The Regional Organization for the
Conservation of the Environment of the Red
Sea and Gulf of Aden
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea
and Gulf of Aden
Surveys 1990 to 2000
Summary and Recommendations
PERSGA Technical Series No. 7
PERSGA Jeddah 2003
PERSGA - `The Regional Organization for the Conservation of the Environment of the Red Sea
and Gulf of Aden' is an intergovernmental organisation dedicated to the conservation of the
coastal and marine environments in the region.
The Regional Convention for the Conservation of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Environment (Jeddah
Convention) 1982, provides the legal foundation for PERSGA. The Secretariat of the Organization
was formally established in Jeddah following the Cairo Declaration of September 1995. The PERSGA
member states are Djibouti, Egypt, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Sudan, and Yemen.
PERSGA, P.O. Box 53662, Jeddah 21583, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
Tel.: +966-2-657-3224. Fax: +966-2-652-1901. Email: persga@persga.org
The document "Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, Surveys 1990 to 2000 Summary and
Recommendations" was prepared by Dr. Nicolas Pilcher in 2000 with the assistance of several
co-authors as listed in the table of contents.
The work was carried out through the `Habitats and Biodiversity Conservation' Component of the
Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, a Global Environment Facility (GEF)
funded project implemented by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the United
Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the World Bank, with supplementary funding from the
Islamic Development Bank (IDB).
The comments expressed in this document represent the opinion of the author(s) acting in their own capacities and do not
necessarily represent the views of PERSGA or the agencies that assisted with funding the preparation of the report. Any outlines
or descriptions presented do not imply the expression of any opinion, on the part of PERSGA or any funding agency, concerning
the legal boundaries of any state, territory, city limit, frontier or boundary.
© 2002 PERSGA
This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part and in any form for educational or non-profit purposes without the
permission of the copyright holders provided that acknowledgement of the source is given. PERSGA would appreciate receiving
a copy of any publication that uses this material as a source. This publication may not be copied, or distributed electronically, for
resale or other commercial purposes without prior permission, in writing, from PERSGA.
This publication may be cited as:
PERSGA/GEF. 2003. Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. Surveys 1990 to 2000 Summary
and Recommendations. PERSGA Technical Series No. 7. PERSGA, Jeddah.
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements ............................................................................................. ii
Authors' Addresses.............................................................................................. ii
List of Acronyms ............................................................................................... iii
Executive Summary ............................................................................................ v
Résumé Analytique .......................................................................................... xiii
Coral Reefs of Egypt........................................................................................... 1
Nicolas Pilcher & Mohammed M. Abou Zaid
Coral Reefs of Sudan ........................................................................................ 13
Nicolas Pilcher & Dirar Nasr
Coral Reefs of Djibouti ..................................................................................... 27
Nicolas Pilcher and Nasser Djama Abdi
Récifs Coralliens à Djibouti.............................................................................. 43
Nicolas Pilcher and Nasser Djama Abdi
Coral Reefs along the Northern Coast of Somalia............................................ 59
Nicolas Pilcher, Robert Baldwin, Mike Schleyer
Coral Reefs of Yemen ....................................................................................... 71
Nicolas Pilcher & Lyndon DeVantier
Coral Reefs of Saudi Arabia ............................................................................. 93
Nicolas Pilcher & Lyndon DeVantier
Coral Reefs of Jordan...................................................................................... 117
Nicolas Pilcher & Salim M. Al-Moghrabi
References ....................................................................................................... 125
PERSGA Publications ..................................................................................... 135
Executive Summary - (Arabic)
i
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
Acknowledgements
This document was prepared under the patronage and guidance of the Regional Organization for
the Conservation of the Environment of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden (PERSGA). Funding was
provided by the Global Environment Facility (UNDP, UNEP, World Bank) and the Islamic
Development Bank through implementation of the Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and
Gulf of Aden. Our sincere thanks are offered to Dr. Nizar I. Tawfiq (Secretary General) for his support
and commitment to the research undertaken within the region. All assistance is gratefully
acknowledged.
The authors would like to express their gratitude to the following for their assistance with the
country reports: Aden Atteyeh and David Obura (Djibouti); Ashraf El Cibahy, Yaser Awadalla, Ekram
Amine, Mohammed Shokry, Mohammed Kotb, Mahmoud Hanafy and Stephen Jameson (Egypt);
Fareed Krupp and Abdullah Alsuhaibany (Saudi Arabia); Ali Farah Ali and Yusuf Omar Ali (Somalia);
Mohammed Younis and Fareed Krupp (Sudan); Abdullah Alsuhaibany, Fareed Krupp, Catherine
Cheung, Emre Turak, Majed Al-Sorimi, Khaled Hariri, Malik Abdul-Aziz, Fouad Naseeb Saeed, Jon
Brodie, Glenn De'ath, John Turner, Rebecca Klaus, Uwe Zajonz and Jeremy Kemp (Yemen). We
would also like to thank Prof. Dr. Abdulaziz Abuzinada and Dr. Hany Tatwany at the National
Commission for Wildlife Conservation and Development for giving us access to material presented at
the International Workshop on the Extent and Impact of Coral Bleaching in the Arabian Region, held
in Riyadh in February 2000.
Authors' Addresses
Nicolas Pilcher
Dirar Nasr
Marine Research Foundation
PERSGA, P.O. Box 53662, Jeddah 21583, Kingdom of
1-3A-7 The Peak, Lorong Puncak 1
Saudi Arabia.
88400 Kota kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia.
Lyndon DeVantier
Mohammed M. Abou Zaid
JICA-NCWCD Study Team, P.O. Box 61681, Riyadh
Marine Biology and Fish Science Section, Faculty of
11575, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
Science, Al-Azhar University, Cairo, Egypt.
Salim M. Al-Moghrabi
Abdullah Alsuhaibany
Marine Science Station, P.O. Box 195, Aqaba 77111,
PERSGA, P.O. Box 53662, Jeddah 21583, Kingdom of
Jordan.
Saudi Arabia.
Nasser Djama Abdi
NPC PERSGA-SAP, P.O. Box 616, Djibouti.
ii
List of Acronyms
ARA
Aqaba Regional Authority
ALECSO
Arab League Educational, Cultural and Scientific Organization
CAMP
Coastal Area Management Programme
CBD
Convention on Biological Diversity
CERD
Centre for Scientific Research (Djibouti)
CITES
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
COTS
Crown of thorns starfish
CZM
Coastal Zone Management
DANIDA
Danish International Development Agency
DAP
Di-ammonium Phosphate
DC
Dead Coral
EARO
Eastern Africa Regional Office (IUCN)
EEAA
Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency
EFZ
Economic Free Zone (Sudan)
EGPC
Egyptian General Petroleum Corporation
EIA
Environmental Impact Assessment
EPC
Environment Protection Council (Yemen)
EPCCOM
Environmental Protection Coordinating Committee
ENSO
El Nino Southern Oscillation
EU
European Union
FAO
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
FIMPA
Farasan Islands Marine Protected Area
FRT
Fisheries Research Team
GAFRD
General Authority for Fish Resources Development (Egypt)
GCC
Gulf Cooperation Council
GCEP
General Corporation for Environmental Protection (Jordan)
GCRMN
Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network
GEF
Global Environment Facility
GIS
Geographical Information System
GNPOC
Greater Nile Petroleum Operating Company
GTA
General Tourism Authority (Yemen)
HC
Hard Coral
HCENR
Higher Council for Environment and Natural Resources (Sudan)
HCEP
Higher Council for Environmental Protection (Jordan)
ICED
International Center for Environment and Development (Egypt)
ICRI
International Coral Reef Initiative
ICLARM
International Centre for Living Aquatic Resources Management
ICZM
Integrated Coastal Zone Management
IMO
International Maritime Organization of the United Nations
ITMD
International Tyre Manufacturing and Distribution (Sudan)
IUCN
World Conservation Union (formerly International Union for the Conservation of
Nature)
JICA
Japanese International Co-operation Agency
JPMC
Jordan Phosphate Mines Company
JREDS
Jordan Royal Ecological Diving Society
JSS
Jordan Standards Specifications
KFUPM-RI
King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals Research Institute
iii
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
KISR
Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research
LMR
Living Marine Resources
MARPOL
International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships
MAW
Ministry of Agriculture and Water
MEMAC
Marine Emergency Mutual Aid Centre
MEPA
Meteorology and Environmental Protection Administration (Saudi Arabia)
MFW
Ministry of Fish Wealth (Yemen)
MoD
Ministry of Defence
MOU
Memorandum of Understanding
MP
Marine Park (Jordan)
MPA
Marine Protected Area
MPD
Ministry of Planning and Development (Yemen)
MSRRC
Marine Science Research and Resources Centre (Yemen)
MSS
Marine Science Station (Jordan)
MSY
Maximum Sustainable Yield
NCWCD
National Commission for Wildlife Conservation & Development (Saudi Arabia)
NCICZM
National Committee for Integrated Coastal Zone Management (Egypt)
NEAP
National Environmental Action Plan
NGO
Non-governmental Organization
NIOF
National Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries (Egypt)
NOAA
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (USA)
NOSCP
National Oil Spill Contingency Plan
NPK
Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium
ODA
Overseas Development Authority
PCMA
Public Corporation for Maritime Affairs (Yemen)
PDRY
Peoples Democratic Republic of Yemen
PERSGA
Regional Organization for the Conservation of the Environment of the Red Sea and
Gulf of Aden
RAMSAR
Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat
REA
Rapid Environmental Assessment
RMP
Regional Master Plan (for Marine Protected Areas)
ROPME
Regional Organization for the Protection of the Marine Environment
ROV
Remotely Operated Vehicle
RSG
Red Sea Governorate (Egypt)
SAP
Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
SCUBA
Self Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus
SD
Standard Deviation
SES
Saudi Environment Society
SMCC
Sudan Marine Conservation Committee
SRRP
Somali Relief and Rehabilitation Programme
SWCC
Saline Water Conversion Corporation (Saudi Arabia)
TAPLINE
Trans-Arabian Pipeline
TDA
Tourism Development Agency (Egypt)
TS
Technical Secretariat (Yemen)
UN
United Nations
UNCLOS
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
UNCTAD
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
UNDOS
United Nations Development Office for Somalia
UNDP
United Nations Development Programme
UNEP
United Nations Environment Programme
UNESCO
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
UNOPS
United Nations Office for Project Services
USAID
United States Aid for International Development
WAJ
Water Authority of Jordan
YAR
Yemen Arab Republic
iv
Executive Summary
The status of coral reefs in Egypt, Sudan,
The bleaching followed a period when sea
Djibouti, Somalia, Yemen, Saudi Arabia and
surface temperatures exceeded mean monthly
Jordan1 are presented, collated from surveys
averages by more than one degree Celsius
undertaken in the late 1990s.
(Centigrade).
Corals in this region are found primarily on
the following:
A review of the major threats to coral reefs
was compiled during the preliminary phase of
the Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea
fringing reefs along the mainland and
and Gulf of Aden (World Bank 1998). They
around islands,
include:
barrier reefs,
land-filling and dredging for coastal
expansion,
pinnacles,
destructive fishing methods,
atolls.
shipping and maritime activities,
Several other habitats contain corals,
including:
sewage and other pollution discharges;
lack of public awareness,
submerged patch reefs,
damage from the recreational SCUBA
coralline red algal beds,
diving industry,
relic reef formations,
insufficient implementation of legal
instruments that effect reef conservation.
volcanic rock flows.
Increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide is
In general, reef health was considered good,
expected to alter the alkalinity of the world's
with 30 to 50 % live coral cover at most
oceans over the next century, making it
locations and more than 50 % total cover on
increasingly difficult for corals and other
average. Coral diversity and reef-associated
carbonate secreting organisms to grow. Present
fauna were considered amongst the highest in
predictions are that calcification rates may slow
the Indian Ocean region. Coral bleaching caused
by as much as two-thirds over the next 50 years,
extensive die-offs in the northern-central Red
with the potential for catastrophic effects on reef
Sea in 1998, and on the Sudanese coast a red
growth and marine biodiversity in general
algal film was present over most shallow reefs.
(KLEYPAS et al. 1999).
1 Country order anticlockwise from Egypt around the
Red Sea.
v
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
The countries of the region have become
recently the reefs were considered healthy and
signatories to a number of international,
free of major anthropogenic stresses but lately
regional, bilateral or multilateral agreements
sedimentation from land reclamation works, oil
and other legal instruments. Each country also
spills and physical damage from the recreational
possesses a relatively complete set of national
SCUBA diving industry have taken their toll,
laws and regulations. However, the
and coral cover at many places has dropped by
implementation of these remains generally poor
as much as 30 %. Natural threats include
and in some cases there is no implementation or
flooding, disease and predator outbreaks2.
enforcement.
Egypt currently has four marine protected
For coral reef conservation to improve and
areas, which include coral reefs, established
to be effective in the Region, there is a need for
around the Sinai Peninsula. Seven additional
increased public awareness, increased
areas have been proposed to the Government for
implementation and enforcement of national
protected status. Three national institutions are
and international legal instruments, and the
in charge of the management of coral reef
execution of coastal management plans that
resources, the Tourism Development Agency,
integrate coastal development, pollution control,
the Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency and
and tourism with the maintenance of
local governments through three Red Sea
environmental quality in marine habitats.
Governorates. In addition, several secondary
agencies play a role in environmental
management, including the Egyptian General
Egypt
Petroleum Corporation and the National
Committee for Integrated Coastal Zone
The Arab Republic of Egypt is home to over
Management. A number of tertiary agencies are
1800 km of diverse coral reef habitats along the
also responsible for the protection of the marine
western Red Sea coast and in the Gulfs of Suez
environment.
and Aqaba. Data is drawn from surveys carried
out by staff from the Suez Canal and the Al-
Azhar Universities from 1997-99, a recent
Egypt is a signatory to a number of
overview of reef status and a Rapid
international conventions under which the
Environmental Assessment at several frequently
conservation of coral reef resources is stipulated
visited dive sites.
or indirectly addressed. The country has also
passed a number of laws and presidential
decrees that give coral reefs direct or indirect
Corals accounted for 55 % of reef cover in
protection. To improve the current response to,
non-sheltered areas and 85 % of cover in
and mitigation of, natural and anthropogenic
sheltered areas. The percentage of live coral
threats, the development of an integrated coastal
cover was highly variable along the coast, with
area management plan, the review and
the highest cover occurring on reef walls and the
upgrading of existing regulations and more
leading edges of the reefs. Southern reefs
efficient monitoring and control of pollution
housed a greater diversity of fish species than
sources and coastal development are required.
northern reefs. Exposed reefs contained a higher
diversity of fishes than sheltered reefs. Until
2 Outbreaks of crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS)
Acanthaster planci may be caused by overfishing of
reef-associated fish predators in the families
Lethrinidae, Balistidae and Tetraododontidae (ORMOND
et al. 1990).
vi
Executive Summary
Sudan
the reefs. Both anchoring and fin damage by
divers contribute to reef impairment.
The Sudanese Red Sea coast is
approximately 750 km long inclusive of bays
and inlets, and encompasses three primary coral
Sudan has much of the infrastructure needed
habitats:
for regular monitoring and effective
management of coral reef resources, but many
barrier reefs,
of the present problems with coral reef
conservation are attributed to a lack of law
fringing reefs and
enforcement, a lack of awareness, a weak legal
framework and the absence of surveillance. An
Sanganeb, an oceanic atoll.
integrated coastal management plan that takes
into consideration shipping, coastal
Surveys in 1997 and 1999 indicated that the
development, pollution and natural resources,
coral reefs were in moderate to good health,
along with effective and enforced
despite reports of an extensive coverage of algae
implementation, would address most of the
over a high proportion of the fringing reefs. The
issues mentioned.
reefs are patchy at depths down to 10 m, with
average live coral cover ranging from 5 to 75 %.
Below 10 m, the reefs contain healthy colonies
Djibouti
of framework corals. Fish health was considered
good and over-fishing was not a severe problem
Djibouti has a coastline of 372 km. The
on the coral reefs. Key indicator species were
north coast is generally shallow and sandy with
abundant and diversity appeared high relative to
occasional coral outcrops, while the Sawabi
other Red Sea sites. The crown-of-thorns
archipelago east of Ras Siyyan is fringed by
starfish was not recorded in plague numbers at
coral reefs. The southern coast is shallow with
any of the Sudanese reefs. In 1999, bleached
poorly developed coral reefs, linked to the cold-
corals were estimated to cover 14 % of the
water upwelling from the Indian Ocean. Most of
substrate. There is one established protected
the coasts and territorial waters are still in a
area: Sanganeb Marine National Park. Four
largely pristine state, but there are signs of
other areas have been proposed as protectorates
degradation and threats to the environment are
and await government decisions and
increasing rapidly.
implementation.
Two short, but extensive, reef assessments in
Fisheries play a minor role in the economy
1998 and one comprehensive subtidal survey in
but are important at a subsistence level. Neither
1999 have provided a wealth of information on
commercial nor artisanal landings reach the
Djibouti's reefs. At the south-western tip of Ile
estimated maximum sustainable yields.
Maskali, turbidity was high and the reefs were
Fisheries are believed to have great potential for
very poor. Iles Moucha and Maskali had
growth, but face logistical problems such as
moderate to good live coral cover (> 30 %).
refrigeration, transport and market access.
Live coral on the reefs to the north of Moucha
and Maskali was moderate to good (25 to 40 %
cover). The reefs of Khor Ambado had an
The most severe threats to reefs come from
average hard coral cover of 52 %. Species
shipping, and dredging for ports and
diversity of benthic and sessile organisms was
infrastructure development. Though currently
low. Porites and Pocillopora were the dominant
small-scale, tourism has a negative impact on
reef forming-corals on the reef edge and reef
vii
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
slope. Coral and other fauna were relatively rare
Coral reefs of limited development occur
on the back reef and reef flat. Eastwards from
near Ras Khansiir, Ras Cuuda, Siyara, off El
Khor Ambado the reef was in moderate to good
Girdi and west of Berbera. Reefs are shallow (1
condition with coral cover up to 80 %. The
to 10 m) and have developed on fossilised rock.
status of reefs at Iles des Sept Frères was good
The coral communities on the reefs varied
(cover averaged 34 %) and most of the
considerably in condition. All have been
archipelago had balanced and healthy reefs. No
affected by bleaching to some degree. The
significant signs of recent bleaching were
shallow reefs to the east of Berbera had suffered
recorded on the reef face or reef flat. In 1998,
nearly total mortality. Deeper reefs (2 to 5 m)
166 species of coral were recorded.
were in better condition. At the Saardin Islands
(Saad ad-Din), coral diversity, fish populations
and individual fish sizes were large. A total of 69
The reefs of Djibouti are under pressure
species of scleractinian coral, 11 species of
from many anthropogenic sources, primarily
alcyonacean coral and two species of fire coral
tourism and sewage discharges. The major
were found in one study. In general the area is
economic sectors in the coastal zone are
both productive and relatively pristine, apart
maritime transport and port-related activities.
from the deleterious effects of coral bleaching
Pressure is particularly high in the vicinity of the
and, to a lesser extent, predation by crown-of-
capital. Fisheries play a limited role, although
thorns starfish on the coral reefs.
subsistence fisheries are locally important.
Somali fishermen target a limited number of
Djibouti has two declared marine protected
demersal stocks, bound by fishing gear
areas, while two additional areas are proposed
limitations, and a range of coral reef fish.
for protected status, one of which is of regional
Fishing by Somali people is limited and nearly
importance. Several key actions at the national
entirely artisanal in nature. Though still
level in the form of legislation and
underdeveloped, these fisheries are essential for
implementation could reduce the risks of ship-
the livelihood of a large proportion of the
based pollution and oil spills. A dedicated
coastal population. Along the north coast, most
research and monitoring programme that fed
commercial operations are carried out by
back into coastal area management plans would
foreign vessels.
contribute greatly to efficient conservation
actions.
Three areas along the north coast have been
proposed for protection, of which only the
Somalia, north coast
Aibat, Saad ad-Din and Saba Wanak area (two
islands and an adjacent stretch of coastline near
The north coast is generally shallow with
Zeila [Saylac]) includes coral reefs. The effects
exposed, high-energy sandy beaches. The
of human activity on the environment appear to
central portion consists of shallow, sandy
be minimal, the only exceptions being the
shorelines with occasional outcrops and cliffs
relatively heavy, opportunistic exploitation of
that may extend into the shallow water.
turtles and sharks. Fisheries and transport are
only a small component of the national economy
and are not significant threats to coral reefs.
Three short surveys along this coast between
1966 and 1999 provide the bulk of the current
information on the status of coral reefs. Each of
Although signatory to several conventions
these used simple, rapid assessment methods.
and protocols Somalia's ability to effectively
viii
Executive Summary
implement international or national legislation
identified for the southern Red Sea. Diversity is
is limited.
lower along the mainland Gulf of Aden coast,
which is thought to support some 100 coral
species. The area remains relatively poorly
The two key requirements for improved
studied. The Belhaf - Bir Ali area supports the
conservation of coral reefs are funding and
most concentrated collection of coral
personnel. Conservation of coral reefs is
communities known from the northern Gulf of
currently given a lower priority than nation
Aden, with large coral patches developed
building and the eradication of poverty. There is
offshore from the Bir Ali village and coral
a need to develop a system of marine protected
communities fringing the offshore islands.
areas, and for the adoption of oil spill response
These communities display moderate to high
measures, broad-scale environmental education
diversity (about 100 spp. of Scleractinia) and
and continued research and monitoring for early
wide-ranging coral cover (< 10 to > 75 %).
detection of reef deterioration.
The Socotra Island Group supports a diverse
Yemen
fauna of about 250 stony coral species, placing
it among the richest sites in the western Indian
The Republic of Yemen lies in the south-
Ocean. Most extensive coral development has
western corner of the Arabian Peninsula and
been found on north facing coasts where coral
includes the Socotra Island Group. The coastline
cover and diversity are higher than in
is about 2,200 km long, roughly one third of
macroalgal-dominated south coast locations
which is in the Red Sea and the remaining two-
which are more exposed to the south-west
thirds facing the Gulf of Aden. Only about 25 %
monsoon.
of Yemen's Red Sea coastline supports coral
reefs. The most highly developed reefs occur
offshore, in the vicinity of the many islands that
Coverage of stony corals, dead corals, soft
characterise the southern Red Sea. Only 5 % of
corals and algae were all highly variable among
the Gulf of Aden coast supports either fringing
different sites within the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden
coral communities or reefs, while there is
and Socotra Island Group. Ratios of live/dead
extensive coral growth around the Socotra
coral cover at individual sites were related
Island Group.
largely to the differential effects of recent
disturbance, notably coral bleaching in 1998.
Reefs in the northern Yemeni Red Sea showed
Several major projects have recently
low live coral cover (average 17 %), high dead
assessed the distribution, composition and status
coral cover (average 34 %) and a high
of living marine resources around the Yemen
percentage cover of macroalgae (20 %). The
coastline. More than 300 species of reef
northern and central Yemeni coast and nearshore
building corals and 600 species of reef-
islands had very low live coral cover (3 %) and
associated fishes have been identified on
high dead coral cover (average 34 %). Around
Yemeni reefs and coral communities. In
the Socotra Island Group, the cover of stony
particular, coral and fish communities of the
corals ranged from less than 1 % to more than
Socotra Island Group are extremely diverse. A
75 %, and in large patches (about 1,000 m2)
total of about 176 species of stony corals have
attained almost 100 %. Overall, living stony
been recorded from the Red Sea coast of Yemen,
coral cover averaged about 20 %, with highest
with richness at individual sites ranging from 1
cover (about 35 %) on the outer islands.
to 76 species. At least 19 new records have been
ix
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
Bleaching effects in 1998 were patchily
bleaching occurred near Rabigh, where more
distributed around the Socotra Island Group and
than 65 % of total coral cover was bleached or
the north-east Gulf of Aden. At the worst
had died recently. Significant levels of coral
affected sites, more than half the species were
mortality were observed along the southern Red
injured and about half of the live coral cover
Sea, where at some sites (i.e. Abalat Islands)
was killed. Pocilloporids, table and branching
live coral cover declined from 80 % in 1993 to
Acropora spp., and fire corals Millepora spp.
about 10 % in 1999. Mean monthly sea surface
were the worst affected.
temperatures were found to be unusually high
(> 32 °C) three months prior to the first reports
of coral mortality.
Fishing is a traditional profession for
thousands of Yemenis. Total annual catches vary
between 90,000 and 95,000 metric tonnes. Reef-
Threats to Saudi Arabia's coral reefs
based fisheries, for the most part, are
originate primarily through industrial
underdeveloped and at a subsistence level.
development and maritime transport, including
oil spills, land-filling, pollutant discharges and
effluents from desalination activities. Most
Only in recent years has the protection of
acute damage to reefs is localised around major
coral reefs been addressed. There is one official
urban areas.
protected area - the Socotra Island Group - and
a further six have been proposed. Coastal
development, the petroleum industry and
Many marine areas have been proposed for
maritime shipping pose a significant risk to reefs
protected status, dating back to the mid and late
in the form of untreated sewage, land filling and
1980s. However, with the exception of the
hydrocarbon pollution.
Farasan Islands, protected in 1996, no other
marine protected areas have been established on
the Saudi Arabian Red Sea coast.
Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia's Red Sea coastline measures
Saudi Arabia has carried out a number of
approximately 1,840 km. Coral reefs are found
programmes and adopted a number of legal
fringing the entire length and the offshore
measures to conserve coral reefs. These include
islands. Several major surveys have been carried
laws on pollution discharges and the
out along the coast in the 1980s and 1990s, the
establishment of protected areas. However, a
most recent being a joint study between the
number of issues remain unresolved or are
National Commission for Wildlife Conservation
poorly addressed, most importantly - the
and Development and the Japanese International
enforcement of existing emission standards,
Co-operation Agency. Reefs are generally in a
industrial development (particularly land-
good condition, with the exception of those near
filling), and the integration of the public and
Jeddah and Yanbu. In the early 1980s, 194
private sectors in reef conservation.
species of corals were recorded with the greatest
diversity from the central portion.
Jordan
Bleaching caused mass coral mortality in the
The Jordanian coastline extends
central-northern Saudi Arabian Red Sea in late
approximately 27 km along the north-eastern
1998. Bleaching was patchily distributed and
reaches of the Gulf of Aqaba. Approximately
highly variable in intensity. The most intense
30 % of the coast is used for port activities.
x
Executive Summary
Fringing reefs border up to 50 % of the coast,
The Gulf of Aqaba is highly susceptible to
supporting a high diversity of coral and
pollution. At present pollution is limited and
associated fauna (158 coral species in 51 genera
localised. The main threats are oil spills and
and over 280 fish species).
discharges, industrial discharges, municipal and
ship-based sewage and solid waste. The
development of the tourism sector might also
Jordan's coral reefs are in good condition,
further threaten the coral reefs.
supporting up to 90 % cover of scleractinian
corals. No bleaching events were recorded in
1998, possibly as a result of Jordan's more
Summary
northerly latitude.
To improve the conservation status of coral
reefs, there is a need to strengthen the overall
There are no official marine protected areas,
institutional capabilities of government
although the area within the Marine Station
agencies. This can be achieved through the
grounds known as the Aqaba Coral Reef
hiring and training of staff, the implementation
Protected Area is, de facto, a protected area and
of environmental protection laws and
is the only proposed protected area in the
regulations, and improving regional cooperation
country.
to co-ordinate and enhance the efforts of
individual Gulf-bordering nations. Several
additional measures are also needed. These
Jordan has revised its legal and regulatory
include the development of an integrated coastal
framework for environmental protection at a
zone management strategy, capacity building at
national and international level. The country is
the legislative, management and operational
party to eight international conventions or
levels, the establishment of marine protected
treaties that directly or indirectly have an impact
areas and the harmonisation of existing
on the conservation of coral reefs.
regulations at the national and international
level.
xi
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
xii
Résumé Analytique
Les résultats d'études menées à la fin des
coraux et de la faune corallienne est considérée
années 1990 portant sur l'état des récifs
comme l'une des plus élevées dans la région de
coralliens en Égypte, au Soudan, à Djibouti, en
l'océan Indien. Un épisode de blanchissement a
Somalie, au Yémen, en Arabie Saoudite et en
produit la mort de vastes étendues de coraux
Jordanie1 sont detailles dans ce rapport.
dans la mer Rouge septentrionale et centrale en
1998 , et sur la côte soudanaise. Une pellicule
d'algues rouges recouvre la plupart des récifs
Les coraux de cette région sont
des fonds.
principalement
Parmi les grandes menaces qui pèsent sur les
des récifs frangeants les continents et les
récifs coralliens figurent
îles,
des récifs-barrières,
le remblayage de la mer et le dragage
pour l'aménagement du littoral,
des pinacles et
les méthodes de pêche destructives,
des atolls.
les dégâts causés par les plongeurs sous-
On y trouve également plusieurs autres
marins,
habitats, notamment
le transport maritime et la navigation,
des platiers de corail submergés,
les rejets des eaux usées et d'autres
polluants,
des tapis d'algues rouges coralliennes,
le manque de sensibilisation du public et
des récifs reliques et
l'absence d' application des dispositions
des coulées de roches volcaniques.
juridiques relatives à la conservation des
récifs coralliens.
En général, les récifs de la région sont
considérés comme etant en bonne santé, avec
Les pays de la région sont signataires de
une couverture de corail vivant de 30 à 50 % sur
multiples conventions internationales,
la plupart des sites et une couverture totale
régionales, bilatérales et multilatérales ainsi que
moyenne de plus de 50 %. La diversité des
de divers autres instruments juridiques. Chaque
pays possède également un ensemble
1 Pays classés par ordre anti-horaire à partir de l'Égypte
relativement complet de lois et de règlements
selon leur situation géographique autour de la Mer
nationaux. En revanche, c'est généralement au
Rouge.
xiii
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
niveau de la mise en oeuvre que se situent les
projets d'aménagement des terres, les
faiblesses. Dans certains cas même, celle-ci fait
déversements d'hydrocarbures et les dégâts
entièrement défaut et les lois restent lettre
causés par les activités de plongée sous marine
morte.
qui ont eu un grave impact : en de nombreux
points, la couverture corallienne a diminué
parfois de 30 %. Parmi les menaces naturelles
Il faut, pour améliorer véritablement la
figurent les inondations, les maladies et les
conservation des récifs coralliens dans la région:
infestations de prédateurs.
accroître la sensibilisation du public, renforcer
la mise en oeuvre et l'application des
dispositions juridiques nationales et
L'Égypte possède actuellement quatre aires
internationales et exécuter des plans de gestion
marines protégées qui englobent les récifs
intégrée des zones côtières qui tiennent compte
coralliens de la péninsule du Sinaï. Le
du développement de ces zones, de la lutte
classement de sept autres zones en tant qu'aires
contre la pollution et de la réglementation des
marines protégées a été proposé aux pouvoirs
activités touristiques d'une manière équilibrée
publics. Trois institutions nationales sont
et respectueuse de la qualité de l'environnement
chargées de la gestion des ressources des récifs
et des habitats marins.
coralliens:
Égypte
l'Agence de développement du
tourisme,
La République arabe d'Égypte possede plus
l'Agence des affaires environnementales
de 1,800 km de cote comprenant la côte
egyptienne et
occidentale de la mer Rouge et les golfe de Suez
et d'Aqaba. On y trouve des récifs coralliens.
les administrations locales par
Les données concernant ces habitats
l'intermédiaire des trois gouvernorats de
proviennent d'études effectuées par le personnel
la Mer Rouge.
des Universités du Canal de Suez et d' Al-Azhar
de 1997 à 1999, d'un récent examen général de
Par ailleurs, plusieurs organismes
l'état des récifs coralliens et d'évaluations
secondaires interviennent dans la gestion de
environnementales rapides menées sur des sites
l'environnement, notamment la Société
de plongée fortement fréquentés.
Générale du Pétrole Égyptien et la Commission
Nationale de Gestion Intégrée des Zones
Côtières. Plusieurs organismes tertiaires sont
Les coraux représentent 55 % de la
également chargés de la protection de
couverture récifale dans les zones non abritées
l'environnement marin.
et 85 % dans les zones abritées. Les taux de
couverture corallienne vivante présentent de
fortes variations le long des côtes; les plus
L'Égypte est signataire de diverses
élevés étant observés a la peripherie des récifs.
conventions internationales en vertu desquelles
La diversité de la faune ichtyologique est plus
elle a pris des engagements, directs ou indirects,
grande sur les récifs du sud que sur ceux du nord
en matière de conservation des ressources des
et sur les récifs exposés que sur les récifs
récifs coralliens. Le pays a également
abrités. Jusqu'à une date récente, les récifs
promulgué un certain nombre de lois et de
étaient considérés comme etant en bonne santé
décrets présidentiels protégeant directement ou
et exempts de stress d'origine anthropique mais
indirectement les récifs coralliens. Pour
depuis peu, la sédimentation résultant des
renforcer les mesures actuelles visant à faire
xiv
Résumé Analytique
face aux menaces naturelles et anthropiques et à
Les principales activités industrielles sont
les atténuer, il s'avère nécessaire d'élaborer un
les transports maritimes et les activités
plan de gestion intégrée des zones côtières,
portuaires connexes, mais les secteurs du
d'examiner et de renforcer les règlements en
tourisme et des pêcheries possèdent un fort
vigueur et d'exercer un suivi et un contrôle plus
potentiel de croissance. La pêche, qui ne joue
efficace des sources de pollution et de
qu'un rôle mineur dans l'économie nationale,
l'aménagement du littoral.
est importante en tant qu'activité de subsistance.
Ni les prises commerciales ni les prises
artisanales n'atteignent les taux estimés de
Soudan
rendement maximal soutenable et la croissance
actuelle des pêcheries est négligeable. Le
La façade soudanaise de la Mer Rouge
secteur possède, estime-t-on, un grand potentiel,
s'étend sur une longueur d'environ 750 km, y
mais qui ne pourra se réaliser qu'à condition de
compris les baies et les bras de mer. On y trouve
résoudre les problèmes logistiques de la
trois types de coraux:
réfrigération, du transport et des marchés.
des récifs-barrières,
Les menaces les plus graves qui pèsent sur
des récifs frangeants et
les récifs proviennent des transports maritimes
et du dragage. Le secteur du tourisme contribue
un atoll océanique a Sanganeb.
par ailleurs à la degradation des coraux par les
ancres de bateaux et les plongeurs . Le Soudan
L'état de santé des récifs coralliens est
possède l'essentiel de l'infrastructure requise
considéré comme modéré à bon, bien qu'il ait
pour exercer un suivi régulier et assurer une
été signalé récemment la présence d'une vaste
gestion efficace des ressources des récifs
couverture algale sur une forte proportion des
coralliens, mais nombre de problèmes actuels de
récifs frangeants. À moins de 10 m de
la conservation des récifs sont attribuables à des
profondeur, les récifs sont discontinus et la
carences dus a la non application des règlements
moyenne de la couverture de coraux vivants
et de l'absence de la sensibilisation, à la
varie de 5 à 75 %. À plus de 10 m, les récifs
faiblesse du cadre juridique et à l'absence de
contiennent des colonies coralligènes en bonne
surveillance des sites. Un plan de gestion intégré
santé. La santé de la faune ichtyologique
des zones côtières qui porterait sur les
récifale est considérée comme bonne et la
transports, l'aménagement du littoral, la pollution
surpêche ne constitue pas un problème grave.
et les ressources naturelles, assorti de mesures
Les principales espèces utilisees comme
efficaces de mise en oeuvre et d'application,
indicateurs sont abondantes et leur diversité est
permettrait de résoudre la plupart des problèmes
élevée par rapport aux autres sites de la Mer
évoqués ici.
Rouge. Il n'a pas été observé une epidemie
d'Acanthaster planci, étoiles de mer dites
couronnes d'épines (CdE) sur les récifs
Djibouti
soudanais. En 1999, on estimait que les coraux
blanchis couvraient 14 % du substrat. Il existe
Djibouti possède un littoral de 372 km de
une aire protégée classée, le Parc national marin
long. La côte nord est généralement sablonneuse,
de Sanganeb. Quatre autres aires ont été
avec des eaux de faible profondeur et des
proposées et l'on attend les décisions des
affleurements coralliens ponctuels, tandis que
pouvoirs publics pour procéder à leur mise en
l'archipel des îles des Sept Freres, à l'est de Ras
place.
Siyyan, est entouré de récifs frangeants. Le
troncon de la cote au sud est de la ville de
xv
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
Djibouti a des eaux peu profondes et les récifs
dans l'économie, mais la pêche de subsistance
coralliens y sont peu développés, du fait de des
est importante au niveau local.
upwelling d'eau froide de l'océan Indien. La
plupart des eaux côtières et territoriales sont
encore essentiellement intactes, mais on relève
Djibouti possède deux aires marines
certains signes de dégradation et les menaces
protégées classées et deux autres aires ont été
environnementales s'intensifient rapidement.
proposées, l'une d'elle étant d'importance
régionale. Plusieurs mesures clés à prendre au
niveau national dispositions législatives
Deux évaluations des récifs, brèves mais de
assorties de mesures de mise en oeuvre
vaste portée, menées en 1998 et une étude
pourraient réduire les risques provenant de la
complète des zones subtidales effectuée en 1999
pollution des navires et des déversements
ont fourni une somme considérable
d'hydrocarbures. Un programme spécialisé de
d'informations sur les récifs djiboutiens. À
recherche et de suivi qui appuierait des plans de
l'extrémité sud-ouest de l'île Maskali, la
gestion des zones côtières apporterait un appui
turbidité est élevée et la sante des récifs s'en
important aux activités de conservation et
ressent. Les îles Moucha et Maskali possèdent
contribuerait à leur efficacité.
une bonne couverture corallienne vivante (plus
de 30 %); la couverture est modérée à bonne sur
les récifs situés au nord de Moucha et Maskali
Somalie (côte nord)
(25 à 40 %). La couverture de coraux durs des
récifs de Khor Ambado est en moyenne de
La côte nord de la Somalie a généralement
52 %. La diversité des espèces d'organismes
des eaux peu profondes et des plages de sable
benthiques et sessiles est faible. Porites et
fortement exposées à l'action de la mer. Dans sa
Pocillopora
sont les coraux bâtisseurs
partie centrale, la côte sablonneuse présente en
dominants en bordure des récifs et sur les pentes
certains points des affleurements rocheux et des
récifales. Les coraux et autres espèces fauniques
falaises qui s'étendent parfois dans les eaux de
sont relativement rares sur l'arrière-récif et le
faible profondeur.
platier. À l'est de Khor Ambado, l'état du récif
est modéré à bon, avec une couverture
corallienne atteignant 80 %. L'état des récifs
Trois brèves études menées sur cette côte de
aux îles des Sept Frères est bon (couverture
1966 à 1999, selon des méthodes simples
moyenne de 34 %) et la plupart de l'archipel
d'évaluation rapide, fournissent la majorité des
possède des récifs en équilibre et en bonne
données actuellement disponibles sur l'état des
santé. Il n'a pas été relevé de signes notables de
récifs coralliens.
blanchissement récent sur les faces récifales ni
sur les platiers. En 1998, il a été dénombré 166
espèces de coraux.
