming methods involving input, investment
and cost reduction have already been elaborated. Integrated plant protection,
implementation of biological protection in agriculture, introduction of crop rotation, organic
farming and forecasting services are all in place and have the ability to encourage
sustainable farming and good agricultural practices. The organization of institutionalized
co-operation between water suppliers and agricultural sector in order to ensure an adequate
provision of safe drinking water is a very successful tool for sustainable farming.
Environmental legislation
Environmental legislation in support of adequate agricultural practices was developed
after 1990. The ongoing streamlining process toward EU accession is a major asset in the
region. Existing national laws and legislation that define goals and establish priorities,
clear standards for setting safe limits for pollutants being discharged and regulatory
regime and consistent enforcement of these standards, are important possessions of the
governments of the Danube countries. Transport, handling and storage of hazardous
substances are regulated. Adequate provisions for monitoring and enforcement of
international, national and local standards, conventions and programs reinforce the
credibility of the environmental authorities and governments. Open access to
environmental and health information is a prerequisite for public participation accepted
and ensured by adequate legislation in the whole Danube basin.
Restored ownership of agricultural land
Land reform introduced measures to facilitate a speedy consolidation of land ownership
and changes in farm sizes. The agricultural transition agenda after 1990 started with the
transfer of land tenure to individuals, which included the transfer through assignment of
use right without ownership. Through privatization of land, the restitution to former
owners and distribution to workers were adopted by most of the countries of the basin.
Legislated after 1990, the land reform is close to completion and agriculture is now
largely individualized in all the countries of the Danube region. Privately-owned smaller
and larger viable farms are the outstanding features of the farming system in some
countries, with services and transferable ownership rights.
Cost recovery
Cost recovery represents the most important tool in promoting sustainability and
obtaining investment funds needed to finance water pollution reduction projects in the
basin. The newly-adopted legal framework has facilitated the use of several policy
instruments, including environmental permits and licenses, user charges, pollution
charges, subsidies, legal environmental liabilities and other appropriate market based
economic instruments. The governments of the Danube countries recognize the challenges
involved in implementing economic instruments aimed at addressing environmental
problems and the responsible ministries approved their environmental action programmes
and plans that provide the guidelines for the targeted national strategies and the policy
actions of greatest benefits in the short and long run. The countries of the Danube basin are
at a crossroad in their efforts to promote environmentally sustainable development and
introduce market economy into the agricultural sector.

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5.3.1.3.
Analysis of Transboundary Effects
The physical (size of the drainage area and the river discharge) and geographical features, and the
economic, social and political dimensions influence the transboundary relationships that relate to
water quality and pollution in the basin. Numerous problems related to human health are of
significant transboundary importance, as the occurrence and spread of water related diseases do not
respect the basin boundaries. Agricultural activities also result in transboundary effects of high
importance for the whole region of the Danube River Basin. One of the consequences is the process
of eutrophication of surface throughout the basin and in the Black Sea. The most serious agricultural
and land use related pollution problems have been identified at the national and basinwide levels as
hot spots which were evaluated and ranked on the basis of their impact on significant impact areas
identified in the basin. The transboundary effects might primarily reflect on surface water and in
some parts on groundwater as well, causing pollution and thereby presenting a threat to the health of
the people who mainly use this water for drinking. This also affects the water used for irrigation of
agricultural crops and leads to pollution of soil and plants, ultimately damaging human and animal
organisms. The implementation of the identified alternative measures aimed at reducing pollution
causing transboundary effects in the Danube countries will significantly contribute to the protection
of the Danube Delta and other wetlands as well as the Black Sea ecosystems. The following
transboundary effects have been considered for the countries included in the Danube basin:
Effects on surface and ground water
In some parts of the basin, heavy pollution of surface and groundwater as a result of the
excessive application of agrochemicals has caused health problems involving high
treatment costs. An adequate supply of safe drinking water is a basic human requirement.
The contamination of drinking water sources by microorganisms and chemicals,
including crop protection products exceed levels, which constitutes a hazard to human
health in many locations of the basin. The pollution from pesticides and nitrate, the
overexploitation and intensified drainage, leading to lowering of groundwater levels and
salt water intrusion and the point pollution from improper dumping of agricultural wastes
have adversely impacted the multifunctional use of groundwater ecosystems. The
pollution of waters, their mud silting and increased erosion of soil will increase the
negative impact on agrophytocenosis that will be considerably changed due to the soil
deterioration. This will in turn affect the structure of agricultural production.
Reduction in biodiversity in the Danube basin and the Danube Delta
About half of the loads of nutrients discharged within the borders of the Danube basin are
from agriculture. Toxic micropollutants damage ecosystems and eutrophication is a
problem in many parts of the Danube network. Sediments have become contaminated and
their transport through the Danube to the Black Sea is considerably intensified by the
increased runoff coefficient in the surface waters, due to bad forest and land management.
Once in the aquatic ecosystems, these substances alter the water quality and biodiversity.
Moreover, the Danube flood plains and Delta represent also a permanent regeneration
(spawning) space for many marine fish species (such as sturgeons and mackerels) which
might be disturbed. Degradation of biodiversity caused by the inadequate management of
forests and animal breeding within the private sector is also found in several parts of the
basin. Flora and fauna in river basins is also affected, because the misbalance in
biocenosis led to a misbalance in the structure of flora and fauna of the Danube basin.
The pollution of water will inevitably lead to a misbalance in the plant and animal world,
both in water and in riparian zones. Inadequate farming practices in the Danube flood
plains and the Delta as well as in inland river flood plains, together with the inappropriate
management of animal husbandry units have resulted in the transport of important
polluters into the Danube River and further on into the Danube Delta (mainly NPK
compounds and pesticide residues).

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Strategic Action Plan for the Danube River Basin 1995 ­ 2005, Revision 1999
105
Tourism activities affected
The possibilities for the development of recreational tourism in the Danube basin will be
reduced, this in turn affecting the utilization of agricultural potentials. The consequences
of water pollution will be reflected on fishing and fish breeding, contamination of
drinking water sources that threaten human health or landscape features and in reducing
the use potential of the water (water supplies, tourism and leisure).
Increased sedimentation in water reservoirs
Due to stronger effects of erosion processes, enhanced by the cutting of forests, the
waters of the Danube basin will be mud silted, this in turn leading to increased
sedimentation in Danube water reservoirs. Some of these sediments accumulated in the
reservoirs will influence the floods routing capacity and some are mobilized during floods
and high flows through Danube network to the Black Sea.
Risk of soil contamination
Wastewater containing toxic contaminants were discharged directly into the rivers and
contaminated solid wastes were dumped in landfills close to watercourses where seepage
pollutes the soil and groundwater. The negative impact, i.e. the damage done to
agriculture may be seen as direct damages arising from erosion of the soil, flooding of
farming land, i.e. destruction of material goods, and as indirect ones, arising from the
decrease in the crop yield and a consequent decrease in income, due to pollution of waters
and impossibility to use them for irrigation. This negative impact will also reflect in the
pollution and destruction of the land itself.
Changes in flow regime
Changes in flows and canal capacities result from various activities such as embankment,
drainage or irrigation works, hydraulic structures and deforestation. The cumulative effect
of all these activities is leading to important changes in the flow capacity regime,
widening on the one side the gap between minimum and maximum flowing capacities,
and hence either non-compliance with minimum admissible regime for downstream
users, even restricting the sanitary regime on inland rivers, and on the other side
triggering extreme overflows, resulting in non-compliance with international conventions
related to high water levels. Mostly affected by this unfavourable balance is the Danube
Delta - an area still in the process of formation and extremely sensitive to any distortions
caused by hydrological and soil balances diverting the natural evolution course.
5.3.2. Problem Analysis
5.3.2.1.
Sector Core Problem
In the eleven National Planning Workshop reports (the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary,
Slovenia, Croatia, Yugoslavia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Romania, Moldova and Ukraine) the
sector problem identified in relation to the relevant national problems is:
"INADEQUATE LAND MANAGEMENT AND IMPROPER AGRICULTURAL
PRACTICES IN THE DANUBE RIVER BASIN"
Growing evidence shows that due to intense demand and poor land management, the cropland in
many parts of the basin is in a state of rapid decline. Once-productive land is either washed away
by rain or has become dry and infertile. Intense fertilizer and pesticide use is contaminating
drinking wells and nearby lakes and watercourses. Poor land management results in excessive soil
loss from erosion. Competition for water in several sectors of agriculture reduces the amount of
land that could be irrigated, resulting in lower food production, higher prices and economic decline.
In addition to being eroded or salinized, farmland is being rapidly converted to non-productive

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Danube Pollution Reduction Programme
uses, through expanding cities or new highways. Finally, the use of subsidies in much of the basin
is an underlying cause of creating a massive unsustainable agriculture system. The recent dramatic
changes in government policies aim to promote sustainable farming practices and meet the need to
protect and enhance the soil and the environment. One component of a sustainable agriculture - the
cornerstone of a sustainable community - is self-sufficiency and sustainability of farms. This can be
complemented by providing technical and financial resources needed to transform the current
agricultural systems and build them around the biological principle of sustainability. The principle
implies protection of the environment parallel with high-quality food production, conservation of
soils, energy, and water; recycling of soil nutrients, renewable energy for farm machinery, and
restoration of damaged land.
5.3.2.2.
Causes Leading to Environmental Problems
A.
Immediate causes (hot spots, diffuse sources of pollution)
The following immediate causes of point and diffuse sources discharges, integrated from the basin-
wide point of view, were identified:
Inadequate use and application of pesticides and fertilizers
In most of the Danube basin the excess fertilizers wash into lakes and water bodies
disturbing the natural balance while irrigated agriculture faces several constraints, most
importantly groundwater depletion and tight competition for water supplies. Only
partially used in the upper Danube region, the organic farming system relies on
alternative, less environmentally harmful means to control pests, excluding synthetic
fertilizers, pesticides, growth regulators and livestock additives. On these farms, crops
depend only on crop rotation, green manure, and animal wastes and off-farm organic
wastes to fertilize their fields and maintain soil quality.
Discharge of liquid waste from farms without pretreatment
Many areas of the basin are strongly affected by large-scale intensive farming that are
significant point sources of microbiological pollution. Most of the livestock enterprises
do not have satisfactory wastewater treatment facilities and discharge their untreated
liquid manure directly into the nearby water bodies or the environment. However, in
some cases, livestock has been reduced considerably (up to 70%) between 1985 and
1992, especially pigs and poultry.
Leakage of on-site septic tanks
Soil is the receiver of natural but also man-made pollution coming from polluted
agricultural practices and incautious disposal of agrochemical and wastes. In many areas
of the Danube basin, the leakage of on-site septic tanks is dispersed over an area, leached
into groundwater or distributed to consumer with the crop producing environmental
health hazards
Inappropriate forest management and land use
Forests cover more than 35% of the Danube river basin. A sharp rise in the prices of fuel
and energy resources (due to elimination of subsidies) has led to the growth of both
planned and illegal cutting that has aggravated the situation in the forest fund. The
situation has become aggravated, in some parts of the Danube with the increase of
livestock head, illegal pasturage and elimination of sensitive forests or extensive forestry
management. When harvested trees were not replaced, sediments from increased erosion
polluted streams and erosion have delayed the recovery of the forests.