On trouve des récifs coralliens peu
developpe près de Raas Khansiir, de Raas
Cuuda et de Siyara, au large d'El Girdi et à
Les récifs djiboutiens subissent les pressions
l'ouest de Berbera. Ils sont de faible profondeur
d'origine anthropique, principalement du
(1 à 10 m) et se sont formés sur une roche
tourisme et des rejets d'eaux usées. Les
fossile. L'état des communautés coralliennes
principales activités économiques de la zone
présente des variations considérables. Toutes
côtière sont les transports maritimes et les
ont été touchées par le blanchissement dans une
activités portuaires connexes. Les pressions sont
certaine mesure. La mortalité est presque totale
particulièrement fortes au voisinage de la
pour les récifs de faible profondeur à l'est de
capitale. Les pêcheries jouent un rôle limité
Berbera. Les récifs plus profonds (2 à 5 m) sont
xvi
Résumé Analytique
en meilleur état. Aux îles Sa'adadin (Saad ad-
L'amélioration de la conservation des récifs
Din), on note une forte diversité des coraux et
coralliens dépend de l'apport de deux types de
une faune ichtyologique nombreuse avec des
ressources, à savoir les ressources financières et
specimens de grande taille. L'une des études a
les ressources humaines. Par ailleurs, cette
relevé la présence de 69 espèces de corail
conservation se place actuellement au troisième
madréporaire, 11 espèces d'alcyonaires et deux
rang des priorités nationales, derrière la
espèces de Millepora (corail de feu). En général,
construction de la nation et l'éradication de la
la région est productive et relativement intacte,
pauvreté. Il sera nécessaire d'établir un système
mis à part les effets destructeurs du
d'aires marines protégées, d'adopter des
blanchissement et, dans une mesure moindre, de
mesures de lutte contre les déversements
la prédation des couronnes d'épines.
d'hydrocarbures, d'instaurer un système
d'éducation environnementale de grande
envergure et de poursuivre les activités de
Les pêcheurs somaliens exploitent un
recherches et de suivi en vue d'une détection
nombre limité d'espèces démersales, avec des
précoce de la détérioration des récifs.
limites imposées quant au matériel de pêche, et
toute une gamme de poissons récifaux. Leurs
activités sont limitées et presque entièrement
Yémen
artisanales. Bien qu'encore sous-développées,
ces pêcheries constituent les moyens
La République du Yémen est située dans la
d'existence essentiels pour une forte proportion
région sud-ouest de la péninsule Arabique, son
de la population du littoral. Il existe une
territoire comprenant également l'archipel de
pêcherie de langoustes établie qui exploite les
Socotra. Ses côtes s'étendent sur quelque
récifs situés à proximité de la côte sud-est. Sur
2,200 km, dont environ un tiers se trouve sur la
la côte nord, la plupart des activités de pêche
Mer Rouge et deux tiers sur le golfe d'Aden.
commerciale sont le fait de navires étrangers.
Seul environ un quart des côtes yéménites de la
Mer Rouge possède des récifs coralliens. Les
plus développés de ces récifs se trouvent au
Il a été proposé d'établir trois aires protégées
large, à proximité des nombreuses îles de la Mer
sur la côte nord, seule celle de Aibat, Sa' adadin
Rouge méridionale. Seuls 5 % de la côte du
et Saba Wanak (deux îles et la côte adjacente à
golfe d'Aden possèdent des récifs frangeants ou
proximité de Zeila [Saylac]) possédant des
autres. On constate en revanche une forte
récifs coralliens. Les effets des activités
croissance des coraux dans la zone de l'archipel
anthropiques sur l'environnement semblent
de Socotra.
minimes, à la seule exception de l'exploitation
opportuniste, relativement intense, des tortues et
des requins. Les pêcheries et les transports ne
Plusieurs projets d'une importance majeure
représentent qu'une petite composante de
ont permis d'évaluer récemment la répartition,
l'économie nationale et ne sont pas source de
la composition et l'état des ressources
menaces significatives pour les récifs coralliens.
biologiques marines de la côte du Yémen. Plus
de 300 espèces de coraux bâtisseurs de récifs et
600 espèces de poissons récifaux ont été
Bien que signataire de plusieurs conventions
recensés sur les côtes yéménites. Les
et protocoles, la Somalie ne possède que des
communautés coralliennes et la faune
capacités limitées à mettre en oeuvre les accords
ichtyologique récifale de l'archipel de Socotra
internationaux et les dispositions législatives
en particulier sont extrêmement diverses. Au
nationales.
total, quelque 176 espèces de corail
madréporaire ont été recensées au Yémen sur la
xvii
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
côte de la Mer Rouge, la diversité des sites
de coraux vivants très basse (3 %) et une forte
s'échelonnant de une à 76 espèces. Pas moins de
couverture de coraux morts (34 % en
19 nouvelles espèces ont été identifiées pour la
moyenne). Dans l'archipel de Socotra, la
Mer Rouge méridionale. La diversité est
couverture de madrépores varie de moins de 1 %
moindre le long de la côte continentale du golfe
à plus de 75 % et, sur certaines formations de
d'Aden où se trouve, estime-t-on, une centaine
grande superficie (environ 1,000 m2) avoisine
d'espèces de coraux. Cette région n'a fait l'objet
100 %. Dans l'ensemble, la couverture de
que de quelques études. La zone de Belhaf-Bir
coraux madréporaires vivants atteint une
Ali contient la plus forte concentration de
moyenne d'environ 20 %, les taux les plus
communautés coralliennes connues depuis le
élevés (environ 35 %) ayant été relevés sur les
nord du golfe d'Aden, avec de vastes bancs
îles extérieures.
coralliens au large du village de Bir Ali et des
récifs frangeants entourant les îles. La diversité
de ces communautés est de modérée à forte (une
Le blanchissement de 1998 a eu des effets
centaine d'especes) et la couverture corallienne
inégalement répartis dans l'archipel de Socotra
présente de larges variations (moins de 10 à plus
et le nord-est du golfe d'Aden. Sur les sites les
de 75 %).
plus durement frappés, plus de moitié des
espèces ont subi des lésions et environ 50 % de
la couverture de coraux vivants ont été tués. Les
L'archipel de Socotra contient une faune
espèces les plus touchées sont celles de la
diverse comptant quelque 250 espèces de
famille des pocilloporidés, les coraux tabulaires
madrépores, ce qui le classe parmi les sites les
et arborescents Acropora spp., et les coraux de
plus riches de l'océan Indien occidental. Le
feu Millepora sp.
développement des coraux est le plus élevé sur
les côtes orientées vers le nord; la couverture et
La pêche est une profession traditionnelle
la diversité coralliennes y sont plus grandes que
pour des milliers de Yéménites. Les prises
sur les côtes orientées vers le sud, dominées par
annuelles varient de 90,000 à 95,000 tonnes
les macroalgues et plus exposées à la mousson
métriques et plus de 90 % de la production
du sud-ouest.
halieutique totale du pays provient des pêcheurs
artisanaux. Les pêcheries récifales sont, pour la
plupart, sous-développées et se situent au niveau
Les taux de couverture des coraux
de la subsistance.
madréporaires, des coraux morts, des coraux
Ce n'est que ces dernières années que la
mous et des algues présentent tous une forte
protection des récifs coralliens a été prise en
variabilité entre les différents sites de la Mer
considération. Il existe une aire marine
Rouge, du golfe d'Aden et de l'archipel de
protégée, celles de l'archipel de Socotra, et des
Socotra. Les variations des proportions de la
propositions ont été émises en vue d'en établir
couverture de coraux vivants par rapport aux
six autres. L'aménagement du littoral,
coraux morts sont dues dans une grande mesure
l'industrie pétrolière et les transports maritimes
aux différents effets des perturbations récentes,
présentent des risques significatifs pour les
notamment du blanchissement corallien de
récifs, sous forme de rejets d'eaux usées non
1998. Au Yémen, sur les côtes nord de la Mer
traitées, de remblayage de la mer et de la
Rouge, les récifs ont une faible couverture de
pollution par les hydrocarbures.
coraux vivants (17 % en moyenne), une forte
couverture de coraux morts (34 % en moyenne)
et une forte couverture de macroalgues (20 %).
La côte continentale septentrionale et centrale et
celle des îles côtières présentent une couverture
xviii
Résumé Analytique
Arabie Saoudite
De nombreuses propositions de création
d'aires marines protégées ont été soumises aux
Le littoral de l'Arabie Saoudite sur la Mer
autorités depuis le milieu et la fin des années
Rouge s'étend sur environ 1,840 km. Des récifs
1980. Toutefois, à l'exception des îles Farasan,
coralliens frangeants se trouvent sur toute la
protégées depuis 1996, aucune autre aire n'a été
longueur de ce littoral et autour des îles situées
établie en Arabie Saoudite sur les côtes de la
au large de la côte. Ils sont généralement en bon
Mer Rouge.
état, à l'exception de ceux qui se trouvent à
proximité de Djeddah et de Yanbu. Au début des
années 1980, 194 espèces de coraux ont été
L'Arabie Saoudite a exécuté plusieurs
recensés dans la partie centrale de la côte, où ils
programmes et adopté un certain nombre de
présentent la plus grande diversité.
mesures juridiques visant à la conservation des
récifs coralliens. Ces mesures comprennent en
particulier des lois sur les rejets de polluants et
Le blanchissement a causé une mortalité
sur l'établissement des aires protégées. Mais il
massive des coraux en Arabie Saoudite dans la
reste plusieurs problèmes à résoudre ou
partie centrale et septentrionale de la Mer Rouge
partiellement pris en considération, et
à la fin de l'annee 1998. Ses effets ont été
notamment l'application des normes
inégalement répartis et d'intensité très variable.
d'émissions en vigueur, le développement
L'épisode de blanchissement le plus intense est
industriel, qui comprend le remblayage de la
survenu près de Rabigh, où plus de 65 % de la
mer, et l'intégration des interventions du secteur
couverture corallienne en a subi les effets. On a
public et du secteur privé pour la conservation
constaté une mortalité corallienne significative
des récifs.
dans le sud de la Mer Rouge où sur certains sites
(tels que les îles Abalat), la couverture de coraux
vivants qui était de 80 % en 1993 n'était plus
Jordanie
que d'environ 10 % en 1999. On a également
noté que la moyenne mensuelle des
La Jordanie possède environ 27 km de côte
températures de surface de la mer étaient
à l'extrémité nord-est du golfe d'Aqaba, dont
anormalement élevées (plus de 32 °C) trois
quelque 30 % sont le site d'activités portuaires.
mois avant les premiers rapports signalant la
Cinquante pour cent de cette côte est bordée de
mortalité corallienne.
récifs frangeants qui présentent des coraux et
une faune associée d'une grande diversité (158
espèces de coraux appartenant à 51 genres et
Les menaces auxquelles sont exposés les
plus de 280 espèces de poissons).
récifs coralliens en Arabie Saoudite proviennent
principalement du développement industriel et
des transports maritimes et comprennent les
Les récifs coralliens de la Jordanie sont en
déversements d'hydrocarbures, le remblayage
bon état, leur couverture de madrépores
de la mer et les rejets de polluants et d'effluents
atteignant 90 %. Ils ont été épargnés par les
dus aux activités de dessalement de l'eau de
épisodes de blanchissement survenus en 1998,
mer. Les dégâts graves causés aux récifs sont
peut-être en raison de la situation de la Jordanie
localisés pour la plupart aux environs des grands
plus au nord que les autres pays.
centres urbains.
Il n'existe pas d'aire marine protégée
proprement dite, mais la zone de la station
maritime dite Aire protégée des récifs coralliens
xix
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
Sommaire
d'Aqaba est, de fait, une aire protégée; c'est
également la seule du pays dont il soit proposé
de faire une aire protégée classée.
Il est nécessaire, pour améliorer la
conservation des récifs coralliens, de renforcer
les capacités institutionnelles générales des
La Jordanie a révisé son cadre législatif et
instances gouvernementales. Cela peut se faire
réglementaire relatif à la protection de
par le recrutement et la formation de personnel,
l'environnement aux niveaux national et
par la mise en oeuvre de lois et de règlements de
international. Elle est partie de huit conventions
protection de l'environnement et par
ou traités internationaux qui ont un impact direct
l'amélioration de la coopération régionale pour
ou indirect sur la conservation des récifs
coordonner et étayer les efforts des différents
coralliens.
États riverains du golfe. Plusieurs mesures
supplémentaires sont également requises, et
notamment la formulation d'une stratégie de
Le golfe d'Aqaba est sujet à une forte
gestion intégrée des zones côtières, un
pollution. Celle-ci est actuellement limitée et
renforcement des capacités en matière de
localisée. Les principales menaces sont les
législation et de gestion ainsi qu'au niveau
déversements et les rejets d'hydrocarbures, les
opérationnel, l'établissement d'aires marines
rejets industriels et les eaux usées et les déchets
protégées et l'harmonisation des règlements
solides des navires et des municipalités. Le
existants aux niveaux national et international.
développement du secteur du tourisme pourrait
également faire peser de nouvelles menaces sur
les récifs coralliens.
xx
Coral Reefs of Egypt
Introduction
Matters pertaining to the conservation and
management of coral reefs are the responsibility
of the Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency
The Egyptian Red Sea coast extends
(EEAA).
approximately 1800 km along the Gulfs of
Suez, Aqaba and the Red Sea, and is bordered
by fringing reefs for most of this length. There
Rapid development over the last few
are also several submerged reefs and fringing
decades has resulted in a number of new
reefs surrounding some 35 small islands
anthropogenic threats to the reefs, including
(Fig. 1).
high sedimentation rates, dredging, destructive
fishing, tourism and curio trading. Resort
development is proceeding rapidly, threatening
the valuable coral reef resources (JAMESON et al.
1995). The reefs in the Hurghada area, for
instance, are under significant stress through
anchor and fin damage (JAMESON & SMITH
1997) and an initiative funded by USAID has
provided a number of permanent mooring buoys
Sinai
to mitigate these effects. Non-anthropogenic
Gulf of
Gulf of
threats include flood run-off, infestations by the
Suez
Aqaba
crown-of-thorns starfish Acanthaster planci and
Sharm
Al-Sheikh
high sea temperatures, resulting in severe
Ras
bleaching.
Giftun
Islands
Straits of
Mohammed
Gubal
Hurghada
Egypt has subdivided the future
Port Safaga
requirements for coral reef conservation into
three major categories:
Red
Sea
EGYPT
information requirements,
Port Berenice
development challenges and
Mirear Island
public awareness.
Under information requirements, it is
recommended that advanced mapping
techniques be employed to update data on the
Fig. 1: The major features of the Egyptian coastline
extent of current reefs. Reef monitoring must be
1
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
Surveys
prioritised in areas of recreational and industrial
use and must be continued and incorporated into
coastal management plans. Development
Geographical Scope and Survey
challenges include improving sewage treatment
Techniques
and outfalls, including collection and recycling
of solid wastes, testing and implementing the
national Oil Spill Pollution Response Protocol,
Surveys were carried out from Hurghada to
developing flood control mechanisms,
Shakateen by staff from the Suez Canal
minimising siltation and careful planning of
University and the Al-Azhar University between
tourism operations within the coastal zone.
1997 and 1999. The surveys examined 130 reef
Finally, it is recognised that there is a need for
sites to evaluate the status of coral reefs and
heightened and improved information
associated communities. In addition, more
dissemination through various media, including
detailed studies were carried out at 11 sites close
workshops, seminars, and academic
to Hurghada to assess the impact of recreational
programmes, and a need for co-operation
diving on reef habitats. ABOU ZAID (2000)
between the tourism and government sectors.
summarised data collected by the Egyptian Red
Sea Coastal and Marine Resources Management
Project, the Ecological Sustainable Tourism
The most northerly reefs lie near Suez.
Project and the Coral Reef Biodiversity Project
Along the eastern coast of the Gulf of Suez,
to provide a recent overview of reef status.
patch reefs are small and occur in depths of 1 to
Rapid Environmental Assessments (REAs) were
5 m, resting on calcareous sandy substrates. On
made at 48 frequently visited dive sites as part
the western coast of the Gulf of Suez reefs are
of the Environmentally Sustainable Tourism
more developed, forming a fringing reef that
Project (JAMESON et al. 1997).
stretches from 50 km south of Suez to Ain-
Sukhna, extending 30 to 40 m offshore and
sloping from 1 to 5 m in depth. There are
Survey methodology generally followed that
extensive reefs in the southern Gulf of Suez, on
outlined in ENGLISH et al. (1997). At the detailed
the Sinai Peninsula at Ras Mohammed and
study sites, 10 replicates of a 4 m2 quadrat were
surrounding the Ashrafi Islands close to the
used at 5 m and 10 m intervals to assess coral
western shores of the Gulf. In the Gulf of Aqaba
and fish community structures, comparing
there are narrow fringing reefs along the steep
heavy and moderately dived sites with control
cliffs of both shores. At the mouths of wadis
sites at which no diving occurred. In the REA
(river valleys) and across bays the fringing reefs
project, quadrat sampling over a one hour period
extend outwards for up to 1 km from the shore.
at each of 43 sites yielded data on the percentage
In the Red Sea proper, fringing reefs extend
of life-form coverage, while the IUCN
from Gubal in the north nearly continuously to
quantitative line transect method (Pernetta
Halaib, at the border with Sudan. These reefs are
1993) was used to obtain detailed data at five
25 to 150 m wide at the northern end,
heavily used sites.
increasing to 500 m wide from Marsa Alam to
Shalatein. At Shalatein, the reef extends up to
12 km from the shore to Mirear Island,
Coral Reefs Benthos and Fish
decreasing in width (to 50 m) southwards to
Abu Ramad.
Coral Diversity
Reefs in the north and central Red Sea were
more diverse than those in the south, with nearly
2
Coral Reefs of Egypt
Coral Cover
Region
Genera
Species
Gulf of Aqaba
47
120
The percentage of live coral cover generally
Gulf of Suez
25
47
ranged from 11 to 35 % in the reef flat areas
North Red Sea
45
128
(Table 2), while the highest cover was found
Central Red Sea
49
143
along the reef walls (ranging from 12 to 85 %)
South Red Sea
31
74
and reef slopes (5 to 62 %). Variation in coral
cover was attributed to siltation, caused by
Table 1: Number of genera and species of reef
flooding and mining activities, and to
building corals in the Egyptian Red Sea
recreational SCUBA diving.
(ABOU ZAID 2000)
Overall there has been a decline in coral
double the number of coral species (Table 1).
cover at most sites in the Egyptian Red Sea
The distribution and development of reef-
(Table 3). Coral cover has decreased by 20 to
building corals was believed to be restricted by
30 % and the percentage of recently dead coral
several physico-chemical parameters, including
(normally through anchor and fin damage) has
temperature, sediment load, salinity and light.
increased by several factors. Surveys by the
Sector
Reef Zone
Zone
Reef Flat
Reef Edge
Reef Wall
Reef Slope
North of Hurghada
30
65
68
35
Hurghada - Safaga
18
25
50
20
Safaga - El Quseir
16
45
33
20
El Quseir - Marsa Alam
14
25
50
5
Marsa Alam - Hamatah
11
20
45
12
Hamatah - Baranis (Berenice)
12
20
22
10
Baranis - Shalatein
20
11
12
45
Shalatein - Halaib
35
48
85
62
Table 2: Average percentage of live coral cover in different reef zones along the Egyptian coastline
(GEF 1977)
Al Aruk
Small Giftun
El Erg 3
1987
1996
1987
1996
1987
1996
Hard coral
36.8
24.1
49.9
22.0
60.9
49.2
Soft coral
23.6
15.6
12.5
3.1
16.6
19.8
Rubble
1.7
5.0
3.6
3.6
0
1.5
Recently broken coral
10.9
0
9.2
0
0.2
0.2
Recently dead coral
0
5.5
1.3
3.5
0.5
6.0
Table 3: Historical comparison of reef composition (percentage cover) at three dives sites in the
northern Red Sea (adapted from JAMESON et al. 1997)
3
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
Marine Conservation Society also indicate
Fishery activities are regulated by the General
deteriorating trends between 1981 and 1996 at
Authority for Fish Resources Development
Shaab Fanadir and Giftun Saghir (WOOD et al.
(GAFRD) of the Ministry of Agriculture.
1996).
Over 7 % of the national workforce is
Over 40 % of dive sites had less than 30 %
involved in fisheries of one kind or another
hard coral cover, of which more than one third
(GAFRD 1989). Highest landings are reported
had significant levels of broken coral (JAMESON
at the port of Suez (78 % of the total), but most
et al. 1997).
of the fishing boats landing their catch in Suez
actually fish further south, in central and
southern areas of the Red Sea.
Fish Communities
ABOU ZAID (2000) reported a total of 261
The total number of commercial coral reef
fish species representing 89 genera from 46
fish species is 27. Five species make up over 48
families. He also noted that southern reefs
% of the total landings, amounting to slightly
housed a greater diversity of fish species than
over 22,800 tonnes per annum. The balance of
northern reefs. Exposed reefs contained a higher
the catch is made up of crustaceans, offshore
diversity of fishes than sheltered reefs, which
pelagic fishes and demersal fishes (in equal
was attributed to the lower incidence of divers
proportions). Fishery landings have decreased
and fishermen in these areas. The most abundant
steadily since 1994, after a peak in 1993 that
family was the Pomacentridae (damselfishes),
consisted of record landings of Indian and other
represented by 16 to 26 species across all sites,
mackerel, and of sardines (PERSGA/GEF
followed by the Labridae (wrasses), represented
2001). GAFRD aims to increase fish catches to
by 20 species. The most common damselfish
70,000 tonnes by 2017.
was Chromis dimidiata and the most common
wrasse was Labricus quadrilineatus. The least
abundant family was the Scaridae (parrotfishes),
Threats to Coral Reef Biodiversity
represented by only nine species, of which
Hipposcarus harid and Scarus ferrugineus were
the most common. Among the Acanthuridae
Coral reefs are affected by a wide range of
(surgeonfishes), Naso literatus, Acanthurus
anthropogenic impacts. Oil spills, land
negrifuscus and Acanthurus sohal were the most
reclamation and sedimentation are responsible
common species. Chaetodontidae
for a large proportion of the damage.
(butterflyfishes) diversity increased in the north,
Recreational SCUBA diving practices, which
with Chaetodon larvatus, C. auriga and C.
also include anchor damage, is also considered
fasciatus being among the most common.
significant. Urban garbage, especially plastic, is
becoming increasingly prevalent on reefs. A
number of natural phenomena, including
Coral Reef Fisheries
flooding, disease and predator outbreaks also
affect coral reef habitats. It is not understood
how much these phenomena are the indirect
The Red Sea fisheries contribute
effect of anthropogenic inputs.
approximately 11 to 14 % of the total annual
Egyptian fish production including aquaculture,
and nearly 16 % of the marine fisheries. Of
these, 44 % of fish landings are coral reef-based.
4
Coral Reefs of Egypt
Floods and Earthquakes
(land-filling) activities have resulted in the loss
Heavy rainfall causes floods from wadis
of numerous reef habitats. In Hurghada, a
(dry river beds), which increase sediment loads
2,900,000 m2 reef flat was land-filled, and the
and reduce salinity levels. These effects may
sediment plume from this activity extended
extend several kilometres offshore depending on
several kilometres from shore between 1994 and
the substrate type and the severity of the flood.
1997. Mandatory environmental impact
assessment studies have curtailed land-filling
operations since then.
Disease
A number of coral diseases prevalent in the
Red Sea have been found in Egyptian waters.
Nutrient Enrichment
Most important of these are black band and
Sewage and phosphate ore washing (such as
white band diseases which are believed to be the
that at Qusseyr and El-Hamrawain) are the
result of cumulative stresses from
principal sources of nutrient enrichment along
anthropogenic impacts such as high nutrient
the Egyptian coastline. Sewage, high in
(chemical) and sediment (physical) loads.
coliform bacteria and suspended solids, is
normally untreated and discharged into the
intertidal zones. The effect of these nutrient
Predator Outbreaks
loads on coral habitats is not fully understood,
Major outbreaks include infestations of the
although it is believed that they result in higher
crown-of-thorns starfish (Acanthaster planci),
turbidity and sedimentation and reduce coral
sea urchins (Diadema sp.) and gastropod snails
reproductive capacity.
(Coralliophila sp. and Drupa sp.). Coralliophila
violacea was found to feed intensely on Porites
sp. at several sites along the Red Sea
Salinity Changes
(ABOU ZAID et al. in press). Acanthaster planci
The most important human-induced salinity
was rarely observed prior to the 1990s. In 1994
changes are those caused by discharges from
there was a moderate outbreak (200 individuals)
desalination plants. The higher salinity
at Ras Mohammed in south Sinai. It was
discharges increase coral mucous production
estimated that the 20 to 30 cm sized starfish
and result in the expulsion of zooxanthellae.
caused a loss of 20 to 30 % of total live coral
This leads to bleaching and growth of algae over
cover. From 1995 to 1998 the populations of
coral colonies. Efforts to mitigate these effects
starfish appeared to increase in density, with
have been undertaken by the EEAA to enforce
records of up to five starfish per 10 m2 (Salem
the dilution of the brine prior to reintroduction
1999). In 1998 a further outbreak of
to the sea.
approximately 250 to 300 small (7 to 15 cm)
individuals occurred at Ras Mohammed, but the
greatest outbreak (10,000 individuals) occurred
Destructive Fisheries
around Gordon Reef, near Tiran Island. The
Unsustainable fishery practices include
EEAA have reduced the impact to the reefs by
spear fishing, the use of closed mesh nets and
organising the removal of over 60,000 starfish
dynamite (blast) fishing, all of which have been
between 1998 and 1999.
reported to occur along the Egyptian coastline
(REIGL & LUKE 1998). These practices remove
many reef herbivores, resulting in changes (such
Sedimentation and Siltation
as algal blooms) to natural ecological processes
Siltation of Egyptian reefs is invariably the
on the reef.
result of poorly planned and implemented
construction. Dredging and land reclamation
5
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
Bleaching
Oil and other Hydrocarbons
Rising sea surface temperatures, especially
The danger from oil pollution comes not
the above-normal warm period between 1997
only from exploration activities but also from
and 1998, are believed to have resulted in the
transport. Up to 100 million tonnes of oil may
large scale bleaching and mortality of many
pass through Egyptian Red Sea waters each
scleractinian corals. During the summer months
year. Oil and gas exploration are concentrated in
water temperatures increased to 35 ºC,
the Gulf of Suez, with the main sources of
particularly on shallow reef flats (30 to 50 cm
pollution being from Ras Ghariba, Ras
deep).
Shoukier, Abu Rudees and Abu Zenimah
through the inefficient operation of equipment,
illegal discharges and lack of monitoring. More
Curio Collecting
than 20 oil spills have occurred along the Red
Considerable quantities of coral, molluscs
Sea since 1982 (Table 4). The spills involve a
and fish are collected for the curio and aquarium
number of pollutants, which smother corals and
trades.
poison them through hydrocarbon absorption.
Seismic blasts from oil exploration are also a
threat to coral reefs (FOUDA 1983).
Recreational SCUBA Diving
Major effects of the recreational SCUBA
industry include anchor, trampling and fin
damage (JAMESON et al. 1999).
Location
Date
Vessel
Spill
Cause
Gulf of Suez
1982
Unknown
Crude oil
Collision
Gulf of Suez
1989
Mbuy Samba
Crude oil
Collision
Suez Canal
1989
Lauber Horn
Crude oil
Grounding
Safaga Island
1991
Salem Express
Fuel
Sinking
Ras Gharib
1992
Samah
Fuel
Sinking
Baranis (Berenice)
1993
Hamad
PVC and fuel
Sinking
Gulf of Suez
1993
Gele 15
Crude oil
Collision
Gulf of Suez
1993
Mega Biolot
Crude oil
Unknown
Suez Harbour
1994
Salam 91
Detergent
Collision
Ras Nasrami
1994
Baltabs Kiazori
Fuel
Grounding
Suez Harbour
1994
Itab
Fuel
Bunkering
Sharm El-Sheikh
1994
Balmeera
Bilges
Malfunction
Ras Shukheir
1994
Meraw
Crude oil
Collision
Ras Shukheir
1994
Hazzam
Chemicals
Discharging
Suez Harbour
1994
Rafah
Bilges
Discharging
Ras Shukheir
1994
Ocean Spirit
Ballast water
Discharging
Sharm El-Sheikh
1994
Unknown
Crude oil
Unknown
Suez Harbour
1994
GPC
Crude oil
Pipe leak
Table 4: Shipping accidents along the Egyptian coastline (1982-1994) resulting in hydrocarbon contamination
(ABOU ZAID 2000)
6
Coral Reefs of Egypt
Marine Protected Areas and Level
marine and terrestrial ecosystems (seagrass
of Management
beds, coral reef) and is an important habitat for
resident and migratory birds. The mangroves
within Nabq represent the northern limit of their
The Government is committed to a
extent in the Red Sea. Threats include
management programme to arrest
recreational diving-related damage and
environmental degradation and to improve
uncontrolled output from a shrimp farm.
environmental quality. Egypt currently has four
marine protected areas that include coral reefs,
and another two in which coral reefs are not
Abu Galum: Also established by Prime
present. The majority of these protected areas
Minister's Decree No. 1511 in 1992, the Abu
have been established around the Sinai
Galum Multiple Use Management Area
Peninsula at sites where recreational SCUBA
occupies part of the Sinai Peninsula extending
diving is common and the threat from anchor
into the Gulf of Aqaba (28°41'N 34°34'E) and
and fin damage is considered high. In total,
covers an area of roughly 400 km2. Biologically
Egypt has legally protected over 37,000 km2.
rich in both flora and fauna, Abu Galum
There are seven additional areas that have been
traverses several mountain ranges and wadi
proposed or suggested to the Government for
systems, freshwater springs and sand dunes. The
protected status. The major implementing and
coral reefs form one of the main SCUBA diving
funding bodies in each case involve GEF-Egypt
attractions in the region. In addition to coral
and USAID projects.
reefs, the Area contains seagrass beds that
support a significant amount of marine life.
MPAs Declared
Elba: The Elba protectorate (declared in
Ras Mohammed National Park: Established
1986) is by far the largest in Egypt,
by Prime Minister's Decree No. 1068 in 1983,
encompassing 35,000 km2 of the Doaib, Gebel
the Park occupies part of the southern portion of
Elba and Abraq regions (22°10'N 36°19'E). The
the Sinai Peninsula (27°44'N 34°15'E), now
protectorate is home to large mangrove
extending to and including Senafir and Tiran
communities, which serve as important bird
Islands, and covering an area exceeding
breeding sites, and extensive fringing reefs
480 km2. The Park has a particularly high
along the mainland and 22 offshore islands. The
diversity of flora and fauna, including coral
main threats within the MPA are extensive
reefs, seaweed and seagrass beds, mudflats,
fishing activities.
mangroves and other halophytic vegetation. The
management plan, developed with financial and
technical assistance from the European
The protected areas at El-Zaranik (700 km2)
Commission, includes the development of
and Ashtom El-Gamil (1200 km2) established
infrastructure and training for rangers and
in 1985 and 1988 respectively, include wetlands
scientific staff. The Park is an important sea
and sandy shores but do not have coral reef
turtle developmental habitat and serves as
habitats.
Egypt's major marine environmental education
centre.
Nabq: Occupying another 600 km2 of the
De facto and Planned MPAs
southern Sinai Peninsula, the Nabq Multiple
Use Management Area (28°15'N 34°24'E) was
The area that each of the seven proposed
established by Prime Minister's Decree No.
MPAs will cover has not yet been defined.
1511 in 1992. It encompasses a number of
7
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
Current Monitoring and
Giftun Islands and Straits of Gubal: This
MPA has been proposed to the Egyptian
Management Capacity to Conserve
government based on the well-developed and
Coral Reef Resources
diverse coral reefs and rich reef-associated
fauna. The islands are also important sea turtle
Several institutions carry out monitoring
and seabird nesting areas. Current threats
activities along the Egyptian coastline. The
include recreation pressure, anchor damage and
Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency
fishing.
(EEAA) is responsible for monitoring pollution
and damage to coastal environments. The
National Institute of Oceanography and
Safaga Island: Small patches of coral reef
Fisheries (NIOF) has carried out investigations
surround the mangrove-lined island, which is
of fisheries and corals and associated fauna in
also a seabird nesting site. Current threats
the Hurghada region for 70 years. In addition,
include shipping and a small-scale fishery.
staff from the Al-Azhar University and Suez
Canal University carry out research and
monitoring of coral reef habitats.
Sharm al-Lulu: This is a small bay lined
with coral on both sides. Threats to the area are
There are three organisations in charge of
tourism related.
the management of coral reef resources: the
Tourism Development Agency (TDA), the
Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency
Dedalus Island: The island lies some 40 km
(EEAA), and local governments through three
offshore and is mostly affected by recreational
Red Sea Governorates (RSG). The primary role
SCUBA diving and anchor damage.
of the TDA is to support the private sector
tourism industry and to develop an institutional
framework for environmentally sound tourism
Zabareged (Zabargad) Island: This is a
development. This includes developing
small sea turtle nesting island 40 km offshore
guidelines for hotel management and the
surrounded by coral reefs. Threats here also
follow-up of environmental regulations and
include recreational SCUBA diving and anchor
procedures. The EEAA is tasked with
damage.
developing environmental preservation policy
and legislation and with reviewing
environmental impact assessment studies. The
Brother Islands: The coralline islands
EEAA is also responsible for the control of
support extensive and well-developed coral
pollution, National Park and coastal zone
reefs on which extensive diving takes place.
management, including law enforcement for
coastal recreational activities. In addition, the
EEAA recommends the accession to regional
El-Quseir Reef Complex: Extensive and
and international conventions related to the
complex submerged offshore reefs with a
environment. The RSGs are responsible for
diverse reef-associated fauna. Threats identified
promoting tourism and regulating land
include damage from anchors, SCUBA diving
allocation and hotel construction within city
and coral collection.
limits through zoning and the issue of permits.
Wadi Gamal: A large terrestrial area, with
In addition to the three primary
coastal wetland, mangroves, islands and
organisations, several secondary agencies play a
migratory birds; there are no coral reefs present.
role in environmental management. The
8
Coral Reefs of Egypt
Egyptian General Petroleum Corporation
Combating Pollution by Oil and other Harmful
(EGPC), which is responsible for oil and gas
Substances in Cases of Emergency (1982). It is
exploration, controls the activities of
a signatory to the MARPOL Convention, the
international oil companies and has developed
Convention on Wetlands of International
an oil spill response capability in Ras Gharib on
Importance (RAMSAR), the Convention on
the Gulf of Suez. At present, the equipment
International Trade in Endangered Species of
available for tackling oil spills is only suitable
Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), the African
for small spills in good weather. The National
Agreement for the Conservation of Nature and
Committee for Integrated Coastal Zone
Natural Resources (Algiers 1988) and the
Management (NCICZM) co-ordinates coastal
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).
activities among competent authorities by
developing guidelines for all activities,
including EIAs. The NCICZM is responsible for
National Legislation
harmonizing development with the carrying
capacity of coastal ecosystems, and for co-
A number of Presidential decrees and Public
ordinating and specifying mandates for
laws have been formulated dealing with oil and
authorities in the coastal area.
other forms of pollution, coastal development
and tourism, through which coral reefs receive
direct and indirect protection (Table 5).
Finally, a number of tertiary agencies are
also responsible for the protection of the marine
environment. These include the Port and
Gaps in Capacity and Requirements
Lighthouse Authority, the Suez Canal Authority,
for Improved Conservation
Suez Port Authority, GAFRD, and the General
Organization for Coastal Protection.
One of the major gaps identified in the
process of coral reef conservation is that of
appropriate information. While there are several
Government Legislation, Strategies
hundred publications on Red Sea coral reefs,
and Policy Pertinent to Reef
few of these address specific problems and offer
Conservation
management solutions. There is currently no
water quality database on which repeated
measurements can be based and compared.
Egypt is a signatory to a number of
There is also a need to establish detailed,
international conventions under which the
refereed species lists for each area covering
conservation of coral reef resources is stipulated
corals, their associated fauna, and the fishery
or indirectly addressed. At the same time, since
resources. It is also necessary for Egypt to
the early 1980s the country has enacted a
participate in regional and global information
number of laws and presidential decrees through
networks and to develop national training and
which coral reefs receive direct or indirect
education programmes through the use of local
protection.
and international experts.
International Agreements
Research
Research needs to be carried out in order to
Egypt has acceded to the Regional
establish baseline environmental conditions and
Convention for the Conservation of the Red Sea
follow-up monitoring should refer to these
and Gulf of Aden Environment and to the
baselines to detect changes in environmental
Protocol for Regional Cooperation for
quality.
9
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
Law, Ordinance, Regulation
Year Implementation
Public Law No. 280
1960 Ministry of Defence
MoD Decree No. 56
1962 Ministry of Defence
Presidential Decree No. 1984
1965 Ministry of Petroleum
Public Law No. 72
1968 Ministry of Tourism
Presidential Decree No. 691
1972 Ministry of Tourism
Establishment of Protectorates Law No. 102
1983 Ministry of Environmental Affairs
Prime Minister's Decree No. 1068 (Ras Mohammed National Park)
1983 Ministry of Environmental Affairs
Prime Minister's Decree No. 1429
1985 Ministry of Environmental Affairs
Presidential Decree No. 152
1986 Ministry of Environmental Affairs
Prime Minister's Decree No. 450
1986 Ministry of Environmental Affairs
Prime Minister's Decree No. 1186
1986 Ministry of Environmental Affairs
Prime Minister's Decree No. 459
1988 Ministry of Environmental Affairs
Presidential Decree No. 478
1988 Ministry of Environmental Affairs
National Environmental Action Plan
1991 Ministry of Environmental Affairs
Prime Minister's Decree No. 1511
1992 EEAA
Public Law No. 4
1994 EEAA
Prime Minister's Decree declaring 22 islands and mangrove areas as
1995 Ministry of Environment
protected areas
Table 5: National laws and decrees that affect coral reef protection directly or indirectly, and the date when
they came into effect
Networking
Planning
There is a need to integrate current research
Direct use and indirect development
into global initiatives such as the International
activities that affect reef systems need to be
Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) and the Global
carefully evaluated in the design stages and be
Coral Reef Monitoring Network (GCRMN).
subject to continued monitoring through the
implementation stages.
Training
There is a need for training in the use of
Community Education
modern technology, including SCUBA,
There is a need to develop community
Remotely Operated Vehicles, side-scan sonar,
education programmes that highlight the impact
satellite mapping and Geographical Information
of communities on reef ecology, including
Systems (GIS).
degradation.
10
Coral Reefs of Egypt
Recommendations to Improve the
Coastal Zone Management
Conservation of Coral Reef
A comprehensive, integrated plan is needed
Resources
to address development along coastal areas and
to harmonize existing conservation projects.
A number of actions are needed to improve
Egypt's current response to and mitigation of
Pollution Control
natural and anthropogenic threats. These
Local and regional pollution monitoring
involve the collection of baseline information
units should be established, along with the
for sound decision making, the development of
provision of adequate reception facilities for
an integrated coastal area management plan, the
petroleum wastes, guidelines for the use of
review and upgrading of existing regulations
dispersants, a review of existing pollution
and more efficient monitoring and control of
control regulations and the development of a
pollution sources and coastal development.
contingency plan for pollution control. Also
needed are improved sewage treatment
facilities, diversion of outfalls away from reef
Zonation and Protection
habitats and effective collection and recycling of
Key marine areas should be assigned extra
solid wastes. To reduce sedimentation, silt
protection through strict planning. A
curtains, berms and other mechanical aids
comprehensive coastal zoning scheme is needed
should be used around coastal construction.
in which four land classes are recognised:
Geographical and Biological Data Sets
Urban and development areas in which
Complete, up-to-date data sets on the
commercial and industrial development
biological components of the coastal zone are
assessments should be carried out.
needed for effective management. These should
include fishery stock assessments, shoreline
Standard areas where normal planning
profiles, land use patterns and coral reef
regulations apply and in which EIAs
resources.
should be carried out.