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Strategic Action Plan for the Danube River Basin 1995 ­ 2005, Revision 1999
107
B.
Root causes
Agrarian reform
The reform of the agricultural sector has prevented the farmers from immediately
adjusting to environmental, social and economic conditions. The governments direct or
indirect subsidies of chemical pesticides and fertilizers still exist while the practices that
sharply reduce soil erosion and loss of soil fertility by sustainable soil and forest
resources management are still missing in the middle and lower Danube countries.
Weakness of the legal framework
The recent shift from chemical-intensive, environmentally damaging agriculture to
alternative pest management solutions has called for the implementation of precautionary
measures. Most of the countries of the middle and lower Danube regions have not yet
been able to redefine their policies and programmes in a way that would address the
needs of the consumers. Alternatively, they have failed to support the basic land reform to
ensure more equitable access to productive resources and to facilitate the achievement of
a sustainable agriculture.
Absence of agricultural education of farmers
The limited knowledge and ignorance of farmers in using chemicals without considering
the human health hazards facilitated the use of inadequate agricultural practices that
produced severe water quality and soil pollution. There is an urgent need to shift the
farmer's best mix of available pest control strategies towards a greater reliance on
environmentally sound non-chemical methods. There is still a strong need in almost the
entire Danube basin for support to research, development and implementation of
integrated non-chemical pest control, soil fertility, and animal management methods.
5.3.2.3.
Environmental Effects
The immediate effects of pollutant discharges from point and non-point sources that were identified
considering the pollution influence on identified Significant Impact Areas, wetlands and on the
Black Sea ecosystems include the following immediate and ultimate effects:
Immediate effects
Surface and groundwater pollution
The chemical applied to the fields, the accidental spilling, the use of herbicides to control
weeds in irrigation canals have all contributed to the worsening of surface and
groundwater in whole areas of the Danube basin. The value of the wetlands in reducing
polluting inputs from agriculture has often been underestimated. Many of the wetlands
have been lost or degraded by land drainage to create new farmland and by regulating
river flows so as to eliminate periodic flooding.
Change of soil structure
In many parts of the basin, pollution has irreversibly affected the soil structures. Soil is
exposed to the erosion forces of water and wind. Inappropriate livestock production and
agricultural practices have affected the soil fertility and are responsible for the
deterioration of soils in the middle and lower Danube regions.

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108
Danube Pollution Reduction Programme
Ultimate effects
Deterioration of landscape
Unacceptable concentrations of various pollutants in receiving waters and unsound land
management practices developed a chain of repercussions having adverse effects on
biodiversity. The species richness, the ecosystem complexity and genetic diversity are
significantly affected especially in the lower areas of Danube basin.
Decrease of life standard
The present farming systems do not ensure a long-term sustainability of agricultural (soil,
water, energy) or biological resources for future generation. The current agricultural
policies neither ensure the welfare of population nor eliminate the public health burden
the agrochemicals place - through residues in food, direct exposure, soil and groundwater
contamination - on farmers, farm workers, consumers and the community at large.

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110
Danube Pollution Reduction Programme
5.3.3. Description of Sector Objectives
5.3.3.1.
Description of SECTOR Objective
Considering the vital goals of the Strategic Action Plan derived from the objectives of the Danube
River Protection Convention for improving the aquatic ecosystem and biodiversity and the
reduction of pollution loads entering the Black Sea, the development objective of the sector Land
Use ­ Agriculture is:
"IMPLEMENTATION OF GOOD AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES AND MECHANISMS
FOR SUSTAINABLE LAND MANAGEMENT"
This specific sector objective should contribute to the ICPDR-Convention Objective:
"PROTECTION AND SUSTAINABLE USE OF WATERS
OF THE DANUBE RIVER BASIN"
To achieve the sustainable and environmentally sound development of water resources in the
Danube basin, greater attention should be paid by the countries to the formulation and
implementation of a national policy, whose specific sector objectives are:
i. to develop and utilize water resources in an environmentally sound, economically
efficient and equitable manner,
ii. to implement the precautionary action approach by switching from chemical-intensive
agriculture to alternative pest management solutions,
iii. to implement policies and practices that reduce soil erosion and loss of fertility caused
by unsustainable soil and forest resources management, and
iv. to ensure long-term sustainability of agricultural resources for future generations.
v. to protect and restore the wetlands and their biodiversity.
5.3.3.2.
Expected Results (Outputs) and Targets by Sectors of Intervention
Agriculture is now largely individualized in the countries in the region. Despite the diversity of
problems, interests and priorities across the Danube river basin, the countries have agreed on
principles that emphasize the goals and actions of the SAP and have developed, during the last 5-10
years, comprehensive concepts for the sustainable use of the environment according to the specific
objectives of the Danube River Protection Convention. Agriculture is the worst cause of pollution
in many areas and therefore, the change to more sustainable, ecologically sound agricultural
management practices is a long-term target of the Strategic Action Plan.
The governments can implement this solution by:
i. creating predictable and consistent systems of various government policy instruments,
liberal incentives and market systems,
ii. introducing measures to facilitate a rapid consolidation of land ownership and changes
in farm size,
iii. supporting competitive, privately-owned agroprocessing and input supply,
iv. substantially increasing support for research, development and implementation of
ecologically sound agricultural management practices, soil fertility and animal
management methods, including biological pest control, cultural control, plant
breeding for resistance, and organic fertilization,
v. ensuring the long-term sustainability of agricultural resources,
vi. initiating inter-sectoral co-operation, and
vii. creating viable financial institutions for privatized agriculture.

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Strategic Action Plan for the Danube River Basin 1995 ­ 2005, Revision 1999
111
Therefore, for achieving sustainability in agricultural development and land use, the following
expected results/outputs have to be accomplished in relation to the Sector Objective:
(i)
Application of integrated land and water management
The holistic management of water as a finite and vulnerable resource and the integration of
sustainable land use principles should be of great importance to the Danube countries for
determining their future actions. The national governments should adopt integrated management of
water and land based on comprehensive ecosystem assessment, seriously taking into consideration
the introduction of sustainable agricultural practices, drawing policy plans and feasibility
frameworks for designing financial implications and changes in operational elements, monitoring,
planning and management structures. In addition, they should improve co-operation between the
various sectors.
The existing / on-going projects are already running in all the countries of the Danube river basin
that deal with the preparation of relevant legislation and policy which include the intersectorality of
water management, agriculture and land use. For practical implementation of legislation and policy
measures, the goals and priorities have been defined and the structures for decisions have been
established. The policy makers in the basin are preparing adequate provisions to ensure a consistent
enforcement of national and local standards for the implementation of integrated land and water
resources management.
The proposed projects that can contribute towards improving the situation include:
reviewing and improving the current policies and programme objectives that promote an
integrated approach to water resources and land use management,
preparing training courses for catchment management planning, and
developing demonstration pilot projects to encourage the integrated approach to water
management and consideration related to the use of land.
(ii)
Adoption of adequate use of pesticides and fertilizers
Several activities are required in order to achieve the appropriate use of pesticides and fertilizers,
including: the development and implementation of a suitable set of regulations and economic
incentives to promote the introduction of sustainable agricultural services; the implementation of
various pilot projects involving sustainable farming and the introduction of trade marks for
products of integrated agricultural production. The results of applied research should be evaluated
before a follow-up to such pilot projects is considered for future development. It will be necessary
to encourage the research, development and use of organic farming techniques adapted to local
conditions. Over the past years, farmers in the basin have gained experience in farming with low
agrochemical input because they didn't have the money to buy these substances. Thus, a good basis
of knowledge exists, which can be improved with alternative methods for minimizing inputs.
Raising public awareness is also an important process contributing to the development of
sustainable agriculture and appropriate pesticide use.
The following project(s) have been identified for this activity:
The existing/on-going projects include the preparation of local Agenda 21 and
demonstration and pilot projects in several areas of the basin.
The proposed projects aim at introducing sustainable agricultural production on pilot
farms, monitoring the ecological impacts of fertilizers and pesticides in irrigated areas,
completing warning and laboratory systems, including systems for the exchange of
information, and urgently developing training systems for training farmers in the use of
sustainable methods.

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Danube Pollution Reduction Programme
(iii)
Proper treatment of wastewater discharged by farms
Until recently, the livestock farming sector has to a large extent been exempted from regulations.
This is reflected by the general lack of wastewater treatment plants or sufficient storage capacities
for manure for large animal husbandry units and by the significant air pollution in some regions
with extremely high numbers of animal stock. In order to achieve the objective of adequate
wastewater treatment, the government can contribute by mobilizing public opinion for setting
priorities for the remediation of the impacts in the main activities: sustainable livestock breeding,
wastewater discharges from farms and regulations in manure management.
The existing /on-going projects in the basin are concentrated on training farmers and agricultural
advisors in ways to assist small farms with the introduction of sustainable livestock breeding,
identifying solutions on management of animal waste produced by pig farms, and enhancing
monitoring and control activities.
The planned projects aim to develop a system of economic incentives and legal regulations for
sustainable livestock breeding and implement standards for good agricultural practices. The
establishment of information systems, rehabilitation of inappropriate manure deposits and
construction of wastewater treatment plants at animal farms can greatly improve the presently
critical situation. The completion of pilot and demonstration projects for manure handling, storage,
disposal and application, represents a vital element. Other projects in preparation aim to define
eligibility criteria for subventions and subsidies for the sustainable breeding of livestock,
preparation of an inventory (register) of polluters, implementation of. programme for raising the
farmers' awareness and knowledge abut the introduction of good agricultural practices on pilot
farms. Most of the proposed projects are geared towards reducing the pollution from big animal
farms by adopting innovative technologies and using nutrient-rich manure as fertilizer. These
projects play an important role due to the effects of large animal farms on nutrient loads in the
Danube and consequently on the eutrophication of the Black Sea.
(iv)
Prevention of accelerated runoff and erosion
One of the highest priorities must be to end excessive soil erosion in all the Danube countries.
Governments can promote land conservation through a variety of programmes and laws. Soil
erosion controls help not only to preserve farmland, but also protect soil nutrients vital to soil
fertility that is essential for increasing its productivity. Soil fertility can be enhanced by the use of
fertilizers and crop rotation and by human wastes for sewage treatment plants.
The existing and planned projects in the Danube basin aim to reduce extreme conditions of
hydrological regimes, through various hydraulic structures, forestation and other land use
measures. The accumulated bedload and suspended matters containing toxic pollutants are
carefully addressed through planned operational techniques practised by most of the dam operators.
As the inadequate agricultural routines practised in the croplands can be also responsible for
accelerated erosion, the proposed projects look at the introduction of sustainable land practices and
to the introduction and use of the most effective economic instruments to control the adverse
effects of accelerated run-off.
(v)
Adequate protection and restoration of wetlands and floodplains
Wetlands play a valuable role in contributing to pollution reduction and sustainable management of
the Danube River Basin. It is therefore necessary to secure the size and functioning of the existing
areas through better legal protection and resource management. In addition, degraded wetlands
should be restored throughout the basin in order to increase their performance, including
selfpurification (uptake of nutrients), flood retention, gene pool (habitat and species diversity).

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Strategic Action Plan for the Danube River Basin 1995 ­ 2005, Revision 1999
113
Respective projects include:
designation of new protected wetlands and upgrading of the existing protection status of
the already protected areas
establishment of restoration programmes for former wetlands along the entire river
courses
establishment of species protection programmes aimed at maintaining the genetic
diversity
5.3.3.3.
Important Assumptions for the Sector Results
There are several assumptions of vital importance for the implementation of policies and strategies
of the Danube basin and the achievement of the identified sector objectives and expected results as
defined by the present SAP.
The most important assumption for the implementation of the sector objective include:
Governments are progressively implementing adequate policies leading to
sustainable land use (wetland restoration) and agricultural practices.
Integrating land use policies and practices with water management in the Danube river
basin plays an important role in the formulation of the countries' water strategies. The
application of the sustainable land use practices need to be seen in the context of political
structures and newly introduced privatization policies in the agriculture. Governments
should intensify their efforts to introduce a combination of market incentives and
regulatory policies to reduce pollution, soil erosion, water logging and runoff.
Governments should commit to introducing economic incentives and adopting land use
practices leading to a better protection of the environment and to a significant increase in
social and economic stability and living standard.
The important assumptions for achieving the expected results and outputs leading to the
achievement of the sector objectives have been identified as follows:
Increase intersectoral cooperation for capacity building in integrating
environmental considerations in development planning and decision making
This important assumption relates to the substantial increase in intersectoral cooperation
for strengthening capacity building in integrating environmental consideration in
development planning and decision for water and land use.
Implementation of precautionary approach to achieve sustainable agriculture and
rural development
This relates to the success of the implementation of the precautionary action approach in
the policies and practices of governments to achieve sustainable agriculture and rural
development. A further obstacle to change is reflected by the existence of aggressive
marketing strategies of the agrochemical industries in some of the Danube countries that
significantly contributed in several parts to increasing the problem of eutrophication.
Governments's support of research, development and implementation of sustainable
animal management methods
This includes the government's support of research, development and implementation of
sustainable animal management methods.

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Danube Pollution Reduction Programme
Conditions for implementing policies and practices that reduce soil erosion and loss
of fertility
This includes the creation, by the governments, of necessary conditions for implementing
policies and practices that reduce soil erosion and the loss of soil fertility caused by
unsustainable soil and forest management measures.
Governments' commitment to securing, maintaining and restoring wetlands in the
Danube River Basin
This relates to the need to expand the existing legal framework in order to better protect
and restore wetlands, in addition to enlarging the institutional capacity to implement
wetland management and restoration measures.
5.3.3.4.
Impact Indicators for the Sector Results
Based on the elements outlined in the 11 National Workshop reports and the connection to the
identified results of the actual Strategic Action Plan, the important impact indicators have been
identified. They define the contents of the objectives and results in operationally measurable terms
(quantity, quality, target groups, partner institutions, time period and place). They provide an
accurate picture of the situation and are measurable in a consistent way at an acceptable cost.
The impact indicators necessary to achieve the sector objective include:
Increased application of good agricultural practices by 15 % in large farms by the
year 2005 and by 20% by the year 2010
Through incentives and control systems for soil fertility, prevention and quarantine
services and pest control services, intensive ecological education of farmers, and by
properly using the land, conditions will be created for producing high-quality agricultural
products, protecting water quality and achieving sustainable agriculture. The EU is
struggling to develop indicators, but has to date not reached an agreement to establish any
additional statistical services. The Danube countries should initially follow the lessons
learned from the EU debate and its outcome, and monitor the progress indirectly, through
measurement of discharges and N, P and sediment concentrations, loads in the river, and
concentrations of pesticides in the river and groundwater.
The impact-related result can be assessed by measuring the percentage of increase during
the previous year, as measured by the annual number of permits issued for the large
agricultural units.
As a next step, middle-sized agricultural farms should also be included in the
enforcement programme for applying good agricultural practices and should be assessed
by environmental authorities.
The following impact indicators have been identified for sector results:
By the year 2010, the integrated management of river basins has been achieved in all
DRB countries, through inter­sectoral and international co-operation and
implementation of the EU directives
Integrating land use and water resources management considerations in inter-sector
planning and decision-making process for the entire catchment will contribute to a more
efficient use of water, allocation of development and improvement of natural ecosystems.

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Strategic Action Plan for the Danube River Basin 1995 ­ 2005, Revision 1999
115
By the year 2010, the number of certified organic farms will have increased by 20%,
and the N+P total fertilizer consumption on other farms will have stabilized at the
1998 level
Decreasing the application of chemical substances in agriculture and supporting the
switch to organic farming and sustainable agriculture will contribute towards the
improvement of lowland ecosystems (particularly wetlands and waters) and the
environment in general.
In other farms, those where organic farming has not been introduced yet, fertilizer
consumption needs to be stabilized.
By the year 2005, 50% of all animal farms with over 500 livestock units will have
been equipped with wastewater treatment plants, and by the year 2010 this figure
will have reached 75%
Livestock farming is one of the main point sources of pollution from agricultural
activities. To reduce the pollution, the development, implementation and enforcement of
the regulation should also be achieved. The assessment of efficiency of intervention in
ensuring capacity and creating new WWTP, different from those operating in the
reference year 1998, will allow the progress to be measured.
In agricultural landscapes, lengths of hedgerows, forest belts and wind breaks will
have increased by 25% by the year 2010 and 2000 km of regulated rives will have
been restored in the DRB
In arable lands, the liquidation of hedgerows and forest belts in favour of agricultural
production, has resulted in accelerated runoff and wind erosion of the top soil. As a
mitigating measure, the length of these hedgerows, forest belts and wind breaks will be
increased.
The restoration of regulated rivers will create more natural conditions (reduction of
accelerated runoff) to facilitate the development of riverine habitats (rehabilitation of in-
stream habitats and river banks).
Through the implementation of wetland priority projects, 110 000 ha of wetlands
will have been restored by 2005 and 140 000 ha by 2010
A study conducted as part of the GEF PRP has defined priority sites for initial restoration
of wetlands throughout the basin. 250 000 ha of such areas will have been restored by
2010.

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6.
Financing Mechanisms for Implementation of the ICPDR
Action Plan
6.1.
Existing Financing Mechanisms and Resources
6.1.1. Funding Mechanisms at National Level
All DRB countries have, to a certain extent, a system of specified funding sources and procedures
according to which typical water sector projects (such as small or medium size municipal WWTP)
are actually funded by a more or less "standard funding mix".
Except for Germany and Austria (and with some reservations Hungary and Yugoslavia) the DRB
countries do not really dispose of "standardised funding mechanisms" in the sense that a potential
public or private investor or project sponsor has a legal claim to a certain amount of public
subsidies which would constitute a reliable basis for the elaboration of an appropriate funding
schedule. Thus, in most of the countries, the elaboration of a project-specific funding schedule is
usually a long lasting process of negotiations and bargaining, especially for projects with small
equity contribution and need for high public subsidies or international funding assistance. The main
problem in this context is the prevailing "planning uncertainty" due to the fact that the probability
and extent of any public support for a particular project are usually not in the decision sphere of the
project investor.
Since 1992 eight of the DRB countries have established National Environmental Funds, and
Romania is currently in the process of installing a "Draft Environmental Fund". Income and
expenditure data for the particular funds are compiled for the most recent year for which data are
available in Table 6.1.1-1:
Table 6.1.1-1
National Environmental Funds in the Danube River Basin Countries
Annual
Annual
Surplus
Country
Year
Income
Expenditures
/Deficit
Million USD
Million USD
Million USD
Bulgaria (NEPF):
1997
9.1
4.2
4.9
Czech Republic (SEF):
1997
26.8
59.7
- 32.9
Hungary (CEPF):
1998
114.7
114.2
0.5
Moldova (NEF):
1996
0.3
0.3
0.0
Slovakia (SEF):
1997
30.8
29.6
1.2
Slovenia (Eco Fund)
1997
20.0
18.0
2.0
Romania (NEF):
1999
Ukraine (State Fund of Env.
1998
4.0
4.0
0.0
Protection)
Yugoslavia (NEPF):
1998
0.2
The annual budgets of the particular National Environmental Funds vary between about USD 0.3
million (Moldova) and about USD 115 million (Hungary). Apart from Hungary the budgets of the
National Environmental Funds are rather small compared to the prevailing capital requirements,
and cannot, from this point of view, be considered as substantial and efficient funding sources or
mechanism in the particular DRB countries.

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Danube Pollution Reduction Programme
6.1.2. National Funding Resources
There is a common understanding in all DRB countries that long-term financing needs have to be
met primarily from within the countries themselves. Consequently, there is a broad variety of
public funding sources for water quality and water management programmes and projects which
can be categorised as follows:
National budget funds of the relevant ministries;
(grants, concessional loans, guarantees);
Regional budget funds;
(grants, concessional loans);
Municipal budget funds;
(grants, concessional loans, operating subsidies);
Revenues from charges;
(for normal use of water and natural resources, discharge of wastewater, disposal of solid
waste);
Revenues from penalties and fines;
(for misuse of resources, environmental pollution, violation of legislation, etc.);
Revenues from concessions;
(for use or handling of water, wastewater, solid waste, natural resources, etc.);
Revenues from tied taxes and import duties;
(on land use, "harmful" commodities such a s fuels, cars, etc.);
Revenues from public services;
(water supply services, wastewater services, solid waste services);
Equity of public and private investors;
Commercial bank loans;
Others;
(donations, revenues from privatisation, etc.);
Economic and financial incentives improving net income or profit of project
sponsors;
(incentives on income tax , import tax , VAT, special transaction taxes, preferential
treatment of environment friendly investments and depreciation, goods and production
processes, credits, etc).
The importance of the particular categories of funding sources for particular purposes varies greatly
from country to country; some of the funding sources are either applied by all or the majority of the
DRB countries, others are applied by only a few countries.
The revenues from charges, fines, concessions and tied taxes are either used as direct funding
sources in a way that the local governments/municipalities can retain a certain portion for
environmental funding purposes, or indirectly, via public budgets or special funds, such as National
Environmental Funds or Water Management Funds. The actual practice of collecting these funding
sources is often not efficient and consequent, and it is sometimes hampered by inappropriate
administrative and institutional structures.
In general terms, most of the DRB countries do not, for the time being, dispose of a rational mix of
funding sources which is really suited to achieve the utmost provision of funds for water sector
investments.

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Strategic Action Plan for the Danube River Basin 1995 ­ 2005, Revision 1999
119
6.1.3. International Funding Resources
Constraints on the availability of domestic funding means, and the need for foreign exchange, make
the use of external financial resources very important in the short and medium term.
International financial assistance is provided by international financing institutions (IFIs), country
specific funds, international foundations or NGOs and by bilateral agreements as well as by private
foreign investors or commercial banks. The assistance is provided either directly or by means of
national financial intermediaries, either for particular projects or in the form of programmes. The
main funding organisations and sources for international co-funding of water sector programmes
and projects in the DRB countries can be summarised as follows:
World Bank (IBRD, IDA, IFC);
EBRD;
European Investment Bank;
EU-organisation and programmes (EU PHARE, PHARE-CBP, TACIS, ISPA);
UN-organisations and programmes (UNDP, UNEP, GEF, etc.);
Country-specific funds and assistance organisations;
(such as Japanese Grant Fund, Saudi Arab Fund, USAID, GTZ, etc.);
Country-specific development banks (such as KFW, NIB, etc);
International foundations and NGOs;
Bilateral assistance;
Foreign private investors (usually by joint venture investment capital);
Foreign commercial banks.
The most essential instruments of international financial assistance available for structural and non-
structural projects, i.e., programmes on the various administration levels of the recipient countries
are:
Grants (in the form of financial or technical assistance, donations from foundations, trust
funds, etc);
Concessional loans (with preferential terms regarding interest rate, maturity period,
grace period, subsidisation of interest payments, guarantees);
Loans at commercial terms (either in form of stand-alone loans, or senior, i.e.,
subordinated loans);
Guarantees (to facilitate equity investment or commercial bank financing);
Private investment capital (usually in the form of joint venture capital);
Debt-for-environment-swap;
Twinning arrangements (usually not in the form of fund transfer, but in the form of
know-how transfer between parties of similar interests).

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Danube Pollution Reduction Programme
6.2.
Appraisal of Financial Requirements for the Implementation of the
ICPDR Investment Programme
6.2.1. General
The types of actions dealt with in the framework of this SAP include: (i) policy and regulation, (ii)
public awareness, (iii) institutional strengthening and capacity building, (iv) public and private
sector investments in water pollution control and water management. Accordingly, the financing
needs fall into three categories:
Funds for preparatory technical activities, including: (i) preparatory studies, planning,
training, institutional strengthening and capacity building; (ii) programme design and
implementation; (iii) project identification, prioritisation and preparation (feasibility
level); (iv) demonstration and pilot projects;
Funds for capital investments related to water pollution control and water management;
Funds for project implementation, including: (i) operational training; (ii) institutional
strengthening; and (iii) programme and project follow up and monitoring.
6.2.2. Financial Requirements by Sector and Priority
From the evaluation of the project data dealt within the framework of the DRPRP the total capital
requirements of all selected projects in the DRB amount to about USD 5664 million.
The overwhelming portion of these capital requirements are dedicated to the municipal sector
(63%). The capital requirements for the industrial sector are in a range of 14% and for wetland
restoration (including cost of land) in the range of 20%; the requirements for agriculture, land use
and other projects are less than 3%.
The detailed capital requirements are compiled in Table 6.2.2-1 and illustrated in Figure 6.2.2-1.
Table 6.2.2-1
Financial Requirements for the Implementation of the ICPDR
Investment Programme by Sectors
Total Projects
Sector
Mil USD
%
Municipal
3566
63
Industrial
810
14
Agriculture
159
3
Wetlands
1116
20
General
14
0
Total
5664
100