Multiple Use Management Areas in
Information
which development is restricted but
National training programmes are needed to
traditional uses continue.
raise institutional capacities of key agencies
involved in coral reef management, linking
Marine Parks and Reserves that afford
decision makers with the facts needed for sound
complete protection to species and
environmental management decisions.
habitats.
11
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
12
Coral Reefs of Sudan
Introduction
unique reef structures in the Sudanese Red Sea
is Sanganeb atoll (KRUPP 1990), whose steep
slopes rise from a seafloor at more than 800 m
The Sudanese Red Sea coast is
depth.
approximately 750 km long inclusive of bays
and inlets, extending from 18ºN at the Eritrean
border to 22ºN at the Egyptian border (Fig. 2).
Port Sudan is the largest coastal city with a
Average annual rainfall is 111 mm (varying
population of about 390,000. At present the
from 36 mm at Halaib to 164 mm at Suakin)
natural resources of the Red Sea are under-
and the coastal plain is very dry. Sudan lies
exploited due to a lack of marketing, transport
within the desert and semi-desert sub-zone and
facilities and cold storage. There is no offshore
there is no perennial water flow to the sea. Only
oil exploitation, the contribution of fisheries and
after torrential rains, which occur mainly in
tourism to the GNP is less than 3 % and
November and December, is there occasional
subsistence fisheries are only locally important.
freshwater influx. In most parts of the Sudanese
The primary industries are maritime shipping
Red Sea water transparency is very high,
and port-related activities. Tourism and fisheries
reaching up to 70 m. Surface temperatures
have great growth potential, as does shrimp
range from 26.2 to 30.5 °C, and salinity is high
aquaculture.
(39 to 41 ppt). From May to October, surface
currents flow in a southerly direction, for the
rest of the year they flow northwards.
At present fisheries play a minor role in the
economy at the national level, but are important
at a subsistence level along the coast. Non-
The primary coral habitats along the
living resources from the coastal area include
Sudanese Red Sea coast are barrier reefs,
metalliferous muds, oil and gas. Natural gas was
fringing reefs and one oceanic atoll, Sanganeb
found in Tokar and Suakin, while offshore
(Fig. 3). Most of the coast is bordered by
reserves are located in the Suakin archipelago.
fringing reefs 1 to 3 km wide, which are
Present exploitation amounts to 16.1 million
separated by deep channels from a barrier reef 1
cubic feet per day.
to 14 km offshore. The outer barrier drops
steeply to a depth of several hundred metres.
Previous studies along these reefs suggested
While large parts of the Red Sea region are
they are among the most diverse and spectacular
still in a pristine state, environmental threats,
in the Red Sea (HEAD 1980; IUCN/UNEP 1985;
notably from habitat destruction, over-
KRUPP et al. 1994; ORMOND 1980, 1987;
exploitation and pollution, are increasing
SCHROEDER 1981; SCHROEDER & NASR 1983;
rapidly, requiring immediate action to protect
VINE & VINE 1980; VINE 1985). One of the most
the region's coastal and marine environment.
13
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
Surveys
Coral Reefs Benthos and Fish
Geographical Scope and Survey
The coral reefs of the Sudan are considered
Techniques
to be in moderate to good health, despite an
extensive coverage of algae over a high
proportion of the fringing reefs surveyed. An
D. NASR and K. AL-SHEIKH carried out
algal film covered a large proportion of the
surveys on Sudanese corals in 1999 at three sites
shallow corals, but was not found to affect those
(Abu Hashish Jetty, Bashayer Port and Arous
more than 10 m deep. The reefs are patchy in
Tourist Village). Hunting Aquatic Resources
depths less than 10 m, with average live coral
(HAR), under contract to PERSGA, carried out
cover ranging from 5 % to 75 %. Below 10 m,
a more thorough survey in 1997, covering the
the reefs contain healthy colonies of framework
coastal area from Port Sudan to Suakin.
corals. In general, the status of the fish fauna
was considered good, and overfishing not a
severe problem at the coral reefs. As an
In the 1999 surveys, Reef Check methods
example, grouper counts were high relative to
(HODGSON 1999) were followed to determine
assessments in other parts of the Red Sea, with
percentage cover of hard, soft and dead corals
more than 20 groupers in over half of the
and to obtain a general assessment of reef
20-minute swim samples recorded. Key
health, while 10 m quadrat analysis and
indicator species were abundant and diversity
20-minute timed swims (ENGLISH et al. 1997)
appeared high relative to other Red Sea sites.
were used by HAR. During these surveys the
percentage cover of different life forms was
determined along with counts for indicator
species such as butterfly and angelfishes, the
humphead wrasse Cheilinus undulatus and
several commercial fishes.
N
northern
lagoon
Hala'ib
Saudi Arabia
Egypt
Jeddah
Red Sea
Dungonab
Sudan
Mukawaar
Island
SUDAN
Sanganeb
Port Sudan
southern
lagoons
Sawakin
Suakin
Trinkitat
Archipelago
Red
Sea
Aqiq
lighthouse
Fig. 2: The Sudanese coast of the Red Sea
Fig. 3: Sanganeb atoll, off Port
Sudan
14
Coral Reefs of Sudan
Anthropogenic pressures on the reefs are
21.25 % of the substrate. At 2 m a large number
low, with those most affected being the fringing
of corals were dead and covered with algae
reefs along the coast in the vicinity of Port
indicating that a coral die-off had recently taken
Sudan and Suakin. Framework corals are still
place. This observation was supported by the
intact and large colonies of Acropora and
results of interviews with scientists from the
Porites survive at depths in excess of 10 m.
Institute of Marine Science of the Red Sea
Those shallower than 10 m are affected by an
University and divers in the area. They reported
algal cover believed to be the result of thermal
that during the summer of 1998, when the water
influences. The crown-of-thorns, Acanthaster
level was exceptionally low, the corals in the
planci, was not recorded in plague numbers on
barrier reef 2 km away were white in colour `as
any of the Sudanese reefs.
if covered with a white cloth' i.e. corals were
bleached. At Arous, a small tourist village where
coral damage by tourist activities is noticeable,
Coral Cover
dead corals covered 51.25 % of the substrate but
no bleaching was observed below 4 m.
Over 80 % of the coastal fringing coral reef
Bleached corals were observed at the top of the
sites surveyed in 1997 had a high percentage of
fringing reef at 2 m (Fig. 4). Overall, bleached
thin algal film cover, averaging 28.8 % (range 5
corals were estimated to cover 14 % of the
to 95 %, n = 54 sites; PERSGA/ALECSO in
substrate.
press). Live coral cover ranged from 5 to 60 %
(mean = 25.3 %, n = 25 sites). Dead coral cover
exceeding 1 % was only noted at five sites. The
Fish Communities
dominant substrate cover at depths shallower
than 10 m was algal film. The origin of the high
Based on the results of the 1997 surveys
algal film cover was attributed to a thermal
(PERSGA/ALECSO in press), fish
event, possibly through runoff of high
communities were considered healthy and
temperature waters from a lagoon. The die-off
abundant. The humphead wrasse, currently
event is consistent with reports of similar events
considered endangered throughout its range,
in Saudi Arabia and Eritrea at the same time.
was found in three of the 25 timed swims.
The algal cover did not affect larger colonies
Angelfish (Pomacanthidae) were observed at all
and it was suggested that the reef might recover
but one site, with 15 sites recording more than
from this within a span of decades, rather than
10 angelfish; butterflyfish (Chaetodontidae)
centuries (PERSGA/ALECSO in press).
were recorded at all sites, of which 19 contained
more than 50 individuals; triggerfish
(Balistidae) were only recorded at seven sites,
At Abu Hashish Jetty the reef extends about
with a maximum of two at any site; groupers
800 m with an average depth of 2 m followed
(Serranidae) were recorded at all sites, and 13
by a steep drop-off to a depth of 10 m. Surveys
sites contained more than 20 individuals;
by NASR & AL-SHEIKH (2000) found that the
similarly, snappers (Lutjanidae) were recorded
percentage of hard live coral (HC) ranged
at 24 of the 25 sites, with a maximum count of
upwards from 23.5 % at 10 m deep and 50 %
212 and at four sites more than 100; surgeonfish
at 5 m, while dead coral (DC) ranged from
(Acanthuridae), in particular the endemic
2.5 % at 10 m deep and 0 % at 5 m, suggesting
Acanthurus sohal and Ctenochaetus striatus,
that the area was comparatively healthy. At
were noted at all sites and a number of indicator
Bashayer Oil Exporting Port, where the area
wrasses (Labridae) were also found at all sites.
between the shoreline and the fringing reef is
Sharks were reported at three sites. The surveys
shallow (0.5 to 3.5 m) with a muddy sand
in 1997 recorded an abundance of Chaetodon
bottom, HC covered 37.5 % while DC covered
semilarvatus, which was not found in 1981
15
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
60
HC
DC
50
SC
DC
40
HC
30
DC
20
HC
SC
10
HC
DC
0
Abu Hashish
Basher Port
Abu Aruos
Fig. 4. Average percentage of coral cover from three selected sites, Sudanese Red
Sea coast (NASR & AL-SHEIKH 2000)
HC = live hard coral, SC = soft coral, DC = dead coral
(EDWARDS & ROSEWELL 1981), but they did not
SANDERS & KEDIDI (1981) and MISHRIGI
record the presence of C. pausifasciatus, which
(1993) report about 65 species of economically
was found frequently around Port Sudan at that
important bony fishes, in addition to sharks,
time. A list of fish species recorded from
rays, shrimps, lobsters, crabs, molluscs and sea
Sanganeb can be found in KRUPP et al. 1994.
cucumber. In artisanal fisheries, the nine
following taxa account for 60 to 70 % of the
catches: gushar (Epinephelus spp.), bohar
Selected non-piscivore fauna were counted
(Lutjanus bohar), asmoot (Lutjanus gibbus),
during timed swims and distribution was normal
shaoor (Lethrinus spp.), bayad (Carangidae),
(PERSGA/ALECSO in press). Studies were
najil (Plectropomus maculatus), farisi (Aprion
undertaken on the distribution of polychaetes
sp.), abu garin (Naso unicornis), arabi
and crabs at Sanganeb, and on the mangrove
(Valamugil seheli) and sharks (mainly
fauna along the Sudanese coastline by KRUPP
Carcharhinidae and Sphyrnidae).
et al. (1994).
Other reef-based fisheries involve the reef
Coral Reef Fisheries
mollusc, trochus (Trochus dentatus), and sea
cucumber (Holothuria sp.) and the pearl oyster
(Pinctada margaritifera).
At present fisheries play a minor role in the
economy at the national level, but are important
at a subsistence level along the coast. Neither
commercial nor artisanal landings reach the
estimated maximum sustainable yields but
further fishery development at present is
negligible. Fisheries are believed to have great
potential in Sudan, but face logistical problems
such as refrigeration and transport.
16
Coral Reefs of Sudan
craft to sailing dugouts.
1600
1400
Catches of bohar, farasi and koraib
(Pristipomoides filamentosius) have decreased
1200
by 50 %. Shark catches, which presently
1000
represent a small sector of the artisanal fishery,
800
decreased from 90 mt in 1982 to 13 mt in
600
1992. No figures are available for catches by
400
foreign vessels (MISHRIGI 1993).
200
0
1975 1980 1982 1984 1990 1992 1993 1994 1995
Commercial fisheries are currently under-
Fishery Trends and Composition
exploited. Several ventures have carried out trial
Fig. 5: Artisanal finfish landings in metric tonnes
trawls in Sudan's 700 km2 of trawling grounds,
between 1975 and 1995 (PERSGA/GEF 2001)
landing a catch that was composed primarily of
lizard fish (75 %). Shrimp catches were not
considered economically viable and most
All the shallow water areas (mersas) along
trawlers have moved away from the area.
the Sudanese coast are potential spawning
Offshore there is the potential for purse seine
grounds. The only spawning ground for oysters
fisheries and present landings amount to some
is Dungonab Bay, where there are eight oyster
1,300 mt, with an estimated maximum
farms producing mother-of-pearl for export. The
sustainable yield of 2,300 mt.
only areas where trawl fishing is carried out are
the Tokar Delta in the south and Ofoul Bay in
the north. Over 80 % of fish are caught with
Three other important fishery resources are
hook and line. There are an estimated 400 small
kokian (trochus shell) and sadaf (pearl oysters)
fishing boats in Sudan and about 300 slightly
and sea cucumber (Holothuria
sp.).
larger boats of 9 to 10 m (4 to 5 crew). Fish are
Traditionally, the Suakin area was the centre of
exported from Port Sudan to Saudi Arabia about
kokian (Trochus dentatus) fisheries, but the
every 10 days. A DANIDA study in 1989
fishery recently shifted to Mohammed Gol.
estimated that there were about 1,500 artisanal
Annual exports of kokian from 1991 to 1995
fishermen in Sudan.
varied between 306 and 535 mt. The pearl
oyster (Pinctada margaritifera) is a highly
The Fisheries Administration of Sudan
prized resource, based at Dungonab and
suggests that the maximum sustainable yield
Mohammed Gol. The average annual landing
from artisanal fisheries is around 10,000 mt.
declined from a peak in 1971 of 118 mt to 25 mt
Present annual production is 1,200 mt, more
in subsequent years. Oyster farming has
than double that of 1975 (555 mt). Peak
flourished in Dungonab with up to 65 family
landings occurred in 1984 (1,489 mt) and have
farms. Large-scale farming ceased in 1969
gradually decreased by 30 % since that time
following mass mortality events but export
(Fig. 5; PERSGA/GEF 2001). Over the last two
continued from wild populations. Between 1966
decades two major fishery development projects
and 1989, the average annual export rate was
were phased out (FAO 1980 to 1985 and ODA
37 mt. Since 1998 the Dungonab oyster culture
1975 to 1990), whereupon financial support to
scheme has been revived, and there are now 36
the artisanal fisheries was discontinued and no
farms in Dungonab and 15 in Mohammed Gol.
other financing mechanisms have been
The farms grow some 6,000 oysters each and
developed. At the same time, fuel and
are supervised by scientists. Improved growth
maintenance costs increased, and fishermen
rates allowed for partial cropping after only two
have reverted from modern outboard-powered
years, rather than 3 to 4 years as used to be the
17
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
case. However, mortality is still high (up to
to enter the port. There is an urgent need for
50 %). OXFAM UK/Ireland presently funds
moorings at these two locations. There are also
oyster farms under the supervision of the Marine
signs of coral die-off at several sites on the
Fisheries Research Centre as part of a
fringing reef near Wingate, believed to be
community development project (FRC/IDRC
caused by vessel discharges.
1985, MISHRIGI 1993). In 1981, 15 mt of dried
sea cucumber were exported and thereafter
production ceased due to low prices and
The coral reef systems also pose several
difficulties in collecting. Sea cucumber
hazards to navigation. Combined with heavy
exploitation recently resumed in the Marsa
maritime traffic and limited navigational
Ashat area south of Suakin.
devices, there is a constant risk of ship collisions
and groundings. This is particularly severe near
the ports of Port Sudan and Suakin, both of
Threats to Coral Reef Biodiversity
which have to be approached through channels
among large reef complexes.
Due to the limited scale of industrial
development along the Sudanese coastline,
Vessel sewage and discharges of solid waste
threats are localised at the few urban centres.
from ships pose additional threats. Without
The most severe threats come from maritime
waste reception facilities at the ports, ships
shipping, dredging and land-filling, although the
dispose their waste directly into the sea. Vessels
tourism sector contributes to reef damage
are reported to throw large garbage bags
through physical contact from anchors and
overboard once they reach international waters.
divers' fins. An additional problem that will
Once these break, they release their contents
involve an international solution is that of the
into the sea.
shark fishery, which may lead to ecological
changes on the coral reefs through the removal
of top level carnivores.
Tourist boats also damage reefs with
anchors, and there is a need for moorings at
popular diving destinations.
Maritime Transport
Port Sudan is the largest port and accounts
for the bulk of the country's import and export
Coastal Development
trade with about 1,000 ship-calls per annum.
Habitat destruction as a result of coastal
Apart from ship-related pollution risks (e.g.
development is localised. The extension of Port
discharges of garbage and oily wastes;
Sudan and the port at Suakin, which involved
bunkering activities), Port Sudan handles
dredging and land-filling, resulted in severe
approximately 1.5 million tonnes of petroleum
sedimentation pressure on coral reefs. In
products annually and accidents involving
Suakin, parts of the coastal fringing reef have
tankers, together with discharges from
been removed for the extension of the port. A
unloading operations, constitute a serious
new port has been constructed at O'Seif, while a
pollution risk.
fourth one is planned at Agig and further reef
damage is expected at these locations. The
implementation of the Sudan Integrated
Physical damage to coral reefs is caused by
Fisheries Project is also expected to destroy
anchors. Wingate and Towartit Reefs are the
coastal habitats: at the entrance of Port Sudan
main anchorage areas for large vessels waiting
harbour 5 to 8 ha of land will be land-filled for
18
Coral Reefs of Sudan
the construction of industrial processing plants.
A new joint venture company, the Greater
This will cause damage to the coral reefs at
Nile Petroleum Operating Company (GNPOC),
Wingate and Towartit.
has been formed to manage a pipeline that will
transport crude oil 1,500 km from the Heglig
and Adariel oil fields to the Sudanese coast for
The establishment of the Economic Free
export. The new Bashayer oil terminal is located
Zone (EFZ), which covers 600 km² between
at Gezirat Abd Alla, about 24 km south of Port
Port Sudan and Suakin, may also impact the
Sudan. Gezirat Abd Alla is in the present
diverse coral reefs at Towartit, which are located
anchorage area between the shoreline and
immediately offshore. Heavy industries,
Towartit Reef. It has deep water and is sheltered
petrochemical industries, fish processing
from prevailing winds.
factories, slaughter houses with a capacity of
3,000 heads per day, tanneries and warehouses
are expected to be established in the area.
With the gradually increasing volume of
shipping using Port Sudan and the development
of the new oil terminal at Bashayer, a National
Destructive Fisheries
Oil Spill Contingency Plan for Sudan has been
At present shark resources are being
prepared. This contingency plan describes the
depleted and catches by local fishermen are
policy and procedures for the response to oil
declining rapidly due to large-scale shark
spills in the coastal waters of the Sudan,
fisheries by foreign vessels for the East-Asian
including the organisational relationship of the
shark fin market. A proportion of these
various bodies involved. The scope of the plan
fishermen operate with licences, but many fish
covers internal waters including ports, harbours,
illegally. Sharks are caught by hook and line,
estuaries, bays and lagoons. On land, it includes
and with nets, the latter damaging coral reefs.
the foreshore and any adjacent land affected by
Large amounts of bye-catch, including turtles,
an oil spill.
dolphins and fin-fish are discarded, invariably
dead. The capture of top-level predators and the
accidental mortalities that are associated with
Industrial Activities
the trade may irreversibly alter the ecological
Primary industry is located in the vicinity of
balance of the reef ecosystems. Recently the
Port Sudan. The chronic release of industrial
Government has decided to stop commercial
pollutants has caused a decline in water quality.
shark fisheries and no new licences will be
Among these are the oily discharges from Port
issued.
Sudan refinery, which are discharged without
treatment or analysis. A major source of oil
pollution is the power station, which is in the
Petroleum Industry Development and
innermost part of Port Sudan Harbour. The
Transport
International Tyre Manufacturing Distribution
There is a constant threat of oil spills. Oil
Co. Ltd. (ITMD) has problems with
leaks occur regularly from the oil terminal and
management of its solid wastes, in particular the
tankers in Port Sudan Harbour and the Port is
disposal of carbon residue, of which loose
already heavily polluted by oil. The oil film
discharges constitute a significant health hazard
extends as far as the edge of Wingate reef and
and also pollute the beach.
this affects the productivity and the fauna in the
harbour area. At some sites intertidal biota have
disappeared completely (ABU BAKR 1995).
19
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
Bleaching
1994) and is the only typical atoll in the Red
No bleaching was reported by
Sea. Current threats come from recreational
PERSGA/ALECSO (1998), but coral die-off
diving practices, including anchor and fin
events were observed on shallow reefs. The
damage.
report suggested that these reefs exhibit the
potential for recovery if development in the
region is well managed. A widespread die-off of
De facto and Planned MPAs
reefs at shallow depths was also mentioned in
the Sudan Country Report (PERSGA/GEF
There are five proposed Marine Protected
2001). The coral die-off event in the fringing
Areas, of which four contain coral reefs:
reef was attributed to coastal developmental
activities, but no explanation was given to those
occurring in the offshore reefs and the report
Shuab Rami, which covers about 4 km2
called for further investigation.
and contains highly diverse coral reefs
with unique associated fauna including
sharks and marine mammals,
In July 1998, a survey on the western side of
Sanganeb atoll indicated that reefs were
Mukawwar Island and Dungonab Bay,
relatively healthy, supporting a diverse fish
which cover about 300 km2 and are
population, and bleached corals covered only
home to coral reefs, whale sharks and the
14 % of the substrate (NASR & AL-SHEIKH
largest aggregations of manta rays in the
2000). At Bashayer Oil Exporting Port a large
Red Sea,
number of corals were dead and covered with
algae, indicating that a coral die-off had recently
the Suakin archipelago, which contains
taken place. Observations by scientists at the
coral reefs with a diverse fish fauna and
Institute of Marine Science (Red Sea
is a nesting site for marine turtles and sea
University) and divers in the area indicated that
birds,
when the water level was exceptionally low they
had noticed that corals in the barrier reef were
Abu Hashish, which covers about 5 km2
white in colour and suggested that corals were
and also contains diverse coral reefs and
bleached. Tourist operators reported that
associated fauna.
bleached corals in the southern Sudanese Red
Sea could amount to 30 % of cover, with
The proposed Khor Kilab Bird
Platygyra sp. being the most affected.
Sanctuary (2 km2) is an estuarine area
with mangrove and salt marsh, important
for migratory birds.
Marine Protected Areas and Level of
Management
Current Monitoring and
Management Capacity to Conserve
MPAs Declared
Coral Reef Resources
The only Marine Protected Area in Sudan is
the Sanganeb Marine National Park (19°45'N
Sudan has much of the infrastructure needed
37°25'E), established in 1990. This is a 12 km2
for regular monitoring and effective
atoll with highly diverse and complex coral
management of coral reef resources. A number
reefs, diverse reef-associated fauna, sharks,
of research organisations (based at the
marine mammals and manta rays (KRUPP et al.
universities) have carried out research on reefs
20
Coral Reefs of Sudan
in the past, while government agencies (such as
research on the Red Sea. The Suakin
the Navy) provide a limited degree of
Marine Biological Laboratory is
enforcement. Many of the present problems can
engaged in marine biological research
be attributed to a widespread lack of law
and training of undergraduate and
enforcement activities, a lack of awareness
graduate students from the Universities
among law enforcement authorities, a weak
of Khartoum, Juba, El Nilein and
legal framework and the absence of
Umdurman Ahlia. The laboratory has
surveillance. Recently, power was transferred
reasonable facilities but no resident
from the central government to federal states.
research staff because of a lack of
The new system is not yet well established,
research funding. The Institute of
resulting in an unsatisfactory legal situation and
Environmental Studies conducts
inadequate enforcement of existing regulations.
research on environmental issues and
supervises graduate students.
Monitoring Capacity
NGOs: include the Sudanese
Monitoring is carried out primarily through
Environment Conservation Society,
research projects based at the universities and
which has branches at Port Sudan and
through external research groups. The most
Suakin, the Sea Friends Association at
recent research has been carried out by staff
Port Sudan, and OXFAM U.K./Ireland
from the Red Sea University. The following
which has offices in Port Sudan and
organisations collect information on coral reef
Tokar.
ecosystems:
Management Capacity
The Sudan Marine Conservation
Committee (SMCC): This institution
Coral reefs are only managed indirectly
includes representatives from all
through government institutions and
government institutions, the private
regulations, with the exception of the Sanganeb
sector and NGOs concerned with the
National Park. The following institutions are
Red Sea environment. It has played an
involved in management of coastal and marine
important role in raising awareness and
areas and resources:
in formulating regulations, particularly
in the 1970s.
The Ministry of Environment and
Tourism: Established in 1994 with the
The Red Sea University at Port
mandate of co-ordinating environmental
Sudan: Founded in 1993, two of its sub-
conservation and promoting tourism.
units are active in marine research and
Under its umbrella it includes the Higher
education. These are the Faculty of
Council for the Environment and
Marine Sciences and Fisheries that trains
Natural Resources (HCENR), which is
undergraduate students in marine and
the technical branch in charge of co-
fisheries sciences, and the Marine
ordination, policy making and
Research Institute that is being
international co-operation; the National
established to revive the research
Tourism Corporation, which is
activities of the former Institute of
responsible for the planning and
Oceanography.
promotion of tourism; and the General
Administration for Wildlife
The University of Khartoum: The
Conservation, which is charged with the
Departments of Zoology, Botany and
protection and management of wildlife,
Geology train students and conduct
including protected areas.
21
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
The Ministry of Animal Wealth: In
that the demarcation and enforcement of Marine
charge of animal production and
Protected Areas will strengthen national
fisheries, and includes the Marine
legislation.
Fisheries Administration, which
manages fisheries resources and controls
the observation of fisheries regulations;
International Agreements
the Marine Fisheries Research Centre,
which provides scientific information for
Sudan has ratified the following
the management of fisheries resources;
Conventions and Protocols (adoption date /
the Wildlife Research Centre, in charge
ratification date): Bamako Convention on the
of providing the scientific background
Ban of the Import into Africa and the Control of
for wildlife conservation and
Transboundary Movement and Management of
management.
Hazardous Wastes within Africa (1991/1993);
Convention Concerning the Protection of the
The Ministry of Transport: Includes
World Cultural and Natural Heritage (-/1974);
the Sea Ports Corporation, which takes
Convention on Biological Diversity
responsibility for all ports, maritime
(1992/1995); Convention on International Trade
transport and the Maritime
in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
Administration Directorate.
(1973/1982); Regional Convention for the
Conservation of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
The Ministry of Energy and Mining:
Environment (1982/1984); Protocol Concerning
Co-ordinates coastal and marine mining
Regional Cooperation in Combating Pollution
activities, oil and gas explorations.
by Oil and other Harmful Substances in Cases of
Emergency (1982/1984); United Nations
The Ministry of Defence: Is in charge
Convention on the Law of the Sea (1982/1985).
of the Naval Forces in the Red Sea area.
MARPOL has not yet been ratified, because of a
The Navy is responsible for the security
lack of port reception facilities.
in the coastal and marine areas. It has a
boat and two soldiers stationed at
Sanganeb Marine National Park.
National Legislation
The Ministry of Interior: Is in charge
Several national legislative frameworks are
of the Police Forces. The Wildlife Force
in place that relate to coral reefs:
is under administrative supervision of
this Ministry.
Sudanese Fishery Ordinances and
Government Legislation, Strategies
Regulations: Dates back to 1937 and
and Policy Pertinent to Reef
was amended in 1975 and 1978.
Prohibits overfishing, dumping of refuse
Conservation
and oil into the sea and the collection of
corals, shells and aquarium fish.
Sudan is a signatory to a number of
Environmental Health Act:
international conventions and agreements that
Established in 1975. Prohibits the
promote the protection of coral reefs. National
dumping into the sea of any item that is
legislation in Sudan does not address coral reefs
harmful to humans or animals.
per se, but indirectly supports pollution control
measures that affect coral reefs. It is suggested
22
Coral Reefs of Sudan
Marine Fisheries Ordinance: Gives
Commission is not yet operational. Similarly,
police, customs officers and local
the Coastal Survey and Monitoring Unit, which
authorities the right to board and search
will patrol the Sudanese coast, has yet to be
a vessel and detain any craft accused of
equipped with fixed or mobile radar. Both of
violating the above regulations.
these are needed for the operation of a Rescue
Co-ordination Centre.
Maritime Law: Drafted by the
Maritime Administration and waiting
approval and implementation.
Research
Since 1992 the Faculty of Marine Science
Comprehensive National Strategy:
and Fisheries of the Red Sea University and the
Through this, Sudan is committed to the
Suakin Marine Laboratory have conducted
pursuit of sustainable development and
research programmes on oil pollution and coral
environmentally sound resource
reefs, but these projects are limited in scope and
management.
intermittent. No temporal studies take place in
Sudan, providing little indication of changes to
Gaps in Capacity and Requirements
the environment over time.
for Improved Conservation
Recommendations to Improve the
A major problem in the conservation of reef
Conservation of Coral Reef
resources is funding for research and
Resources
management efforts. Additionally, there are
political obstacles within the government: the
General Administration for Wildlife
Several legislative decisions are needed at
Conservation is charged with the protection and
both national and international levels. These
management of wildlife, including protected
would strengthen Sudan's legal framework,
areas. However, it is still lacking experience in
benefiting coral reefs. At the same time, there is
the marine field and its efficiency is hampered
a need for further, continued research on coral
by the fact that it is technically under the
reefs and an information dissemination
Ministry of Environment and Tourism, but
programme to enhance community participation
administratively under the Ministry of Interior
and awareness. An integrated coastal
(employees are part of the police force). Finally,
management plan that takes into consideration
there are a number of logistical constraints,
shipping, coastal development, pollution and
which combine to make coral reef conservation
natural resources, along with effective and
ineffective:
enforced implementation, should cater to most
of the above. Specifically:
Legislation
A number of important legal instruments
Legislation
still await ratification, for instance the National
The National Maritime Law, which is
Maritime Law and the marine conservation laws
presently being drafted, should be ratified and
drafted by the Sudan Marine Conservation
implemented. Related laws and regulations,
Committee.
including the Marine Fisheries Ordinances and
Regulations, should be revised within the
Communication
context of the Environmental Policy Act, which
The communication network between all
has been drafted by the Higher Council for the
ports and the headquarters of the Port
Environment and Natural Resources.
23
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
To combat oil pollution at an international
A Fisheries Management Plan is needed that
level, it is recommended that the International
takes into consideration marketing, cold storage
Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from
and transport. The fisheries management
Ships (MARPOL 1973/78) be ratified. The
programme, which should include sharks,
following related conventions should also be
shellfish and sea cucumbers, must be based on
considered: The International Convention on Oil
comprehensive stock assessments for each
Pollution Preparedness, Response and Co-
commodity.
operation (1990); the International Convention
Relating to Intervention on the High Seas in
Cases of Oil Pollution Casualties (1969); the
Maritime Transport and Industrial
International Convention on Civil Liability for
Activities
Oil Pollution Damage (1969); the International
There is a need to upgrade current
Oil Pollution Compensation Fund (1971); the
monitoring of vessels passing through Sudanese
International Convention on Hazardous and
waters. Navigational markers along major
Noxious Substances and Limitation of Liability
shipping channels need to be installed and
(1996); the Convention on the Prevention of
maintained.
Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and
Other Matter (London Convention 1972); and
the RAMSAR Convention on Internationally
The Port Sudan refinery should take steps to
Important Wetlands (1971).
repair the skimmer system at its lagoon and
reduce discharges of highly contaminated
drainage water onto the beach.
Institutional Framework
A National Integrated Coastal Zone
Management Plan is urgently needed that pays
It is essential for the Bashayer Oil Terminal
special attention to urban planning. Institutions
operators to prepare a local oil pollution
involved in the management of coastal and
emergency plan, backed by an oil spill response
marine resources and in law enforcement need
organisation and an adequate level of oil spill
strengthening.
clean-up equipment.
An integrated management programme
The Ministry of Environment and Tourism
should be developed for Marine Protected Areas
should ensure that the development of the
under which Sanganeb should be given highest
Economic Free Zone is subject to a strict
priority. Management should then be extended
Environmental Impact Assessment to ensure
to other protected areas within a national system
that all risks to the terrestrial and marine
that forms part of a regional network of MPAs.
environment are clearly identified and that
pollution control and other abatement measures
are properly implemented.
A set of guidelines for visitors to coral reef
areas should be developed. This should include
maps, permanent moorings and guidelines for
It is recommended that the ITMD tyre
boats. A guide to coral reef areas and major dive
manufacturing company address the problems
sites might be a way of achieving part of this
with regard to management of its solid wastes,
effort.
in particular the handling of carbon black to
remove the hazards to occupational health and
the pollution of adjacent beaches.
24
Coral Reefs of Sudan
The Government of the Sudan is
Information
recommended to seek international funds to
Finally, an environmental awareness and
map comprehensively all known data about
education programme for various target groups
fishing activities.
is urgently needed to enhance public
participation in environmental initiatives.
Waste reception facilities need to be
upgraded/installed at ports. A feasibility study
on waste management and the development of
port reception facilities is urgently needed.
25
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
26
Coral Reefs of Djibouti
Introduction
June to September, northerly winds move
surface waters from the Gulf of Aden out into
the Arabian Sea. This is reversed during October
Djibouti has a coastline of 372 km fringed,
to May, bringing cooler waters into nearshore
in places, by extensive coral reefs. The northern
areas. Salinity ranges from 36 to 39 ppt,
coast near Eritrea faces the Straits of Bab al-
increasing during south-west monsoon periods,
Mandab and is generally shallow and sandy,
and water temperature ranges from 25 to 29 ºC.
with coral outcrops at Ras Siyyan and Kadda
Gueini. The Sawabi (Iles des Sept Frères)
archipelago east of Ras Siyyan is also fringed by
Agriculture, cattle breeding and fisheries
coral reefs. The southern coast towards Somalia
contribute less than 2.5 % to the national
is shallow with several estuaries and poorly
income. The international port of Djibouti
developed coral reefs, due to the cold water
contributes significantly to the national
upwelling from the Indian Ocean. Most of the
economy.
coast of Djibouti lies along the deep (883 m)
Gulf of Tadjoura. Ghoubbet al-Kharab, a
shallow semi-enclosed basin separated from the
At the confluence of three biogeographic
Gulf of Tadjoura by a narrow opening, contains
zones, Djibouti is home to a unique assemblage
low diversity coral reefs. At the entrance of the
of coral reef species. Ecologically, the
Gulf of Tadjoura, north of Djibouti city, are Iles
confluence of warm-water tropical biota (from
Moucha and Maskali, surrounded by extensive
the Indian Ocean and Red Sea) with cold water
coral reefs (Fig. 6).
upwelling habitats (from the Somali and
Arabian regions) is notable at the Iles des Sept
Frères, and resembles marine conditions seen in
At the confluence of three biogeographic
only a few other parts of the world.
zones, Djibouti is home to a unique assemblage
of coral reef species. The combination of
tropical warm-water biota (from the Indian
Current threats to coral reefs come from
Ocean and Red Sea) with cold water habitats
shipping, coastal development and tourism,
(from the Somali and Arabian regions) is
though marine tourism is still in its infancy. A
unusual, and found in few other parts of the
GEF supported project is underway to prepare
world.
an action plan for the conservation of national
biodiversity, both terrestrial and marine.
Djibouti lies in a hot and semi-arid zone
where the weather is influenced by the Indian
Ocean monsoon. Mean air temperatures vary
between 25 ºC in the winter to 35 ºC in the
summer. Annual rainfall ranges from 50 to
215 mm. During the south-west monsoon, from
27
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
Surveys
covering the Gulf of Tadjoura, the Iles Moucha
and Maskali and the Iles des Sept Frères in the
Geographical Scope and Survey
north. Benthic cover and reef fish statistics are
Techniques
given in OBURA 1998.
In 1998 a national team led by David Obura
OBURA & DJAMA (2000) measured the
surveyed Iles Moucha and Maskali, Khor
percentage cover of soft and hard corals, and
Ambado, Les Trois Plages, Sable Blanc, Ras
made counts of major invertebrates using
Duan, Iles des Sept Frères, Recif d'Ambouli and
circular plots at random locations. The status of
a site off Tadjoura (OBURA & DJAMA 2000). A
corals was assessed and any evidence of algal
separate survey by Hunting Aquatic Resources
blooms was recorded.
on behalf of PERSGA surveyed coastal and
marine resources at Iles Moucha and Maskali,
Khor Ambado, Djibouti City, Sable Blanc,
In the PERSGA/ALECSO study, visual
Godoria, Khor Angar, Iles des Sept Frères and
assessment by snorkel of 10 m × 10 m
Ras Siyyan in April 1998, during which a total
quadrats, centred on a demarcating line between
of 185 locations were sampled examined
the reef edge and the reef face, was used to
(PERSGA /ALECSO 2003). Obura also carried
assess principal sessile and anthropogenic
out a detailed study was also carried out at 21
features on the reef. In addition, timed
sites between November and December 1998,
20-minute swims were made by snorkel along
the line of the reef edge. These started and ended
at quadrat sample sites and were used to assess
Red
Yemen
Sea
percentage cover of different life forms within a
10 m band transect. Counts were also made for
indicator species such as butterflyfish and
Bab al Mandab
angelfish, the humphead wrasse Cheilinus
Ras Siyyan
undulatus and several commercial fishes.
Iles des
Benthic features were assessed for percentage
Sept Frères
Khor Angar
cover following English et al. (1997), with the
exception of `algal turf', which was a generic
Godoria
term used to cover all forms of non-calcareous
algae that were too small to distinguish with the
Djibouti
unaided eye. Certain features were counted
rather than listed as percentage cover, in
Ras Bir
particular macro-invertebrates such as lobsters
Tadjoura
and crown-of-thorns starfish, Acanthaster
Sable Blanc
Iles Moucha
planci (COTS). A number of indicator fish
Gulf
& Maskali
Sharm Tadjoura
of
species were counted following methods in
Djibouti
Aden
ENGLISH et al. (1997).
Khor
Ambado
Ghoubbet
Kharab
OBURA (1998) collected data by snorkelling
in water less than 5 m deep and by SCUBA
diving in depths exceeding 5 m. Circles were
Somalia
used covering 100 m2, marked by a radial line
of 5.6 m. Estimates were made of the
Fig. 6: Map of the Republic of Djibouti illustrating
percentage cover of three types of bottom
the location of major marine areas.
28
Coral Reefs of Djibouti
substrate and six types of living cover. Broad
Species diversity of benthic and sessile
10-percentile ranges (i.e. 10 %, 30 %, 90 %,
organisms was low relative to other study sites
etc.) were used, with additional categories for
visited, and Porites and Pocillopora were the
low-cover presence indicated by categories of
dominant reef- forming corals on the reef edge
1 % and 5 %. The principal objective of the
and reef slope. Coral and other fauna were
method was to sample large areas of the bottom
relatively rare on the back reef and reef flat. The
rapidly rather than obtain detailed
fringing reef directly offshore from the tourist
measurements of small areas, as provided by
beach at Sable Blanc had large Porites coral
line transect and quadrat techniques.
cascades on a steep reef slope that dropped off
to sand at approximately 20 m. Most colonies
exhibited signs of minor impact, possibly due to
Coral Reefs Benthos and Fish
disease or sedimentation damage.
The reefs off the main beach of Ile Maskali
Eastwards along the coast, the reef was in
(currently demarcated by mooring buoys) are
moderate to good condition with coral cover
were in a very poor condition. Towards the
within samples of up to 80 %. The influence of
south-western tip of Maskali, near the
localised factors such as wadi (dry river beds)
navigation beacon, the reefs are were also very
out-washing and run-off, rather than visitor
poor and turbidity is was very high. In contrast,
pressure appeared to dictate the overall reef
most of the other reefs off Iles Moucha and
condition.
Maskali had moderate to very good live coral
cover (estimated at > 30 %). Sample sites on
patch reefs, and coral gardens to the south of Ile
The reef flat at Sable Blanc exhibits
Maskali, had good live coral coverage with
exhibited a greater array of small coral colonies
associated fish populations. Live coral cover on
and living substrate cover than the reef at Khor
the fringing reefs to the north of Iles Moucha
Ambado. Observations indicated that the
and Maskali was moderate to good (25 to 40 %)
predominant coral species on the reef flat was
and framework corals at these sites appeared
Pocillopora. Small colonies of Acropora were
substantive and robust. Additionally, the patch
also present on the reef flat, particularly to the
reefs in the channel between Iles Maskali and
west of the main tourist beach. No significant
Moucha are were reasonably well developed.
signs of recent bleaching, other than COTS
The fringing reefs to the north of Iles Moucha
feeding scars, were recorded on the reef face or
and Maskali had a relatively high cover of
reef flat.
broken Acropora, now colonised by coralline
algae. This was possibly a result of a bleaching
event, with most breakage subsequently
The reefs of Djibouti are under pressure
occurring due to wave action. However, living
from many human activities. Despite these
substrate cover at these sites is was substantive
threats, the living hard coral cover averaged
and may have been indicative of a regenerating
39 %, with a maximum of 80 % (predominantly
system.
Pocillopora). Water turbidity was high at all
sites. Patches of coral substrate were widely
spaced and interspersed with mud and soft
The fringing reefs of Khor Ambado had an
sediment. However, living coral is are able to
average, living, hard coral cover of 52 %. This
persist in small patches around the capital and
was high compared to many other sites in
very close to the port area.
Djibouti and elsewhere in the Red Sea, despite
very turbid conditions at the time of the survey.
29
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
The status of the coral habitats at Iles des
one of the highest numbers of butterflyfish
Sept Frères is was good. Live coral cover for the
species recorded in the survey (OBURA & DJAMA
islands averaged 34 %, and although not very
2000).
high, observations of general substrate diversity
indicated that most parts of the archipelago had
balanced and healthy reefs. Impact was difficult
Coral Diversity
to attribute to any specific cause and possibly
reflects long-term environmental disturbance.
A total of 167 coral species (including three
No indications of a COTS epidemics, either
species of black coral) were identified in 1998
current or recent, were recorded during the 1998
(OBURA 1998), dominated by Acropora
study. Most of the reefs located in the Gulf of
hemprichii, Echinopora fruticulosa and Porites
Tadjoura showed no signs of bleaching. In some
nodifera. Only 10 % of species were found at
areas, such as the offshore Ile Maskali, degraded
all sites, while 40 % were present at several
reefs were observed, but the causes of
sites. Nearly 50 % of the coral species were
degradation could not be determined. The only
restricted to a handful of sites. Acropora sp.
sites with notable bleaching are were the Iles des
suffered high mortality in Khor Ambado and off
Sept Frères located in the Red Sea portion of
Maskali.
Djiboutian waters. These islands are quite
unique because rising cold waters contribute to
higher ecosystem productivity (hence important
In 1998, Obura identified the highest
fishing grounds). The Trois Plages was in a
diversity (93) at Arta Plage. Grande Isle in the
pristine state and had extensive reefs containing
Iles des Sept Frères had the second highest
Region
Site
# species
Sample time (min)
Iles des Sept Frères
Ile Grande
84
45
Tadjoura, south
Trois Plages
75
55
Iles des Sept Frères
Ile Sud
71
100
Tadjoura, south
Arta Est
70
45
Iles des Sept Frères
Ile Est
69
35
Iles Moucha and Maskali
Moucha Est
67
35
Tadjoura, south
Arta Ouest
66
20
Iles Moucha and Maskali
Maskali Buoy
64
40
Tadjoura, south
Khor Ambado
64
45
Tadjoura, north
Ras Duan-flat
63
30
Iles Moucha and Maskali
Maskali Lighthouse
62
40
Tadjoura, north
Sable Blanc
58
40
Tadjoura, north
Ras Duan-Fringing Reef
57
35
Iles des Sept Frères
Ile Double
52
60
Tadjoura, north
Tadjoura
49
25
Iles Moucha and Maskali
Moucha N
43
30
Iles Moucha and Maskali
Moucha S
21
30
Iles Moucha and Maskali
Maskali S
19
20
Table 6: Coral species diversity and length of survey at each site (OBURA 1998)
30
Coral Reefs of Djibouti
diversity of corals (84 species), followed by
Ile Moucha at two sites. No macroalgae were
Trois Plages in the Gulf of Tadjoura (75 species)
recorded during quadrat assessments performed
(Tables 6 & 7). Only one coral species was
around Iles des Sept Frères. Algal turf was
recorded at every site, Porites lutea, and only
observed in 13 of 72 quadrats. Percentage cover
10 % of the species identified were recorded at
ranged from 5 % (at Khor Angar) to 25 % (at
14 or more sites.
the Radio Mast site at by Djibouti City).
Coralline algae were observed in 62 of 72
quadrats. Values ranged from 5 % (at 17 sites)
Coral Cover
to a maximum percentage cover of 60 %. In
reef edge swims, macroalgae were recorded in
Seventy-two quadrats (10 m by 10 m) were
24 of the 34 reef edge assessments. Percentage
assessed visually for percentage cover of
cover ranged from 1 % at Sable Blanc to 60 %
various life forms and abiota. Living hard coral
at a site near the Navigation Buoy off Ile
was absent from only two of the 72 quadrats.
Maskali. Macroalgae were not recorded during
Percentage cover ranged from 5 % (offshore of
reef edge swims at Iles des Sept Frères. Algal
the main tourist beach on Ile Maskali) to 90 %
turf was observed in six of the 34 reef edge
(at Hamra Island, Iles des Sept Frères). At this
assessment swims, with percentage cover
latter site the dominant coral was Acropora,
ranging from 5 % (at Khor Angar) to 20 %
forming a coral garden. In 26 samples,
(Fish Market, Djibouti City). Coralline algae
percentage cover of live hard coral was equal to,
were observed in 27 of 34 reef edge swims. The
or greater than, 50 %. In reef edge swims,
highest percentage cover recorded was 48 % (at
percentage cover of living hard coral ranged
Sable Blanc). A further 13 reef edge swims had
from 5 % to 70 %, and exceeded 20 % in all
a percentage cover of 20 % or more
but three samples (PERSGA/ALECSO 2003).
(PERSGA/ALECSO 2003).
Macroalgae were recorded in 38 of 72 reef
Dead coral was observed in only one sample
assessment quadrats. The percentage cover in a
quadrat. However, dead coral with a covering of
quadrat ranged from 1 % at Sable Blanc to
algae was observed in 25 quadrats. Values
60 % at the Fish Market site, Djibouti City. A
ranged from 4 % to 20 %. Dead coral was
cover of 50 % was recorded in the vicinity of
observed in only one reef edge swim (at Sable
Region
Site
# species Sample time (min)
Tadjoura, south
Arta
93
65
Tadjoura, north
Ras Duan
90
65
Iles des Sept Frères
Grande
84
45
Moucha and Maskali
Ile Maskali
84
100
Moucha and Maskali
Ile Moucha
82
95
Tadjoura, south
Trois Plages
75
55
Iles des Sept Frères
Sud
73
100
Iles des Sept Frères
Est
69
35
Tadjoura, south
Khor Ambado
64
45
Tadjoura, north
Sable Blanc
62
40
Iles des Sept Frères
Double
52
60
Tadjoura, north
Tadjoura
49
25
Table 7: Coral species diversity and length of survey for each area (OBURA 1998)
31
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
Blanc). However, dead coral with algae was
Total butterflyfish counts (i.e. the sum of
noted in 21 reef edge swims, with percentage
counts for all species) ranged from eight (at
cover ranging from 5 % to 25 % (at Khor
Sable Blanc and Fish Market, Djibouti City) to
Ambado) (PERSGA/ALECSO 2003).
110 (at Ile Moucha). Fifty or more butterflyfish
were observed in 15 of 34 samples. The most
frequently observed butterflyfish were
Soft coral was observed in 19 reef quadrat
Gonochaetodon larvatus (a total of 510
samples. The maximum cover was 40 % (at
individuals) and Heniochus intermedius (a total
Kadda Dabali and Rhounda Dabali). In the reef
of 45 individuals). H. intermedius was also
edge swims, soft coral was observed in 10
observed in all samples. Counts ranged from
samples. Percentage cover ranged from 1 % (at
one (at Fish Market, Djibouti City) to 48 (at
Ile Moucha) to 35 % (at Rhounda Komayto,
Hamra Island, Iles des Sept Frères). Eighteen
Iles des Sept Frères) (PERSGA/ALECSO
samples contained 10 or more individuals, while
2003).
six samples contained more than 20 individuals.
Chaetodon semilarvatus was observed in all
samples, with counts ranging from one to 65 (at
Fish communities
Ile Moucha). Twenty-two samples contained 10
or more fish, and nine samples contained more
Sharks were observed at in six of the samp-
than 20 individuals. Chaetodon auriga and
lessurvey sites. Four sharks were sighted at
Chaetodon austriacus were not observed in any
Hamra Island, Iles des Sept Frères and single
samples (PERSGA/ALECSO 2003).
individuals were observed in the remaining
samples.
The total number of groupers observed (i.e.
sum of all counts for grouper species) ranged
Angelfish were observed at all sites. Counts
from zero (at Fish Market, Djibouti City) to 56
ranged from six to 31 (around Ile Moucha).
(at Godoria). Twenty-eight samples contained
Twenty-eight samples contained 10 or more
10 or more groupers, while 17 samples
angelfish.
Holocanthus xanthotis
and
contained 20 or more. Two species of grouper of
Pomacanthus imperator were observed at three
commercial interest, Variola louti
and
and five sites respectively. H. xanthotis was
Plectropomus truncatus, were not observed in
observed in a group of 11 individuals at
any sample. Cephalopholis miniata was only
Rhounda Komayto, Iles des Sept Frères.
observed in one sample at Khor Ambado, while
P imperator was only observed as single
a fourth species, Epinephelus tauvina, was only
individuals. Genicanthus caudovittatus was not
observed in two samples (at Rhounda Komayto,
observed at any site. Pomacanthus asfur was
Iles des Sept Frères and Sable Blanc). No
observed at all but one site (at Kadda Dabali,
species was ubiquitous to all samples. The most
Iles des Sept Frères). Counts ranged from one to
frequently observed species, both in number of
20 (at Ile Maskali). Pomacanthus maculosus
samples it occurred in and total number of
was observed in 31 of 34 samples. Counts
individuals, was Cephalopholis hemistiktos.
ranged from one to 15 (at Godoria), but 21
This species was absent from only two samples
samples contained less than 10 individuals.
(at Ile Moucha and the Fish Market, Djibouti
Pygoplites diacanthus was observed in 21
City). Counts of C. hemistiktos ranged from
samples. Counts ranged from one to 15, with 14
two to 27.
samples containing less than 10 individuals.
32
Coral Reefs of Djibouti
Six species of snapper were assessed
The presence or absence of six species of
numerically during the PERSGA/ALECSO
damselfish was noted in reef assessment swims.
survey. One species, Lutjanus argentimaculatus,
Plectroglyphidodon spp. were not observed in
was not recorded in any sample, while Macolor
any sample. Chromis dimidiata was only
niger was only observed in one sample (at Ile
observed in one sample at Hamra Island, Iles
Maskali). Lutjanus kasmira was observed in 20
des Sept Frères. The most frequently observed
assessments and counts ranged from one to 260
damselfish were Abudefduf spp., which were
individuals (at Ile Maskali). Lutjanus
present in all assessments.
monostigma was observed in 29 samples.
Counts ranged from one individual (at Ile
Moucha) to a maximum count of nearly 2000 (at
Five parrotfish species were assessed for
Kadda Dabali, Iles des Sept Frères). A further
presence or absence. Scarus ferrugineus was
sample (at Hamra Island, Iles des Sept Frères)
present in all samples and Scarus sordidus was
also contained more than 1000 individuals; 10
absent from only one sample (Rhounda
swims recorded counts above 100.
Komayto, Iles des Sept Frères). Scarus frenatus
was absent from all samples. Scarus niger was
observed in 26 samples and Cetoscarus bicolour
Only one species of wrasse, the humphead
was present in 20 samples.
Cheilinus undulatus, was assessed numerically.
This fish was recorded in 14 samples. The
highest count was five, observed at Ile Maskali.
Of the four species of surgeonfish recorded
In total 28 individuals were observed during all
for presence-absence one species, Zebrasoma
of the 34 reef edge assessment surveys.
xanthurum, was ubiquitous,. while Zebrasoma
Pre-spawning of this species was observed in
veliferum was found in all but three samples.
the vicinity of the Maskali reserve.
Ctenochaetus striatus and Acanthurus sohal
were recorded as present in 31 and 18 reef edge
assessment swims respectively.
Thirteen species of wrasse were recorded as
present or absent. Of those, three species,
Gomphosus caeruleus, Thalassoma lunare and
Invertebrate Communities
Larabicus quadrilineatus, were present in all
samples and Halichoeres hortulanus was absent
Anemones were observed in 13 samples but
from only two samples. In contrast, Thalassoma
the number of anemones was low (a maximum
klunzingeri and Macropharyngodon bipartitus
of seven at Rhounda Dabali at Iles des Sept
were absent from all samples. Although
Frères). The number of crown-of-thorns starfish
Halichoeres marginatus was only present in 15
was also low. Aggregations of COTS were not
samples, the remainder of the species were
observed. The maximum number of COTS
recorded in more than 20 swims
found was 14 (Ile Moucha), with 12 individuals
(PERSGA/ALECSO 2003).
in Rhounda Dabali, Iles des Sept Frères. Eleven
starfish were observed in a further three
One species of sparid, Acanthopagrus
samples. In total, 96 crown-of-thorns starfish
bifasciatus, was assessed numerically. This
were observed in 34 reef assessment swims.
species was observed in nine samples. Counts
Giant clams were observed in all but three
never exceeded 10 individuals in a single
samples. Samples from Godoria, Djibouti City
assessment swim. The maximum of 10 was
South, Fish Market and Djibouti City did not
recorded at Ile Moucha. The total number of
contain giant clams. The number of clams
sparids for all assessments was only 31
ranged from 1 to 52 (Sable Blanc). Thirteen
(PERSGA/ALECSO 2003).
samples contained more than 10 clams and in
33
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
total 348 clams were observed in the swims. In
The majority of the catch is landed by hook
total, 15 lobsters were were observed in six
and line. To a lesser extent gill nets and
swims. The maximum number observed in any
throwing nets are used. Catches consist almost
sample was six (Hamra Island, Iles des Sept
entirely of large food fish, which are marketed
Frères). Sea cucumbers were observed in all but
fresh. There is no processing of any
three swims and 10 swims recorded 10 or more.
significance. About 75 % of the catch is landed
Counts ranged from one to 30 (Ile Moucha). In
at Boulaos. Other small landing places are
total, 284 sea cucumbers were observed during
Escale (5 %), Tadjoura (5 %) and Obock
the swims. The highest recorded count for the
(10 %). Club Nautique is entirely used by sport
long-spined (or needle spined) sea urchin
fishermen, and accounts for 3 % of landings.
(Diadema) was 81 individuals (Radio Mast,
The remaining 2 % are consumed on board.
Djibouti City). A further 80 individuals were
also recorded during a reef swim at Sable Blanc.
A total of 374 urchins was observed during reef
Catches are composed of grouper (23 %),
edge assessment swims. No large aggregations
Spanish mackerel (14 %), red snapper (13 %),
of Diadema were observed. Slate pencil urchins
antak (12 %), blackspot snapper (10 %), bonito
(Heterocentrotus) were recorded in only five of
(5 %) and jack (4 %). All other species are of
34 samples. A maximum of 17 slate pencil
less importance. Fisheries production increased
urchins was counted at the Navigation Beacon
from 200 tonnes in 1980 to 400 tonnes in 1984
on Ile Maskali. A further 11 were counted at
and 700 tonnes in 1988. Between 1988 and 1991
Sable Blanc. Nine urchins were distributed
the increase in production slowed down due to
between the remaining three samples. Top shells
poor marketing efforts. From 1991 to 1994 the
were absent from all but one sample, at Ile
production decreased dramatically, due to
Maskali, which contained two shells (PERSGA-
political unrest in the north of the country.
ALECSO 2003).
The majority of the catch is landed by hook
Coral Reef Fisheries
and line. To a lesser extent gill nets and
throwing nets are used. Catches consist almost
entirely of large food fish, which are marketed
The major economic sectors in the coastal
fresh. There is no processing of any
zone are maritime transport and port-related
significance. Fishery production is highest in
activities. At present, fisheries play a limited
May, June and September. During the five-year
role, although subsistence fisheries are locally
period, 1986 to 1990, when production was
important. There are about 90 artisanal fishing
fairly stable, the highest yields were recorded in
boats, of which 75 are small open boats (6 to
May (44,522 tonnes) and the lowest in February
8 m) powered by outboard engines. Each boat
(25,110 tonnes).
operates with an average of three fishermen on
one-day trips. Some 15 of the boats are longer
(10 to 14 m) and equipped with inboard
BARRATT & MEDLEY (1988) indicated that
engines. These carry an average of five
there is a substantial market for aquarium fish
fishermen each, and go out for four days. Most
from the Red Sea and Western Indian Ocean
of the fisheries are at subsistence level and
waters of Djibouti, with the USA, Hong Kong,
fishing effort is generally low.
Germany, Japan and other European countries
as the main export markets. No major trade
exists at present.
34
Coral Reefs of Djibouti
Threats to Coral Reef Biodiversity
Exploitation of Living Marine Resources
There is potential overfishing of game fish
Although parts of the coast and territorial
resulting in a decrease in average catch size, as
waters are still in a largely pristine state, the few
the level of fishing effort exceeds the Maximum
studies that have been conducted show indicate
Sustainable Yield. The lack of surveillance and
that in several areas there are alarming signs of
enforcement of existing regulations, such as that
degradation and threats are increasing rapidly.
regulating the use of spearguns in capital around
Pressure from humans is particularly severe in
urban areas and in MPAs is widespread. In
the vicinity of the capital. The major threats to
addition, the fisheries data collection system
reefs in Djibouti are tourism and sewage
collapsed in late 1990, holding back the
discharges. Coral bleaching needs to be
development of any fisheries management
monitored more closely to determine its impact
plans. The illegal shark fishery supplying the
on reefs.
Oriental shark fin market has resulted in a
decline in shark stocks. There is also a large
bye-catch of turtles, manta rays, dolphins,
Habitat Destruction
dugongs and finfish, and damage to reefs from
Extensive coastal development, which
nets.
includes dredging and landfilling, destroys large
tracts of coral reefs. Urban, industrial and port
development takes place with inadequate
Navigation and Maritime Risks
environmental planning and little or no
Maritime transport is a major commercial
environmental assessment. The lack of
sector in Djibouti. Activities at Djibouti Port
management and awareness, in addition to lack
have developed rapidly. The port offers
of enforcement of regulations, results in
container-handling facilities at two berths with a
physical damage to coral reefs, a loss of coral
total length of 400 m and with depths alongside
habitat and a decline in reef-associated fauna.
of up to 12 m. A 780 km railway links Djibouti
This is also brought about by anchor damage,
with Addis Ababa and goods coming from and
ship groundings and tourism related activities.
going to Ethiopia are shipped via Djibouti. The
Poor navigational control systems and a lack of
income of the International Autonomous Port of
moorings throughout the area compound these
Djibouti is a very important contribution to the
problems.
national economy.
Damage to corals that was unequivocally
There are risks of ship collisions and
caused by anchoring was noted in nine reef edge
groundings due to limited navigational control
assessments in 1998. Two of these sites were
devices and poorly separated traffic. Maritime
around Ile Maskali; three were off the beach at
traffic is heavy and the area has complex
Sable Blanc; three were situated around Ile
navigational hazards, the extensive coral reef
Moucha and signs of minor anchor damage were
systems at the entrance to the port being one
noted at Rhounda Dabali, Iles des Sept Frères.
example. Marine vessel sewage and discharge
Suspected damage from small anchors was also
of solid waste is localized, washing up on the
observed outside the samples at locations to the
shores and along the mangroves. There is
south of Iles Maskali and Moucha, and the reef
inadequate on-board treatment, a lack of port
flat at Sable Blanc exhibited damage most likely
reception and disposal facilities, and inadequate
to have been caused by small anchors or
surveillance and enforcement throughout the
trampling.
area.
35
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
Petroleum Development and Transport
Natural Predators
Small oil spills (< 20 tons) cause beach
In early May 2000, large numbers of crown-
contamination and damage to the coastal and
of-thorns starfish were found at Khor Ambado.
marine biota. These occur from underground
A survey of an area about 5000 m2 at Ile
pipelines or from the discharge of ballast and
Moucha also found large numbers of COTs.
bilge water, waste oil, or bunker oil spills. The
However, at present it was not believed that
lack of reception facilities at the port,
these were in plague densities at the time, and
inadequate control and lack of enforcement
their impact on the reefs is was minimal.
compound the problem.
Bleaching
Medium oil spills (20 to 100 tons) also cause
Most of the reefs in the Gulf of Tadjoura
beach contamination and damage coastal and
showed no signs of bleaching. At Ile Maskali,
marine biota. These occur through discharges
degraded reefs were encountered in 1998
from terminals and small accidents at sea. There
(OBURA & DJAMA 2000) but the causes of
is inadequate control and monitoring of
degradation could not be determined. The only
procedures, equipment, personnel and training.
site with significant bleaching was at Iles des
Sept Frères, in Djibouti's Red Sea waters. In
early 1998 there was no evidence Obura and
Large oil spills could cause widespread
Djama did not find any of evidence of bleaching
destruction of coastal and marine habitats and
at any of the survey sites, either inshore or
biota and devastation to beach habitats. These
offshore (OBURA & DJAMA 2000). In late 1998 at
could occur with the rupture of oil tanks through
the same sites, coral mortality was estimated at
collision or wreckage. Poor navigation aids are
30 % at Iles des Sept Frères, but there was no
a major contributory factor.
mortality at other sites. Observations by
recreational SCUBA divers since that time
(early 1999) suggest that bleaching mortality
Industrial Activities
has increased to 40 % at Iles des Sept Frères,
Excessive exploitation of surface and
affecting principally tabular corals in the
groundwater for industrial use and excessive
shallow water zones that are not affected by
pumping, coupled with inadequate concern for
longshore currents. However, OBURA (1998)
water conservation and poor regulation of water
found a low incidence of bleached corals in late
exploitation could affect natural water discharge
1998; less than 1 % at the Iles des Sept Frères,
patterns. Industrial pollution has led to a decline
none in the Gulf of Tadjoura or around Iles
in water quality through the chronic release of
Moucha and Maskali.
pollutants; lack of enforcement and inadequate
technology compound the problem.
Marine Protected Areas and Level of
Management
Urban Development
The discharge of untreated or insufficiently
treated sewage in coastal areas alters the marine
Djibouti has two declared Marine Protected
environment and is a threat to public health. The
Areas, which have been established for more
lack of sewage treatment plants, lack of
than ten years. There are several additional areas
maintenance of existing plants and inadequate
proposed for protected status, one of which is of
pollution control regulations, monitoring and
regional importance.
enforcement result in severe damage to coastal
and marine life. Sewage discharges may cause
algal booms.
36
Coral Reefs of Djibouti
MPAs Declared
Iles des Sept Frères and Ras Siyyan: Lying
at the junction of the Red Sea and the Gulf of
Moucha Territorial Park: Established in
Aden, this is a group of high-aspect islands and
1972 by regulation 72-1363/SG/CG, the Park
an adjacent coastal stretch with a mangrove-
covers an area of about 10 km2 at 11°43'N
fringed bay. There are diverse coral reefs and
43°12'E and includes extensive coral reefs, a
rich reef-associated fish and invertebrate fauna.
rich reef-associated fish and invertebrate fauna,
There is a significant level of recreation,
and mangroves. The regulation prohibits the
fishing-related pressure, and sedimentation from
collection of corals and molluscs.
nearby shipping activities.
Decree 80/062/PR/MCTT (1980) extended
Current Monitoring and
the protection to the Maskali reserve. This latter
Management Capacity to Conserve
Decree was then modified by Decree
Coral Reef Resources
85/103/PR/AG (1985) to strengthen
conservation of the two areas. The South
Maskali Islands Integral Reserve covers an area
At present the number of environmental
of about 3 km2 at 11°40'N 43°10'E and
initiatives in Djibouti is limited. The most
contains coral reefs and rich reef-associated fish
important ones are a contingency plan for the
and invertebrate fauna (PERSGA/GEF 2001).
Gulf of Aden developed in 1990, through which
an oil spill response centre was established for
Djibouti, Yemen and Somalia; and the rules for
Only artisanal fisheries of edible species are
the management of marine protected areas and
allowed in these zones. Protection is supposed
the exploitation of reef associated species,
to prevent all extractive utilization except for
issued in 1992 by the Maritime Administration.
artisanal fishing, which is defined as fishing
using traditional techniques on trips not longer
than a day or two.
Several institutions in Djibouti are involved
with coastal and marine area and resource
management. These are:
The islands and reefs within and outside the
reserves are used extensively for weekend
recreation, including picnicking, swimming,
the Ministry of Agriculture and
snorkelling, diving, water-skiing and camping.
Hydraulic through the Directorate of
There are severe pressures from reef trampling,
Stock-farming and Fisheries,
collection of souvenirs and spearfishing.
the Ministry of Transport and
Telecommunications through its
De facto and Planned MPAs
Directorate of Maritime Affairs,
Godoriya: This is an extensive mangrove
the National Office for Tourism, Arts and
area (Rhizophora and Avicennia), rich in
Crafts,
mangrove-associated fauna. There are no coral
reefs within the proposed area.
the Presidency of the Republic, through
the Institute of Higher Studies, Scientific
and Technical Research,
37
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
the Service for Management and
The Republic of Djibouti is also a signatory
Environment, the Inter-ministerial
to the CITES Convention. Decree
Co-ordination Commission on the
80-62/PR/MCTT of 25 May 1980 provides for
Protection of the Marine Fauna and the
the protection of the seabed and the marine
Seabed and
fauna, whereby the capture of marine mammals
and turtles is illegal, as well as the trade with or
the National Council of the Sea.
export of these animals. Spearfishing is also
illegal in Djibouti.
Government Legislation, Strategies
and Policy Pertinent to Reef
At the regional level, an agreement was
Conservation
signed by Yemen, Djibouti and Somalia on the
establishment of a centre to combat oil pollution
in the Gulf of Aden. Oil spill response
The Republic of Djibouti is a signatory to a
equipment is stored at facilities in Djibouti.
number of international conventions for the
Yemen and Djibouti are currently negotiating a
protection of the marine environment and for the
bilateral agreement regarding the use of this
prevention of pollution, and it has enacted
equipment. On 20 January 1986 Djibouti and
several national instruments through which
Somalia signed a bilateral fishing agreement.
conservation and management of coral reefs are
directly or indirectly addressed.
National Legislation
International Agreements
National regulations on the protection of the
marine environment include provisions on
The Republic of Djibouti is a signatory to
marine pollution, protection of endangered
the London Convention (modified 1954) which
species and the creation of protected areas
is applicable through National Law No. 64/83.
(summarised in Table 8). Regulations on the
The following were approved by National Law
prevention and combat of marine pollution
No 94/AN/89 2ºL in 1989:
include:
the London Convention (1971) on
Law 76-599 (1976) - Enacted by
international compensation funds,
regulation 675/SELAG concerning ship-
and aircraft aircraft-based pollution, as
the London Convention (1973, modified
well as the combat of accidental marine
1978) with the exception of annexes (III,
pollution.
IV, & V) and
Law 76-600 (1976) - Enacted by
the Brussels Convention (1969) on
regulation 676/SELAG regarding
intervention on the High Seas.
pollution by incineration operations.
The Republic of Djibouti is a signatory to
Laws 9/AN/82 (1982) and 137/AN/85
the United Nations Convention on the Law of
1ºL (1985) on oil pollution.
the Sea (UNCLOS 1982).
Ordinance 86-042/PR/PM (1986)
containing regulations on action to be
38
Coral Reefs of Djibouti
taken in case of abandonment of ships
(enacted by law 212/AN/82) and Articles
that pose a threat to the environment in
16 to 19 of Law No. 52/AN/78 (1979)
territorial waters.
regulate the fishery. Certain fishing
techniques, such as the use of explosives
Decree 89-085/PR/AE (1990) providing
and poisons, are illegal. They determine
for the implementation of a contingency
the conditions for the exploitation of
plan in the case of pollution by oil spills.
fishery resources including fishing zones
and closed seasons. They also include
Decree 89-085/PR/PM (1989) and
sanctions in case of violation of these
Regulation 90-0534/MPAM (1990)
regulations by fishermen.
concerning the passage of foreign ships
through territorial waters in order to
National Law No. 64/83 (1983) includes
prevent pollution and the dumping of
the approval of four international
hazardous wastes.
conventions on maritime navigation.
Code of Maritime Administration - The
Coastal Zone Regulations: Regulation
present fisheries law was drafted before
86-0717/PR/MCTT (1986) concerns the
independence, with the exception of
waste from camping on islands and
some articles, and is now part of the
beaches; Ordinance 77-038/PR (1977)
Code. Articles 148, 149 and 220 to 225
regulates registration of pleasure boats;
Law, Ordinance, Regulation
Year (in
Government Agency Concerned
force)
Regulation 72-1363/SG/CG, establishment of Moucha
1972
Maritime Administration
Territorial Park
Law 76-599 on ship based pollution
1976
Maritime Administration
Law 76-600 on pollution caused by combustion
1976
Maritime Administration
Ordinance 77-038/PR on registration of pleasure boats
1977
Maritime Administration
Law 52/AN/78 article 16-19, fisheries regulations
1979
Maritime Administration
Decree 80-062/PR/MCTT on protection of the seabed and
1980
MCTT
the marine fauna, establishment of South Maskali Islands
Integral Reserve
Law 9/AN/82, on hydrocarbon pollution
1982
Maritime Administration
Law 212/AN/82, fisheries regulations
1982
Maritime Administration
Law 137/AN/85, on hydrocarbon pollution
1985
Maritime Administration
Regulation 84-0969/PR/PM, on security of pleasure boating
1984
Maritime Administration
Decree 85/103/PR/AG on Marine Protected Areas
1985
Maritime Administration
Ordinance 86-042PR/PM, regulating abandoned ships
1986
Maritime Administration
Regulation 86/0717/PR/MCTT on camping huts on beaches
1986
National Office for Tourism, Arts
and islands
and Crafts
Decree 89-085/PR/PM on passage of foreign vessels
1989
Maritime Administration
Decree 89-085/PR/AE on oil spill response
1990
Maritime Administration
Regulation 90-0534/MPAM on passage of foreign vessels
1990
Maritime Administration
Table 8: National laws and regulations related to coastal and marine environments and resources (PERSGA
2001)
39
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
and Regulation 84-0969/PR/PM (1984)
health of coral reefs in Djibouti, except for
concerns security of pleasure boating
foreign-based research. The Environment
and beach activities.
Department has had to rely on the GEF and
financial support through PERSGA to conduct
Gaps in Capacity and Requirements
the first assessments of coral reefs since 1988. It
for Improved Conservation
is possible that financial resources could be
raised through levying of fines and fees for
infringements of national laws. The NEAP calls
The two major requirements in Djibouti are
for the creation of an Environmental Fund,
staff (with expertise in coral reef biology and
which should be established in the near future. It
ecology, and an understanding of research and
is expected that this fund will be used for
monitoring practices), and funding to undertake
conservation of key ecosystems such as coral
conservation work. The lack of trained staff
reefs.
stems largely from the lack of a higher
education system and the funding avenues for
post-graduate study of Djiboutian nationals.
Recommendations to Improve the
Conservation of Coral Reef
Resources
Institutional Capacity
Only a few personnel are qualified for
managing marine resources. Recently the
Natural and anthropogenic stresses on corals
PERSGA/ALECSO-funded project and the
in Djibouti are limited in extent and scope.
National Biodiversity Project have initiated
Several key actions at the national level in the
training of national counterparts in coral reef
form of legislation and implementation could
survey techniques. At present there are no
reduce the risks of ship-based pollution and oil
monitoring or conservation programmes for
spills. A dedicated research and monitoring
coral reefs. The Environment Department was
programme that fed back into coastal area
created recently (1996) and finalised the
management plans would contribute greatly to
National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP) in
efficient conservation actions.
April 2000 and a National Strategy for
Biodiversity Conservation with financial
support from the GEF. These include a National
Legislation
Framework Law, which will require
It is recommended that decrees on
Environmental Impact Assessments for all
biodiversity conservation and protected areas
projects concerning the marine environment. It
should be put into force. Related laws and
is assumed that with the adoption of the NEAP
regulations should also be revised. It is
and Biodiversity Strategy, the Environment
important to strengthen enforcement of existing
Department will be involved in all development
regulations relating to the management of
projects. There is a need for the managerial staff
coastal and marine areas and resources. A
of the key national institutions to be trained in
national Integrated Coastal Zone Management
coral reef survey techniques and the biology and
Plan is urgently needed. Annexes III, IV, and V
ecology of coral reef ecosystems.
of the MARPOL Convention 73/78 should be
ratified to bring Djibouti into line with
international efforts at combating oil pollution.
Financial
Financial constraints are a major obstacle to
the conservation of coral reefs. There have been
no funds for surveys to assess the status and
40
Coral Reefs of Djibouti
Coastal Area Management
and the training of Djiboutians in marine
Institutions involved in the management of
biology is recommended once a university is
coastal and marine resources and in law
established. An environmental data base
enforcement need support. A framework and
containing information on biological resources
programme for visitors to coral reef areas has to
should be developed. A monitoring programme
be developed. This will should include
should be set up to support management and
guidelines and moorings for boats.
enforcement activities. Institutions involved in
applied research need strengthening.
Reef Conservation
A coral reef monitoring, protection and
Shipping and Navigation
management programme should be developed.
Monitoring of vessels passing through
Management programmes should be developed
territorial waters of Djibouti, communication
for the existing Marine Protected Areas and a
with vessels and the installation of navigational
feasibility study for the conservation and
markers, particularly along major shipping
management of additional marine protected
channels, should be improved. The national oil
areas should be conducted. These might include
spill response contingency plan should be
Iles des Sept Frères and Ras Siyyan. Stocks of
updated and implemented. The response
reef fish populations should be assessed
capacity needs to be upgraded and waste
properly before the collection of ornamental fish
reception facilities installed at ports. A
for the aquarium trade is developed
feasibility study on waste management and the
commercially.
development of port reception facilities and
waste management systems are also needed.
Research and Monitoring
Marine habitats and biota should be studied
and monitored on a regular basis. The
establishment of a marine biology department
41
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
42
Récifs Coralliens à Djibouti
Introduction
Djibouti est située dans une zone chaude
semi-aride où le climat subit l'influence de la
mousson de l'océan Indien. Les températures
Djibouti possède 372 kilomètres de côtes
atmosphériques moyennes vont de 25 ºC en
bordées en certains endroits de vastes récifs
hiver à 35 ºC en été. Les précipitations
coralliens. La côte nord, près de l'Érythrée, fait
annuelles varient de 50 à 215 mm. Au cours de
face au détroit de Bab el-Mandeb; côte
la mousson du sud-est, de juin à septembre, les
sablonneuse aux eaux généralement peu
vents du nord poussent les eaux de surface du
profondes, elle présente des formations
golfe d'Aden dans la mer d'Arabie. Le
coralliennes à Ras Siyyan et à Kadda Gueini.
phénomène s'inverse d'octobre à mai pour
L'archipel des Sawabi (Sept Frères), à l'est de
ramener des eaux froides à proximité des côtes.
Ras Siyyan, est également entouré de récifs
Le taux de salinité varie de 36 à 39 ppt, avec
frangeants. La côte du sud-est vers la Somalie, a
des augmentations pendant la mousson du sud-
des eaux peu profondes, avec plusieurs estuaires
ouest, et la température de l'eau varie de 25 ºC
et des récifs coralliens peu développés en raison
à 29 ºC.
des remontées d'eaux froides (upwelling) qui
proviennent de l'océan Indien. La majeure
partie du littoral djiboutien se trouve le long du
L'agriculture, l'élevage et la pêche apportent
profond golfe de Tadjourah (883 m). Le
moins de 2,5 % au revenu national. La
Ghoubbet al-Kharab, bassin semi-fermé de
contribution du port international de Djibouti à
faible profondeur séparé du golfe de Tadjourah
l'économie nationale, en revanche, est
avec lequel il communique par une passe étroite,
significative.
contient des récifs coralliens de faible diversité.
À l'entrée du golfe de Tadjourah, au nord de
Djibouti-ville, se trouvent les îles Moucha et
Les menaces qui pèsent actuellement sur les
Maskali, qui sont entourées d'importants récifs
récifs coralliens proviennent du trafic maritime,
coralliens (Figure 7).
du développement du littoral et du tourisme, ce
dernier étant toutefois encore à un stade
embryonnaire. Un plan d'action pour la
Situé à la convergence de trois zones
conservation de la biodiversité nationale, tant
biogéographiques, Djibouti possède un
terrestre que marine, a été préparé dans le cadre
assemblage unique de récifs coralliens de
d'un projet appuyé par le FEM.
diverses espèces. La combinaison de biotes
d'eaux tropicales chaudes de l'océan Indien et
de la mer Rouge et des habitats d'eaux froides,
Études
des régions somalienne et arabe est inhabituelle
et rare sont les points du globe où elles se
En 1998, une équipe nationale dirigée par
trouvent.
David Obura a étudié les îles Moucha et
Maskali, Khor Ambado, les Trois Plages, Sable
Blanc, Ras Duan, les Sept Frères, le récif
43
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
Dans l'étude d'Obura & Djama, le nombre
La Mer
Yemen
Rouge
et le pourcentage de couverture des coraux mous
et durs a été évalué a l'aide de quadrants
circulaires, et il a été procédé à des
Bab al Mandab
dénombrements des principaux invertébrés.
Ras Siyyan
Tous les signes de prolifération algale ont été
Iles des
notés.
Sept Frères
Khor Angar
Dans l'étude PERSGA/ALECSO, il a été
Godoria
procédé à des évaluations visuelles par plongée
en apnée sur des quadrats de 10 × 10 m, centrés
Djibouti
sur une ligne de démarcation entre le bord des
récifs et la face récifale, pour déterminer l'état
Ras Bir
des principaux invertébrés sessiles et évaluer les
Tadjourah
impacts des activites humaines. En outre, des
Sable Blanc
Iles Moucha
observations de la périphérie à la nage pendant
G o l fe
& Maskali
20 minutes ont été effectuées le long des récifs
Sharm Tadjourah
d'Aden
Djibouti
entre les quadrats d'échantillonnage, pour
Khor
évaluer le taux de couverture des différents
Ambado
organismes sur une bande de 10 m de large. Des
Ghoubbet
Kharab
dénombrements ont également été effectués
pour des espèces indicatrices telles que les
poissons-papillons, les poissons-anges, le
Somalia
napoléon Cheilinus undulatus et plusieurs
espèces commerciales.
Figure 7: Carte de la République de Djibouti
Les caractéristiques des espèces benthiques
indiquant l'emplacement des principales aires
marines.
ont été évaluées pour déterminer le taux de
couverture, selon ENGLISH et al. (1997), à
l'exception de la « pellicule algale » terme
d'Ambouli et un site au large de Tadjourah
générique désignant toutes les formes d'algues
(OBURA & DJAMA 2000). Une étude distincte
non calcaires trop petites pour être distinguées à
menée en avril 1998 par Hunting Aquatic
l'oeil nu. Certaines composantes ont été
Resources pour le PERSGA a porté sur les
comptées au lieu d'indiquer leur pourcentage de
ressources côtières et marines des îles Moucha
couverture, en particulier les macro-invertébrés
et Maskali, de Khor Ambado, de Djibouti-ville,
tels que les langoustes et les couronnes d'épines
de Sable Blanc, de Godoria, de Khor Angar, des
(Acanthaster planci). Un certain nombre
îles des Sept Frères et de Ras Siyyan, où un total
d'espèces indicateurs de poissons ont été
de 185 sites ont été examinés
dénombrées selon les méthodes d'ENGLISH et al.