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Strategic Action Plan for the Danube River Basin 1995 ­ 2005, Revision 1999
121
GRAPH 6.2.2 -1: COMPOSITION OF TOTAL INVESTMENT COSTS BY
TOTAL INVESTM ENTS
TOTAL INV ES TM ENTS
IN %
IN M IL US$
6 3 %
3 ,5 6 5 .6 2
1 4 %
8 0 9 .9 2
3 %
1 5 9 .0 0
1 ,1 1 6 .1 4
2 0 %
M unic ipa lity
Indus try
Agric ulture
W e tla nds
6.2.3. Financial Requirements by Effects
The capital requirements of the particular DRB counties for the implementation of the proposed
ICPDR investment programme are compiled on sector basis in Table 6.2.3-1. The countries with
the highest capital requirements of more than USD 500 million are Croatia, Bosnia &Herzegovina,
Yugoslavia, Romania and Austria.
Table 6.2.3-1
Financial Requirements of the Particular DRB Countries for the
Implementation of the ICPDR Investment Programme (by Sectors)
Country
Municipal
Industrial
Agriculture
Wetlands
General
Total
(Mil USD)
(Mil USD)
(Mil USD)
(Mil USD)
(Mil USD)
(Mil USD)
Germany
101
6
0
127
0
233
Austria
576
81
0
43
0
700
Czech
106
3
31
71
0
211
Republic
Slovakia
104
75
0
9
1
188
Hungary
90
58
0
313
0
460
Slovenia
280
55
7
0
0
342
Croatia
729
6
0
175
5
915
Bosnia-
222
48
15
80
0
365
Herzegovina
Yugoslavia
681
4
2
124
3
905
Bulgaria
199
97
0
22
0
318
Romania
360
255
40
101
3
759
Moldova
54
38
45
24
0
161
Ukraine
64
11
1
28
2
107
Total
3566
735
141
1116
14
5664
The financial requirements for the implementation of the ICPCR investment programme on Sub-
River Basin areas are compiled in Table 6.2.3-2. The Sub-River Basin with the significantly
highest capital requirements of more than USD 1200 million is the Sava river basin, followed by
the Drava-Mura basin with capital requirements of about 790 USD million.

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Danube Pollution Reduction Programme
Table 6.2.3-2
Financial Requirements for the Implementation of the ICPDR
Investment Programme on Sub-River Basin Areas
Sub-River Basin
Municipal
Industrial
Agriculture Wetlands
General
Total
(Mil USD)
(Mil USD)
(Mil USD)
(Mil USD)
(Mil USD)
(Mil USD)
1 Upper Danube
95
1
127
223
2 Inn
5
87
92
3 Austrian Danube
526
526
4 Morava
106
3
5
113
227
5 Vah ­ Hron
44
24
0
68
6 Panonian Central
136
67
32
235
Danube
7 Drava ­ Mura
333
7
7
446
792
8 Sava
983
100
15
133
1232
9 Tisa
225
63
5
90
382
10 Banat - Eastern
260
0
3
263
Serbia
11 Velika Morava
218
0
0
218
12 Mizia ­ Dobrudzha
199
96
22
317
13 Muntenia
340
67
2
63
473
14 Prut ­ Siret
69
117
23
28
237
15 Delta ­ Liman
26
0
62
88
Total
3565
632
59
1116
5372
Out of the total investment requirements of about USD 5521 million for the whole DRB a portion
of about USD 5023 million or about 91% of the total capital requirements are dedicated to projects
which are directly related to one of the 51 "Significant Impact Areas" (SIA) determined in the
course of the transboundary analysis.
6.3.
Concepts and Actions for Financing Implementation
General Concepts and Principles
Since the domestic and external financial resources are limited and obviously not sufficient to
cover even the high priority requirements in the short term, it is necessary to establish long-term
sustainable funding concepts and innovative financial mechanisms.
Common basic principles should be:
i.
Domestic financial resources should be used primarily on external resources
wherever possible, to avoid pressure on the usually unfavourable countries' balance
of payments.
ii.
The restricted domestic funding sources should be allocated to the competing
projects of a particular sub-sector in utmost accordance with the results of the
basin-wide project priority ranking, carried out in the framework of the DRPRP.
iii.
Given the present constraints on public sector budgets, emphasis should be placed
on meeting funding requirements from revenues generated at the project level (e.g.
charges for municipal water and wastewater services) before seeking national or
international sources of funding.
iv.
Domestic private investment is currently constrained by historical barriers to
private ownership, a limited domestic banking and financial sector, and the
inexperience of potential investors with the types of activities required. Therefor it
is essential to modernise and adjust the legal, regulatory and institutional

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Strategic Action Plan for the Danube River Basin 1995 ­ 2005, Revision 1999
123
framework to international standards, in order to enable and attract utmost private
participation in project funding and operation. This could include, for instance,
public-private partnership on the basis of BOT (build-operate-transfer) or
concession models.
Short-term Actions
In the short term, the following actions should be taken on a basin-wide, i.e., national level:
i. Confirm, at the governmental level, the high-priority projects identified in the
framework of the basin-wide priority ranking process, by taking into account:
environmental effectiveness at the sub-basin, national and transboundary level,
technical and economic feasibility,
cost effectiveness in relation to pollution load reduction, and
financial viability of the project, i.e., project sponsor.
ii. Specify the overall capital requirements of the high priority projects selected for the
particular sub-sectors at the national levels.
iii. Initiate internal discussions on governmental level, including the Ministry of Finance
and all the relevant ministries, in order to establish the agreed investment portfolios
dealing with the most urgent and short-term priorities (defining potential domestic
base line contribution and type and amount of international funding portions).
iv. Gradually establish, within the existing legal and regulatory framework, cost-covering
tariffs for public services and adequate charges for the utilisation of natural resources,
in order to improve the project investors' net income and internal cash generation.
v. Establish a reasonably structured set of economic and financial incentives:
to promote a rational utilisation of natural resources;
to prevent or reduce environmental pollution and the degradation of the natural
environment; and
to improve the potential project sponsors' net income, i.e., internal cash
generation.
vi. Establish, at least for standard projects (such as small, medium or large size municipal
or industrial WWTP), country-specific "standard funding schemes" in order to
improve the "planning certainty" of potential investors and to accelerate project
implementation. If international funding assistance is needed these funding schemes
have to take into account the requirements and procedures of the particular IFIs.
The country specific "standard funding schemes" to be established for typical
"standard projects" should clarify:
the priority of the particular project in relation to competing projects in the same
sub-sector
the eligibility of the project for potential national and international funding
sources,
the sequence of source applications;
the basic funding procedures and guarantee requirements;
minimum equity contribution, i.e., internal sources of the project sponsor;
potential range for public grants;
potential range for public loans;
potential range and specific requirements for the contribution of relevant public
funds, (such as Environmental Fund, Water Management Fund, etc.);

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Danube Pollution Reduction Programme
potential range for international co-funding, taking into account the standard
requirements of the particular IFI, (if the project is eligible for international
assistance from the national point of view);
particular funding components (technical assistance, donations, etc.);
commercial bank loans as residual funding component.
vii. Develop within the existing framework of the ICPDR initial components of innovative
financing mechanisms, as outlined in Section 6.4
Medium and Long-term Actions
In the medium and long term the following actions should be taken on a basin-wide, i.e., national
level:
i. Review and update project data and project priority ranking, by taking into account
revised country specific standards (e.g. effluent standards) and changes in the
economic development of the particular countries.
ii. Adjust legislation and regulatory framework in order to enable a legalized claim on
public financial support for specified environment related investments (as for example
municipal or industrial WWTP with improved/advanced effluent standards).
iii. Adjust legislation in order to enable the introduction of full cost covering tariffs for
public services and charges for the utilization of natural resources.
iv. Initiate steps and actions required for an amendment of the legal basis of the
Convention in order to enable the establishment of a DEFF which is able to hold its
own money, contract with donors and recipients, and deal with grant money for
purposes other than its own operations.
6.4.
Development of Funding Mechanisms
Within the framework of the DRPRP, the Kreditanstalt fuer Wiederaufbau, a German Development
Bank, was appointed to prepare a study on a multilateral financial facility for environmental
investments in the transition countries of the Danube River Basin (DEFF). Actually, it turned out
that it would be difficult to raise the contributions for the administrative costs, which are a
constitutive part of such a facility, and that the creation of the necessary legal base by an
amendment to the Convention ("Article 18 a") would take too long and that a general consent could
therefore not be expected.
In view of these restrictions, representatives of UNDP have made an ad hoc proposal for continued
donor support of the work of the IC and its organs in the field of investment planning, project
preparation and advising the transition countries; according to this proposal it can be expected that
GEF funds would be available for the financing of incremental investments in line with the
objectives and principles of GEF.
On this basis. the Consultant has elaborated a proposal for the establishment of a "Programme
Implementation Facility" and a "Project Appraisal Group".

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Strategic Action Plan for the Danube River Basin 1995 ­ 2005, Revision 1999
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6.4.1. Programme Implementation Facility (PIF)
The main characteristics of the proposed "Project Implementation Facility" can be outlined as
follows:
i. Institutional approach:
Agreement between ICPDR and UNDP as leading agency of GEF, on the basis of
the existing Convention;
ii. Personnel:
Under Executive Secretary of ICPDR;
Technical Assistance Staff in the Secretariat;
Financed with donor support (for 3 - 4 years);
iii. Mandate:
Supporting work of ICPDR with regard to investment programmes;
Assisting member countries in preparation of projects for IFIs (Trust Fund
Missions);
Preparing projects with global, i.e., transboundary environmental benefits
(incremental costs) for GEF;
Monitoring of results;
iv. Financial requirements for the PIF:
Technical assistance for 3 to 4 years (USD 2.5 million)
v. Exit strategies:
Installation of a DEFF
PPC assignment
Additional PMTF tasks (METAP model)
It is expected that the proposed PIF can positively contribute to the work of the IC and its
Secretariat although the essential features of a financing facility, i.e. to receive and handle grant
money for the benefit of the Danube environment, cannot be met. The PIF, as it is proposed now,
would basically be an extension of the donor support, having been granted to the co-operation of
the Danube countries in the field of the environment for over 6 years now. The next step in actually
setting up the PIF would be to give a mandate to the President of the ICPDR - and possibly one
member from a contracting party in the middle or lower Danube Basin - to approach the GEF via
UNDP, by submitting an application for a GEF-eligible project of PIF character.
6.4.2. Project Appraisal Group (PAG)
In addition to the PIF it is suggested that the IC installs an expert group for project appraisals, in order
to have the possibility to examine and endorse investment proposals from the member states which
otherwise might not gain the attention of multilateral donors or IFIs. The greater part of the
environmental investment projects will gain the interest of multilateral donors who are able to help in
preparation and appraisal of projects. This may leave out certain projects which are outside the scope
of interest of the donors - e.g. clean-up of contaminated sites. By its mandate and composition, the
PMTF concentrates on financing issues and must rely on the judgement of the investors, the
individual states and the donors as to the quality of the technical and management planning.

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Danube Pollution Reduction Programme
Therefore, a member state looking for financing should be given the opportunity to present a
priority project to the IC, which, after confirmation of the priority, will pass it on to a permanent
group of experts selected by the IC to perform such tasks. The mandate of such a Project Appraisal
Group would be:
to examine whether the proposal complies with the relevant environmental performance
standards;
to check whether the technical design is state-of-the art;
to examine whether the cost calculations are complete and realistic;
to inspect the management plans, including the provisions for raising fees and for
operation and maintenance.
If this expert group gives the project its "seal of approval", the proposing state or the sponsor could
then present the project to the PMTF or directly to financing institutions with the endorsement of
this expert group of the IC.
The PAG should consist of experts in the field of water pollution control with experience in the
design, construction and operation of such installations. The CEC, Austria and Germany, should
nominate one member each to be confirmed by the IC. The other contracting parties would
nominate members and the IC would choose four to become members of the PAG. The chair of the
PAG would rest permanently with the expert from either Austria or Germany, because these two
countries are not recipients of donor money and currently lead the Danube countries in terms of
technology. The PAG would take up projects at the request of the president of the IC or the
chairman of the PMTF. Once the PAG has established its working procedures, it could reduce the
number of meetings and could also use written procedures. Analogously to the procedures of the
IC, the reports of the PAG should be elaborated in consensus, and - if this is not possible - by a
majority of at least five members. In the case that the PAG cannot approve a project as technically
and economically sound, it must indicate its deficiencies and make suggestions as to how they
could be improved; requests for appraisal should be answered within a period of 8 weeks.
The contracting parties nominating members for this committee shall do so with the understanding
that the members use the expertise in their respective institutions at no charge.

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7.
Institutional and Policy Issues
7.1.
Introduction
Institutional instruments, including supportive tools and flanking policies are identified in order to
assure the efficient implementation of the DRPC and the present SAP.
The methodology used for building up the revision was essentially shaping this SAP. In the
framework of the UNDP/GEF supported Danube Pollution Reduction Development, national
reports and planning workshops have generated a complete inventory on national policies,
strategies, problems and planned or ongoing activities. In addition, the need for basin-wide joint
action was specified through a "Transboundary Analysis" including the issue of Black Sea
protection.
This has ensured that the SAP is tailored to reflect the conditions and requirements at both the
national and the basin-wide level. It combines the prevailing policies and strategies and further
developments at both levels. This is intended to facilitate Danubian cooperation with the key
objective being the protection and sustainable use of the Danubian waters. To achieve this, specific
objectives and targets have been derived; the expected results have been formulated in terms of the
progress to be made and the timeframe to be kept.
The chapeau for this SAP is the DRPC, which provides for all these issues of policy, decision
making and implementation. As the International Commission (ICPDR) is mandated with
implementing the DRPC, the same applies to the SAP.
The ICPDR, implementing the DRPC:
decides to take action along the lines of this SAP, which forms its policy plan;
takes up the planned action and the proposed activities to become subject to its Action
Programme for preparation and execution;
adopts the SAP by recommendation and submits it to the Conference of the Parties for
confirmation, with a view to obtaining backing for its implementation.
7.2.
Policy Making Tools and Processes
As an instrument of international law, the DRPC forms a standing framework with some flexibility
achievable through wide interpretation. This is why developing issues are contained only generally
or implicitly; variable specification, such as quantified targets and fixed timeframes, can not be
stipulated. Besides enforcement, this is an additional reason why the DRPC's implementation has
to rely on policy making. As a policy tool, the SAP allows the region's developing and changing
conditions and requirements, including the local ones, to be reflected. This can be achieved through
modifying objectives and targets or even revising policies and strategies.
The policy making processes under the DRPC are stimulated through a mutual exchange of
experiences and initiatives between the joint and the national/local levels of co-operation. They
start either at a broad basis or at a high level and develop further via the ICPDR and its institutional
arrangements. The task of finalizing policies and strategies, analysing their feedback and revising
them based on the experiences gained lies with the ICPDR and the Conference of the Parties.
According to Article 22, paragraph (2) DRPC the Conference of the Parties upon the report and the
recommendation of the ICPDR "shall review policy issues concerning the implementation of the
DRPC and adopt appropriate recommendations or decisions."

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Danube Pollution Reduction Programme
For enhancing the policy making processes under the DRPC, whose outputs include the present
SAP revision, the ICPDR:
encourages its institutional arrangements, such as its Expert Bodies, to contribute to the
policy making processes through proposals for policy initiatives and planned activities;
urges Contracting Parties to actively join this process through their inputs at all
institutional levels;
recommends to the Contracting Parties that a first Conference of the Parties should
convene, which may wish to confirm this Revised SAP and define policy direction for
further developing the SAP, including the date of its next revision.
7.3.
Criteria and Mechanisms of Implementation
Aiming at the efficient implementation of the DRPC, backed by realistic policies and strategies, the
following set of criteria and approaches, tailor-made for the Danubian region, should be
emphasised through this SAP:
the river basin management approach both for the entire Danube basin and for its major
sub-basins;
integrated implementation of all environmental protection and water quality management
issues including related aspects of sustainable use;
a step by step approach allowing for the reduction of the intensity of actions and/or the
extension of the time frames for achieving the set targets;
due account of limited implementation capacities at the national level; appropriate
support for Countries in Transition and in Accession to ensure the active participation of
all Contracting Parties;
balanced responsibilities and interaction between the two main levels of implementation,
the joint and the national; emphasis given to the latter concerning priority setting,
preparation and realization of action planned, based on mobilized political willingness;
co-ordination for increasing efficiency and avoiding duplication both within the
institutional structure under the DRPC as well as outside; utilization of experience,
capacities and know how, wherever available, as an input to implementation.
As already introduced in Chapter 1, there are six main pillars supporting implementation and
enforcement. In order to mobilize and activate them and bring them together for combined action,
the ICPDR will make all efforts to:
make full use of the legal capacity of the DRPC;
mobilize the political capacity of policies and strategies jointly declared by the
Contracting Parties and supported by relevant GOs and NGOs, including, in particular,
the policies and strategies put forward by this SAP;
activate the domestic capacity, both legal and political, of Danubian governments and
their competent authorities at the national and local level including priority setting,
project preparation and financing;
mobilize the public awareness and participation through the involvement of the NGO
community, e.g. granting observer status to the International NGOs mandated to represent
others;
mobilize financial support and economic incentives granted to Countries in Transition
(CiTs) and Countries in Accession (CiAs) regarding investments and technical assistance
and regarding the assistance they need in order to join all activities of the ICPDR in a
proactive way;
enhance the implementation of the EU Water Framework Directive (EU/WFD) and take
an active role in the basin-wide coordination provided for the river basin management.

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Strategic Action Plan for the Danube River Basin 1995 ­ 2005, Revision 1999
129
There are several additional supporting mechanisms contributing towards meeting the designed
criteria, and thus enhancing implementation. The ICPDR will:
activate its information management and dissemination in order to involve interested GOs
and NGOs and to benefit from their political weight and possible input;
develop cooperation with relevant international organizations, i.e. through joint
institutional arrangements such as the ad-hoc Technical Working Group in the Black Sea
cooperation context; by granting observer status to candidates promising essential input
to the DRPC´s implementation; intensify the exchange of experience and know-how;
activate the reporting obligations of the Contracting Parties so as to get feedback on the
progress of implementation achieved and an overview of the related activities planned or
in progress in the Danubian Region;
ensure that the executive preconditions, legal, technical, financial and administrative, are
provided for at the national level for realizing planned action;
ensure its effective preparation and realisation (basics; planning; project preparation
including financing; efficient operation);
develop technical guidelines to be elaborated and tailor-made by its Expert Bodies, e.g.
by the EMIS/EG concerning pollution reduction in the three main sectors of polluters:
- for wastewater discharge monitoring and for wastewater treatment, including sludge
digestion and disposal (municipal and industrial sector);
- for applying the best available techniques (BAT) (industry) and the best
environmental practice (BEP) (good agricultural practice);
- for developing accidental pollution prevention and control concerning risk inventory
and assessment;
- for further developing guidelines in the water quality monitoring sector.
7.4.
Specific Institutional Components Carrying Implementation
A structure of competent bodies and specialized systems has been established and planned to be
further developed. With a minimum number of components, all the main functions of co-operation
and implementation under the DRPC have to be covered. This is already advanced as to the part of
the DRPC dealing with environmental protection and water quality management, in which
predominant emphasis is placed on the early phase of implementation. Provided that the
institutional components deriving from the GEF/UNDP supported Danube Pollution Reduction
Development are integrated, this structure becomes rather complete.
A brief description of this organizational framework under the DRPC, together with the resulting
Organization Chart, is given in the Annex to this SAP. It is an extended version, comprising both
the existing institutional components and those proposed and planned to be established through this
SAP.
For selected institutional components and their close co-operation, specific development proposals
and planned activities have been put forward. The ICPDR will provide for and arrange:
1. as to the ICPDR and its Expert Bodies;
strengthened proactive participation and input by all Contracting Parties as to all
activities under the DRPC; mobilized incentives and support given to CiTs and CiAs
to join them;
result-oriented and well-coordinated work of the existing technical Expert Groups
through well-structured annual and triennial Work Plans indicating their related
costs; feedback reporting and proposals for further action;

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Danube Pollution Reduction Programme
strengthened Strategic Expert Group (S/EG), with its flexible ToRs, to become a
standing expert group which supports the ICPDR;
the "Data and Information Management Expert Group (DM/EG)" established in the
context of the ICPDR´s Information Management System;
the establishment of a "Project Appraisal Group (PAG)" cooperating with the
Project Implementation Facility (PIF), provided the financial support to this PAG is
available for the next three or four years. Its tasks involve: project preparation to
promote implementation (preparing sufficient projects ready for realization); this
includes technical optimization, administrative preparation and conformity with
supporting conditions set by particular IFIs and donors;
close cooperation and coordination between all Expert Bodies and with other
institutional components under the DRPC, in particular with those engaged with
financing and investment-oriented tasks.
2. as to the Permanent Secretariat (PS):
well-coordinated technical and administrative support given by the PS to the
ICPDR, its Expert Bodies and other institutional components under the DRPC;
emphasis placed on mobilizing various inputs for the implementation of the DRPC
expected through close cooperation with national and international organizations
and bodies;
particular efforts made to strengthen the role of the Project Management
Coordinator supporting well coordinated PMTF action as well as the PIF staff in
particular regarding project preparation;
sufficient working capacity available to the PS, i.e. augmented by in-kind input,
allowing for completely fulfilling its tasks in the interest of all institutional
components involved.
3. as to institutional components linked with financing mechanisms:
activating the Project Management Task Force (PMTF) together with all IFIs and
donors, being the co-founders of the PMTF and to be kept on board;
joining the build-up of a Project Implementation Facility (PIF) in particular
regarding its cooperation with the PMTF in order to reinforce support from IFIs and
donors as well as regarding the support for the implemention of the ICPDR's Action
Programme.
4. as to the Information Management System of the ICPDR (DANUBIS):
This tool will cumulate several previous sectoral approaches in order to develop the
optimal effectiveness and avoid duplication. In addition to data and information
aggregated under the ICPDR, it combines a lot of other information sources. Its major
objective is to provide access to consolidated information, which should be duly updated
and kept free of misleading and contradictory information. The ICPDR starting and
operating the system will:
speed up the development of the technical basis of the system including the
appropriate hard- and software at the seat of the Permanent Secretariat;
intensify and coordinate the internal flow of project data and information within the
ICPDR, its Expert Bodies, the PMTF, the PIF and the PAG;
prepare consolidated pieces of evaluated data and information as input to DANUBIS
and for other dissemination purposes (e.g.: the ICPDR Water Quality Yearbook);

---

Strategic Action Plan for the Danube River Basin 1995 ­ 2005, Revision 1999
131
provide for integration and access to information, while all the time maintaining a
certain level of confidentiality (e.g. new data; internal information flow);
make all efforts to prevent other organizations from developing systems parallel to
the DANUBIS and avoid duplication in joining other Information Networks both for
reasons of clarity and efficiency.
7.5.
System of Plans and Programmes under the DRPC
The overall objectives to be achieved regarding the system of Plans and Programmes under the
DRPC are defined as:
one Policy Plan which provides for the political momentum and direction to guide the
development and the planned activities for implementing the DRPC;
one Action Programme designed as an executive framework integrating all specific
programmes under the DRPC as appropriate for managerial reasons and for the purpose
of preventing duplication.
A clear distinction should be made in this context between the "Plan" and the "Programme" so as
to demonstrate their complementary functions and the need for having both instruments
operational:
the Plan declares what is intended to be achieved through the implementation
(perspectives, strategies, further development, planned activities; etc.);
the Programme comprises all actions, those in progress and those planned within a given
time frame, in terms of particular preparation and execution.
Generally, the international Danubian cooperation is based on three main tools:
the Convention (DRPC) as the legal instrument;
the Strategic Action Plan (SAP) as the policy instrument;
the Action Programme (DPRP) as the executive framework instrument.
Before presenting policy options, an inventory of both the existing and the expected plans and
programmes is provided, specifying their terms, character and substance:
"Environmental Programme for the Danube River Basin (EPDRB)"; IFI and donor-
supported Danubian activities primarily on a policy basis; it continues as far as it has
been transferred under the DRPC umbrella covering all water-related issues;
"Strategic Action Plan (SAP)"; developed and endorsed in the EPDRB context
(Bucharest Ministerial Declaration 1994); a policy plan and an action programme; to be
periodically revised;
"Strategic Action Plan Implementation Programme (SIP)"; intensified programme
performed since 1995, comprising technical assistance with introducing and
implementing new demonstration projects and activities for transboundary issues;
"Danube Pollution Reduction Programme (DPRP)"; supported by UNDP/GEF in the
EPDRB context; a measure-oriented framework programme to be a substantial
component of the ICPDR Action Programme;
"Programmes of Work (annual and triennial)"; to be performed by the ICPDR´s
Expert Bodies based on their specific work plans; integrating work activities and part of
an over all ICPDR Action Programme;
"Action Programme for Pollution Reduction"; launched by the ICPDR´s Emission
Expert Group (EMIS/EG) based on its specialized technical work according to its ToRs;