(PERSGA/ALECSO). Une étude plus détaillée
(1997).
a également été réalisée de novembre à
décembre 1998 sur 21 sites du golfe Tadjourah,
Dans l'étude réalisée par Obura à la fin de
des îles Moucha et Maskali et des îles des Sept
l'annee 1998, des données ont été recueillies par
Frères dans le nord (OBURA 1998).
plongée en apnée dans les eaux de moins de 5 m
de profondeur et en plongée avec bouteille dans
les profondeurs de plus de 5 m. Les zones
44
Récifs Coralliens à Djibouti
d'échantillonnages étaient des quadrants
circulaires d'un rayon de 5,6 m (superficie de
élevé par rapport à nombre d'autres sites à
100 m2). Le pourcentage de couverture a été
Djibouti et ailleurs dans la mer Rouge, malgré
estimé pour trois types de substrats et six types
une forte turbidité au moment de l'observation.
de couvert biologique. L'objectif principal ainsi
La diversité des espèces benthiques et sessiles
visé était de procéder à des relevés rapides sur
était faible par comparaison aux autres sites
les fonds et non pas d'obtenir des mesures
étudiés, et Porites et Pocillopora étaient les
détaillées sur de petites superficies, comme en
coraux bâtisseurs dominants en bordure et sur
fournissent les techniques des transects et des
les pentes des récifs. Les coraux et autres
quadrats.
espèces fauniques étaient relativement rares sur
l'arrière-récif et le platier. Le récif frangeant
situé en face de la plage touristique de Sable
Récifs coralliens Benthos
Blanc présentait de vastes cascades de Porites
sur une pente récifale abrupte descendant
jusqu'à un fond sablonneux à environ 20 m de
Les récifs situés au large de la grande plage
profondeur. Il a été relevé des signes d'impacts
de Maskali (actuellement démarqués par des
mineurs sur la plupart des colonies, ce qui peut
bouées de mouillage) étaient en très mauvais
être dû à la maladie ou à la sédimentation.
état. Vers la pointe sud-ouest de l'île, près du
phare de navigation, les récifs étaient aussi en
piètre état et la turbidité très élevée. En
Vers l'est, le long de la côte, l'état du récif
revanche, la plupart des autres récifs au large de
était de modéré à bon avec une couverture
Moucha et de Maskali présentaient une très
corallienne atteignant 80 % dans les zones
bonne couverture de coraux vivants (estimée à
d'échantillonnage. L'état général du récif
plus de 30 %). Les sites d'échantillonnage sur
semble conditionné davantage par des facteurs
les platiers de corail et les bancs coralliens au
extérieurs tels que l'épandage de matériaux et le
sud de Maskali avaient eux aussi une très bonne
ruissellement d'eau des pluies en provenance
couverture de coraux vivants avec leur faune
des wadis (rivière non permanente) que par les
ichtyologique associée. La couverture de coraux
pressions des visiteurs.
vivants des récifs frangeants au nord de Moucha
et Maskali était de modérée à bonne (25 à 40
Le platier de Sable Blanc présentait une
%) et la structure corallienne paraissait robuste.
gamme plus large de petites colonies
Par ailleurs, les platiers de coraux étaient
coralliennes et de substrats vivants que le récif
raisonnablement bien développés dans le chenal
de Khor Ambado. L'espèce de corail dominante
séparant Maskali et Moucha. Les récifs
observée sur le platier était Pocillopora. Il a
frangeants au nord de Moucha et Maskali
également été noté la présence de petites
présentaient une couverture relativement élevée
colonies d'Acropora sur le platier, en particulier
d'Acropora brisés maintenant colonisés par des
à l'ouest de la principale plage touristique. S'il
algues coralliennes, qui est peut-être le résultat
n'y avait pas de signes notables de
d'un épisode de blanchissement, suivi de la
blanchissement récents, des cicatrices de
cassuré des coraux sous l'effet des vagues. La
couronnes d'épines ont été relevées sur la face
présence d'un substrat vivant important
récifale et le platier.
constatée sur ces sites peut indiquer un
processus de régénération.
Les récifs de Djibouti sont soumis à des
pressions provenant de nombreuses activités
La couverture des coraux durs des récifs
humaines. Malgré cela, le couvert de coraux
frangeants de Khor Ambado était de 52 %, taux
durs vivants s'établit en moyenne à 39 %, avec
45
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
un maximum de 80 % (avec dominance de
de blanchissement. Dans certaines zones,
Pocillopora). La turbidité de l'eau était élevée
notamment au large de l'île Maskali, on a
sur tous les sites. On observe des platiers de
constaté la présence de récifs dégradés, mais
substrat corallien largement espacés, séparés par
sans que l'on puisse déterminer les causes de
de la vase et autres sédiments mous. Néanmoins,
cette dégradation. Les seuls sites où il a été
les coraux vivants persistent en petites
relevé des signes de blanchissement notables
formations aux environs de la capitale et à
sont les îles des Sept Frères situées dans les eaux
proximité immédiate de la zone portuaire.
djiboutiennes de la mer Rouge. Ces îles doivent
leur spécificité aux remontées d'eau froide qui
L'état des habitats coralliens aux Sept Frères
contribuent à accroître la productivité des
était bon. La couverture corallienne vivante des
écosystèmes (et elles constituent de ce fait des
îles était en moyenne de 34 % et les
zones halieutiques importantes). Le site des
observations de la diversité générale du substrat
Trois Plages était remarquablement intact et
ont indiqué que la majorité de l'archipel
possédait de vastes récifs contenant l'un des
possédait des récifs équilibrés et sains. Il est
plus grands nombres d'espèces de
difficile d'attribuer les impacts à une cause
poissons-papillons relevés au cours de l'étude
précise quelconque et il s'agit peut-être de
(OBURA & DJAMA 2000).
perturbations environne-mentales à long terme.
Il n'a pas été constaté d'indications d'épidémies
Diversité des coraux
de couronnes d'épines actuelles ou récentes lors
de l'étude de 1998. La plupart des récifs du
Au total, l'étude de 1998 a recensé 167
golfe de Tadjourah ne présentaient pas de signes
espèces de coraux, dominés par Acropora
Région
Site
Nbre
Temps
d'espèces
d'échantillonnage
(mn)
Sept Frères
I. Grande
84
45
Tadjourah, sud
Trois Plages
75
55
Sept Frères
I. Sud
71
100
Tadjourah, sud
Arta Est
70
45
Sept Frères
I. Est
69
35
Moucha et Maskali
Moucha Est
67
35
Tadjourah, sud
Arta Ouest
66
20
Moucha et Maskali
Maskali Buoy
64
40
Tadjourah, sud
Khor Ambado
64
45
Tadjourah, nord
Ras Duan-Platier
63
30
Moucha et Maskali
Phare de Maskali
62
40
Tadjourah, nord
Sable Blanc
58
40
Tadjourah, nord
Ras Duan-Récif frangeant
57
35
Sept Frères
I. Double
52
60
Tadjourah, nord
Tadjourah
49
25
Moucha et Maskali
Moucha N
43
30
Moucha et Maskali
Moucha S
21
30
Moucha et Maskali
Maskali S
19
20
Tableau 9 : Diversité des espèces coralliennes et temps d'échantillonnage sur chaque site
(OBURA 1998)
46
Récifs Coralliens à Djibouti
hemprichii, Echinopora fruticulosa et Porites
nodifera. Seules 10 % d'entre elles étaient
coraux vivants durs n'étaient absents que deux
présentes sur tous les sites; 40 % étaient
des 72 quadrats, leurs taux de couverture variant
présentes sur plusieurs sites et près de 50 %
de 5 % (au large de la grande plage touristique
étaient limitées à quelques sites.
de Maskali) à 93% (sur l'île Hamra des Sept
Frères). Sur ce dernier site, le corail dominant
était Acropora. Sur 26 sites-échantillons, le taux
Un total de 167 espèces de coraux (dont trois
de couverture de coraux vivant était égal ou
espèces de corail noir) ont été identifiées en
supérieur à 50 %. Les taux de couverture des
1998 (OBURA 1998). La plus forte diversité a été
coraux durs vivants relevés lors des
enregistrée à Arta Plage (93), Grande Ile dans
observations à la nage sur les périphéries des
l'archipel des Sept Frères se plaçant au second
récifs varient de 5 % à 70 % et dépassaient
rang (84 espèces), suivie par les Trois Plages
20 % sur tous les sites observés sauf trois
dans le golfe de Tadjourah (75 espèces)
(PERSGA/ALECSO).
(tableaux 9 et 10). Seule une espèce de coraux,
Porites lutea, a été identifiée sur tous les sites et
La présence de macroalgues a été notée
10 % seulement des espèces identifiés ont été
dans 38 des 72 quadrats évalués, avec un taux de
recensées sur 14 sites ou plus.
couverture par quadrat variant de 1 % à Sable
Blanc à 60 % au site du marché au poisson à
Couverture corallienne
Djibouti-ville. Un taux de 50 % a été noté près
de Moucha sur deux sites. Il n'a pas été observé
de macroalgues au cours des évaluations de
Soixante-douze quadrats de 10 sur 10 m ont
quadrats autour des Sept Frères. La présence
fait l'objet d'une évaluation visuelle pour
d'une pellicule algale a été observée dans 13 des
déterminer les taux de couverture par diverses
72 quadrats, avec un taux de couverture variant
composantes biotiques et non biotiques. Les
de 5 % (à Khor Angar) à 25 % (au site de
Région
Site
Nbre d'espèces
Temps d'échan-
tillonnage (mn)
Tadjourah, sud
Arta
93
65
Tadjourah, nord
Ras Duan
90
65
Sept Frères
Grande
84
45
Moucha et Maskali
Maskali
84
100
Moucha et Maskali
Moucha
82
95
Tadjourah, sud
Trois Plages
75
55
Sept Frères
Sud
73
100
Est Sept Frères
Est
69
35
Tadjourah, sud
Khor Ambado
64
45
Tadjourah, nord
Sable Blanc
62
40
Sept Frères
Double
52
60
Tadjourah, nord
Tadjourah
49
25
Tableau 10 : Diversité des espèces coralliennes et temps d'échantillonnage dans chaque
zone (OBURA 1998)
47
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
Peuplement ichtyologique
l'antenne radio près de Djibouti-ville). Des
algues coralliennes ont été observées dans 62
des 72 quadrats, le taux de couverture variant de
Des requins ont été observés sur six des sites
5 % (sur 17 sites) à un maximum de 60 %.
étudiés. Quatre requins ont été vus à l'île Hamra
Lors des observations sur le bord des récifs, la
(Sept Frères) et des individus solitaires ont été
présence de macroalgues a été constatée sur 24
observés sur les autres sites.
des 34 évaluations. Le taux de couverture va de
1 % à Sable Blanc à 60 % sur un site proche du
Des poissons-anges ont été observés sur tous
phare de navigation de Maskali. Il n'a pas été vu
les sites, leur nombre allant de six à 31
de macroalgues lors des observations à la nage
(Moucha). Vingt-huit sites contenaient 10
le long de la périphérie des récifs aux Sept
poissons-anges ou plus. Holocanthus xanthotis
Frères. La présence d'une pellicule algale a été
et Pomacanthus imperator ont été observés sur
constatée lors de six des 34 évaluations des
trois et cinq sites respectivement. H. xanthotis a
bords des récifs, les taux de couverture allant de
été observé dans un groupe de 11 individus à
5 % (à Khor Angar) à 20 % (marché au
Rhounda Komayto (Sept Frères). Seuls des
poisson, Djibouti-ville). Des algues coralliennes
individus isolés de P. imperator ont été
ont été observées dans de 27 de ces 34
observés. Genicanthus caudovittatus n'a été vu
évaluations. Le taux de couverture le plus élevé
sur aucun site. Pomacanthus asfur a été observé
qui ait été constaté était de 48 % à Sable Blanc
sur tous les sites sauf un (Kadda Dabali, Sept
et dans 13 autres de ces évaluations à la
Frères), en nombres variant de un à 20
périphérie des récifs, le taux de couverture
(Maskali). Pomacanthus maculosus a été
atteignait ou dépassait 20 %
observé dans 31 sites-échantillons sur 34. Les
(PERSGA/ALECSO en préparation).
nombres relevés varient de un à 15 (à Godoria),
mais 21 sites contenaient moins de 10 individus.
Il n'a été observé de coraux morts que dans
Pygoplites diacanthus a été observé sur 21 sites-
un seul quadrat. En revanche, la présence de
échantillons, en nombres variant de un à 15,
coraux morts couverts d'algues a été relevée
avec 14 sites contenant moins de 10 individus.
dans 25 quadrats, à des taux variant de 4 % à 20
%. Lors des observations à la périphérie des
Le nombre total de poissons-papillons
récifs, il n'a été vu de coraux morts qu'à Sable
observés (à savoir la somme des
Blanc. En revanche des coraux morts couverts
dénombrements pour toutes les espèces) varie
d'algues ont été observés lors de 21 évaluations
de huit (à Sable Blanc et au marché au poisson
à la périphérie de récifs, à des taux allant de 5 %
de Djibouti-ville) à 110 (à Moucha). Sur 15 des
à 25 % à Khor Ambado (PERSGA/ALECSO en
34 sites-échantillons, il a été observé 50
préparation).
poissons-papillons ou plus. L'espèce la plus
fréquemment observée est Gonochaetodon
Des coraux mous ont été observés dans 19
larvatus (510 individus au total) et Heniochus
quadrats, avec un taux de couverture maximum
intermedius (45 individus au total). H.
de 40 % (à Kadda Dabali et à Rhounda Dabali).
intermedius a également été observé sur tous les
La présence de coraux mous a été constatée lors
sites, ses nombres allant de un (au marché au
de 10 observations en bordure des récifs, à des
poisson à Djibouti-ville) à 48 (à l'île Hamra des
taux de couverture allant de 1 (à Moucha) à
Sept Frères). Dix-huit sites échantillons
35 % (à Rhounda Komayto, Sept Frères)
contenaient 10 individus ou plus et six sites
(PERSGA/ALECSO).
échantillons en contiennent plus de 20.
Chaetodon semilarvatus a été observé sur tous
les sites, ses nombres allant de un à 65 (à
Moucha); 22 sites contenaient 10 individus ou
plus et neuf sites plus de 20 individus.
48
Récifs Coralliens à Djibouti
Chaetodon auriga et Chaetodon austriacus
Une espèce de sparidés, Acanthopagrus
n'ont été vus sur aucun site
bifasciatus, a fait l'objet d'une évaluation
(PERSGA/ALECSO).
numérique. Elle a été observée dans neuf sites.
Les nombres observés ne dépassent pas 10
Le nombre total de mérous observés (toutes
individus au cours de la même sortie
espèces confondues) va de zéro (au marché au
d'évaluation. Ce nombre maximum a été relevé
poisson) à 56 (à Godoria). Vingt-huit sites
à Moucha. Le nombre total de sparidés recensés
contenaient 10 mérous ou plus et 17 sites en
pour toutes les évaluations effectuées n'a atteint
contenaient 20 ou plus. Deux espèces de mérou
que 31 (PERSGA/ ALECSO).
commerciales, Variola louti and Plectropomus
truncatus, n'ont été observées sur aucun site.
La présence/absence de six espèces de
Cephalopholis miniata n'a été observé qu'à
demoiselles a été notée lors des évaluations des
Khor Ambado et une quatrième espèce,
récifs à la nage. Plectroglyphidodon spp. n'a été
Epinephelus tauvina, ne l'a été que sur deux
observé nulle part. Chromis dimidiata n'a été
sites (Rhounda Komayto, Sept Frères ; et Sable
observé qu'à Hamra, aux Sept Frères. L'espèce
Blanc). Aucune espèce n'est pésente sur tous les
de demoiselle la plus fréquemment observée a
sites. L'espèce la plus fréquemment rencontrée,
été Abudefduf spp., qui était présente dans tous
par le nombre de sites où elle est présente et le
les sites.
nombre total d'individus observés, était
Cephalopholis hemistiktos. Cette espèce n'était
Cinq poissons perroquets ont fait l'objet
absente que de deux sites (Moucha et le marché
d'évaluations pour déterminer leur
au poisson). Les nombres de C. hemistiktos
présence/absence. Scarus ferrugineus était
observés varient de 2 à 27.
présent dans tous les sites et Scarus sordidus
n'était absent que dans un site (Rhounda
Six espèces de vivaneaux ont fait l'objet
Komayto, Sept Frères). Scarus frenatus était
d'une évaluation numérique au cours de l'étude
absent de tous les sites. Scarus niger a été
PERSGA/ALECSO. Une espèce, Lutjanus
observé que dans 26 et sites Cetoscarus bicolour
argentimaculatus, n'a été observée dans aucun
dans 20 sites.
site et un seul individu de Macolor niger l'a été
(à Maskali). Lutjanus kasmira a été observé
Sur les quatre espèces de poissons-
dans 20 sites, en nombres variant de 1 à 260
chirurgiens dont la présence/absence ont été
individus (Maskali). Lutjanus monostigma a été
déterminées, une seule, Zebrasoma xanthurum,
observé dans 29 sites, en nombres allant de un (à
était présente dans tous les sites, et Zebrasoma
Moucha) à près de 2 000 (à Kadda Dabali, Sept
veliferum dans tous les sites sauf trois. La
Frères). Un autre site (Hamra, Sept Frères)
présence de Ctenochaetus striatus et
contenait plus de 1 000 individus et dix
Acanthurus sohal a été notée dans 31 sites et
observations à la nage en ont relevé plus de 100.
lors de 18 évaluations à la nage à la périphérie
de récifs.
Une seule espèce de labre, le Napoléon,
Cheilinus undulatus, a fait l'objet d'une
Treize espèces de labres ont fait l'objet
évaluation numérique. Sa présence a été notée
d'évaluations pour déterminer leur
dans 14 sites. C'est à Maskali qu'il en a été
présence/absence. Trois de ces espèces,
observé le plus grand nombre (cinq individus),
Gomphosus caeruleus, Thalassoma lunare et
un total de 28 ayant été observé dans les 34
Larabicus quadrilineatus, étaient présentes dans
évaluations de la périphérie des récifs. Des
tous les sites et Halichoeres hortulanus n'était
activités de pré-fraye de cette espèce ont été
absent que dans deux sites. En revanche,
observés aux environs de la réserve de Maskali.
Thalassoma klunzingeri et Macropharyngodon
bipartitus étaient absents dans tous les sites.
49
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
Bien que la présence de Halichoeres marginatus
Sable Blanc. Neuf oursins étaient répartis entre
n'ait été observé que dans 15 sites, les autres
les trois autres sites. Les troches étaient absents
espèces ont été observée lors de plus de 20
de tous les sites-échantillons sauf un, Maskali,
observations à la nage à la périphérie de récifs
où il en a été observé deux (PERSGA/ ALECSO
(PERSGA/ALECSO).
en préparation).
Peuplements d'invertébrés
Pêcheries des récifs coralliens
Des anémones ont été observées dans 13
Les principaux secteurs d'activité
sites-échantillons, mais leur nombre était bas
économique dans la zone côtière sont les
(avec un maximum de = sept à Rhounda
transports maritimes et les activités portuaires
Dabali). Le nombre de couronnes d'épines
connexes. Les pêcheries ne jouent actuellement
(CdE) était bas lui aussi. Il n'a pas été vu
qu'un rôle limité, mais la pêche de subsistance
d'agrégats de CdE et le nombre maximum
est importante au niveau local. Il y a environ 90
d'individus observés est de 14 (Moucha). Douze
bateaux de pêche artisanale, dont 75 sont de
CdE ont été observées à Rhounda Dabali, aux
petites embarcations non pontées de 6 à 8 m,
Sept Frères, et 11 sur trois autres sites-
propulsées par un moteur hors-bord. Ces
échantillons. Au total, il a été dénombré 96 CdE
bateaux ont un équipage de trois hommes en
lors des 34 évaluations de récifs. Des tridacnes
moyenne et sortent pour la journée. La flottille
géants ont été observés dans tous les sites sauf
compte également une quinzaine de bateaux de
trois. Les sites de Godoria, Djibouti-ville sud,
10 à 14 m, dotés de moteurs in-bord Ces
marché au poisson et Djibouti-ville n'en
bateaux ont généralement un équipage de cinq
contenaient pas. Le nombre d'individus
hommes et effectuent des sorties de quatre jours.
observés va de un à 52 (Sable Blanc). Treize
La plupart des activités de pêche se situent au
sites contenaient plus de 10 individus et un total
niveau de la subsistance et l'effort de pêche est
de 348 tridacnes ont été observés lors des
généralement bas.
évaluations à la périphérie des récifs. Un total de
15 langoustes a été observé lors de six
La pêche se fait en majorité à la ligne, les
observations à la nage; le nombre maximum
filets maillants et les éperviers étant également
observé dans tous les sites est de six (Hamra).
utilisés mais dans une moindre mesure. Les
Des concombres de mer ont été observés lors de
prises consistent pour leur quasi totalité de
toutes les observations à la nage sauf trois et
poissons comestibles de grande taille qui sont
dans 10 sorties, il en a été observé 10 ou plus.
commercialisés frais. Il n'existe pas de
Les nombres vont de un à 30 (Moucha). Au
traitement significatif. Il n'y a aucun traitment
total, 284 concombres de mer ont été observés
d'importance. Environ 75 % des prises sont
lors des sorties à la nage. Le nombre maximum
débarquées à Boulaos, les autres points de
d'oursins-diadèmes observés est de 81 (antenne
débarquement étant Escale (5 %), Tadjourah
radio, Djibouti-ville). Également, lors d'une
(5 %) et Obock (10 %). Le Club Nautique est
évaluation en bordure de récif à Sable Blanc, il
utilisé exclusivement pour la pêche sportive et
en a été dénombré 80; un total de 374 oursins a
représente 3 % des débarquements. Les 2 %
été observé lors de ces évaluations à la nage,
restants sont consommés à bord.
sans que soient observés de grands agrégats de
cette espèce. La présence d'oursins crayons
(Heterocentrotus) n'a été relevée que sur cinq
Les prises se composent de mérous (23 %),
sites sur 34. Un maximum de 17 oursins crayons
thazards (14 %), rougets (13 %), antaks
a été dénombré à la balise de Maskali et 11 à
(12 %), dorades (10 %), bonites (5 %) et
50
Récifs Coralliens à Djibouti
carangues (4 %). Les autres espèces sont de
rejets d'eaux usées. Il faut également surveiller
moindre importance. La production halieutique
plus attentivement le blanchissement des coraux
a connu une progression, 200 tonnes en 1980,
afin de déterminer l'impact du phénomène sur
400 tonnes en 1984 et 700 tonnes in 1988. De
les récifs.
1988 à 1991, cette progression a marqué un
ralentissement, du fait de la médiocrité des
efforts de commercialisation. De 1991 à 1994, la
Destruction des habitats
production a connu une diminution substantielle
Un développement intensif du littoral, avec
causée par les troubles politiques dans le nord
dragage et remblayage, détruit de vastes
du pays.
superficies de récifs coralliens Les travaux
d'aménagement urbain, industriel et portuaires
La pêche est pratiquée essentiellement à la
sont effectués avec une planification
ligne et, dans une moindre mesure, au filet
environnementale insuffisante et des
maillant et à l'épervier. Les prises consistent
évaluations environnementales limitées, voire
presque entièrement de grands poissons
inexistantes. L'absence de gestion et de
comestibles qui sont commercialisés à l'état
sensibilisation, en sus de la non-application des
frais. Il n'existe pas d'activités de traitement
règlements, a pour effet d'infliger des dégâts
significatives. La production halieutique atteint
aux récifs qui se traduisent par des pertes
son maximum en mai-juin et en septembre. Au
d'habitats coralliens et une diminution de la
cours de la période de cinq ans de 1986 à 1990,
faune récifale. Les dégâts causés par les ancres,
où la production a été relativement stable, les
les échouages de navires et les activités liées au
plus hauts rendements ont été enregistrés en mai
tourisme ont le même effet. La médiocrité des
(44,522 tonnes) et les plus bas en février (25,110
systèmes de contrôle de la navigation et
tonnes).
l'insuffisance de mouillages viennent aggraver
le problème.
BARRATT & MEDLEY (1988) indiquent qu'il
existe un important marché d'aquariophilie pour
Neuf évaluations coralliens en bordure de
les poissons de la mer Rouge et de l'océan
récifs effectuées en 1998 ont noté des dégâts
Indien occidental. Les principaux importateurs
causés incontestablement par les ancres. Les
étant les États-Unis, Hong-Kong, l'Allemagne,
sites sont les suivants:
le Japon et divers pays européens, mais il n'y
pas actuellement d'échanges commerciaux
deux sites près de Maskali,
importants dans ce domaine.
trois au large de la plage de Sable Blanc,
Menaces pour la biodiversité des
trois aux alentours de Moucha et
récifs coralliens
des dégâts mineurs ont été relevés à
Rhounda Dabali, aux Sept Frères.
Bien que certaines parties des eaux côtières
et territoriales soient encore essentiellement
Il est également suspecté que des dégâts
intactes, les quelques études qui ont été
observés hors des sites d'échantillonnage au sud
effectuées indiquent qu'il existe des signes
de Maskali et de Moucha sont dus à de petites
alarmants de dégradation et de menaces en
ancres, de plus le platier récifal de Sable Blanc
rapide expansion. Les pressions anthropiques
présente des zones vraisemblablement
sont particulièrement intenses aux alentours de
endommagées par de petites ancres ou par
la capitale. Les principales menaces qui pèsent
piétinement.
sur les récifs djiboutiens sont le tourisme et les
51
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
Exploitation des ressources marines
mangroves. Ces problèmes sont dus aux
biologiques
insuffisances du traitement des déchets à bord, à
Il y a un danger de surpêche espèces de
l'absence des déchets d'installations portuaires
poissons ciblé par la pêche sportive, et l'on note
de réception et de mise au rebut des déchets, et
une réduction de la taille moyenne des prises
de la surveillance et de l'application des
indiquant que l'effort de pêche dépasse le
règlements dans toute la région.
rendement maximal soutenu. L'absence de
surveillance et la non-application des
règlements, notamment l'interdiction des fusils
Exploitation et transport des hydrocarbures
de plongée aux environs des zones urbaines et
De petits déversements (moins de 20 tonnes)
dans les AMP, sont en cause. En outre, le
causent une contamination des plages et
système de collecte de données sur les pêcheries
occasionnent des dégâts aux biotes côtiers et
est devenu inopérant à la fin des années 1990 ce
marins. Ils se produisent à partir de canalisations
qui constitue un obstacle à l'élaboration de tout
souterraines ou du fait du rejet des eaux de
plan de gestion dans le domaine. La pêche
ballast et de cale, des huiles usées, ou de
illicite de requins a destination du marché
déversements de fuel de soute. L'absence
oriental des ailerons de requins s'est traduite par
d'installations portuaires de réception des
une diminution des stocks. Il y a également
déchets et l'insuffisance de la surveillance et de
d'importantes prises accessoires de tortues, de
l'application des règlements compliquent le
raies manta, de dauphins, de lamantins et de
problème.
poissons et des dégâts causés aux récifs du fait
de l'emploi de filets.
Il se produit aussi des déversements de taille
moyenne du fait de rejets aux terminaux
pétroliers et de petits accidents en mer. Le
Activités et risques liés à la navigation
contrôle et la surveillance des procédures en
Le transport maritime est un important
vigueur présentent des faiblesses.
secteur commercial à Djibouti. Les activités du
Port de Djibouti se sont développées
De grands déversements d'hydro-carbures
rapidement. Le port possède des installations de
pourraient provoquer une destruction
manutention de conteneurs à deux postes
généralisée des habitats et biotes marins et
d'accostage d'une longueur totale de 400 m et
dévaster les plages. Ces accidents peuvent être
d'une profondeur de quai de 12 m. Une voie
causés par la rupture de réservoirs consécutive
ferroviaire relie Djibouti à Addis-Abeba et les
aux collisions ou aux naufrages. L'insuffisance
marchandises venant d'Éthiopie ou destinées à
des aides à la navigation constitue un facteur de
ce pays transitent par Djibouti. Les recettes du
risque majeur.
Port international autonome de Djibouti
constituent un apport très important pour
l'économie nationale.
Activité industrielle
La consommation excessive des eaux de
Il y a des risques de collision et d'échouage
surface et souterraines à des fins industriels et
des navires en raison de l'insuffisance des aides
les prélèvements excessifs couplés à un manque
à la navigation et de la séparation du trafic. Le
d'attention portée à la conservation de l'eau et
trafic maritime est intense et les problèmes de
aux carences de la réglementation relative à sa
navigation sont complexes : la présence d'un
consommation pourraient se répercuter sur les
récif corallien à l'entrée du port en étant un
caractéristiques du régime hydrographique
exemple. Les rejets d'eaux usées et de déchets
naturel. La pollution industrielle s'est traduite
solides provenant des navires sont localisés,
par une baisse de la qualité de l'eau du fait du
mais polluent les rivages et menacent les
rejet chronique de polluants; la non-application
52
Récifs Coralliens à Djibouti
des règlements. Les insuffisances
Ce décret a été modifié par le décret
technologiques viennent aggraver le problème.
85/103/PR/AG (1985) qui renforce la
conservation de ces deux aires. La protection
vise à prévenir toute utilisation extractive des
Développement urbain
ressources, à la seule exception de la pêche
Les rejets d'eaux usées non traitées ou
artisanale d'espèces comestibles, celle-ci étant
insuffisamment traitées dans les zones côtières
définie comme la pêche pratiquée selon des
portent atteinte à l'environnement marin et
méthodes traditionnelles avec des sorties ne
constituent une menace pour la santé publique.
dépassant pas un jour ou deux. Les îles et récifs
Le manque de stations d'épuration, les carences
situés dans les réserves et hors des réserves sont
de l'entretien de la station existante, de
très fréquentés en fin de semaine et font l'objet
surveillance et de l'absence d'application des
d'une utilisation récréative : pique-niques,
règlements relatifs à la lutte contre la pollution
baignade, plongée en apnée ou avec des
infligent de graves dommages à la faune et à la
bouteilles, ski nautique et camping.
flore côtière et marine. Les rejets d'eaux usées
provoquent la prolifération d'algues.
Parc territorial de Moucha : Établi en 1972,
il est situé à 11°43' N et 43°12' E et couvre une
superficie d'environ 10 km2; il comprend de
Prédateurs naturels
vastes récifs coralliens avec leurs riches
Au début de mai 2000, on a constaté la
peuplements de poissons et d'invertébrés et de
présence en grands nombres d'étoiles de mer
mangroves. Il subit de graves pressions du fait
(couronne d'épines CdE) à Khor Ambado. La
du piétinement des récifs, du prélèvement de
même constatation a été faite lors d'une étude
souvenirs et de la pêche sportive au harpon.
d'une zone d'environ 5 000 m2 aux îles
Moucha. Toutefois, au vu des densités relevés, il
Réserve intégrale de Maskali sud : Établie
ne s'agissait pas là d'un phénomène
en 1980, la réserve est située à 11°40' N et
d'infestation caractérisée et l'impact des CdE
43°10' E et couvre environ. 3 km2; elle contient
sur les récifs était minime.
des récifs coralliens et leur riches peuplements
de poissons et d'invertébrés. Elle subit de graves
Aires marines protégées et niveau de
pressions du fait du piétinement des récifs, du
prélèvement de souvenirs et de la pêche sportive
gestion
au fusil de plongée.
AMP potentielles
Djibouti possède deux aires marines
protégées (AMP) qui ont été établies il y a plus
de dix ans. Il existe plusieurs autres zones qu'il
Godoriya : Il s'agit d'une vaste zone de
est envisagé de déclarer également, dont l'une
mangrove et de la faune qui y est associée, mais
est d'importance régionale.
il n'y a pas de récifs coralliens dans cette AMP
proposée.
AMP déclarées
Iles des Sept Frères et Ras Siyyan : Situé à
la jonction de la mer Rouge et du golfe d'Aden,
L'AMP de Moucha a été établie la première
cette future AMP est un groupe d'îles à haut
par le règlement 72-1363/SG/CG (1972), qui
relief et de la côte continentale adjacente, avec
interdit le prélèvement de coraux et de
une baie bordée de mangroves. Elle possède des
mollusques. Le décret 80/062/PR/MCTT (1980)
récifs coralliens diversifiés avec de riches
a étendu cette protection à la réserve de Maskali.
peuplements de poissons et d'invertébrés. La
53
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
zone fait l'objet de pressions résultant
d'hydrocarbures a été institué pour Djibouti, le
d'importantes activités récréatives et de pêche,
Yémen et la Somalie, et des règles de gestion
et l'on y relève une sédimentation résultant des
des aires marines protégées et d'exploitation des
activités de transport maritime.
espèces récifales associées, ont été émises par
l'Administration maritime en 1992.
Impacts actuels et potentiels des
Plusieurs institutions de Djibouti prennent
changements climatiques
part à la gestion des ressources des aires
marines. Ce sont le ministère de l'Agriculture et
de l'Hydraulique par l'entremise de la Direction
Il n'existe pas de signes de blanchissement
de la Pêche, le Ministère des Transports et des
des coraux dans le golfe de Tadjourah. À
Télécommunications par l'intermédiaire de sa
Maskali, des récifs dégradés ont été signalés en
Direction des Affaires maritimes; l'Office
1998 (OBURA & DJAMA 2000) mais les causes de
national du Tourisme, des Arts et de l'Artisanat,
la dégradation n'ont pas pu être déterminées. Le
la Présidence de la République par
seul site où des signes importants de
l'intermédiaire du Centre de Recherche de
blanchissement ont été relevé est celui des Sept
Djibouti et le Ministere charge de
Frères, dans les eaux djiboutiennes de la mer
l'Environnement par l'intermediaire de la
Rouge. Au début 1998, il n'y avait de signe de
Direction de l'Aménagement du Territoire et de
blanchissement sur aucun des sites étudiés, ni
l'Environnement.
sur les côtes, ni au large (OBURA & DJAMA
2000). À la fin 1998, sur les mêmes sites, la
Législation, stratégies et politiques
mortalité corallienne était estimée à 30 % aux
Sept Frères, mais seuls les sites des Sept Frères
relatives à la conservation des récifs
étaient touchés. Les observations d'amateurs de
plongée sous-marine depuis cette époque (début
1999) suggèrent que le blanchissement et la
La République de Djibouti est signataire de
mortalité ont augmenté et atteignent 40 % aux
plusieurs conventions internationales pour la
Sept Frères, où ils touchent principalement les
protection de l'environnement marin et la
coraux tabulaires des zones de faible
prévention de la pollution et a adopté plusieurs
profondeurs qui ne subissent pas l'influence des
instruments nationaux visant directement ou
courants côtiers. En revanche, à la fin 1998,
indirectement la conservation et la gestion des
Obura a constaté une faible incidence de
récifs coralliens.
blanchissement corallien (OBURA 1998).
Accords internationaux
Capacités actuelles de suivi et de
gestion pour la conservation des
La République de Djibouti est signataire de
la Convention de Londres de 1954 (modifiée)
ressources des récifs coralliens
applicable sur son territoire en vertu de la Loi
nationale 64/83. Les conventions suivantes ont
été approuvées par
Les initiatives environnementales sont
actuellement en nombre limité à Djibouti. Les
plus importantes d'entre elles sont un plan
la Loi nationale 94/AN/89 2º L en 1989,
d'urgence national de lutte contre la pollution
par les hydrocarbures pour le golfe d'Aden,
la Convention de Londres de 1971 sur le
élaboré en 1990, grâce auquel un centre
fonds international d'indemnisation,
d'intervention en cas de déversements
54
Récifs Coralliens à Djibouti
Loi, ordonnance, règlement
Année d'entrée en Organisme gouvernemental
vigueur
concerné
Règlement 72-1363/SG/CG, portant création du Parc
1972
Administration maritime
territorial de Moucha
Loi 76-599 sur la pollution en provenance des navires
1976
Administration maritime
Loi 76-600 sur la pollution causée par l'incinération
1976
Administration maritime
Ordonnance 77-038/PR sur l'inscription des
1977
Administration maritime
embarcations de plaisance
Loi 52/AN/78, articles 16-19, réglementant les
1979
Administration maritime
pêcheries
Décret 80-062/PR/MCTT sur la protection de la faune
et des fonds sous-marins, établissant la Réserve
1980
MCTT
intégrale de Maskali sud
Loi 9/AN/82 sur la pollution par les hydrocarbures
1982
Administration maritime
Loi 212/AN/82, réglementant les pêcheries
1982
Administration maritime
Loi 137/AN/85 sur la pollution par les hydrocarbures
1985
Administration maritime
Règlement 84-0969/PR/PM sur la sécurité de la
1984
Administration maritime
navigation de plaisance
Décret 85/103/PR/AG sur les Aires marines protégées
1985
Administration maritime
Ordonnance 86-042PR/PM réglementant les navires
1986
Administration maritime
abandonnés
Règlement 86/0717/PR/MCTT sur les cabines de
Office national du tourisme de
1986
camping sur les plages et les îles
Djibouti
Décret 89-085/PR/PM sur le passage des navires
1989
Administration maritime
étrangers
Décret 89-085/PR/AE sur le déversement
1990
Administration maritime
d'hydrocarbures
Règlement 90-0534/MPAM sur le passage des navires
1990
Administration maritime
étrangers
Tableau 11 : Lois et règlements nationaux relatifs à l'environnement et aux ressources côtières et marines
(PERSGA 2001)
la Convention de Londres de 1973
protection de la faune et des fonds sousmarins et
modifiée en 1978, à l'exception des
interdit la capture de mammifères marins et de
annexes III, IV et V et
tortues, et le commerce ou l'exportation de ces
animaux. La chasse sousmarine au fusil de
la Convention de Bruxelles de 1969 sur
plongée est également interdite à Djibouti.
l'intervention en haute mer.
La République de Djibouti est signataire de
Au niveau régional, un accord a été conclu
la Convention des Nations Unies sur le droit de
par le Yémen, Djibouti et la Somalie concernant
la mer (UNCLOS 1982).
l'établissement d'un centre d'intervention
régional pour lutter contre la pollution en cas de
La République de Djibouti et également
déversement d'hydrocarbures dans le golfe
signataire de la Convention CITES. Le Décret
d'Aden. Le matériel d'intervention est stocké à
80-62/PR/MCTT du 25 mai 1980 porte sur la
Djibouti. Une évaluation technique et financière
55
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
de ce centre a été réalisée par la composante
Le Décret 89-085/PR/PM (1989) et
Réduction des Risques de la Navigation et
l'Arrêté 90-0534/MPAM (1990) relatifs
Djibouti et a été soumis au Conseil des
au passage des navires étrangers dans les
Ministres du PERSGA pour approbation.
eaux territoriales visant à prévenir la
Aucune decision n'a ete prise a ce sujet. Le 20
pollution marine et le déversement de
janvier 1986, Djibouti et la Somalie ont conclu
déchets dangereux.
un accord de pêche bilatéral.