---

132
Danube Pollution Reduction Programme
"Specific Programmes"; included in the PMTF-ToRs to be linked with a portfolio of
environmental priority investments and technical assistance, contains projects ready for
funding (derived from ICPDR´s/ EMIS/ EG Action Programme);
"ICPDR Investment Programme"; proposed in the framework of the UNDP/GEF
DPRP development together with specific financing mechanisms and project preparation
tools; comprises projects ready for funding and realization within a given frame
(integrating "Specific Programmes PMTF" and GEF-funded Programmes);
"River Basin Management Plans"; Concern the entire Danube basin and its subbasins;
plans to be of informal and coordinative concern for DRPC implementation i.p. as to
action programmes included, in particular in the case of transboundary relevance; also
relevant concerning the role of the ICPDR in the context of the EU/Water Framework
Directive (EU/WFD).
This overview shows that there is a series of plans and programmes in the Danube basin in the field
of environmental protection and water quality management. On the other hand, the important field
of water resources quantity management is seriously under-represented; it can only be to some
degree covered in the river basin management plans. Appropriate tools, policy plans and action
programmes, should be developed in this field. They should emphasise the aspect of sustainable
use, which again is an input to environmental protection and water quality management.
Concluding criteria and proposals regarding a system of plans and programmes under the DRPC
are presented. Implementing the DRPC and the SAP as well as carrying out its responsibilities the
ICPDR will:
carefully analyze all the existing and planned instruments regarding their functions and
interaction in order to identify possible duplication and gaps, in particular under the
DRPC umbrella;
make all efforts to cooperate with the concerned partners in order to further develop and
streamline the instruments and create an efficient system of plans and programmes; the
forum for this should be the PMTF;
strive to achieve a final stage of development at which two framework instruments - one
Policy Plan and one Action Programme - integrate all the specific plans and programmes
and are complementary to their functions.
7.6.
Cooperation with the Black Sea Convention Countries
The "Convention on the Protection of the Black Sea (Bucharest Convention)" was signed in 1992,
two years earlier than the DRPC (Sofia Convention), and entered into force before it. However,
executive protocols to the Convention have not yet been yet realised. The decision-making and
steering body is the International Commission for the Protection of the Black Sea (ICPBS)
corresponding to the Danube International Commission (ICPDR). Between the ICPBS and the
ICPDR a Joint Ad-hoc Technical Working Group has been established, primarily responsible for
examining the actual eutrophication problems and proposing remedial actions as to the relevant
pollution shares.
As regards the share of land-based pollution originating from the Danube Basin, the DRPC
provides for such remedial action. It addresses - broadly in its preamble and more specifically in its
objectives and scope (Articles 2 and 3 DRPC) - the contribution to the protection of the marine
environment, and commits the Contracting Parties to contribute through their co-operation under
the DRPC to reducing the pollution loads reaching the Black Sea from sources in the Danube
catchment area.

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Strategic Action Plan for the Danube River Basin 1995 ­ 2005, Revision 1999
133
The joint work of the ad-hoc Technical Working Group, summarizing the findings achieved by
several specific studies and by the specialized exchange of experience, has resulted in the proposed
consolidated policies and strategies to be brought to the attention of all Parties concerned and
mandated for policy and decision making. These Black Sea-oriented policies and strategies literally
read:
Short and long-term objectives:
The long-term goal for all States in the Black Sea Basin is to take measures to reduce the
loads of nutrients and hazardous substances to the levels that would allow the Black Sea
ecosystems to recover to conditions similar to those observed in the 1960s.
As an intermediate goal, urgent control measures should be taken by all States in the
Black Sea Basin in order to prevent the discharges of nutrients and hazardous substances
reaching the Seas from exceeding those of 1997. It is recognized that these 1997
discharges are only incompletely known and that further work has to be undertaken to
substantiate the size of the loads.
The inputs of nutrients and hazardous substances into the Black Sea have to be assessed
in a comparable way and to this very end a common AQC system and a thorough
discussion about the necessary monitoring, including the sampling procedures, has to be
set up.
The ecological status of the Black Sea has to be further assessed, and the comparability of
the data basis further increased.
Both the reported input loads as well as the assessed, ecological status will have to be
reported annually to both the ICPBS and the ICPDR.
The States within the overall Black Sea Basin have to adopt strategies that will permit
economic development, whilst ensuring appropriate practices and measures to limit the
discharge of nutrients and hazardous substances, and to rehabilitate ecosystems which
assimilate nutrients.
Based on the annual reports and on the adopted strategies for the limitation of the
discharge of nutrients and hazardous substances, a review shall be undertaken in 2007. It
will focus on the further measures that may be required in order to meet the long-term
objective.
Corresponding actions required to attain the short and long-term objectives can be classified into
the following areas:
Reform of agricultural policies.
Improvement of wastewater treatment, where applicable also by alternative technologies.
Rehabilitation of essential aquatic ecosystems.
Changes in consumer practices (including use of phosphate-free detergents).
Establishment of a legal frame.
The ICPDR is willing to contribute to attaining the set objectives and perform the actions necessary
for the implementation of the DRPC and of this SAP. Joint cooperation and coordination between
the ICPDR and the ICPBS is envisaged to be continued and further developed as appropriate.
The ICPDR supports the idea of developing a joint Black Sea Resolution to be adopted at a high
level. It should be based on the experience and results achieved through the joint co-operation at
the expert level.

---

---

Annexes
1. Organizational and Institutional
Components for Implementing the DRPC
2. High and Medium Priority Hot Spots in
Sub-River Basins
3. Sector Planning Matrix:
- Municipality
- Industry and Mining
- Land Use - Agriculture
4. Livestock and Cereal Statistics

---

---

Annex 1.
Organizational and Institutional
Components for Implementing the DRPC

---

---

Strategic Action Plan for the Danube River Basin 1995 ­ 2005, Revision 1999, Annexes
139
Organizational and Institutional Components for Implementing
the DRPC
1.
The Organizational Framework as an Overview:
The implementation of the DRPC and of the ICPDR's SAP is backed by a specific organizational
structure comprising the following institutional components:
Conference of the Parties;
International Commission for the Protection of the Danube River (ICPDR);
Permanent Secretariat;
Expert Groups;
Ad-Hoc Groups;
Programme Management Task Force (PMTF);
Project Implementation Facility (PIF);
Project Appraisal Group (PAG).
This structure, together with the main tasks of the particular institutional components, is shown in
the Organization Chart attached to this Annex. This structure is incomplete in that its operative
components, i.e. the Expert Groups, do not presently cover water resources quantity management.
2.
The Particular Institutional Components and Their Mandate
As the Organization Chart indicates, some of the institutional components have not been
established yet and are not yet operational. All the components are briefly described as to their
mandate and their main task as follows:
2.1.
Conference of the Parties
The Conference of the Parties is the highest-level body under the Danube River Protection
Convention (DRPC). A Conference of the Parties is held on recommendation of the ICPDR in
order to provide an overall policy framework for work under the Convention.
2.2.
ICPDR
The International Commission for the Protection of the Danube River (ICPDR) is the main
decision-making body under the Convention. It meets either in a 'Plenary' or as the 'Steering Group'
(Heads of Delegation).
The ICPDR Plenary deals with the major policy and strategic issues and it adopts decisions and
recommendations. A key task for the Plenary is to approve the annual work programme and the
budget. A Plenary session will usually be held once a year.
The Steering Group provides for the management and coordination of activities under the
Convention on a regular basis. Its receives from the Plenary the mandate to participate in decision
making.
The President chairs the meetings of the Plenary and the Steering Group. The President represents
the ICPDR.

---

140
Danube Pollution Reduction Programme
2.3.
Secretariat
The main role of the Permanent Secretariat located in Vienna is to support the ICPDR and other
bodies established in the framework of the Convention. The Secretariat is also the focal point for
information and enquiries about the implementation of the Convention.
The Executive Secretary reports to the ICPDR.
2.4.
Expert Groups
Standing (permanent) Expert Groups are established. The main role of an Expert Group is to
develop and oversee the implementation of action on a topic under the Convention where specialist
expertise is required. Each Expert Group is provided with Terms of Reference for its work and
reports to the ICPDR.
The Expert Groups established to date are:
Emission Issues (EMIS/EG);
Monitoring Laboratory and Information Management (MLIM/EG);
Accident Emergency Prevention and Warning System (AEPWS/EG);
Strategic Expert Group (S/EG)
The establishment of a Danube Information System linked with a Data and Information
Management Expert Group (DM/EG) is under consideration as well as the transfer of the expert
work performed under the Bucharest Declaration to the framework of the Convention.
The EMIS/EG is responsible for developing action to control pollution from point and diffuse
sources. It establishes action programmes to reduce pollution, for example, from municipalities,
industry and agriculture. It facilitates the preparation and exchange of information on these topics
among the Contracting Parties.
The MLIM/EG is responsible for steering and evaluating the Trans-National Monitoring Network
for water quality in the Danube River Basin. It is responsible for setting up programmes aimed at
improving the laboratory analytical quality assurance. It facilitates the preparation and exchange of
(in-stream) water quality and quantity information among the Contracting Parties.
The AEPWS/EG is responsible for steering and evaluating the effectiveness of the Accident
Emergency Warning System for the Danube River Basin. The system communicates messages
among Contracting Parties about the emergency situations that may have a transboundary effect.
Accident emergency prevention and control is the second main set of tasks this Group is
responsible for, in particular for developing tools and measures.
The Data and Information Management Expert Group (DM/EG) is under development together
with the ICPDR's Information Management System (DANUBIS). It will be responsible for
operating and further developing the system. It will hold and update a register of available
information including consolidated pieces deriving from the work of the ICPDR and its related
bodies under the DRPC. In this context, it has to manage the dissemination of information to
interested partners and to the public.
The Strategic Expert Group (S/EG) is established as a multifunctional body. It is convened and
charged with specific preparatory work by the Commission's Plenary or Steering Group responding
to the actual requirements of policy-oriented, strategic, legal and administrative nature. With its
composition of experts from different fields, it represents an equivalent to the technical Expert
Groups.

---

Strategic Action Plan for the Danube River Basin 1995 ­ 2005, Revision 1999, Annexes
141
2.5.
Ad-Hoc Expert Groups
Ad-Hoc Expert Groups may be established by the ICPDR to undertake specific tasks.
2.6.
PMTF
The Project Management Task Force (PMTF) is a special supporting body established by the
ICPDR together with International Organizations, Financing Institutions (IFIs), Donors and NGOs
in the framework of the Convention. The key role of the PMTF is to support the practical
implementation of the action programmes, promote priority environmental investments and help
secure technical assistance required by the Danube countries. Close cooperation and coordination
between the PMTF and the ICPDR is ensured through the Programme Management Coordinator
(PMC), who is both a secretary to the PMTF and a staff member of the Permanent Secretariat.
2.7.
Programme Implementation Facility (PIF)
The PIF is designed to support the ICPDR and PMTF in particular concerning project preparation
which is critical for programme implementation including the bankability of the projects. Particular
attention is paid to facilitating links to IFIs, GEF and other donors. The PIF is supported by
UNDP/GEF with the intention within the next three to four years of assistance to create a self-
sustained facility which can be combined with improved financing mechanisms.
2.8.
Project Appraisal Group
This Group is proposed to be a small consultative body under the ICPDR, composed of seven
experts from selected Contracting Parties, four of them being Countries in Transition. Its task is
technical and financial assessment of particular investment proposals. Through this, it supports
both the PIF and the ICPDR regarding project preparation. A mixed composition involving
technical and financing experts is recommended.
3.
The Organization Chart Attached
This Chart shows the organizational structure of particular institutional components and implicitly
their interaction regarding coordination, cooperation and task-sharing including technical,
administrative and operative support. The main tasks deriving from the particular Terms of
Reference are marked with black bullets. Components that are planned to be developed, but not yet
operational, are inserted in boxes marked with little lines, their links to other components with
dotted lines. This type of a flow chart does not necessarily express the hierarchical
interdependencies; it shows primarily the flow of steering and coordination, cooperation capacities,
mutual support and information.