Le Code de l'Administration maritime
Législation nationale
constitue l'actuelle loi portant code des Affaires
Maritimes. Hormis certains articles, cette loi a
été élaborée avant l'indépendance. Les articles
Les différentes dispositions législatives et
148, 149 et 220 à 225 (promulgués par la loi
réglementaires visant la protection de
212/AN/82) et les articles 16 à 19 de la loi
l'environnement marin portent sur la pollution
52/AN/78 (1979) régissent l'exercice de la
marine, la protection des espèces menacées et la
pêche. Certaines techniques de pêche, tels que
création d'aires protégées (voir le sommaire
l'usage d'explosifs et de poison, sont interdites.
tableau 11). Parmi les textes relatifs à la
Ces dispositions prévoient les conditions de
prévention de la pollution marine et à la lutte
l'exploitation des ressources halieutiques et
contre cette pollution figurent :
définissent les zones et les saisons de pêche.
Elles prévoient également des sanctions
La Loi 76-599 (1976), promulguée par
applicables en cas de violation des règlements
l'arrêté 675/SELAG, relative à la
par les pêcheurs.
pollution par les navires et les avions,
ainsi qu'à la pollution marine
La Loi nationale 64/83 (1983) porte
accidentelle.
approbation de quatre conventions
internationales sur la navigation
La Loi 76-600 (1976), promulguée par
maritime.
l'Arrêté 676/SELAG, relative à la
pollution causée par les opérations
Plusieurs règlements concernent également
d'incinération.
la zone côtière :
Les Lois 9/AN/82 (1982) et 137/AN/85
1º L (1985) relatives à la pollution par les
le Règlement 86-0717/PR/MCTT (1986)
hydrocarbures.
porte sur les déchets provenant des
visiteurs des îles et des plages,
L'Ordonnance 86-042/PR/PM (1986)
portant réglementation des dispositions à
l'Ordonnance 77-038/PR (1977)
prendre en cas d'abandon de navires
concerne l'inscription des embarcations
présentant un danger pour
de plaisance et
l'environnement marin dans les eaux
territoriales.
le Règlement 84-0969/PR/PM (1984)
porte sur la sécurité de la navigation de
Le Décret 89-085/PR/AE (1990)
plaisance et des activités sur les plages.
concernant la mise en oeuvre d'un plan
Polmer en cas de pollution accidentelle
résultant d'un déversement d'hydro-
carbures.
56
Récifs Coralliens à Djibouti
Manques de capacités et ressources
Ressources financières
nécessaires pour améliorer la
Il n'y a pas de fonds disponible pour
conservation
financer les études de courte durée visant à
évaluer l'état et la santé des récifs coralliens de
Djibouti. Le Département de l'Environnement a
Djibouti a besoin de ressources humaines
dû recourir au FEM et à l'appui financier du
(personnel spécialisé en biologie et écologie des
PERSGA pour effectuer les premières
récifs coralliens et comprenant les pratiques en
évaluations des récifs coralliens depuis 1988.
matière de recherches et de suivi) et de
On pourrait envisager de mobiliser des
ressources financières pour entreprendre les
ressources financières par le biais d'amendes et
activités de conservation. La pénurie de
de redevances imposées en cas de violation des
personnel formé provient essentiellement des
lois nationales. Le PANE prévoit la création
faiblesses de l'enseignement supérieur à
d'un Fonds environnemental, qui devrait être
Djibouti et de la non disponibilité de fonds pour
établi dans un avenir proche. Les ressources de
permettre aux ressortissants djiboutiens
ce fonds seront utilisées selon toute
diplômés de poursuivre des études avancées.
vraisemblance pour la conservation des
écosystèmes clés tels que les récifs coralliens.
Capacités institutionnelles
Djibouti manque de personnel pour assurer
Recommandations pour
la gestion des ressources marines. Récemment,
l'amélioration de la conservation des
toutefois, le projet financé par
ressources des récifs coralliens
PERSGA/ALECSO et le projet de la
biodiversité nationale ont entrepris la formation
d'homologues nationaux aux techniques d'étude
Les pressions naturelles et anthropiques qui
des récifs coralliens. Il n'y a pas actuellement de
s'exercent à Djibouti sur les coraux sont de
programmes de suivi ou de conservation de ces
portée limitée. Plusieurs mesures clés prises au
écosystèmes. Le Département de
niveau national sous forme de législation et de
l'Environnement a été créé récemment (1996) et
dispositions d'application pourraient réduire les
a élaboré le Plan d'Action National pour
risques de la pollution provenant des navires et
l'Environnement (PANE) en avril 2000 et une
de déversements d'hydrocarbures. Un
Stratégie nationale pour la conservation de la
programme de recherches et de suivi spécialisé
biodiversité avec l'appui financier du FEM. Ces
dont les données serviraient le plans de gestion
dispositions comprennent notamment une loi-
à élaborer des plans de gestion.
cadre qui exigera que des études d'évaluations
d'impact environnemental soient menées pour
Il conviendrait spécifiquement de prendre les
tous les projets touchant à l'environnement
mesures suivantes :
marin. Avec l'adoption du PANE et de la
Stratégie sur la biodiversité, il est à prévoir que
le Département de l'Environnement sera associé
Mesures législatives
à tous les projets de développement. Il est donc
Il est recommandé de veiller à l'application
nécessaire de former du personnel de gestion au
de décrets sur la conservation de la biodiversité
sein des institutions nationales clés dans les
et des aires protégées. Les lois et règlements
domaines des techniques d'étude des récifs
visant ces domaines devraient également être
coralliens et de la biologie et de l'écologie de
révisés. Il est important de renforcer
ces écosystèmes.
l'application des règlements existants relatifs à
la gestion des zones et des ressources côtières et
marines. Il faut également formuler et adopter
57
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
d'urgence un plan de gestion intégrée de la zone
Recherche et suivi
côtière. Il conviendrait aussi de ratifier les
Les habitats et les biotes marins devraient
annexes III, IV et V de la Convention MARPOL
être étudiés et suivis périodiquement. Il est
73/78, de manière à ce que Djibouti aligne ses
recommandé, une fois qu'une université aura été
efforts sur ceux qui sont déployés au niveau
fondée, d'établir un département de biologie
international pour lutter contre la pollution par
marine et de former des Djiboutiens dans ce
les hydrocarbures.
domaine. Il conviendra d'établir une base de
données environnementales sur les ressources
biologiques. Un programme de suivi devrait être
Gestion de la zone côtière
mis en place pour appuyer les activités de
Les institutions associées à la gestion des
gestion et d'application des règlements. Les
ressources côtières et marines et à l'application
institutions qui mènent des activités de
des dispositions législatives et réglementaires
recherche appliquée doivent être renforcées.
doivent bénéficier d'un appui. Il faut élaborer un
cadre et un programme à l'intention des
visiteurs qui se rendent dans les zones des récifs
Transport maritime et navigation
coralliens, avec notamment la formulation de
La surveillance des navires qui transitent par
directives et l'installation de mouillages pour
les eaux territoriales de Djibouti, les
les bateaux.
communications avec les navires et le système
de balisage, notamment le long des grandes
voies de navigation, devraient être améliorés.
Conservation des récifs
Le plan national d'intervention en cas de
Il conviendrait d'élaborer un programme de
déversement d'hydrocarbures devrait être
suivi, protection et gestion des récifs coralliens.
actualisé et mis en application. Les capacités
Il faudrait formuler des programmes de gestion
d'intervention doivent également être
pour les Aires marines protégées actuelles et
renforcées et les ports doivent être dotés
mener une étude de faisabilité sur la
d'installations de réception des déchets. Il
conservation et la gestion d'Aires marines
conviendra aussi de mener des études de
protégées supplémentaires, lesquelles
faisabilité sur la gestion des déchets,
pourraient comprendre les Îles des Sept Frères et
l'établissement d'installations portuaires de
Ras Siyyan. Les peuplements de l'ichtyofaune
réception des déchets et la mise en place de
récifale Les populations de l'ichtyofaune
systèmes de gestion des déchets.
récifale devraient faire l'objet d'une évaluation
en bonne et due forme avant que soit formulé et
mis en oeuvre un programme de prélèvement de
poissons d'ornement pour le marché de
l'aquariophilie.
58
Coral Reefs along the Northern
Coast of Somalia
Introduction
The continental shelf rarely exceeds 15 km
in width, except at the extreme north-western
section near the border with Djibouti, where it is
Somalia has 3,300 km of coastline, of
much wider. There are only two island groups
which 1,300 km face the Gulf of Aden from
along the Gulf of Aden shore of Somalia. The
Ras Aser (or Raas Casayr in Somali) in the east
Sa'adadin group near Zeila consists of six small,
to the border with Djibouti. The coast to the
low-lying, exposed islands with sandy beaches.
west between Zeila (Saylac) and Berbera is
Mait Island (Jazirat Maydh), in the central part
shallow with exposed, high-energy sandy
near Ras Khatib, is a steep-faced rock a little
beaches. The central portion between Berbera
over 1.5 km in length and with an average
and Bosaso (Boosaaso) consists mainly of
height of 100 m.
shallow, sandy shorelines, broken occasionally
by protruding rocky outcrops and cliffs that
extend into the shallow water. Along the eastern
The climate is arid with an average annual
section between Bosaso and Ras Aser, high
rainfall less than 300 mm. Seasonal variation is
mountains meet the sea. The area is
mainly influenced by the monsoon winds, which
characterised by rocky shores with steep cliffs,
also determine the coastal currents. From May
often interspersed with short segments of
to August, the south-west monsoon drives a
narrow sandy beaches.
strong current from the vicinity of Socotra
(Yemen) to the east. It influences the water
masses in the Gulf of Aden where, during this
There are no perennial rivers along the
period, the main current direction is eastwards.
northern coast and freshwater reaches the sea
Along the north-eastern coast however there is a
only during irregular flash floods following
counter-current that flows westwards, fed by
torrential rains. The surface run-off from land
water passing between Socotra and the
has no significant influence on the marine
mainland into the Gulf of Aden. From October
environment. Most nearshore subtidal areas are
to March, during the north-east monsoon,
shallow with sandy substrate, occasionally
waters flow from the Arabian Sea into the Gulf
interspersed with fields of cobbles or boulders
of Aden. The main current direction along the
and by rocky outcrops. Steep rocky cliffs
Somali coast is westwards, but in the north-east
usually give way to shallow sandy areas under
there is a counter-current that flows east.
the water surface. Coral growth is limited, partly
by a lack of suitable substrates and partly by
hydrographic conditions. However occasional
During the south-west monsoon there are
coral growth has been observed in both the
upwellings of cold water in the north-east that
eastern and western part of the coastline.
are rich in nutrients, but generally low in
Extensive coral reefs, possibly the largest in the
oxygen. These upwellings generate phyto- and
Gulf of Aden, occur in the vicinity of Sa'adadin
zooplankton blooms. They break down during
Island (Sacdadiin). Smaller coral reef areas exist
the north-east monsoon when the water in the
west of Xabo and between Buruc and Bosaso.
area is warmer, less nutrient-rich and saturated
59
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
Surveys
with oxygen (SWALLOW 1991). Nutrient levels
are largely determined by variable current
patterns and annual fluctuations in upwelling
Three short surveys were carried out
intensity. In terms of primary productivity, the
between 1996 and 1999 on the north coast of
area is thought to fall in a transition zone
Somalia.
between the richly productive water to the
north-east and the East African shelf
environment to the west.
Geographical Scope and Survey
Techniques
Along the Gulf of Aden coast three areas
In April and May 1996, representatives from
have been proposed for protection. The Daloh
the Regional Organization for the Conservation
Forest Reserve (terrestrial), which lies to the
of the Environment of the Red Sea and Gulf of
north of Erigavo; Mait Island, which lies
Aden (PERSGA) carried out a rapid assessment
adjacent to Daloh Forest Reserve; and Aibat
of the marine habitats of Somalia, which
(Ceebaad), Sa'adadin and Saba-wanag
included coral reef investigations
(Sabawanaag) - two islands and an adjacent
(PERSGA/GEF 2001).
stretch of coastline near Zeila. This latter area
has the largest mangrove stands and coral reefs
along the entire Gulf of Aden coast of Somalia.
In 1997, a rapid ecological assessment of the
Saardin Islands (Aibat, Sa'adadin and reefs) in
north-west Somalia was carried out by IUCN.
The largest town on the coast is Berbera.
The objectives of this survey were:
Other larger settlements along the coast are
Zeila, Las Korey (Laas Qoray), Qandala
(Candala), Xabo and Alula (Caluula). Despite
to provide a preliminary assessment of
rich living marine resources, fisheries account
the ecological status,
for only a very small percentage (2%) of GDP
(PERSGA/GEF 2001). Other marine based
to identify and describe the principal
activities, such as tourism and maritime
terrestrial and marine habitats and
transport, are even less important.
ecological indicator species,
43°
44°
45°
46°
47°
48°
49°
50°
51°
52°
Ras
Alula
12°
Gulf of Aden
Xabo
Ras
Aser
Ras
Zeila
DJIBOUTI
Khatib
Qandala
Ras Maskan
Eilayo
Jazirat
Bosaso
Ras
Mait
Las Korey
Khansir
Mait
11°
Erigavo
Siyara
Aibat
Turultat
Djibouti
10°
Filfil
Sa'adadin
Hargeisa
SOMALIA
Zeila
Fig. 8: Map of Somalia indicating location of major urban areas and coral reefs
60
Coral Reefs along the Northern Coast of Somalia
to identify any human-based utilization
communities on the reefs varied considerably in
of resources,
condition. All had been affected by bleaching to
some degree. The shallow reefs (1 to 2 m) to the
to quantify fish and coral diversity,
west of Berbera were slightly bleached and
including commercial and conservation
those in water less than 1 m deep appeared to
value (IUCN 1997).
have died from tidal exposure. The shallow
reefs to the east of Berbera were affected far
General observations were made of coral
more severely by bleaching and, in many
reef and soft substrate habitats, and of reef
instances, had suffered nearly total mortality.
development and health. Quantitative
Deeper reefs (2 to 5 m) were in better
assessments of biodiversity were made for
condition. Patchy reefs subject to sedimentation
scleractinian corals and bony fish using
were dominated by Faviids, while more
underwater visual census techniques. For corals,
established reefs were dominated by Porites
species sightings were recorded in six 5-minute
spp. Foliose Montipora spp. and Astreopora
intervals to give a measure of frequency at
spp. were conspicuous on the deepest reefs (5 to
location, with a varying period of time used to
10 m). A total of 69 species of scleractinian
search for new species records. Fish species
coral, 11 species of alcyonacean coral and two
were recorded during 15-minute interval
species of fire coral were found along the north
samples, with two to three replicate intervals
shore reefs (SCHLEYER & BALDWIN 1999). It is
recorded at each site (IUCN 1997).
suggested that a more thorough coral-dedicated
survey would substantially increase this number.
In general, the area is both productive and
In 1999, a coastal biodiversity survey was
relatively pristine apart from the harmful effects
undertaken on the northern Somali coast from
of coral bleaching and, to a lesser extent,
15 km west of Berbera to the mangrove known
predation by COTS on the coral reefs.
as Khoor Shoora approximately 150 km to the
east. The aims of this survey were to determine
the status of the marine resources in the region,
At Sa'adadin the structure and complexity of
the threats to the biodiversity, and thus
reefs was high. Scleractinian coral and fish
determine appropriate measures for the
diversity and abundance were found to be
sustainable use and conservation of the
extremely high, comparable to the healthiest
resources (SCHLEYER & BALDWIN 1999). Data
reefs seen in the western Indian Ocean and the
were collected on the nature and biodiversity of
Red Sea, potentially with higher diversity due to
the shoreline, mangrove, seaweed, coral reef
the mixing of species from different origins
and pelagic environments. A record was also
(Table 12). It is possible that the Sa'adadin
kept on the abundance of turtles, dolphins and
Islands have a unique coral reef fauna and flora,
seabirds, as well as of the extent of turtle nesting
at the mixing point of three regions - the Indian
on beaches.
Ocean, Red Sea and Arabian Sea (IUCN 1997).
As a result of low demand and low fishing
Coral Reefs Benthos and Fish
pressure on coral reef fish, populations and
individual fish sizes were large.
There are coral reefs of limited extent near
Ras Khansir (Raas Khansiir), of fairly limited
Coral Diversity
extent at Ras Cuuda and Siyara, and of
considerable extent off El Girdi and west of
A total of 74 species of scleractinian coral,
Berbera. Reefs formed on fossilised beach rock
11 species of alcyonacean (soft) coral and two
were found at depths from 1 to 10 m. The coral
species of fire coral were found during the 1999
61
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
Sites
Exposure/Water
Coral Species
Fish Species
Total Species
Clarity
No. per 30 minutes
No. per 30 minutes
Windward/high
61.0
66.5
127.5
Aibat
Leeward/low
55.0
51.5
106.5
Windward/High
51.0
62.5
113.5
Filfil
Leeward/High
46.0
53.0
99.0
Windward/Low
21.0
49.3
70.3
Sa'adadin
Leeward/Low
35.0
49.7
84.7
Turultat
Windward/Low
37.0
Windward
44.3
59.4
103.8
Average
Leeward
45.3
51.4
96.7
Table 12: Number of species of coral and coral reef-associated fauna at Sa'adadin reefs (IUCN 1997)
survey (SCHLEYER & BALDWIN 1999). Other reef
and the Red Sea to the west, particularly
organisms encountered during the survey were
regarding the Chaetodontidae, Acanthuridae and
sparse and included only five Panulirus
Balistidae.
versicolor, two specimens of two species of
anemones, five specimens of Tridacna spp. and
various sponges, ascidians, holothurians,
Compared to areas with a rocky or sandy
echinoids, crinoids, molluscs and zoanthids.
substratum, or algal dominated assemblages, the
(See also IUCN 1997 for a record of coral
coral reef environments showed the greatest
species encountered.)
diversity of fish fauna (140 species), the
presence of large schools (Lutjanidae and
Carangidae) and an abundance of large
Coral Cover
individuals (Serranidae and Plectorhynchidae).
Degraded reefs colonised by filamentous and
Living coral cover varied from zero to 80 %
coralline algae had a greater proportion of
on reefs affected by the bleaching and COTS
herbivorous fish which, in some instances, were
phenomena, the average being between 2 and
numerous and formed large shoals.
5 %. Reefs not affected by bleaching had a coral
Surgeonfishes were conspicuous in this regard.
cover ranging between 60 and 80 %. These
(Also see IUCN 1997 for list of coral reef fish,
constituted a fairly narrow fringing band on the
presence and abundance.)
outer perimeter of the reefs and there was
relatively little healthy coral.
The following are generalised site
descriptions from SCHLEYER & BALDWIN 1999:
Fish Communities
Berbera Harbour (10º 24.88'N 44º
Reef fish were diverse and the presence of
57.55'E): low cliffs (2 to 3 m), with a shoreline
large schools of fish, as well as an abundance of
of fossilized seabed; subtidally, rock boulders
large fishes, indicated a relatively un-exploited
and rubble with scattered coral communities and
resource and pristine environment (SCHLEYER &
algal beds at 1 m to 4.5 m, sloping gently to
BALDWIN 1999, FAO 1996). The reef fish
sand. Up to 32 species of corals, scattered and
community differed considerably from that of
mostly dead with a maximum of 5 % live cover
the eastern Arabian Peninsula to the north, the
of small colonies (most being < 20 cm in
fish communities of eastern Africa to the south,
diameter). Silt conditions favouring Faviids,
62
Coral Reefs along the Northern Coast of Somalia
which were dominant. Coral rubble included
Acropora colonies were totally bleached and a
Acropora cf. formosa (or A. nobilis). Fish were
colony of Galaxea and a small Montipora
notably abundant (32 species), mostly Scarus
colony were partially bleached. Fish were
and Epinephelus. Invertebrates: Xestospongia
relatively abundant (35 species). Other
sp., Dysidea cf. herbacea, Cryptodendron
invertebrates included Xestospongia sp.,
adhaesivum, Palythoa cf. natalensis, Lambis
Acanthella sp., Dysidea cf herbacea, Panulirus
truncata, Pinctada margaritifera. Turtles: one
versicolor (4), Palythoa sp. and a single
green Chelonia mydas and one hawksbill
Tridacna sp.
Eretmochelys imbricata.
From 10º 41.55'N 45º 31.46'E to 10º
Ras Khansir (10º 49.01'N 45º 44.79'E)
40.63'N 45º28.37'E: sparse rubble (with very
approximately 1 km west of Karin village: a
few corals - only eight species) interspersed
scattered Porites `bommie' field on sand at a
with sand inhabited by numerous holothurians
depth of 2 to 4 m, apparently extending
at a depth of 4 to 5 m. A few live and dead
westwards from Karin to the next headland and
specimens (40 cm) of Lobophyllia cf.
possibly beyond. Corals scattered on a sandy
corymbosa were conspicuous. One Acanthaster
substratum, with a maximum of eight species
planci (40 cm) was observed under a small
representing 5 % live cover. Porites solida
bommie and one (30 cm) was moving rapidly
formed small bommies under silted conditions.
across the sand. A large, almost mono-specific
Fishes were notably abundant, but low in
stand of Pocillopora verrucosa with some
diversity (17 species).
Porites lutea ranged in depth from 2 to 5 m.
Patches were dead and overgrown with turf
algae; the average cover being + or - 60 %. A
Ras Cuuda (10º 42.98'N 45º 33.37'E): a
single A. planci (35 cm) was associated with a
reef comprising a flat and algal covered area
dead patch but no feeding scars were observed.
interspersed with mats of pale and dark
The approximate size of the outcrop was 50 m
zoanthids (Zoanthus sansibaricus); some
x 50 m. The outcrop was inhabited by a rich
appeared a deep blue in the dim light. Corals
fish fauna. It gave way to a shallower (1 to 2 m)
very sparse in their distribution and small in
area of broken reef consisting almost entirely of
size, with a few Faviids and Stylophora
dead coral with very few faviids, a single
pistillata. A relatively productive area with
Stylophora pistillata, a few specimens of
regard to fishes; extremely abundant juvenile
Montipora stellata and sponge (Haliclona sp.).
Lutjanus sp., two sandbar sharks (Carcharhinus
The dead coral community was mixed but
plumbeus) and one guitar shark
mostly unidentifiable as it was largely encrusted
(Rhynchobates sp.). Other invertebrates:
by coralline algae.
Xestospongia sp., Zoanthus sansibaricus.
Between Ras Cuuda and Ras Xaatib (10º
1 km west of Ras Cuuda (10º 42.21'N 45º
39'91'N 45º 25'27'E): coral and rock rubble,
31.30'E): shallow reef composed largely of
with some bedrock under coarse sand veneer at
stands of Millepora squanrosa and Porites lutea
a depth of 6.5 m. Very scattered live corals,
bommies ranging from 0.54 m in diameter; also
including Platygyra daedalea, Favia sp.,
considerable Pocillopora verrucosa. Most of the
Porites solida, P. lutea, Coscinarea sp. Fishes
coral (27 species) was dead apparently from
were
very abundant (particularly
bleaching, and the mortality ranged from 60 to
Sphyraena sp.), but low in diversity (7 species).
100 %. Millepora and Porites were 99 % dead,
Invertebrates included Dysidea sp., Plakortis
apparently from a bleaching event. Two small
sp., Xestospongia sp. and Sepia pharaonis.
63
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
Between Ras Cuuda and Ras Xaatib (10º
fringing reef that gave way to patch reef, with
39'65'N 45º 25'04'E): coral rock rubble at 2 to
Porites and Astreopora bommies ranging in
3 m (14 species). Scattered live corals forming
depth from 5 to 10 m, giving way to sand.
a maximum 1 to 2 % live cover in very silted
The shallower regions of the reef were almost
conditions; abundant fish life (28 species).
entirely dead and encrusted and accreted with
Invertebrates included Holothuria edulis, Sepia
coralline algae. There were only very few
pharaonis and unidentified sponges.
small fragments of Montipora stellata on the
reef and isolated colonies of Pocillopora and
Stylophora. The mortality was uniform and
Siyara (10º 36.09'N 45º 15.85'E): a reef
complete, and probably resulted from
off the village at the base of a cliff. The reef
bleaching at an earlier date. More coral had
commenced with exposed rock immediately
survived on the outer fringe of the reef and
offshore from Siyara and sloped to a depth of
Porites bommies of up to 3 m were
10 m where the substratum again became sand.
conspicuous. These gave way to a coral
The reef covered more than 40 % of the
community similar to that found in the deeper
seafloor and generally consisted of boulders
water at Siyara. Plates of Montipora were
overgrown with coral and small bommies. The
more conspicuous and there were no COTS
rocks at a depth of 1 to 3 m had a few
feeding scars. The reef cover ranged from 40
encrusting algae and sponges. Scattered sponges
to 100 % and the average coral cover on the
and some Litophyton cf. iiltveldi were found up
reef ranged from 0 to 60 %. Fish fauna was
to a depth of 6 m with a number of hard corals,
diverse and abundant (65 species), especially
the average coral cover being 40 %. The extent
surgeonfishes and parrotfishes. Invertebrates
of the rock cover decreased from 6 to 10 m,
included Tridacna sp., Holothuria scabra,
averaging 30 % of the seafloor, with a coral
grey holothurian, Haliclona cf. tulearensis
cover greater than 40 %. The coral cover was
and several large Lambis truncata.
diverse (33 species) and uniformly mixed up to
6 to 7 m, whereafter Astreopora mounds with a
few Montipora plates were conspicuous. Many
Coral Reef Fisheries
of the former bore old COTS feeding scars;
those that had not been entirely eaten were
showing good recovery. Fish life was abundant
Artisanal fisheries have a long tradition in
and diverse (70 species). Invertebrates included
Somalia. Important landing sites along the coast
Xestospongia, Dysidea cf. herbacea and
are Alula, Xabo, Qandala, Las-Korey, Berbera,
Palythoa cf. natalensis.
Lughaye and Zeila. Though still
underdeveloped, artisanal fisheries are essential
for the livelihood of a large portion of the
El Girdi (10º 33.65'N 45º 13.1 5'E): a reef
coastal population (PERSGA/GEF 2002). Most
adjacent to a narrow dune belt on the shore
commercial operations are carried out by
backed by a steeply sloping mountain. The
foreign vessels (mainly from Yemen) that
subtidal sand gradually gave way to broken,
provide no catch or effort statistics. Reports of
submerged rock that developed into reef,
up to 70 boats at a time in the Zeila region alone
approximately 11 km2 in extent. From 1 to 2 m
suggest that this is a widespread occurrence.
to the reef top, the reef consisted of regular
Somali fishermen target a limited number of
spurs raised up to 2 m above the intervening
demersal stocks (constrained by fishing gear
patches of sand. The rock had been overgrown
limitations), and a range of coral reef fish.
by coral so that the reef tops were flat and the
sides vertical. The deeper margin of the reef
(23 m to the reef top) formed a complete
64
Coral Reefs along the Northern Coast of Somalia
The northern Somali fishing industry is
anchovies (Engraulididae) and scads (Alepes
centred at Berbera, with Siyara and Karin
spp., Atule mate) are important resources that
participating at a smaller scale. At Karin, a
are fished seasonally in the Gulf of Aden. For
temporary fishing village, fishing is carried out
the entire Somali coast the MSY [maximum
in small canoes which either set a limited
sustainable yield] of small pelagics has been
number of 7, 15, or 30 cm stretched mesh size
estimated at 70,000 to 100,000 mt. In addition,
gill nets or, occasionally, using handlines. Only
up to 200 turtles are caught each month during
20 canoes were reported to operate between
the nesting season.
Zeila and Karin (SCHLEYER & BALDWIN 1999).
Turtles are harvested opportunistically, both by
jigging and harpooning at sea and through the
Threats to Coral Reef Biodiversity
capture of nesting turtles. Gill nets are
permanently set around the coral reefs at Siyara,
targeting sharks. Sharks are landed at Zeila and
The area is productive and relatively
on Aibat Island. Fishermen report landing
unspoiled. However, there has been coral
sharks of 3 to 4 m TL [total length], but
bleaching and COTS predation on the coral
carcasses littering the beaches rarely exceed 1 m
reefs. The effects of human activity on the
(IUCN 1997). Throughout the summer,
environment appear to be minimal, the only
intensive shark fishing takes place at the
exceptions being the relatively heavy,
following sites: Xabo, Butiyalo and Hantara in
opportunistic exploitation of turtles and sharks.
the eastern (Bari) region, Eilayo (Ceelayo), Las
Fisheries and transport are only a small
Korey and Mait in the central (Sanag) region,
component of the national economy, and are not
and Geeri and Lughaye in the western (Awdal
significant threats to coral reefs. Other coastal
and Sahil) regions.
activities, such as salt mining and the collection
of guano are only of local importance. There is
neither oil nor gas exploitation nor tourism in
Much of the commercial catch is made up of
the area. Given the above, this section identifies
shark for the sharkfin industry. No total catch
potential rather than actual threats to coral reefs.
records exist, but up to 800 kg per month
(300 kg of fins, wet weight) are caught in the
Zeila district alone. Other catches include up to
Urban Development
10 mt of Spanish mackerel, 12 mt of assorted
Berbera and Bosaso are the two main ports
benthic species, 50 kg of crabs, 100 kg of
along the Gulf of Aden coast. The urban
lobster and a number of sea cucumbers, clams
population is growing rapidly and is largely
and oysters (IUCN 1997). Major sharks and rays
uncontrolled. Adjacent to major population
targeted by the fisheries include hammerhead
centres, domestic sewage is a locally significant
sharks (Sphyrnidae), largetooth sawfish (Pristis
source of marine pollution. In the absence of
pectinata), whitetip shark (Triaenodon obesus),
any monitoring, it is not possible to estimate the
tiger shark (Galeocerdo cuvier) and guitarfishes
amount of toxic leachates and pathogenic
(Rhinobatidae). Spanish mackerel, tuna
organisms entering coastal waters. It is
(yellowfin, skipjack and frigate), jacks and
suggested that at present coral reefs are not
trevallys are also sought. Benthic catches
overtly threatened. However, the pressures from
include parrotfish, snappers, goatfish, sardines
expanding urban settlements close to coral reefs
and groupers. The most abundant species is the
are expected to increase.
Indian oil sardine (Sardinella longiceps). The
highest concentrations are found in the Ras Aser
area, while stocks decrease gradually
westwards. Round herring (Etrumeus teres),
65
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
Oil and Gas Exploration
However, only one of these (the Aibat,
During the 1980s offshore oil exploration
Sa'adadin and Saba-wanag area) encompasses
was conducted and results indicated that the
significant coral growth, the others (the Daloh
continental shelf of Somalia may contain oil and
Forest Reserve and Mait Island) being chosen
gas reserves. Elf-Somalia and Agip were
more for their terrestrial and wildlife attributes.
granted concessions for the eastern and central
parts of the Gulf of Aden coast. No reserves of
economic importance have been found so far
MPAs Declared
and at present there is no exploitation of oil or
gas. Should this come about however, there
There are no declared marine protected areas
would be risks of spills and coastal
in Somalia.
contamination, in addition to the increase in
population and related pressures that would
occur.
De facto and Planned MPAs
Aibat and Sa'adadin Islands, Sabah
Marine and Coastal Tourism
Wanak: Extending over an area of some
Tourism has never played an important role
300 km2, the proposed protected area
in Somalia, even though the five-year
encompasses low lying mangrove islands with
development plan (1982-86) placed an emphasis
possibly the largest coral reef area in the Gulf of
on the development of a tourism infrastructure
Aden. It is an important nesting site for marine
(SHEPPARD & WELLS 1988). There is
turtles and seabirds, which are currently
considerable potential for the development of
threatened through collection of eggs. Corals are
tourism in Somalia, including coastal and
also collected from the area.
marine activities which, with sufficient attention
to conservation aspects, could contribute
significantly to the economy.
Mait Island, (about 1 km2) is a rock island
with up 100,000 breeding seabirds, notably
noddy terns.
Habitat Degradation and Destruction
Physical damage to coral reefs, which
results in the loss of coral habitat and decline of
Current Monitoring and
reef associated fauna, is low. In the north-west,
Management Capacity to Conserve
corals are collected occasionally and shipped to
Coral Reef Resources
Djibouti for sale to tourists, but the extent of this
activity is not known. The establishment of
collecting stations for reef fishes is presently
Regional and District Councils, and
being considered by a private entrepreneur. If
Councils of Elders have taken up the role of
not managed properly, this may have negative
principal co-ordinating organisations for the
effects on the reef habitat.
inflow of aid to their respective jurisdictions.
International agencies and NGOs work in
co-ordination with the Councils of Elders in the
Marine Protected Areas and Level
development of a sustainable institutional base.
of Management
Institutional co-ordination is achieved through
the District and Regional Councils to ensure a
reasonable level of public accountability. In the
Three areas have been proposed for
case of research, extension or credit
protection along the Gulf of Aden coast.
accountability has to be established. One of the
66
Coral Reefs along the Northern Coast of Somalia
institutions of North West Somalia is called
Code, other laws and regulations related
the Ministry of Fisheries and Coastal
to the marine environment applicable to
Development. Created in 1993, this Ministry is
ships in ports, and the implementation of
in charge of encouraging public and private
regional and international conventions.
investment for the exploitation of marine
resources; increasing fisheries production
Ministry of Fisheries and Marine
within the MSY; protection of the coastline and
Resources: Established in 1977 to
sea from environmental degradation; initiation
develop and manage Somalia's fisheries
and development of research and training
resources. Basic marine fisheries
facilities for the fisheries sector; and the
legislation is contained in the Maritime
development of employment opportunities in
Code of 1959.
the marine sector.
National Range Agency and Ministry
of Tourism: Responsible for National
Monitoring Capacity
Parks and establishing MPAs.
There are currently no long-term monitoring
Legislation was prepared for a network
programmes in Somalia.
of protected areas before the political
unrest.
Management Capacity
Government Legislation, Strategies
In the present political situation the national
and Policies Pertinent to Reef
laws and regulations are not enforced and the
national institutions are not operational.
Conservation
However, in 1988, prior to the current political
situation, there were a number of institutions
charged with activities that indirectly addressed
Although signatory to a host of international
coral reef protection. It is hoped that with
agreements and protocols, Somalia's ability to
continued stability these institutions will be re-
effectively implement them is limited.
established.
International Agreements
National Marine Affairs Committee:
Established to oversee the overall
Somalia is a signatory to the Bamako
development of the maritime sector. The
Convention on the Ban of the Import into Africa
Committee included Minerals and Water
and the Control of Trans-boundary Movement
Resources, Fisheries and Marine
and Management of Hazardous Wastes within
Resources, Foreign Affairs, Education
Africa (1993)1 and has ratified the following
and Defence Ministries.
conventions and protocols which are relevant to
the marine environment:
Ministry of Marine Transport and
Ports: Mandated with the development
of maritime transport and the
Convention for the Protection,
improvement of port facilities, and
Management and Development of the
responsible for environmental control of
Marine and Coastal Environment of the
coastal areas including ports, prevention
Eastern African Region (1988),
of marine pollution and safety of
navigation. The Ministry was responsible
for the implementation of the Maritime
1 Year in brackets gives the date Somalia became a
Party to the Convention.
67
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
Convention on International Trade in
without first, or simultaneously, addressing the
Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and
poverty and socio-economic situation faced by
Flora (1985); the Convention on the
the people of Somalia.
Conservation of Migratory Species of
Wild Animals (1986),
Recommendations to Improve the
Protocol Concerning Co-operation in
Conservation of Coral Reef
Combating Marine Pollution in Cases of
Resources
Emergency in the Eastern African
Region (1988); the Protocol Concerning
Protected Areas and Wild Fauna and
Conservation of coral reefs in Somalia is
Flora in the Eastern African Region
currently given a lower priority than the
(1988),
rebuilding of the nation and the eradication of
poverty. However, if measures can be
Regional Convention for the
implemented in tandem with this development,
Conservation of the Red Sea and Gulf of
coral reefs will not be lost to future generations.
Aden Environment (1988),
These include the development of a system of
marine protected areas, the adoption of oil spill
Protocol Concerning Regional Co-
response measures, broad-scale environmental
operation in Combating Pollution by Oil
education and continued research and
and other Harmful Substances in Cases
monitoring for early detection of reef
of Emergency (1988), and the
deterioration.
United Nations Convention on the Law
of the Sea (1989).
Establishment of MPAs
The establishment of other small reserves or
National Legislation
Marine Protected Areas between Ras Xaatib and
Ras Cuuda, west of the lighthouse near Berbera
National environmental legislation is poorly
Airport and around the coral reefs opposite
developed and inadequate for environmental
Siyara, would provide protection for
management and conservation. Somalia has not
representative coral reefs and turtle nesting
formulated a national policy for the exploitation
beaches.
of marine resources.
Research and Monitoring
Gaps in Capacity and Requirements
A more detailed investigation is needed to
for Improved Conservation
assess marine resources, in particular those of
coral reefs and their exploitation. This should be
carried out in collaboration with the local
The two key requirements for improved
fishermen to develop an understanding of
conservation are funding and personnel. There
seasonal exploitation, ultimately leading to
is a clear need for strengthening the skills of the
resource management procedures. Monitoring
manpower base to improve assessment,
of the coral reefs for further deterioration, or
planning and management of coastal and marine
recovery from COTS outbreaks and bleaching,
environments. Manpower development must be
should be carried out on a regular timeframe.
an integral component of all conservation
Studies should expand the coral reef and turtle
activities. Long-term research, monitoring and
surveys to both the west and east, further
conservation activities will not take place
investigate the biodiversity of the reef fishes,
68
Coral Reefs along the Northern Coast of Somalia
and extend the work into a regional study of
environmental education programme targeted
their zoogeography. There is also a need for
towards all levels of society is needed to
baseline surveys upon which to base the effects
increase public awareness of the value, interest
of oil, toxic chemicals, pathogens and other
and vulnerability of the Somali coastal and
forms of pollution. A database containing
marine environment, and to promote public
information on biological resources and
participation in environmental initiatives.
environmental information should be
developed.
Funding
Adequate funding mechanisms need to be
Review of Legal and Institutional
developed for biodiversity conservation efforts
Framework
in Somalia, which take into account the present
There is a need to review existing legal and
political environment and the socio-economic
institutional mechanisms that address coral reef
conditions under which the people of Somalia
conservation and management. These should
live.
make provision for co-operation between
government, non-government and private
sectors. There must be a review of relevant
Pollution Control
international and regional conventions and the
An oil spill response contingency plan needs
options for participation in international and
to be developed and implemented with
regional initiatives. The existing environmental
reference to the Oil Spill Response Stockpile
impact assessment policies concerning the
held in Djibouti.
marine and coastal environment need to be
reviewed, developed and implemented.
Environmental Education
There is a need to integrate environmental
education into existing community and
educational programmes and curricula. An
69
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
70
Coral Reefs of Yemen
Introduction
Red Sea, mostly supporting coral communities
developed directly on non-reef substrates or
relict reef deposits.
The Republic of Yemen lies in the south-
western corner of the Arabian Peninsula and
includes the Socotra Island Group (Suqutra).
Coral growth along Yemen's Red Sea coast
The coastline is about 2,200 km long, roughly
is found both as coral reefs and as coral
one third of which faces the Red Sea and the
communities on a variety of substrates. There
remaining two-thirds the Gulf of Aden (Fig. 9).
are two principal reef types:
Along the Red Sea, the climate is dry with
fringing reefs of the southern Red Sea
an average annual rainfall of 100 to 200 mm
coast and some offshore islands, and
and a humidity of about 60 %. No perennial
surface streams discharge into the Sea.
semi-submerged patch reefs, found west
However, flash floods are a widespread feature
of Al Hodeidah and south of the Ras Isa
following torrential rains. The Gulf of Aden is
peninsula.
dominated by the Indian Ocean monsoon
system. The highest annual rainfall occurs
Yemeni reefs and coral communities have
between January and March (north-east
developed in some of the most extreme
monsoon). Between May and September the
environments known for corals, ranging from
south-west monsoon generates winds blowing
high sea temperatures, minimal tidal movement
in a north-easterly direction and the relatively
and relatively calm sea conditions in the
warm surface water of the north-eastern Gulf of
southern Red Sea, to seasonal cool water
Aden and Arabian Sea is blown offshore and
upwelling and large oceanic waves in parts of
replaced by cooler, nutrient-rich waters from
the Gulf of Aden and Arabian Sea. Areas
deeper layers, limiting coral growth.
exposed to the upwelling share a unique mix of
tropical and temperate species and have highly
productive fisheries.