---

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---
--
___
---

---

Annex 2.
High and Medium Priority Hot Spots in
Sub-River Basins

---

---

Hotspots in the Sub-basin Areas
Sub Basin Area
Sector
Priority
No
Name
Country
1. Upper Danube (D)
Municipal
Medium
1
Upper Laucher Municipalities
D
2
Mergelstetten
D
3
Leutkirch
D
4
Upper Iller Municipalities
D
5
München I
D
6
MünchenII
D
7
Starnberger See Municipalities
D
Industrial
Medium
1
ESSO Ingolstadt
D
2. Inn (D,A)
Municipal
Medium
1
Chimsee Municipalities
D
Industrial
Medium
1
Biochemie Kundl
A
2
Hallein PCA Fine Paper
A
3
WNC-Nitrochemie Aschau
D
3. Austrian Danube (A)
Municipal
Medium
1
Linz-Asten
A
4. Morava (CZ,SK,A)
Municipal
High
1
Brno - Svratka
CZ
2
Zlin - Little Drevnice
CZ
3
Uherske Hradiste - Morava
CZ
4
Hodonin - Morava
CZ
Medium
5
Prerov - Becva
CZ
6
Breclav - Dyje
CZ
Industrial
High
1
Otrokovice - Morava
CZ
Medium
2
Tanex Vladislav - Jihlava
CZ
Agriculture
High
1
Milotice (pig farm) - Kyjovka
CZ
2
Gigan Dubnany - Kyjovka
CZ
Medium
3
Kunovice - Morava
CZ
4
Vel. Nemcice - Svratka
CZ
5. Váh - Hron (SK,CZ,H)
Municipal
High
1
Nitra - Nitra
SK
Medium
2
Banska Bystrica
SK
3
Topolcany
SK
4
Severage Trencin
SK
Industrial
High
1
Novaky Chemical Plants - Nitra
SK
Medium
2
Povazske Chemical Plants Zilina
SK
6. Pann. Central Danube (A,SK,H,HR,YU)
Municipal
High
1
Györ
H
2
Budapest North
H
3
Budapest South
H
4
Dunaujvaros
H
5
Novi Sad
YU
6
Indjija - Pazova
YU
Medium
7
Wien HKA
A
8
Sopron
H
9
Szombathely
H
10
Zalaegerszeg
H
11
Keszthely
H
12
Balaton Region
H
13
Veszprem
H
14
Kaposvar
H
15
Tatabanya
H
16
Szekesfehervar
H
Industrial
High
2
Szazhalombatta (oil refinery)
H
1
Balatonfuzfo (chemical Industry)
H
Medium
3
Istrochem Bratislava
SK
4
Szeszip Györ
H
5
Labatlan Piszke Paper RT
H
6
Nyergesujfalu Viscosa
H
7
Budapest Buszesz
H
8
Budapest Csepel
H
9
Dunaujvaros Dunaferr
H
10
Dunaujvaros Dunapack
H
11
Petfurdo Nitrogen Works
H
Agricultural
Medium
1
Agr. Co-op.Mocsa
H
2
Agroindustry Környe
H
3
Dunakekt Budapest Csepel
H
4
Balaton Fishery Hévitz
H
5
Dalma Transdanubia
H
6
Hildpuszta - Hajosvin
H
7. Drava - Mura (A,SLO,HR,H)
Municipal
High
1
Maribor
SLO
2
Ptuj
SLO
3
Murska Sobota
SLO

---

Hotspots in the Sub-basin Areas
Sub Basin Area
Sector
Priority
No
Name
Country
4
Lendava
SLO
5
Ljutomer
SLO
6
Varazdin
HR
7
Osijek
HR
Medium
8
Klagenfurt
A
9
Graz
A
10
Nagykanizsa
H
11
Koprivnica
HR
12
Pécs
H
13
Belisce
HR
Industrial
High
1
Paloma pulp & paper plant
SLO
2
Pomurka Murska Sobota food industry
SLO
3
Belisce paper industry
HR
4
IPK Osijek sugar factory
HR
Agriculture
High
1
Farm Jezera - Rakican
SLO
2
Farm Podgrad
SLO
3
Farm Nemscak - Isakovci
SLO
Medium
4
Farm Senkovac (pig farm)
HR
8. Sava (SLO,HR,BIH,YU)
Municipal
High
1
Domzale
SLO
2
Ljubljana
SLO
3
Celje
SLO
4
Rogaska Slatina
SLO
5
Zagreb
HR
6
Karlovac
HR
7
Banja Luka
BIH
8
Tuzla
BIH
9
Sarajevo
BIH
10
Sabac
YU
11
Valjevo- Kolubara
YU
12
Ostruzmiciki sewer system
YU
13
Pljevlja - Cehotina
YU
14
Mojkovac - Tara
YU
15
Kolasin - Tara
YU
16
Gusinje - Plavsko Lake
YU
Medium
17
Kranj
SLO
18
Skofja Loka
SLO
19
Krsko
SLO
20
Brezice
SLO
21
Crnomelj
SLO
22
Metlika
SLO
23
Bjelovar - Cesma
HR
24
Sisak
HR
25
Slavonski Brod
HR
26
Gornji Vakuf - Vrbas
BIH
27
Sarajevo Visoko regional system
BIH
28
Sremska Mitrovica
YU
29
Ruma
YU
30
Lazarevac - Kolubara
YU
31
Sjenica - Vapa
YU
32
Bijelo Polje - Lim
YU
33
Berane - Lim
YU
Industrial
High
1
Vrhnika leather industry
SLO
2
ICEC Krsko paper factory
SLO
3
Pliva Savski Marof
HR
4
Celpak Prijedor - Una/ Sava
BIH
5
Incel Banja Luka - Vrbas
BIH
6
Natron Maglaj
BIH
7
Koksara Lukavac
BIH
8
HAK Tuzla
BIH
9
Sugar factory Zupanja
HR
10
HI Zarka - Sabac
YU
Medium
11
Pivovarna Lasko/ Brewery
SLO
12
Radece papir
SLO
13
Pik Vrbovec
HR
14
Gavrilovic Petrinja - Kupa
HR
15
Ina - Oil Refinery Sisak
HR
16
Petrokemija Kutina
HR
17
Zenica - Bosna
BIH
18
Sodium factory Lukavac
BIH
Agricultural
High
1
Farm Ihan
SLO
2
Nova Topola (pigs)
BIH

---

Hotspots in the Sub-basin Areas
Sub Basin Area
Sector
Priority
No
Name
Country
3
Luzani (pig farm)
HR
4
Surcin pig farm
YU
5
Dragan Markovic (pigs) Obrenovac
YU
Medium
6
Farm Spreca - Tuzla
BIH
7
Farm Brcko
BIH
8
Padinska Skela
YU
9. Tisa (UA,SK,RO,H,YU)
Municipal
High
1
Kosice - Hornad
SK
2
Uzhgorod
UA
3
Oradea
RO
4
Zalau - Crasna I
RO
5
Zalau - Crasna II
RO
6
Deva - Mures
RO
7
Szeged
H
8
Timisoara - Bega/ Timis I
RO
9
Timisoara - Bega/ Timis II
RO
10
Subotica - Palic & Ludos lakes
YU
11
Senta - Tisa
YU
12
Vrbas/ Kula/ Crvenaka - DTD Canal
YU
13
Zrenjanin - Begej
YU
Medium
14
Svidnik
SK
15
Humenne
SK
16
Michalovce
SK
17
Mukachevo - Latorita
UA
18
Eger
H
19
Miskolc
H
20
Nyiregyhaza
H
21
Debrecen
H
22
Kecskemet
H
23
Bekescsaba
H
24
Hodmezovasarh
H
Industrial
High
1
Bukocel Hencovce - Ondava
SK
2
Kazicbarcika Borsodchem - Sajo
H
3
Phoenix Baia Mare (mine)
RO
4
Somes Dej (chemicals)
RO
5
Sinteza SA Oradea - Crisul Repede
RO
6
Metal Works Oradea
RO
7
Petrom Suplac de Barcau (oil)
RO
8
Manpel - Tg. Mures
RO
9
Clujana SA Cluj
RO
10
Azomures Tg. Mures
RO
11
Sometra Copsa Mica (non-ferrous metal)
RO
12
Favior Orastie
RO
13
Indagrara Arad (food)
RO
14
Uranium Mining Stei Bihor
RO
15
Non ferrous Metals Mining
RO
16
N. Knezevac
YU
Medium
17
Chemko Strazske
SK
18
Sajobabony (Waste Management)
H
19
Tiszaujvaros
H
20
Szolnok
H
21
Velyky Bychkiv (Timber Processing Plant)
UA
22
Terapia Cluj
RO
23
E.M. Borod-Borod
RO
24
Sarmei Campia Turzil
RO
25
Nutrimur Iernut - Mures
RO
26
Stratus Mob - Blaj
RO
27
Certej
RO
28
Siderurgica Huneduvara
RO
29
Abrud
RO
Agricultural
High
1
DD Carnex-Farmakop Vrbas
YU
2
DD IM Neoplanta (pig farm) Sirig
YU
3
PDP Galad (pig farm) Kikinda
YU
Medium
4
Comsuin Moftin
RO
5
Avicola Satu Mare
RO
6
Agrocomsuin Bontida
RO
7
Zagyvaréka - Conavis
H
8
Folddéak Agr. Co-op.
H
9
Orosháza Agr. Co-op.
H
10
Pobeda Gunaros - Subotica
YU
11
PD Halas Jozef - Ada
YU
12
PIK Becej
YU

---

Hotspots in the Sub-basin Areas
Sub Basin Area
Sector
Priority
No
Name
Country
13
DP Elan - Srbobran
YU
14
Comsuin Beregsau - Bega/ Timis
RO
15
PK Coka
YU
10. Banat - Eastern Serbia (RO,YU)
Municipal
High
1
Banatski sewer systems Beograd
YU
2
Central sewer systems Beograd
YU
3
Batajnicki sewer systems Beograd
YU
4
Pancevo
YU
5
Resita - Barzava Bega- Timis I
RO
6
Resita - Barzava Bega- Timis II
RO
7
Bor - Borska
YU
8
Zajecar - V. Timok
YU
Medium
9
Smederevo
YU
10
Knjazevac - B. Timok
YU
Industrial
High
1
RTB Bor - Majdanpek
YU
2
RTB Bor
YU
3
IHP Prahovo
YU
Agricultural
High
1
DP Petrovac
YU
Medium
2
Zajecar YU
3
PP Panonija - Secanj
YU
4
DD Stari tamis - Pancevo
YU
11. Velika Morava (YU,BG)
Municipal
High
1
Uzice
YU
2
Cacak - Z. Morava
YU
3
Krusevac - Z. Morava
YU
4
Nis - Nisava
YU
5
Priot - Nisava
YU
6
Blace - Blatasnica
YU
7
Novi Pazar
YU
8
Pristina - Sitnica
YU
9
Vranje
YU
10
Leskovac
YU
11
Rozaje - Ibar
YU
Medium
12
Gnjilane - Bin. Morava
YU
13
Lipljan - Sitnica
YU
14
K. Mitrovica - Ibar
YU
15
Vladicin Han
YU
16
Pozega
YU
17
Kraljevo
YU
18
Prokuplje
YU
19
Cuprija
YU
20
Pozarevac
YU
Industrial
High
1
Vladicin Han, paper mill
YU
2
TE Obilic
YU
3
Trepca - Flotacija
YU
4
Trepca - Topionica
YU
Agricultural
High
1
DP 1. Decembar - pig farm Zitoradja
YU
2
DP Pik Varvarinsko Polje Varvarin
YU
Medium
3
DP. IM Farma Svinja - Velika Plana
YU
12. Mizia - Dobrudzha (BG)
Municipal
High
1
Sofija - Iskar
BG
2
Vratza - Dabnika Leva
BG
3
Landfill Pleven
BG
4
Troyan -Ossam
BG
5
Lovec - Ossam
BG
6
Sevlievo - Rossitza
BG
7
Gorna Oriahovitza & Liaskovets
BG
Medium
8
Kostinbrod & Bojurishte
BG
9
Montana - Ogosta
BG
10
Popovo Russenski Lom River
BG
Industrial
High
1
Chimco Vratza fertilizer plant
BG
2
Gorna Oriahovitza sugar and alcohol factory
BG
3
Antibiotic Razgrad pharmaceutics plant - Beli Lom
BG
Medium
4
Kremikovtzi (metallurgical plant)
BG
13. Muntenia (RO)
Municipal
High
1
Craiova - Jiu
RO
2
Campolung Muscei - Targului/ Arges
RO
3
Bucharest-Dambovita/ Arges
RO
4
Braila
RO
5
Galati
RO
Medium
6
Rm. Valcea - Olt
RO
7
Targoviste-Lalomita
RO
Industrial
High
1
Doljchim Craiova (chemicals) - Jiu
RO

---

Hotspots in the Sub-basin Areas
Sub Basin Area
Sector
Priority
No
Name
Country
2
Oltchim RM. Valcea
RO
3
UPS Govora (chemicals)
RO
4
Arpechim Pitesti (petrochamicals)
RO
5
Colorom Codlea - Vulcanita
RO
6
Petrobrazi Ploiesti
RO
7
Sidercaa Calarasi
RO
8
Celohart Donanis Braila
RO
Medium
9
Tr. Severin Romag
RO
10
Dacia Pitesti
RO
11
Nitramonia Fagaras
RO
12
Celohart Zarnesti
RO
13
Romacril Rasnov - Ghimbasel
RO
14
Romfosfochim Valea
RO
15
Petrotel Teleajen
RO
16
Astra Romana Ploiesti
RO
17
Tr. Magurele CICH
RO
18
Giurgiu Verachim
RO
19
Comcem SA Calarasi
RO
20
Ukom Slubotzic
RO
21
Beta Tandarei
RO
22
Tulcea Alum
RO
Agricultural
High
1
Romsuin test Peris - Vlasia/ Lalomita
RO
2
Comsuin Ulmeni
RO
Medium
3
Combil Gh. Doja - Lalomita
RO
4
Braigal Braila
RO
14. Prut - Siret (UA,RO,MD)
Municipal
High
1
Kolomyia - Prut
UA
2
Chernivtsy - Prut
UA
3
Ungeni
MD
4
Iasi - Prut
RO
5
Cantemir
MD
Medium
6
Briceni (sugar plant)
MD
7
Edinet
MD
8
Comrat
MD
9
Cahul
MD
10
Taraclia
MD
Industrial
High
1
Pergodur P Neamt (pulp & paper) - Bistrita
RO
2
Fibrex Savinesti (chemicals) - Bistrita
RO
3
Letea Bacau
RO
4
Antibiotice Iasi (chemical) Prut
RO
5
Sidex Galati
RO
6
Vulcanesti dump
MD
Medium
7
Sofert Bacau - Bistrita/ Siret
RO
8
Carom Onesti - Trotus/ Siret
RO
9
Chimcomplex Borzesti
RO
10
Spirt Ghidiceni - Barlad
RO
Agricultural
High
1
Comtom Tomesti - Bahluet/ Prut
RO
2
Suiprod Independenta - Birladet/ Siret
RO
Medium
3
Edinet pig farm
MD
15. Delta - Liman Region (UA,RO,MD)
Municipal
Medium
1
Izmail
UA
Industrial
Medium
1
Tulcea
RO

---

---

Annex 3.
Sector Planning Matrix:
- Municipality
- Industry and Mining
- Land Use - Agriculture

---

---

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t
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Bl
e 196
for
is
a
a
s
t
e
m
im
w
o
70
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m
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a
c
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50
u
m
r
an
t
s

19
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appl
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v
pr
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a
r
2
%
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n

i
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ort
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s
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tr
p
n
e y

%
n
s

an
ube
h
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at t
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c
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d
n
o
E
il
co
e n
u
u
h
il
i
g
a
n
s
t
a
rti
h
a
ll n
the
os
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ack
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t
/
a
)
o
pr
1.
ith po
2. I
y
3. S

90
c
t Indi
S
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i
s
k
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I
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p
w
a
c
t
i
v
s
h
I
n
t
h
an
Bl
Th
re
k
Co
S
ap
1.
e
s
tabl
w
1.
b
1.
i
n
a
p








I
m








ECTOR
S
t
e
e
h
s
,
in
d
r
en
th
a
s
t
e
a
te
t
m
t
in
of t
w

w
r
ea
en
d
ic
t
t
i
on loa
li
a
nds
m
a
t
e
rs
bl
m
llu
a
t
er
al
o

s
o
pu
e
nt
u
p
d
de
n
s
i
d
a
t
ed
i
t
h
e
velop
s
e of w
a
of
er
e
a
t
m
a
s
t
ew
div
i
cal
n
s
t
e
m
g
y
tr
w
n
l
e d
l
e u
a
t
er
e
s

w
g
l
o
b
b
s
al
c
t
i
o
s
op
us
e
r
s
o
e
a
s
c
o
na
na
u
und i
e
a
r
i
ate
s
t
i
n
s
p
o
e
ai
e
d
a
s
t
ew
s
t
em
e
w
p
o
s
n

to
st
s
t
ai
y
r
e
d
d
r
a
l
ar
u
u

R
k S
e w
e
c
t ho
f
s
exi
n
pr
d di
l
y
u
s
s
e:
ac
h
s
s
u
ie
n
o
r
ing
d
tal
iv
t
pl
t

ap
e of
t an
n
l
l
e
ctio
r
d
t
of
t
as
nce
u
e
n
s i

a
n
e
Bl
ap
t
of
e
wer
nc
e
n
cco
en
j
e
ct
h
en
na
m
on
b
t
nm
en
e
nt
itho
ti
te
to
l
i
c
s
t
m
t
e
na
ste
s
a
b
s

and co
e
a
tm
i
r
o
a
s
t
e
co
ec
O
r
t
em
u
r
ea
e
m
a
in
ty
v
ite
i
evem
o
e
s
w
a
in
e

tr
n
s
p

p
t
s
t
e
m
s
m
g
ci
c
h
r
ov
Prot
d
m
r
e
e
nt sy
l
i
d w

p
e
d
s
al
e
c
t
i
on
a
nag
e
m
pa
o
ans
a
t
er
an
f
s
o
o
Outputs
A
e:
m
a
d
st
ca
e
m
e:
i
n
i
n
e
r

s
y
y
and
d
s
p
r
ot
I
n
i
s
c
har
t
n
t
s/
iv
t
tr
gr
iv
n
e:
io
d
r
am
di
a
s
t
ew
a
s
t
e
m
e
r s
e
n
g
a
nag
a
te
j
ect
ie
iv
e
ct
a
t
i
o
r
i
a
t
e

s
l
udg
o
l
d
e
sul
j
ect
e
r

Bas
b
e
r

Bas
e
a P
tr
t
d up
i
c

s
e
w
e
r
at
er
p
o
b
S
j
e
ct
p
e
a
tm
o
r
m
e
par
O

nu
sew
b
t pr
Outputs:
l
i
d w

dir
s
r
i
a
t
e w
o
ubl
o
tr
ate
nd R
O
e
s
t
e
n
i
t
ate
ll
Riv
m
Riv
ack
ar
ed an
p
ate
e op
ul
r
O
i
s
e
o
gemen
t
s /
e
r
s
ti
d
l
y
ts

appr
y
m
bil
ube
r
a
ube
Bl
o
r
op
vi
n
p
m
in
r
ade
r
ov
duce
e
s

a
era
g
e
t
ic
t
e
nd
p
p
te
p
ti
g
an
o
v
na
p
ple
a
stew
ha
a
n
a
n
ti
ect
x
p
r
o
x
p
l
im
p
ppl
tr
E
su
m
pl
A
m
w
n
Re
c
t
i
v
O
D
Pro
D
Th
par
S
ma
Resul
E
A
Ac

I
.
1
.
2
3 P
1
2 O
1 E
2 U
.
3
4
5 I
1 I
2





1
1
1.

1.
1.
2.
2.
.
2
2.
2.
3.
3.
Obje






1.
1.
1.
1.
1
1.
1.
1.
1.

---

e
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in
ith
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in
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men
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t
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la
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in
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tal
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im
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it
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P re
nm
s

pr
t
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be
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t
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v
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c

c
ond
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of B
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on of w
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lit
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n
aut
in
m
bas
ins
f
the
in
i
l
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i
ng
a
b
t
eed
the
e
m
a
vora
ont
ial
ple
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l
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r
by
nc
m
n
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forc
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C
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h
s
t
a
i
n
a
r
an
t
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ng
a
n
n
l
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cy
.
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2
3 I
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4
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t
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t
r
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6 kt
kt
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c
ha
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th
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d
/
BEP
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4
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200
d
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d
t
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and
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56
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fi
AND MI
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35
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d

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in
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140
su
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co
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and
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of
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t
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t
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l
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n
r
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at
l
y
n o
nce
t
s
i
t
i
on c
r
g
e
Bl
e 196
for
i
c
efflu
gemen
n
e
ar
pl
du
w
io
m
i
m
e
a
c
h
llu
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19
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2. D
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3
vi
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4
p
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h
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e
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b
b
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f
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Dan
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t
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SECTOR PLANNI
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Annex 4.
Livestock and Cereal Statistics

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Strategic Action Plan for the Danube River Basin 1995 ­ 2005, Revision 1999, Annexes
159
A)
Cereal statistics
Area harvested (1000 ha)
Yield (kg/ha)
Production (1000 MT)
Country
1989-
1989-
1989-
1996
1997
1998
1996
1997
1998
1996
1997
1998
91
91
91
Austria
940
832
846
839
5443
5400
5903
5525
5115
4493
4994
4633
Bosnia
290
140F
140F
2904
2120
2120
842
297
297F
Herzegovina
Bulgaria
2152
1729
2078
1839
4121
1957
3026
2992
8872
3383
6289
5503
Croatia
612
634
691F
4512
5015
4990
2762
3179
3447
Czech
1585
1690
1647
4197
4137
4225
6651
6690
6960
Republic
Gerrmany
6864
6708
7023
7073
5534
6282
6477
6311
37910
42136
45487
44642
Hungary
2818
2813
2952
2910
5173
4025
4797
4670
14592
11320
14160
13592
Moldova
864
963
973F
2289
3294
2693
1979
3172
2620
Republic
Romania
5927
5841
6319
6310F
3084
2431
3497
2957
18286
14191
22097
18660
Slovakia
837
859
898
4009
4391
4225
3355
3774
3796
Slovenia
100
96
107
4863
5608
5540
487
541
593
Yugoslavia
2263
2409
2387
3223
4277
3759
7295
10303
8973
B)
Livestock statistics
Cattle - 1000 head
Pigs - 1000 head
Country
1989-91
1996
1997
1998
1989-91
1996
1997
1998
Austria
2546
2272
2198
2198F
3762
3664
3680
3737
Bosnia
314
260F
260F
165
60F
60F
Herzegovina
Bulgaria
1548
632
582
590F
4219
2140
1500
1700F
Croatia
462
451
451F
1196
1175
1175F
Czech
1989
1866
1690
4016
4080
3995
Republic
Germany
20048
15890
15760
15222
33350
23737
24283
24782
Hungary
1619
928
909
871
7996
5032
5289
4931
Moldova
726
646
519
1015
950
772
Republic
Romania
6029
3496
3435
3431
12675
7960
8235
7273
Slovakia
929
892
840
2076
1985
1900
Slovenia
496
484
484F
592
559
559F
Yugoslavia
1926
1899
1899F
4446
4216
4216F
F = FAO estimates
Source: FAO Quarterly Bulletin of Statistics, vol. 11, no. 3-4 (1998)

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