True coral reefs developed on biogenic
calcium carbonate are most widely distributed
in the Red Sea, fringing the mainland coast and
About 75 % of the coastline consists of soft
offshore islands. The southern Red Sea reefs
sediments and more than half of the shores are
have a markedly different geomorphology to
covered by sabkhas (dried mud flats) and salt
those of the northern and central Red Sea, with
marshes. The scarcity of hard substrates and the
comparatively limited reef development
high turbidity along the wide and shallow
resulting from differences in bathymetry,
continental shelf create unfavourable conditions
topography, turbidity and sea temperature. The
for coral growth and only about 25 % of the
Gulf of Aden and Socotra have even less
mainland coastline supports coral reefs. South
Holocene reef development than the southern
of Al Khaukha, nearshore reefs are more
71
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
SAUDI ARABIA
Indian Ocean. Annual rainfall is around
200 mm, mainly falling in June, November and
December. Average air temperature ranges from
Al Ghaydah
Sana'a
Nishtun
17 °C in January to 37 °C in July. Most of the
YEMEN
Red
coast consists of cliffs or sandy beaches, with
Sea Al Hodeidah
Al Mukalla
Arabian
occasional gravel shorelines. Corals are
Sea
widespread throughout the archipelago, with
Al Mucka
Socotra
Aden
cover varying from less than 5 to 80 %
Bab al Mandab
Gulf of Aden
(UNDP/GEF 1996). Most of the coastal and
DJIBOUTI
marine areas surrounding these islands are still
in a pristine state and, in 1996, the Government
Indian
of Yemen declared Socotra a special natural area
SOMALIA
Ocean
in need of protection.
Fig. 9: Map showing major urban areas and
coastline of Yemen
Surveys
extensive and diverse than further north. The
best-developed reefs occur offshore, mainly in
the vicinity of the large number of islands that
Several major projects have recently
characterise the Yemeni Red Sea (IUCN 1987,
assessed the distribution, composition and status
SHEPPARD & WELLS 1987, SHEPPARD et al.
of living marine resources around much of the
1992).
coastline; the Red Sea coast (TURAK & BRODIE
1999), the Gulf of Aden (WATT 1996) and the
Socotra Island Group (CHEUNG et al. in press).
The Gulf of Aden coast has a length of about
Additional studies at key sites along the Gulf of
1,400 km and a continental shelf area of
Aden and Red Sea have been undertaken by
20,225 km². The southern extent is characterised
members of the Arabian Seas Expedition
by rocky cliffs that normally terminate in
(J. KEMP, U. ZAJONZ pers. comm.) and as part of
shallow water, alternating with stretches of
smaller projects (e.g. assessment of coral
sandy beaches. Seasonally low temperatures, as
bleaching in the north-east Gulf of Aden;
a result of the upwellings, and large expanses of
DEVANTIER and HARIRI in press).
unfavourable sandy substrate limit coral growth.
Only 5 % of the coast is known to support
fringing coral communities or reefs. Corals have
Survey Techniques
been reported at Perim Island, near Aden (Khor
Umairah, Little Aden), Ghuraira and Shuqra.
Methods have ranged from remote sensing
More extensive areas of coral growth occur
using satellite imagery (Socotra), rapid
further east, towards Al Mukalla, particularly at
ecological and impact assessments (Red Sea,
Belhaf and Burum, and a group of six small
Gulf of Aden and Socotra), to more detailed
islands lying off Bir Ali (WATT 1996,
biodiversity studies (Red Sea and Socotra).
DEVANTIER & HARIRI in press).
Most recently, these studies have culminated in
the initiation of long-term monitoring
programmes at selected sites in the Red Sea and
The Socotra Island Group has long been
Socotra Island Group.
isolated from the mainland, surrounded by deep
waters, in places exceeding 3,000 m in depth. It
lies 400 km south of the Arabian Peninsula and
is highly exposed to the monsoon climate of the
72
Coral Reefs of Yemen
Remote Sensing:
Distribution and
A rapid assessment was also made of the
composition of coastal and marine biotopes
coastal and marine environments of the Socotra
around Socotra were assessed using Landsat
Island Group in 1995 (MACALISTER ELLIOT &
images, combined with extensive ground-
PARTNERS 1996, KEMP 1998). The subtidal
truthing. These data have been used to provide
appraisal, conducted using snorkel or SCUBA,
unsupervised and supervised biotope
included general observations of benthic cover
classifications of the coastal and marine habitats
and more detailed assessments of coral and fish
of Socotra (J. TURNER & R. KLAUS pers.
biodiversity (KEMP 1998). A 9-point habitat
comm.). In combination with biodiversity data
code was used to classify sublittoral habitats,
(see later) the biotope classifications were used
with observations of the dominant biota
in planning the zone boundaries of the recently
providing an overview of the distribution and
proclaimed Socotra Multiple Use Marine
composition of coral and fish communities.
Protected Area.
Further rapid assessments have been
Rapid Ecological Assessment: The broad
undertaken since 1995. These include
distribution of different coastal and marine
assessments of levels of reef development,
habitat types along Yemen's Red Sea, Gulf of
benthic cover and various environmental
Aden and Socotra coastlines has been
attributes on the Socotra Island Group
documented using several rapid assessment
(DEVANTIER et al. in press a) and in the Red Sea
methods (MACALISTER ELLIOT & PARTNERS
(TURAK & BRODIE 1999). The surveys were
1996, WATT 1996, TURAK & BRODIE 1999,
conducted at 65 sites around the coasts of
DEVANTIER et al. in press a-c). These and other
Socotra and adjacent islands and 51 sites along
ongoing studies have begun to fill the previously
the Red Sea coast and offshore islands. In
large gaps in knowledge of Yemen's coastal and
meandering SCUBA swims of 30 to 45 minutes
marine habitats (SHEPPARD & SHEPPARD 1991).
duration, ecological and substratum attributes
were assigned to standard ranked categories,
based on an assessment integrated over the
The biological resources, resource uses and
length of the swim (see DEVANTIER et al. 1998
impacts along the 1,365 km coastline of
for details).
southern Yemen were assessed at 91
geographically discrete sites (MACALISTER
ELLIOT & PARTNERS 1996, WATT 1996). The sites
Biodiversity Assessment:
Taxonomic
were selected every 15 km along the shoreline,
inventories of some key elements of reef fauna
from west to east, on 1:100,000 scale
and flora have been undertaken in the Red Sea
topographical maps. Sites were located using
(corals: TURAK & BRODIE 1999; fish: BRODIE
GPS (WGS 84 map datum; EC/MFW 1995).
et al. 1998, 1999), Gulf of Aden (corals:
Each sample comprised a 500 m × 500 m
DEVANTIER & HARIRI in press; fish: ARABIAN
quadrat bisecting the beach, covering the
SEAS EXPEDITION, J. KEMP pers. comm., KEMP &
immediate terrestrial, supratidal, intertidal and
BENZONI 2000) and Socotra Island Group (fish:
immediate subtidal zones. Within the quadrat,
KEMP 1998, F. KRUPP, U. ZAJONZ pers. comm.;
the abundance or magnitude of biological
corals: DEVANTIER et al. in review; crustaceans,
resources and resource uses/impacts were
molluscs and other fauna and algae, various
estimated and recorded semi-quantitatively. The
authors in GEF-UNDP Socotra Biodiversity
abundance of biological resources were scored
Project Progress Reports).
using a ranked 0 to 6 scale and scores were
based on estimates of the relative abundance
within each quadrat.
73
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
For corals, bio-inventories of the Socotra
temperature using submerged temperature
and Red Sea fauna were undertaken during
loggers (Dataflow 392 loggers). These have
SCUBA swim searches at each site. Each
been deployed at Mayun Island near the
organism was identified to species level
entrance to the Red Sea and a further two
whenever possible and to genus and growth-
loggers were deployed near Al Luhayyah in the
form for taxonomically difficult species. Stony
north, recording temperature every 30 minutes
corals that could not be readily identified in the
(ROUPHAEL et al. 1999, M. AL SAFANI pers.
field were photographed, collected and bleached
comm.).
for detailed study.
Benthos and Fish Monitoring - Socotra
Reef fish composition and abundance in the
Island Group
Red Sea, Gulf of Aden and Socotra Island
Group have been assessed using both
A long-term monitoring programme was
quantitative (belt transects, collecting stations)
established around the Socotra Island Group in
and semi-quantitative (visual census) field
the year 2000. Selection of monitoring sites was
methods (KEMP 1998, BRODIE et al. 1998, 1999;
based on initial surveys of benthos and fish
U. ZAJONZ pers. comm.).
conducted in 1999. The 11 monitoring sites that
were selected are distributed widely around the
archipelago, with seven sites on Socotra Island
For quantitative assessments, numbers
and one site each on four of the smaller outer
and/or log abundance estimates and/or sizes of
islands of Abd Al Kuri, Samha, Darsa and Kal
fishes were made in single or replicated belt
Farun. The sites were located in a variety of
transects of known volume (e.g. 50 m length,
benthic community types, from those dominated
5 m width, 5 m height above sea bed). In
by mono-specific coral stands to those
Socotra, fish surveys were undertaken jointly
supporting diverse coral assemblages to those
with the coral surveys, allowing combined
dominated by macroalgae with sparse corals.
community analyses. Fish species composition
These communities had been affected to varying
around the Socotra Island Group was also
degrees in 1998 by the global coral bleaching
assessed at point sampling stations, where the
event. Several of the sites had experienced
fish-narcotizing agent, Rotenone, was used to
major bleaching-induced declines in cover and
collect fishes (U. ZAJONZ pers. comm.).
shifts in community composition whereas others
had been little- or unaffected, and represented
near-pristine reef habitats in terms of cover and
For semi-quantitative assessments, fish
community structure.
species lists and abundance estimates were
compiled at point census stations or during
SCUBA swims, using standard rapid assessment
Field methods followed Global Coral Reef
methods (see ENGLISH et al. 1997).
Monitoring Network (GCRMN) standards,
employing sets of replicated line intercept
transects (5 x 20 m length for benthos) and belt
Sea Surface Temperature Studies - Red
transects (3 x 50 m length, 5 m width and
Sea
height for fish). The special nature of coral
habitats around the Socotra Island Group, with
As part of the GEF-UNDP Yemen Red Sea
little true reef development and often small coral
Project, a sea temperature monitoring
patches with little or no reef slope, required
programme was established in 1998. The
modification of the GCRMN protocol. The lack
programme is presently monitoring sea surface
of reef slope precluded establishment of two sets
74
Coral Reefs of Yemen
of transects (at two depths) per site. Instead each
In Socotra, preliminary results indicate that
site was at a single depth range (3 to 5 m or 8 to
there had been little change in coral cover or
11 m). Further, transects were aligned roughly
community composition from 1999 to 2000,
parallel to each other approximately 15 m apart.
other than an apparent increase in coral
recruitment at sites badly impacted by bleaching
in 1998. The rapid growth of coral recruits
Coral Reefs - Benthos and Fish
suggests that very small juvenile corals survived
the 1998 bleaching-induced mortality. Some
recent (post-bleaching) coral mortality had
More than 300 species of reef building
occurred at several sites, possibly caused by
corals and more than 600 species of reef-
flood run-off during intense rains in December
associated fishes have been identified from
1999. Most outer island sites were in good to
Yemen's reefs and coral communities. In
excellent condition, and presently have low
particular, coral and fish communities of the
levels of human use. These sites give the
Socotra Island Group are surprisingly diverse
Socotra islands international importance as a
given that there is little reef development. The
coral reef monitoring centre, as such sites are
islands lie at a crossroads between different
becoming rare in many countries with coral
faunal provinces and sub-provinces, and the
reefs, where human impacts are causing loss of
coral and fish fauna show biogeographic
valued reef attributes.
affinities with Arabia, east Africa and the greater
Indian and Indo-Pacific regions.
Coral Diversity
Some of Yemen's reefs have been adversely
Yemen's reefs support some 300 species of
affected by various disturbances over the past
scleractinian stony corals from 60 genera and 16
decade. This has caused major declines in living
families (SHEPPARD & SHEPPARD 1991,
coral cover and shifts in community
SHEPPARD 1997, TURAK & BRODIE 1999,
composition at the worst affected sites which are
DEVANTIER et al. in review), the high richness
located in the northern part of the Yemeni Red
reflecting the wide range of habitat types,
Sea (TURAK & BRODIE 1999), the north-east
oceanographic and environmental conditions.
Gulf of Aden (DEVANTIER & HARIRI in press),
and along the north coast of Socotra
(DEVANTIER et al. in press b). Bleaching has
A total of about 176 species of stony corals
adversely affected reefs and coral communities
are presently known to occur in Yemen's Red
in all three areas, most recently during 1998.
Sea (TURAK & BRODIE 1999). Richness at
Other more localised disturbances include
individual sites ranged from 1 to 76 species. Of
predation by the crown-of-thorns starfish and
51 Red Sea bio-inventory sites, almost 50 %
gastropod snails, sedimentation, storm damage
had more than 40 coral species and 12 % of
and flood run-off. Although these disturbances
sites had over 50 species, similar to counts at
have had adverse impacts in some locations
reefs in the central and northern Red Sea
particularly in the Red Sea, other Yemeni reefs
(DEVANTIER et al. 2000). TURAK & BRODIE
in more exposed clear water areas of the
(1999) identified at least 19 new distribution
southern Red Sea and the outer islands of the
records for the southern Red Sea, based on the
Socotra group remain in good to excellent
list compiled by SHEPPARD & SHEPPARD (1991)
condition, with little or no local human impact.
and further coral specimens await identification.
75
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
Reef distribution and coral communities
Diversity appears to be lower along the
mainland Gulf of Aden coast, which is thought
to support some 100 coral species (SHEPPARD &
For Red Sea coastal and island fringing
SHEPPARD 1991, DEVANTIER & HARIRI in press),
reefs, live coral cover was generally higher
but remains relatively poorly studied. By
(about 10 %) in the south than in most of the
contrast, the Socotra Island Group supports a
northern and central areas (TURAK & BRODIE
diverse fauna of about 250 stony coral species,
1999). There were more large colonies (up to 3
placing it among the richest sites in the western
to 4 m diameter) at the southern end of Saba
Indian Ocean (Table 13). The high diversity is
Island in the Zubayr group and at Mayun Island
related to the co-occurrence of a composite coral
in the straits of Bab al Mandab. There is a long
fauna from different biogeographic provinces
fringing reef from just north of Al Khawthah
and sub-provinces, including species with wide
down the coast to opposite Mayun Island. This
Indo-Pacific ranges, species from the Indian
reef continues in patches around the rocky
Ocean, species previously known only from
headland on the Gulf of Aden coast. The width
East Africa, Arabia or the Red Sea (DEVANTIER
varies from less than 100 m to more than 1 km
et al. in press) and species not yet described
enclosing a shallow lagoon (0.2 to l.5 m deep).
(VERON 2000, DEVANTIER et al. in review).
Observations showed that the seaward margin
typically dropped to around 3 m, except south
of Al Mulbah, where there was a healthy patch
A high degree of similarity in stony coral
of Platygyra colonies on a sandy bottom at
richness and composition between the Red Sea
depths of 5 to 6 m. Acropora spp. were more
and Socotra Island Group exists at family and
evident than farther north and formed stands of
generic levels, whereas the Gulf of Aden is
branching colonies. Porites spp. and Stylophora
relatively depauperate at generic and species
pistillata colonies were found at all sites. Other
levels (Table 13). At individual sites in the Red
common species were Montipora spp.,
Sea, Gulf of Aden and Socotra, coral richness
Acropora valida and A. humilis, Porites
ranges from less than 5 species to more than 70
nodifera, Pavona cactus, Galaxea ascicularis,
species. Low diversity sites include those
Acanthastrea echinata, Hydnophora spp., Favia
composed of large monospecific coral stands
favus, Goniastrea retiformis, Platygyra
(covering thousands of square metres), sites on
daedalea, Leptastrea purpurea and Echinopora
coralline algal reefs, or sites where
gemmacea (TURAK & BRODIE 1999).
environmental characteristics are suitable only
for tolerant corals (SHEPPARD & SHEPPARD 1991,
TURAK & BRODIE 1999). Sparse coral
Fringing reefs around the islands were in the
assemblages (with several notable diverse
form of extensive patches with gradual slopes
exceptions) are common along the exposed
and intermittent sand areas. Some of the coral
southern coastlines of the Socotra Island Group,
patches and ridges were formed by coral rubble
where monsoon upwelling and high biomass of
accumulations from storm activities. These
macroalgae and other benthos tend to limit coral
rubble ridges were often covered with thick
growth. High diversity assemblages are more
mats of the brown alga Dictyota sp. In addition
commonly found in areas of moderate water
to Stylophora pistillata and Porites spp.,
movement and clarity, notably on the offshore
Psammocora contigua was very common on
islands of the Red Sea (TURAK & BRODIE 1999),
one reef. Most Acropora corals were dead,
north-east Gulf of Aden and protected northern
including numerous tabular colonies.
coasts of the Socotra Island Group.
76
Coral Reefs of Yemen
Taxonomic level
Red Sea
NE Gulf of Aden
Socotra islands
Family
14
14
16
Genus
56
38
58
Species
176
100
253
Table 13: Species diversity of reef-building stony corals from Yemen's Red Sea,
(TURAK & BRODIE 1999), N.E. Gulf of Aden (DEVANTIER & HARIRI in press) and
Socotra Island Group (DEVANTIER et al. in review)
Mayun Island, at the mouth of the straits of
reefs were essentially built by red coralline
Bab al Mandab and subject to the effects of
algae of the genera Porolithon and
periodic nutrient-rich cold water upwelling from
Lithothamnium, and supported limited coral reef
the Indian Ocean, had distinct coral reef
development (SHEPPARD & SHEPPARD 1991,
formations. The island is of volcanic origin with
TURAK & BRODIE 1999). They were generally
reef growth on basal volcanic rock. On the
found in semi-sheltered, low energy
northern side, extensive reef flats with diverse
environments with high temperature, salinity
and healthy coral growth had developed. The
and sedimentation levels. The corals more
eastern and western sides support
tolerant to these conditions were the
predominantly monospecific Stylophora
Pocilloporidae, Porites spp. (massive growth
communities. Bays on the southern side had
forms) and Siderastrea savignyana. Coral
healthy growth of corals dominated by large
colonies on these reefs do not attain large sizes,
Porites colonies up to 4 to 5 m in diameter, all
reaching a maximum of around 50 cm diameter.
of which survived the 1997/1998 bleaching
In addition to corals, fleshy macroalgae were
event (TURAK & BRODIE 1999).
also associated with the coralline algal reefs.
The main algae were Caulerpa sp., Sargassum
sp. and Padina sp.. At times dense Sargassum
Red Sea Submerged Patch Reefs: In terms
mats, which could have fronds growing more
of surface and volume, these reefs may be the
than 2 m long totally obscured the underlying
most dominant (TURAK & BRODIE 1999). Large
coralline red algal growth.
patches are found west of Al Hodeidah, south of
the Ras Isa peninsula and scattered in the
southern Farasan Islands in the inter-island
Coral Communities on Volcanic Rock:
waters. The shallower parts generally are 6 to
The offshore islands of the Hanish and Zubayr
8 m deep, although some reefs in the southern
groups and At Tair Island supported some areas
Farasan group grow to just below sea surface.
of extensive coral development and a high
Several large patches appeared not to be marked
diversity of scleractinian corals (TURAK &
on current hydrographic charts. The dominant
BRODIE 1999). Porites species were the
corals were Porites spp.
dominant corals. A similar diversity of hard
coral species was also found in coral
communities on mid water pinnacles of volcanic
Red Algal Reefs and Associated Coral
origin, such as Six Foot Rocks south of Tiqfash
Communities: Red algal reefs occur in the
Island and Avocet Rock south of Al Hodeidah.
shallow coastal waters from the Saudi Arabian
These pinnacles, rising from 40 to 60 m,
border south to the Ras Isa peninsula and around
support rich and abundant fish fauna. The
many nearshore islands, in waters less than 6 m
highest recorded coral species diversity (76
(typically 2 to 4 m deep). On these reefs coral
species, TURAK & BRODIE 1999) was at a
growth ranged from a few small colonies of
community on Six Foot Rocks and was
some hardy species to extensive coral
comparable to diversity levels in other areas of
communities with high substrate cover. These
the Red Sea.
77
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
Around At Tair and islands of the Zubayr
Generally, coral communities in the Gulf of
group, small coral colonies of massive growth
Aden grow as a veneer over a rocky substrate of
form, mostly Porites, grew unattached to the flat
inorganic origin, usually discernible between
volcanic rock. Other common corals were
colonies. Thus these are coral communities
massive Goniastrea retiformis, encrusting
rather than true reefs. Cold water upwelling and
Acropora, Montipora and Leptastrea and
the limited distribution of available habitat are
Cyphastrea species. Under the volcanic ash
the two principal factors limiting coral diversity
cliffs of At Tair Island, where fine sediments
and growth in the area, although other factors
predominated, very large Siderastrea
such as turbidity and scouring also may be
savignyana colonies were developed, reaching
important.
several metres in diameter and typically
partially buried in shifting sediments.
Along the north-west Gulf of Aden coast,
key sites include:
Although Yemen's Red Sea reefs have
proven surprisingly diverse in species
Khor Umairah: This is a semi-enclosed
composition, the main structural elements are
lagoon cut off from the sea by a large
massive corals of the genus Porites. These are
spit and an ideal habitat for seagrasses
by far the most common genus of reef-building
(HIRTH et al. 1973). Large coral areas
coral and the main reef framework builder of
occur in the lagoon, where the sheltered
contemporary coral reefs in this region. The
conditions favour coral growth by
other two most common corals are Stylophora
reducing wave energy.
pistillata and Platygyra daedalea, both species
found in a wide range of habitats.
Crater, Aden: The coral fauna at this
site forms a veneer over steeply sloping
volcanic rocks and boulders down to 8 m
Gulf of Aden: Until recently, descriptions of
deep, where a gently sloping sandy
coral communities from the northern coast of
bottom prevents further colonisation.
the Gulf of Aden were sparse (SHEPPARD &
Live coral cover is high on average (30
SHEPPARD 1991). More recent surveys have
to 50 %) although it reaches 100 % in
demonstrated that there are at least six discrete
places. Massive growth forms of Porites
areas where coral communities are developed
colonies dominate and at least 20 other
along the Gulf of Aden coast, concentrated from
genera were also present, including large
the entrance of the Red Sea to Aden in the west
colonies of Lobophyllia, Galaxea, the
and from Belhaf to Al Mukalla in the east. Coral
solitary coral Fungia, and Turbinaria in
diversity is higher to the west of Al Mukalla
deeper water. ROSEN (1971) reports a
where there are approximately 40 genera
total of 32 genera for the Aden area.
(Table 13). East of this point growth is limited to
isolated colonies of a few genera, principally the
Shuara: The area is relatively diverse
more hardy or massive forms such as
and supports two examples of a larger
Stylophora, Porites and various faviids, a
reef complex. Corals at the Shuara site
finding echoed by studies in southern Oman
showed evidence of forming a true
(SHEPPARD & SHEPPARD 1991). Low sea water
fringing reef (typical reef profile with
temperatures associated with upwelling and
reef flat, reef crest and slope; the
competition for light from algae probably limit
development of a massive, wave-
growth, while grazing by urchins and
resistant structure composed of biogenic
herbivorous fish are important in determining
carbonate). Live coral cover ranged from
larval settlement rates.
below 5 % on the reef flat, to 30 to 40 %
78
Coral Reefs of Yemen
at the sample site 20 km east of Shuara.
from the northern Gulf of Aden, with
Both sites were dominated by Stylophora
large coral patches developed offshore
and Porites, with a range of other genera
from the village and coral communities
in lower abundances, with faviids and
fringing the offshore islands.
acroporids being well represented.
Community structure at individual sites
varies from large monospecific stands of
Further to the east, in the north-east Gulf of
pocilloporids, faviids and poritids to
Aden, coral communities are developed from
moderately diverse assemblages (about
Belhaf to Al Mukalla, and including the islands
50 spp. Scleractinia). Coral and fish
offshore from Bir Ali. These coral communities
communities on the islands offshore
are of moderate to high diversity (about 100 spp.
from Bir Ali are particularly well
Scleractinia) with a wide range of coral cover
developed, share interesting
(< 10 to > 75 %, DEVANTIER & HARIRI in
biogeographic affinities and may be
press).
important in maintaining gene flow
along the Gulf of Aden coast (KEMP &
BENZONI 2000).
Community structure at individual sites
ranges from monospecific coral stands
Burum: Coral growth forms only a
(including Pocillopora damicornis, Stylophora
veneer over the volcanic outcrop and
pistillata, Goniastrea retiformis, Porites spp.,
boulders in the shallow sublittoral. At
KEMP & BENZONI 1999, DEVANTIER & HARIRI in
this site the more fragile foliaceous and
press) to moderately diverse assemblages of
branching forms of Montipora dominate
tabular and branching acroporids, massive and
the live coral cover. Porites and other
encrusting faviids, mussids and poritids. Despite
massive corals also contribute
the general lack of reef development, the area
significantly. Wave energy significantly
supports some large corals estimated to be
influences the composition of coral
centuries old.
assemblages along this stretch of coast.
Al Mukalla: The area supports both
Belhaf: The area around Belhaf is
shallow (1 to 10 m) and deep water (15
volcanic with extensive lava fields
to 25 m) coral communities, mostly
leading to the coast in places and
developed directly on terrigenous rock.
providing a suitable substrate for coral
Shallow water assemblages were
colonisation. Conditions are favourable
composed of massive poritids, faviids
for reef formation and have resulted in
and mussids and tabular Acropora spp.,
the growth of a mature fringing reef,
with cover of live coral approaching
dominated by Porites colonies and
50 % at several locations. These
occasional large Acropora tables,
assemblages were adversely affected by
staghorn beds and foliose Montipora
bleaching in June 1998, with the loss of
stands. This site was particularly badly
around half the live coral cover at the
affected by coral bleaching in 1998, with
worst affected sites. Deeper
major reduction in living coral cover
assemblages, composed predominantly
(KEMP & BENZONI 2000, DEVANTIER &
of encrusting and massive faviids,
HARIRI in press).
mussids and siderastreids, were less
affected by the bleaching event, with
Bir Ali and Offshore Islands: The Bir
living coral cover remaining at about
Ali area supports the most concentrated
10 %.
distribution of coral communities known
79
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
Ras Fartak and Ras Fantas: The area
or rubble (mostly on the south coasts). Some
around Ras Fartak and Ras Fantas is
communities were growing on relict `spur and
influenced by seasonal upwelling. The
groove' structures that probably represent earlier
sublittoral epifauna is dominated by
(pre-Holocene) periods of reef development.
ascidians, sponges and large populations
of urchins. Small encrusting coral
colonies covered 1 to 5 % of the
There was great variety in the coral
substrate, composed mainly of faviids,
community structure around the archipelago.
Porites and Stylophora species and small
Individual sites were characterized by low to
branching colonies of Acropora.
high coral diversity (13 to 90 spp. Scleractinia)
and variable coral cover (< 1 to > 75 %,
Socotra Island Group:
Coral
average 22 %). Most coral communities were
communities are distributed patchily
small (1 to 5 ha) and developed on the north
around the islands, with most extensive
coasts. Coral cover and diversity were higher
development on the northern coasts. The
than in macroalgal dominated south coast
southern coasts are more strongly
locations (north coasts average 27 % coral
dominated by macroalgae, although
cover, 46 spp.; south coasts average 5 %,
some sites supported assemblages of
35 spp.).
stony and soft corals interspersed among
macroalgae, turf and coralline algae
and/or barrel-foliose sponges (e.g.
The outer islands (Abd Al Kuri, Samha,
Socotra: Qatanin, Qaara, Bidholan; Abd
Darsa and Kal Farun) were on average more
Al Kuri: Bandar Salih, east Ras
diverse than Socotra for both corals and fish. As
Lubaynah `Trident Bay'; and south-west
with the Gulf of Aden, some corals attained
Samha). Trident Bay, south-west Abd Al
great size, although there is little recent biogenic
Kuri, was exceptional for a south coast
reef accretion. The lack of Holocene reef
location in terms of the cover and
development is likely to be related to recurrent
species richness of the coral assemblage
mass mortality from intense monsoon upwelling
and sizes of individual coral colonies.
or ENSO (El Niño Southern Oscillation) events,
competition with macroalgae, episodic burial
The communities were developed from low
under sediments, high rates of bio-erosion and
tide level to depths exceeding 20 m, with most
the recent initiation of reef growth late in the
occurring on gentle slopes (less than ten degrees
Holocene. Some communities, notably on the
to the horizontal), and usually surrounded by
northern coast of Socotra Island and north-east
sand or merging into sand at their deeper extent.
Gulf of Aden, were adversely affected by
With some exceptions on the northern coasts,
elevated sea temperatures (> 31 °C) in May to
the communities were small (1 to 5 ha). Most
July 1998. This caused mass coral bleaching and
communities occurred in semi-sheltered
mortality and resulted in major reductions in
environments, although they were distributed
cover and shifts in community composition at
over the full range of exposures, from sheltered
the worst-affected sites (DEVANTIER & HARIRI in
to highly exposed (south coasts).
press, DEVANTIER et al. in press b). Other sites,
particularly on the outer islands of the Socotra
group, were little affected, exhibiting high living
At most sites there was little to no recent
cover and little damage. These communities
(Holocene) reef development. Around two-
also support other reef-associated species of
thirds of sites were classified as incipient reefs
high conservation value and/or economic
with some accretion and one third as coral
importance.
communities developed directly on rock, sand
80
Coral Reefs of Yemen
Coral Cover
(46 spp.) with some of the largest colonies
encountered in the surveys. Deep water
Cover of stony corals, dead corals, soft
pinnacles and submerged patch reefs had high
corals and algae were all highly variable among
overall coral cover (average 52 %), with similar
different sites within the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden
levels of live (24 %) and dead coral (28 %).
and Socotra Island Group. Ratios of live to dead
Outbreaks of the crown-of-thorns starfish may
coral cover at individual sites ranged from
have caused this extensive mortality. The most
strongly positive to negative, related largely to
common distinguishing characteristic of these
the differential effects of recent disturbance,
sites was high coral species richness (56 spp.)
notably coral bleaching in 1998.
including 76 species at one site.
Red Sea: In the northern Yemeni Red Sea,
Most exposed reefs with algal crests and
extensive coral mortality over the past decade
monospecific stands of coral also had high cover
(probably caused by elevated sea temperatures
of dead coral, often in the form of mounds or
and predation by crown-of-thorns starfish) had
ridges of branching coral rubble but also dead
resulted in major reductions in living coral cover
massive and tabular Acropora colonies. Reefs in
on some reefs (TURAK & BRODIE 1999). Reefs of
this group had a very high percentage of total
the southern Red Sea, and those fringing
coral cover (averaging over 50 %), although it
offshore islands, were less disturbed, supporting
was mostly dead standing coral (average 44 %)
higher living coral cover.
at the time of survey. Southern fringing reefs
(south of Yakhtul to Dhubab) also had higher
average cover of dead corals (23 %) than live
When surveyed in the mid-1990s, semi-
corals (15 %) and substantial cover of
protected island reefs in Yemen's northern Red
macroalgae (average 14 %).
Sea had, on average, low live-coral cover
(17 %), high dead-coral cover (34 %) and high
macroalgae cover (20 %). These reefs had
Gulf of Aden: Despite the lack of major
relatively high average species richness
biogenic reef accretion, some sites support high
(44 spp.). The northern and central Yemen coast
live-coral cover (> 50 %, and large sizes of
and nearshore islands, from north of Al
individual coral colonies). Examples include the
Khawkhah to Midi near the border with Saudi
islands offshore from Bir Ali. These sites have
Arabia, had very low live-coral cover (3 %) and
high regional significance, as communities with
very high dead standing coral cover (averaging
high coral cover (whether forming true reefs or
34 %). Macroalgal cover was also high
not) are known to occur only very rarely in the
(average 34 %) with Sargassum, Turbinaria,
Arabian Sea (SHEPPARD & SHEPPARD 1991,
Padina and Dictyota spp. being dominant.
SHEPPARD et al. 1992, WATT 1996, KEMP &
These communities were also characterized by
BENZONI 2000).
very low coral species richness (average
9 spp.).
Socotra: Cover of stony corals (including
the reef-building hydrozoan `fire coral'
Clear water communities facing the open sea
Millepora) ranged from less than 1 % to more
- the Zubayr group, At Tair in the north, and
than 75 %, and in large patches (about
Mayun Island in the south - had the highest live
1,000 m2) attained about 100 %. When assessed
coral cover (29 %) and lowest dead coral cover
over all sites, living stony coral cover averaged
(14 %). Macroalgal cover was also among the
about 20 %, with highest cover (about 35 %)
lowest, while coral species diversity was high
on the Brothers (Samhah, Darsa and including
81
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
Sabuniyah Rocks). Stony coral cover was much
soft corals, caused reductions in average coral
higher on the north coasts (about 25 %) than on
cover from about 50 to about 20 % at some
the south coasts (about 5 %).
locations. Following the 1998 bleaching event,
overall dead coral cover averaged 8 %, with
little variability among islands. Cover of dead
Sites of high stony coral cover (> 50 %)
corals was lowest at the Brothers (about 5 %)
included Medina (north-west Socotra - large
and on the southern coasts, reflecting the
monospecific beds of Pavona maldivensis and
generally low coral cover there.
Goniopora stokesi), Ras Anjara Bay (east of
Abd Al Kuri: tabular and staghorn Acropora
spp., massive and encrusting faviids, poritids,
Special Characteristics of Yemeni Reefs
mussids), north Samha (large monospecific beds
of staghorn Acropora formosa), and north-east
One of the important features of most
Samha (tabular and staghorn Acropora spp.,
Yemeni Red Sea coral reefs is the very limited
massive and encrusting faviids, poritids,
or complete lack of an intertidal zone. The main
mussids). Other notable locations were Diham-
tidal movements in the Red Sea are diurnal tides
Qubbah and Hawlaf Port (Socotra) and the small
of limited magnitude, seasonal tides of more
outer island rock stacks of Kal Farun and
significance and, at times most importantly, sea
Sabuniyah Rocks, all with living coral cover
level fluctuations due to strong persistent
(about 50 %), composed predominantly by
onshore winds (EDWARDS 1987). Most reefs in
large (1 to 4 m diameter) massive corals of the
the Yemeni Red Sea either do not have an
genera Porites or Galaxea.
intertidal reef flat development or they are
devoid of live corals.
All the above sites remained largely
unaffected by the mass coral bleaching event
From the shallow coastal waters of southern
that caused major reductions in live cover at
Saudi Arabia, SHEPPARD (1985) described reef
other sites in May and June 1998. Most south
formations built essentially of crustose red algae
coast sites had stony coral cover less than 10 %,
and named them Algal Reefs. Such formations
being dominated by macroalgae, with the
also occur along the north coast of Yemen and
notable exception of south-west Abd Al Kuri.
south to A1 Urj. Algal reefs also occur in the
Here cover of both living and dead corals was
shallow nearshore waters north of Al Hodeidah.
each about 20 %, composed predominantly of
They are often covered by dense macroalgal
massive corals, some of which had dead colony
growth and may also be surrounded by seagrass
surfaces consistent with injury during the 1998
beds. Associated biota are usually poor and may
bleaching event.
include some sea urchins and a variety of algal
species. Fish diversity and abundance were
generally low.
Previous coral surveys reported that most
sites were in good to excellent condition
(MACALISTER ELLIOTT AND PARTNERS 1996, see
Coral communities of the Socotra Island
also KEMP 1998). Although high cover of dead
Group and north-east Gulf of Aden were notable
Acropora spp. (about 50 %) was reported from
for the occasional co-occurrence of large
one site on the north-east coast of Socotra, no
monospecific coral stands immediately adjacent
cause of the mortality was identified. Coral
to highly diverse coral assemblages, developed
mortality following bleaching in 1998,
in similar environmental conditions of depth,
particularly among tabular and staghorn
light, sea temperature, and sediment type.
Acropora, foliose Montipora, fire corals and
82
Coral Reefs of Yemen
Coral Reef Fisheries
artisanal fisheries. Among the exploitable
stocks, pelagics are more abundant than
Fishing is a traditional profession for
demersal resources. Large pelagics include
thousands of Yemenis. Total annual catches vary
tunas, Spanish mackerels, sharks, jacks and
between 90,000 and 95,000 mt. Most of the
marlins. Data on the distribution of demersal
landings come from trawling in the Red Sea and
stocks and their densities are given in EDWARDS
the pelagics fishery in the Gulf of Aden. Reef-
et al. (1984). Catches of the Spanish mackerel
based fisheries are, for the most part,
Scomberomorus commersoni amount to about
underdeveloped and at a subsistence level.
1,000 mt annually; horse mackerels (Trachurus
and Decapterus sp.) ranged between 5,000 to
8,000 mt annually during the 1980s. There has
Fishery Distribution
been a slow but gradual decline in catches of
pelagic species following a peak in 1989, while
Coral reef fisheries are based primarily in
demersal fish stocks have been declining sharply
the Red Sea and around the Socotra Island
since 1987. Sharks (mostly Carcharinidae and
Group. There are five main landing centres on
Sphyrnidae) are also fished, using trolling and
the Red Sea coast: Midi, Khoba, Hodeidah,
surface long-lining. During the 1980s annual
Khaukha and Mokha. Reef-based fisheries in
catches were in the order of 7,000 mt.
the Gulf of Aden are minor, with the majority of
the fishing industry targeting pelagics. On
Socotra, reef-based fishing activities take place
There is an artisanal fishery for spiny
along the entire coastline, but only one
lobsters (Panulirus spp.) in Hadhramut and
processing plant exists to market catches on a
Mahra and around the Socotra Island Group.
commercial scale. Other catches are
Catches were about 200 mt between 1972 and
predominantly at a subsistence level. The
1983, rose to a peak of 1,150 mt in 1987 and
trawling grounds of the Red Sea cover about
dropped to around 600 to 700 mt 1991. Only
6,200 km2 of which 550 km2 are shrimp fishery
5 % came from Socotra. Management measures
areas (SANDERS & KEDIDI 1981).
since 1970 have restricted the lobster fishing
season to the period between October and April,
limited tail lengths to greater than 7 cm and
Fishery Composition and Trends
catching females with eggs was forbidden.
Since 1983 fishermen have been encouraged to
For the Red Sea, data date back to the 1970s
use lobster traps, which have now largely
and early 1980s and focus on demersal fishes
replaced nets.
and shrimps. SANDERS & MORGAN (1989)
estimated the standing stocks in the Yemeni Red
Sea at roughly 23,000 to 32,000 mt. No more
Resource surveys in the 1960s and 1970s
recent data on stocks are available. Statistics are
reported rich fishery resources in the waters
generally unreliable because catches are
surrounding the Socotra Island Group.
auctioned and sold as individual fishes (for large
KESTEVEN et al. (1981) estimated biomass for
species), or in bundles for fish of smaller size,
demersal resources at 55,000 to 116,000 mt and
often without being weighed. Furthermore,
for pelagics at 112,000 to 24,000 mt, with yield
there are no accurate figures on fishing effort.
estimates of 10,000 to 20,000 mt and 39,000 to
78,000 mt respectively. Fish, turtles and
lobsters are important resources in the
In the Gulf of Aden several surveys have
archipelago and abalone is a resource of
provided valuable resource information on
potential future exploitation. More recent
demersal and pelagic stocks, but little on
information is provided in UNDP/GEF (1996).
83
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
Threats to Coral Reef Biodiversity
planned. Unless appropriate environmental
precautions are taken, this development is likely
Coral reefs have not ranked highly on the
to cause considerable local adverse
protection agenda in Yemen. Development of
environmental impact.
urban centres and industry carry a higher
priority, and only in recent years has the
protection of coral reefs been addressed. Threats
Tourism
to Yemen's reefs include those from oil and oil-
Reef-based tourism is still in its infancy and
related industries, shipping and harbour
impacts on the reefs by visitors are low. This
activities, ballast water discharge, fishing, urban
might become an important issue in the Gulf of
development and sewage discharge, litter,
Aden where corals are already under stressful
catchment pollution and sedimentation,
conditions and particularly sensitive to distur-
chemical pollution, tourism, coastal industries,
bance.
coral predators and global climate change
(PERSGA/GEF 2001, BRODIE & TURAK 1999).
Shipping and Navigation
Threats to biodiversity range from local (e.g.
coral collecting), regional (e.g. bleaching) to
Yemeni waters are major shipping routes.
global (e.g. changes in ocean alkalinity from
About 16,000 ships pass through the Straits of
increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide). A
Bab al Mandab each year and many call at
fledgling tourism industry poses a small threat
Yemen's main ports (Table 14; ADEN PORT
to reefs from anchor or diver damage.
DEVELOPMENT 1996). Ships are known to dump
their wastes and ballast water into Yemeni
waters. Ballast waters result in the formation of
Coastal Development
tar balls, which have been found all along the
Coastal cities and towns are expanding at
coastline of the Gulf of Aden (EC/MFW 1995)
accelerating rates and unplanned settlements
and some parts of the Red Sea coast (RUSHDI
around cities such as Al Hodeidah may result in
et al. 1991). Additionally, solid waste from ship-
the loss of coral reefs. The proposed
based sources may be found on beaches. The
development of Aden Port and Aden Free Zone
potential threat of a major accident is significant
are expected to have a major impact on the
and may result in major habitat destruction and
environment. Reclamation for port development
oil pollution. Main ports lack reception facilities
and expansion and for construction of industrial
and there is limited oil spill contingency
areas is already underway in Aden, where
planning.
lagoons and intertidal areas are being reclaimed.
In Socotra, harbour and airport development are
Port
1994
1995
First half 1996
number of
Oil cargo
number of
Oil cargo
number of
Oil cargo
ships
ships
ships
Aden
878
2,548,563
1164
4,201,809
696
4,112,120
Al Hodeidah
523
1,350,524
583
1,326,711
392
108,807
Al Mucka
84
263,447
97
230,254
159
19,304
Mukalla
224
229,100
186
248,404
183
116,084
Ras Isa
83
7,639,899
84
7,411,011
46
3,543,541
Table 14: Number of ships calling at Yemeni ports and volume of oil cargo in metric tonnes (PERSGA 1997)
84
Coral Reefs of Yemen
Shark Fishery
north-east Gulf of Aden. At the worst affected
Catches of sharks from the Red Sea
sites, more than half of the species were injured
increased to 1993 (peak of 6,537 mt) and
and about half of the live coral cover was killed.
dropped gradually to 3,556 mt in 1996. Sharks
Species were affected differentially.
are mainly caught for their fins, which are
Pocilloporids, table and branching Acropora
exported and fetch high prices on international
spp. and fire corals Millepora sp. were the most
markets.
badly affected and changes occurred in species
composition and relative abundance.
Oil Pollution
Oil and oil-related industries pose a threat to
The bleaching followed a period of elevated
coral reef biodiversity. Oil originates from
sea surface temperatures greater than 1 °C
ballast water discharge or from spills while
above mean monthly averages (as derived from
loading or unloading. A 409,000 tonnes
NOAA `hotspot' satellite imagery). On the north
deadweight, floating storage and off-loading
coast of Socotra, sea surface temperatures were
vessel is moored 4.8 nautical miles offshore
warmer than 31 °C in May to June 1998,
from Ras Isa on the Al Salif Peninsula. This ship
followed by rapid cooling (< 24 °C) in July
is supplied with crude oil by a pipeline from the
1998 (DEVANTIER et al. in press b). Warming
shore, which is then transferred to crude oil
occurred in June in the north-east Gulf of Aden.
tankers. Oil spill risks associated with these
procedures are considered significant. Over 200
tar balls per 10 m transect were recorded at
Crown-of-Thorns Starfish - Offshore Red
Bandar east of Aden (RUSHDI et al. 1991).
Sea Reefs
Current daily bunker supplies in the Port of
Recent extensive coral mortality on offshore
Aden are around 40,000 mt. Poor maintenance
Red Sea reefs was similar in appearance to that
has resulted in low level, but locally significant,
following outbreaks of crown-of-thorns starfish.
leaks from bunkering facilities into the port.
Nearly all the acroporid corals, the preferred
One bunker barge sank in 1995, causing
food of Acanthaster planci, were dead,
considerable localized oil pollution in the
including large (4 to 5 m diameter) colonies.
Tawahi area (ADEN PORT DEVELOPMENT 1996),
Some starfish remained feeding in the area.
and a thick layer of oil covering the intertidal
Small scale starfish outbreaks have also been
and lower supralittoral zones is still evident.
reported previously from other parts of the Red
Sea and it is believed that the present level of
damage is comparable to that caused by
Bleaching
A. planci in Sudan in the late 1960s (ORMOND &
Bleaching has caused extensive recent coral
CAMPBELL 1974).
mortality on many Yemeni reefs, including
those in the northern nearshore area of the Red
Sea (since 1990), in the southern Red Sea
Drupella Mortality
(within the last 2 to 4 years), and Socotra Island
The coral-feeding snails Drupella were
Group and north east Gulf of Aden (1998). A
present at most Red Sea and Socotra sites. They
number of the Red Sea sites with near total
occurred with a varying degree of abundance,
mortality had been reported as having healthy
most commonly on compact branching forms of
coral growth in the 1980s (IUCN 1987).
Acropora, tabular Acropora and pocilloporids,
in order of preference. Generally damage was at
a sub-lethal level, with most infected corals
Bleaching effects in 1998 were patchily
showing partial mortality ranging from 10 to
distributed around the Socotra Island Group and
70 % of the colony.
85
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
Bio-Erosion
Overfishing
The urchins Echinometra and Diadema spp.
Overfishing of reef-associated species has
occur in moderate to high abundance (> 10 m2)
the potential to produce secondary effects on the
at some sites and, with the grazing parrot fishes
ecosystem. Shark resources are depleting and
(Scaridae) and boring sponges, are major
catches by local fishermen are declining due to
contributors to bio-erosion of the reef substrate.
large-scale shark fishing. Outbreaks of crown-
Bio-erosion was particularly noticeable at sites
of-thorns starfish are suspected to be caused by
badly affected by the 1998 bleaching event.
overfishing of reef-associated fish predators in
the families Lethrinidae, Balistidae and
Tetraododontidae (ORMOND et al. 1990).
Storm Waves
Coral assemblages at some sites around
Socotra had been affected by storm waves.
Aquarium Trade
Large tabular colonies of Acropora clathrata
At present two companies are licensed to
had been overturned or toppled and some
collect coral reef fishes for the aquarium trade,
branching corals had been fragmented. Dead
and more licences are expected to be issued in
corals that had been killed by the 1998
the future. There are limited catch records. Fish
bleaching or other agents, and where the
collecting for the aquarium trade should be
skeletons had been weakened by bio-erosion,
monitored carefully to prevent damage to the
were particularly susceptible to breakage.
reef habitat and decline in reef-associated fauna.
Coral Diseases
Industrial and Urban Development
There is little known of the distribution and
Waste waters from the main coastal cities
effects of coral diseases in Yemeni waters. In the
and industries are discharged directly into the
northern Red Sea several diseases have been
sea. Only about 30 to 40 % of large coastal
identified as killing or injuring corals. In the
cities are served by public sewage networks. In
Socotra Island Group, diseased corals were
Aden, raw organic matter is discharged directly
uncommon or absent from most sites, although
into the sea, and problems of bacterial
`white band' disease was causing injury to
contamination are apparent (EC/MFW 1995). In
tabular colonies of Acropora clathrata, a species
Mukalla and the smaller towns, sewage is also
badly affected by the 1998 bleaching event.
directly discharged into the sea without any
treatment. Power stations at Mokha, Ras
Katheeb and Hiswa (Aden) discharge saline
Coral Collecting
high-temperature water directly into the sea
Coral collecting for lime and building
causing temperature increases in surrounding
materials (indicated by piles of coral boulders
waters.
on the coast) occurs at many locations around
the Socotra Island Group. However, most
collecting is of dead corals that have been
Marine Protected Areas and Level
deposited on beaches by storms. At present there
of Management
is little evidence of subtidal collecting of live
corals from any of the islands. However,
increasing export demand may prompt live coral
There is one marine protected area in
collecting in the future.
Yemen. Six other areas have been proposed for
protected area status. The establishment of
marine protected areas is a relatively new
process in Yemen, with funding and technical
86
Coral Reefs of Yemen
input from IUCN, the Global Environment
Dhobba (Shihr): Considered as it is a
Facility and PERSGA.
marine turtle nesting site (14°45'N 49°40'E).
There are no coral reefs.
MPAs Declared
Bab al Mandab and Perim Island:
Socotra Islands Group: The archipelago
Contains extensive seagrass beds and mangrove
occupies some 3,625 km2 and is home to
stands, and is an important waterway feeding
diverse terrestrial plant and animal life with a
the Red Sea (12°30'N 43°30'E). There are no
high degree of endemism. Socotra (12°30'N
coral reefs.
54°00'E) is the main island, the others being
Abd Al Kuri, Samha and Darsa. There are also
smaller rock islets, Kal Farun and Sabuniya.
Current Monitoring and
Funding and logistical support has been
Management Capacity to Conserve
provided through the GEF-Socotra Biodiversity
Coral Reef Resources
Project. It was established as a protected area in
1996.
Monitoring Capacity
De facto and Planned MPAs
The Department of Oceanography,
University of Sana'a, which was established in
Belhaf and Bir Ali Area: This is a coastal
the late 1970s, has more than 10 staff members
stretch and group of high aspect islands with
specialized in marine ecology, chemistry,
extensive fringing coral reefs and rich fishing
geology, and fish biology. Its main
areas (14°00'N 48°10'E). The area is also an
responsibilities are teaching, research and
important seabird and marine turtle nesting site,
advising the government on marine issues. It has
and contains a saltwater crater with fringing
a capacity for and is carrying out research and
mangroves.
training in coastal surveys, pollution monitoring
and analysis. The University of Aden, with
colleges in Hodeidah and Mukalla, also has
Ras Isa and Kamaran Island: The
several departments which are involved in
headland/island complex (15°16'N 42°44'E)
research and training in marine sciences. In
contains mangroves and coral reefs with diverse
1996, this university organised the first
associated fauna. Habitats are threatened by
international symposium on Socotra Island.
chronic pollution from the nearby oil terminal,
and reef fisheries for the aquarium trade.
The Marine Science Research and
Resources Centre (MSRRC) in Aden is the
Khor Umaira: Mixed seagrass and coral
advisory body to the Ministry of Fish Wealth
reef habitat; the area is a semi-enclosed lagoon
(MFW). The centre advises the ministry on
that supports marine turtle feeding grounds
aspects of fish stock assessment and
(12°40'N 44°10'E). There are no coral reefs.
management, data on fish landing, fishing
seasons etc. It consists of Fisheries,
Oceanography and Benthos departments and
Ras Sharma: Important (regionally and
has a newly established small pollution control
possibly globally) nesting site for green turtles
centre at Al Buriekah (Little Aden), an
(13°00'N 43°40'E). There are no coral reefs.
experimental mariculture station, and a small
laboratory in Mukalla. The MSRRC operates a
87
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
37 m research vessel, which is currently in need
management and development of
of maintenance. The centre receives some
Yemen's fish resources. The MFW,
technical assistance from Yemen's Fourth
through the Department of Monitoring
Fisheries Development Project and has
and Surveillance, is responsible for the
collaborated in the execution of a coastal habitat
enforcement of laws and regulations
survey of the Gulf of Aden.
concerning marine resources.
Public Corporation for Maritime
Staff from the Socotra Biodiversity Project
Affairs (PCMA): This is the main
undertake annual monitoring of coral and fish
governmental body concerned with
communities around the archipelago.
maritime safety and marine pollution
control. It also plays an important role in
developing a legislative framework to
Management Capacity
protect the marine environment.
A number of governmental agencies have
responsibility for the coastal and marine areas.
Maritime Training Centre: The Centre
There is no authority solely in charge of the
was established in Aden in 1989. It
management of the coastal zone in Yemen.
conducts training courses in port
operations and maritime transport,
Environment Protection Council
maritime safety and pollution control. It
(EPC): The EPC was established in
offers courses on the MARPOL
1990 by Prime Ministerial Decree
Convention and oil spill response. It
94/1990. The Technical Secretariat (TS)
currently receives assistance from
co-ordinates and monitors the planning
UNDP.
and implementation of environmental
protection policies. Implementation at
General Tourism Authority (GTA):
field level is under the responsibility of
The GTA is responsible for tourism
the line ministries. There are three
activities throughout the country
departments under the TS: Environment
including eco-tourism. Permission for
Protection, Planning and Data, and
building tourist villages along the coast
Administration and Financial Affairs.
or on islands is issued by the GTA. In
The EPC is the official government
1995, the GTA issued a set of regulations
agency in charge of the development and
and guidelines for tourists while
implementation of national
snorkelling or/and diving.
environmental protection and control
policies. (The EPC has now been
Government Legislation, Strategies
renamed as the Environment Protection
and Policy Pertinent to Reef
Agency.)
Conservation
Ministry of Fish Wealth (MFW): The
MFW regulates fishing, issues licences
and supervises processing and marketing
The Republic of Yemen is a party to
of fish and fisheries products for local
international conventions, agreements and
consumption and export. Imports and/or
treaties that have implications for the marine
manufacturing of fishing gear and other
environment. Similarly, a number of national
relevant equipment must be in
instruments exist at various government levels,
accordance with specifications of the
which concern coral reefs either directly or
MFW. The ministry is responsible for the
indirectly.
88
Coral Reefs of Yemen
International Agreements
Law No. 11 (1993): Established for the
protection of the sea from pollution, it is
Treaties or conventions that were signed by
mainly concerned with pollution by oil
ex-YAR and ex-PDRY Yemen are still in force
and pollution from passing ships. The
according to the unification decree. Yemen is
law determines procedures for
party to The Regional Convention for the
prosecuting, penalizing and requesting
Conservation of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
compensation from ships that violate the
Environment (1982); the Protocol Concerning
law. It gives the Public Corporation for
Regional Cooperation in Combating Pollution
Maritime Affairs the legislative power to
by Oil and other Harmful Substances in Cases of
deal with oil pollution at sea. In its
Emergency (1982); the United Nations
Article No. 35, the law prohibits any
Convention on the Law of the Sea (1982); the
form of discharge of pollutants of any
Vienna Convention for the Protection of the
kind and from any source into the sea
Ozone Layer (1985); the Montreal Protocol on
without prior treatment.
Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer
(1987); the Basel Convention on the Control of
Law No. 4, Article 10(d) (1993):
Trans-boundary Movements of Hazardous
Prohibits any activities or practices
Wastes and their Disposal (1989); the
carried out in contradiction to special
Convention on Biological Diversity (1992); and
directives regarding the protection of the
the United Nations Framework Convention on
environment.
Climate Change (1992).
Fisheries Law No. 42 (1991): This is
the main legal framework for
Yemen has signed, but not yet ratified the
organisation, exploitation and protection
MARPOL Convention due to lack of funds to
of fishing and aquatic resources. This
purchase the necessary port waste reception
law deals with the protection of fisheries
facilities. At present Yemen co-operates with
resources and regulation of fishing
Djibouti and Somalia in combating oil spills. Oil
activities. The law prohibits the use of
pollution control equipment for the Gulf of
destructive fishing methods such as
Aden area (Yemen, Somalia and Djibouti) has
poisons, chemicals, etc. The law also
been stored at facilities in Djibouti. Yemen and
indicates means of limiting and/or
Djibouti are currently negotiating a bilateral
dealing with pollution.
agreement regarding the use of these facilities.
Law No. 37 (1991): Defines the
territorial waters, the boundaries of the
National Legislation
islands, and the exclusive economic
zone of 200 nautical miles. It also
In recent years Yemen has established a
regulates free passage in the Straits of
number of significant instruments, laws and
Bab al Mandab. It emphasizes the
regulations, which concern coral reefs
prohibition of dumping any wastes into
(Table 15). These include:
these zones.
Prime Ministerial Decree No. 4 (1996):
Established Socotra as a protected area
and developed a High Committee for
Development of Socotra headed by the
Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of
Planning and Development.
89
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
Law, Ordinance, Regulation
Year Government Agency concerned
Presidential Resolution on the Territorial Sea, Adjacent Waters,
the Exclusive Economic Zone and the Continental Shelf (Law
1991 Ministry of Defence, MFW
No. 37)
Presidential Resolution on Fishing, Exploitation and Protection 1991 Ministry of Fish Wealth
of Living Aquatic Resources (Law No. 42)
Free Zone Law (Law No. 4)
1993 Free Zone Authority
Protection of the Marine Environment from Pollution
1993 Public Corporation for Maritime Affairs
(Presidential Decree No. 11)
The Maritime Law for the Republic of Yemen
1995 Public Corporation for Maritime Affairs
(Presidential Decree No. 5)
Environment Protection Law
1995 Environment Protection Council
Ministerial Decree for Specifications of Fishing Vessels and
1995 Ministry of Fish Wealth
Gear (No. 101)
Prime Ministerial Decree No. 4 of 1996 establishing Socotra
1996 Ministry of Planning and Development
as a protected area
Table 15: National Laws and Regulations related to Coastal and Marine Environments and Resources
Gaps in Capacity and Requirements
Network) and regionally among the PERSGA
for Improved Conservation
member states.
The major gap in effective coral reef
Planning and Coastal Development
conservation is the lack of funding to establish
Direct use and indirect development
and implement regulations in marine protected
activities that affect reef systems need to be
areas. These will also need strict enforcement
carefully evaluated in the design stages and be
and further research to acquire baseline
subject to continued monitoring through the
information. There is a general lack of funding
implementation stages.
for marine research activities and most research
is currently funded through GEF, World Bank or
UNDP projects. Specifically, the Republic of
Community Education
Yemen needs to address the following issues:
There is a need to develop community
education programmes that highlight the role of
people play in reef ecology, including reef
Research
degradation.
Research needs to be carried out in order to
update baseline environmental conditions and
follow-up monitoring should refer to these
Legislation
baselines to detect changes in environmental
Yemen needs to take further steps in the
quality.
establishment of marine protected areas and to
monitor the implementation of legislation
concerning these areas with special regard to
Networking
coastal development, fisheries and tourism.
There is a need to integrate current research
into global initiatives such as ICRI
(International Coral Reef Initiative) and
GCRMN (Global Coral Reef Monitoring
90
Coral Reefs of Yemen
Funding and Expertise
institutional capacity for the enforcement of
A larger proportion of funds allocated to
environmental and fisheries regulations.
protected areas and environmental research
needs to be appropriated for marine
conservation efforts. With the EPC for instance,
Environmental Management
this would also require the expansion of marine
Develop and implement a master plan for
research and conservation activities.
conservation and sustainable development of
the Socotra Island Group. Prepare and
implement a coastal zone management plan.
Recommendations to Improve the
Strengthen the capacity of GTA and the Free
Conservation of Coral Reef
Zone Authority for environmental management.
Resources
Develop and establish a system of marine
protected areas with effectively implemented
management plans.
The key recommendations are centred
around the development of national capacity for
planning and implementation of relevant control
Habitat Conservation
mechanisms, be they legislative or procedural.
Design and conduct inventory surveys,
This would include development of maritime
habitat mapping and sensitivity analyses of the
laws, ICZM plans, EIA methods, port facilities,
entire coastline including distribution of rare
pollution management strategies and applied
and endangered species.
research activities.
Petroleum Development and Transport
Legislation
Develop and implement an oil spill
Develop the regulations and human
contingency plan.
resources to implement the existing Maritime
Law and the Law for the Protection of the
Marine Environment from Pollution. This
Industrial Development
should take place alongside the development
Establish a framework for development and
and implementation of environmental
operation of the Aden Free Zone in an
assessment procedures and guidelines, including
environmentally sound manner. Develop and
those that develop and implement a protected
implement a port reception facilities plan.
area law.
Urban Development
Institutional Strengthening
Upgrade the waste-water collection and
Strengthen the institutional capacity of the
treatment in coastal areas, including Aden,
Environmental Protection Council to co-
Hodeidah and Mukalla. Upgrade solid waste
ordinate and monitor activities affecting the
management and disposal in coastal areas,
marine environment. Strengthen the capacity of
including Aden, Hodeidah and Mukalla.
the Public Corporation for Maritime Affairs to
enable it to carry out its duties in the fields of
protecting the marine environment from
Applied Research
pollution, safety of shipping, including Port and
Develop a database of biological resources
Flag State Control duties. Strengthen
and environmental information and establish a
91
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
monitoring programme to support operations
and enforcement activities. Develop training
programmes for marine resource surveys,
monitoring and management and GIS
applications. Design and implement a
programme to evaluate potential impacts from
agricultural chemicals on the Tihama coastal
zone.
Environmental Education and Public
Participation
Conduct public awareness and
environmental education programmes for all
levels of the coastal population. Promote the
broad-based participation of NGOs.
92
Coral Reefs of Saudi Arabia
Introduction
The central Red Sea, including the Outer
Farasan Bank, contains many species that are
absent from the northern and southern reaches
Saudi Arabia's Red Sea coastline extends
of the Red Sea. There is evidence that coral
southwards approximately 1,840 km from the
abundances and temperature regimes are
Jordanian border north of Haql (29°30'N) to the
important in explaining species distribution in
border with Yemen at Oreste Point (16°22'N).
this zone. The southern Red Sea has many
The continental shelf extends offshore for
species that are more suited to sediment-loaded
distances of < 1 km in the Gulf of Aqaba to
waters, which occur because of terrigenous
> 100 km on the Farasan Bank.
input and water mixing across the wide shallow
coastal shelf. The highest sea temperatures are
found in this zone restricting coral development.
The climate is extremely arid and much of
Saudi Arabia's biological productivity is
confined to a narrow coastal strip where coral
The Red Sea coast and islands support a
reefs, mangroves and seagrass communities
variety of coastal and marine habitats, related
predominate. Average rainfall is less than
largely to oceanographic regime, degree of
70 mm/year along the broad coastal Tihama
exposure and particularly to topographic
plains of the Red Sea (Al-Wajh: 16 mm/year;
features which support the development of coral
Jeddah: 63 mm/year; Jizan: 63 mm/year).
reefs, mangrove stands and seagrass beds. The
Inland, above the coastal escarpment, it may
area has a complex tectonic history of uplift and
exceed 200 mm/year.
subsidence, related to the rift development of
the Red Sea from the movements of the Arabian
and African tectonic plates. The present series of
Over 15 % of the population lives in the
living coral reefs are the latest in a chronological
Red Sea coastal zone; urban and industrial
sequence of raised (uplifted) and submerged
development have had severe impacts on the
reefs that have developed at various times over
coastal lands and waters, particularly adjacent to
the past several hundred millennia. In many
the major coastal towns and cities. Much of this
cases the present reefs are developed on earlier
development involved extensive landfill sites
reef structures. Detailed descriptions of the
and dredging, which has destroyed substantial
geology, physical environment, climate,
areas of the intertidal and subtidal nearshore
hydrology, oceanography and habitats of the
habitats (CHIFFINGS 1989). In Jeddah, the
Red Sea and wider Arabian Region are
Corniche development and other urban
presented by FISHELSON (1971), MERGNER
expansion projects continue this destruction of
(1971), SCHEER (1971), ORMOND et al. (1984a),
habitat and natural resources (CHILD &
EDWARDS & HEAD (1987), CROSSLAND et al.
GRAINGER 1990).
(1987), IUCN/UNEP (1988), BENTHOUX (1988),
SHEPPARD & SHEPPARD (1985, 1991), BEHAIRY
et al. (1992) and SHEPPARD et al. (1992), PURSER
& BOSENCE (1998).
93
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
Suez Canal
The Gulf of Aqaba is deep and relatively
JORDAN
Aqaba
narrow. It is characterised by its geographical
Gulf of Aqaba
isolation and the number of species that are
Gulf of Suez
either restricted to or from the area, including
several species of reef-building corals and fish.
Duba
The extreme north of the Gulf contains species
Al Wajh
SAUDI ARABIA
presently known from nowhere else in the Red
Sea (MEPA/IUCN 1987). A dispersal bottle-
EGYPT
Um Lajj
neck into and out of the Straits of Tiran and cool
Port Berenice
Yanbu
sea temperatures may be important factors in
these species distributions. Reefs are typically
Rabigh
narrow, fringing the steep mainland coast.
Jeddah
The northern-central Red Sea has a much
Red
Al Lith
higher diversity of reef and coastal habitat types
Port Sudan
Sea
Qunfidha
than the Gulf of Aqaba. It has large expanses of
SUDAN
coastal marshes (sabkha), seagrasses, macro-
Farasan
Bank
algae, mangrove stands and reefs that fringe the
Jizan
mainland, islands, offshore patch and barrier
Farasan
Dahlak
reefs. The area is renowned for the presence of
Islands
Archipelago
YEMEN
the Al-Wajh Bank, a large, relatively shallow
ERITREA
Sana'a
Al Hodeidah
area bordered by a barrier reef system on its
seaward edge and incorporating many islands
Az Zuqu
> 8 % reef coverage
Hanish
and reefs. The Bank is unique in several respects
al Kabr
Al Mukha
4-8 % reef coverage
and is the current focus of marine protected area
< 4 % reef coverage
DJIBOUTI
planning by the National Commission for
Wildlife Conservation and Development
Fig. 10: Map of the Saudi Arabian Red Sea coast
(NCWCD). With the exception of reefs in the
indicating coral reef densities: shading represents
vicinity of coastal towns and cities, most remain
areas of a 500 m by 500 m quadrat which was reef,
(MEPA/IUCN 1992b)
in good condition (NCWCD-JICA 2000,
DEVANTIER et al. in press).
The Saudi Arabian Red Sea coast is divisible
into three relatively homogenous areas in terms
of the variety and distribution of coastal and
The central-southern area, including the
marine habitats and reefs:
Outer Farasan Bank and islands, has a different
bio-physical and geomorphological character to
the northern area and Gulf of Aqaba. It contains
the Gulf of Aqaba in the north,
species that are better suited to more turbid,
sediment-loaded waters that occur here because
the northern-central section from
of terrigenous input and water mixing across the
immediately south of the Gulf of Aqaba
wide, shallow, coastal shelf. The highest sea
to Jeddah,
temperatures are found in this zone and coral
development is restricted. The Farasan Islands
the central-southern region from south of
and surrounding waters and reefs have been
Jeddah to the border of Yemen and
designated as a protected area.
including the Farasan Bank and Islands.
94
Coral Reefs of Saudi Arabia
Surveys
Coral reefs fringe much of the entire length
of the Saudi Arabian Red Sea coastline and the
offshore islands (Fig. 10) and are generally in
Geographical Scope
good condition, with the exception of those near
Jeddah and Yanbu (PERSGA 1998). Five areas
in particular have been noted for their coral
Several major research initiatives have been
reefs: the Tiran Islands, the Al-Wajh Bank, the
carried out over the past few decades (see
reefs north of Yanbu, the reefs between Obhur
MERGNER 1984, SHEPPARD et al. 1992 for
and Thuwal north of Jeddah, and the outer
reviews). The first major broad-scale surveys of
Farasan Bank (MEPA/IUCN 1987b).
coastal and marine habitat types and
biodiversity of the Red Sea coast were
undertaken in the 1980s (ORMOND et al. 1984
The near-continuous coral reef tract of the
a-c). These surveys identified about 70 key sites
Red Sea has high local, regional and global
for conservation and recommended the
conservation significance. With the exception of
establishment of five larger, multiple-use,
reefs in the immediate vicinity of coastal cities
marine protected areas (MPAs) in the Gulf of
and towns (particularly Jeddah and Yanbu),
Aqaba, the Tiran Island chain, the Wedj Bank
these reefs generally have low levels of human
(herein Al-Wajh Bank), the Outer Farasan Bank
use and impact. The region includes most of the
and part of the Farasan Islands. To date, only the
world's major reef types, including mainland
Farasan Islands have been designated as a MPA.
fringing reefs, island fringing reefs, platform
patch reefs, pinnacles and barrier reefs. Reefs
are often developed in sharms along the
Reef types and composition of the coral
mainland coast, a characteristic reef-form
fauna of the Saudi Arabian Red Sea were
largely restricted to the Red Sea. Most of the
assessed in the early to mid 1980s (SHEPPARD &
reefs are actively accretional. The level of reef
SHEPPARD 1985, 1991, ANTONIUS et al. 1990),
development varies widely. There are
producing a comprehensive coral species
subsurface patch reefs with no reef flat (mostly
inventory for the Saudi Arabian Red Sea.
in the Al-Wajh Bank and southern area), narrow
Subsequently, during 1987-88, a monitoring
contour fringing reefs with reef flats < 30 m
programme was conducted investigating coral
wide (in the Gulf of Aqaba), large platform and
reef health and surrounding water quality along
barrier reefs with reef flats often > 100 m wide
the Red Sea coast (AWAD 2000). Black and
and tower reefs similar to atolls (on the Farasan
white band diseases, shut-down-reaction and
Bank). These reef types support coral
tissue bleaching were taken as pathogenic
communities with highly variable levels of live
indicators, while more than twenty
coral cover and species diversity. There are
hydrographic, chemical and pollution
unique communities including species endemic
parameters were used for describing the
to the region and others not yet described. The
surrounding environment.
communities support other reef-associated
species of high conservation value and/or
economic importance.
More recently (1997-99), the distribution
and composition of coastal and marine habitats
of the central-northern Red Sea were assessed,
from north of Jeddah to Haql in the Gulf of
Aqaba. A joint study was conducted between the
National Commission for Wildlife Conservation
and Development (NCWCD) and the Japanese
International Co-operation Agency (JICA). This
95
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
study produced detailed site bio-inventories for
habitat types, including coral reefs, along the
corals, fish, other benthos, algae, seagrass,
Red Sea has been documented using several
coastal vegetation and birds, and assessed the
rapid assessment methods (IUCN 1984,
distribution and abundance of marine mammals
DAWSON SHEPHERD & ORMOND 1987, PRICE
and turtles. Combined with socio-economic
et al. 1998, ROUPHAEL & AL-YAMI 1999,
assessments of patterns of human use and
DEVANTIER et al. in press).
detailed habitat mapping prepared from aerial
photos and satellite images, the data were used
to define key reefs and larger reef areas of high
The biological resources, uses of the
conservation significance for MPA planning
resources and any impacts along the coastline
(NCWCD-JICA 2000, DEVANTIER et al. in
were assessed at about 1400 geographically
press).
discrete coastal and offshore sites (PRICE et al.
1998). The sites were selected at 10 km
intervals along the shoreline and offshore
Further south in the Farasan Islands Marine
islands. Each site comprised a 500 m by 500 m
Protected Area (FIMPA), abundances of live
quadrat bisecting the beach, covering the
coral, dead coral, coral-feeding Crown-of-
immediate terrestrial, supratidal, intertidal and
Thorns starfish Acanthaster planci and muricid
immediate subtidal zones. Within the quadrat,
snails Drupella spp.. were assessed in 1999
the abundance of ecosystems and species groups
(AL-YAMI & ROUPHAEL 2000).
and the magnitude of resource uses or impacts
was estimated and recorded semi-quantitatively
on ranked scales. The abundance of biological
Survey Techniques
resources was also scored using a ranked 0 to 6
scale and scores were based on estimates of the
Methods have ranged from broad scale
relative abundance within each quadrat. Similar
habitat mapping using colour aerial photos and
methods were used subsequently on the Yemeni
satellite imagery, rapid ecological and impact
Red Sea and Gulf of Aden coasts, providing a
assessments, biodiversity studies of a variety of
uniform broad-scale assessment.
taxonomic groups and studies of coral cover,
abundances of predators and diseases.
Further rapid assessments of coral reefs
(levels of reef development, benthic cover and
Habitat Mapping:
Distribution and
various environmental attributes) of the Red Sea
composition of coastal and marine habitats of
were undertaken in 1998-99 (DEVANTIER et al.
the central-northern Red Sea were assessed
in press). The surveys were conducted at 145
using high-resolution aerial photos and satellite
sites along the central-northern Red Sea coast
images, combined with extensive ground-
and offshore islands. In meandering SCUBA
truthing (ORMOND et al. 1984a-c, NCWCD-
swims of 30 to 45 minutes duration at each site,
JICA 2000). The NCWCD-JICA data were
ecological and substratum attributes were
incorporated into detailed GIS habitat maps of
assigned to standard ranked cover categories
the distribution of coral reefs, seagrass and algal
(see DEVANTIER et al. in press for details).
beds, mangroves and sabkha along the central-
northern Red Sea coast and offshore islands.
Distribution and status of coral reefs around
the Farasan Islands were assessed using semi-
Rapid Ecological Assessment:
The
quantitative methods in the early 1990s. The
distribution of different coastal and marine
aim was to develop a management plan for the
96
Coral Reefs of Saudi Arabia
Farasan Islands MPA (GLADSTONE 1994a).
press). Follow-up monitoring surveys will be
Follow-up surveys of the reefs in the area were
undertaken at these sites by NCWCD in the
undertaken in 1999 (ROUPHAEL & AL-YAMI
future. GLADSTONE
(1994b) made
1999).
recommendations for the development of a
monitoring programme in the Farasan Islands.
ROUPHAEL & AL-YAMI (pers. comm.) plan to
Biodiversity Assessment:
Taxonomic
establish baseline monitoring stations using
inventories of some key elements of reef fauna
replicated line transects (benthos) and belt
and flora have been undertaken in the Red Sea
transects (fish) in the area.
(e.g. corals - SHEPPARD & SHEPPARD 1991,
DEVANTIER et al. in press).
Coral Reefs Benthos and Fish
SHEPPARD & SHEPPARD (1991) compiled a
comprehensive inventory (including a
In 1998-99, living cover of reef-building
taxonomic revision of previous records and
corals at individual reefs ranged from < 10 to
synonymies) of corals in the Saudi Arabian Red
> 75 %, while soft corals ranged up to 50 %
Sea. These authors made extensive field
cover. High percentage cover of dead coral
collections and reviewed the many previous
(> 20 %) occurred on some reefs following
taxonomic lists published from the broader Red
coral bleaching or predation. High percentage
Sea (e.g. SCHEER & PILLAI 1983). More recently,
cover of living corals was associated with reefs
further coral bio-inventories were compiled in
of relatively high exposure to wave energy and
the central-northern Red Sea (DEVANTIER et al.
high water clarity. High percentage coral cover
in press). Inventories of reef-associated fish,
was usually present on the shallow reef slopes of
benthos, algae and seagrass were also made in
exposed fringing, patch and barrier reefs. With
1998-99 (NCWCD-JICA 2000). Reef fish
some important exceptions, deeper reef slopes
composition and abundance have been assessed
(> 10 m), in low wave energy environments
using both quantitative (belt transects, collecting
and reefs with low water clarity usually had a
stations) and semi-quantitative (visual census)
lower percentage living coral cover than their
field methods (ORMOND et al. 1984a-c,
shallow, more exposed counterparts.
NCWCD-JICA 2000). In the quantitative
assessments, numbers and-or log abundance
estimates and/or sizes of fishes were made in
The Red Sea coral communities were
single or replicated belt transects of known
composed of at least 260 species of reef-
volume. In the semi-quantitative assessments,
building stony corals from 68 genera in 16
fish species lists and abundance estimates were
families of Scleractinia. The coral communities
compiled at point census stations or during
were composed predominantly, both in terms of
SCUBA swims, using standard rapid assessment
composition and percentage cover, by the
methods (e.g. ENGLISH et al. 1997).
families Acroporidae, Faviidae and Poritidae. A
diverse mix of soft corals, hydrozoan fire corals,
corallimorpharians, gorgonians and zoanthids
Long-term Monitoring:
Baseline
were also present.
quantitative data on percentage live and dead
coral cover (replicated line transects) and fish
abundances (replicated belt transects) were
Species diversity of scleractinian stony
collected using the Reef Check protocol
corals at individual sites in the central-northern
(HODGSON 1999) in the Al-Wajh Bank in 1999
Red Sea ranged from about 20 to 100 species
(NCWCD-JICA 2000, DEVANTIER et al. in
(the regional average was 61 species). There
97
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
were four major coral community types,
susceptible taxa, notably fire-corals Millepora
predominantly related to the degree of wave
spp., soft corals and a wide variety of stony
exposure, water clarity, depth and steepness of
coral taxa (DEVANTIER et al. 2000).
reef slope. Notably, there was only minor
variability in species composition among the
assemblages. The entire region exhibited a high
The bleaching occurred in July to September
degree of homogeneity in terms of coral
1998, when sea surface temperatures were
community composition, both latitudinally and
elevated by > 1 ºC above mean monthly
longitudinally.
averages for a period of about one month
(NOAA `Hotspots' satellite imagery). Patterns
of mortality to upper coral colony surfaces
Reefs with moderate to high species
suggest that radiation effects may also have
diversity and abundance and percentage living
been implicated at some locations.
coral cover were widely distributed, with no
clear latitudinal or longitudinal trends. Such
reefs have high significance for replenishment
Other forms of recent coral mortality in the
because of their potential as sources of large
Saudi Arabian Red Sea included predation by
numbers of propagules of coral and other reef-
crown-of-thorns starfish and muricid snails.
associated taxa.
Such predation had no noticeable effect on coral
cover or community composition on most reefs,
where starfish and snail populations were at low
Disturbances
levels. However, coral cover and community
structure had been affected by larger
Overall, most reefs of the central-northern
populations of the starfish on some patch reefs
Red Sea of Saudi Arabia were in good to
on the Al-Wajh Bank and Farasan Islands. The
excellent condition in 1998-99 (DEVANTIER
larger starfish population on the Al-Wajh Bank
et al. in press). There was little to no direct
may be related to over-fishing of predatory
human impact (e.g. destructive fishing, anchor
fishes in the families Lethrinidae, Balistidae,
damage, coral mining or pollution) on the great
Labridae, Serranidae and Lutjanidae.
majority of reefs. The exceptions were the reefs
in urban areas, which were subject to reef
fishing, land reclamation, urban run-off or
Conservation Value
littering. Coral communities on some reefs
(about 10 % of those surveyed) had also been
On a global scale, the area spanning the
adversely affected to a greater or lesser extent
Farasan Islands to Haql in the Gulf of Aqaba is
by coral bleaching or predation.
one of the most important coral reef areas for
marine protected area management. At present,
there is little local human impact in most of the
Bleaching was patchy and highly variable in
region, other than in the vicinity of coastal cities
intensity. It was most intense on reefs near
and towns as mentioned.
Rabigh, where more than two thirds of total
coral cover was bleached or recently dead
(about 20 to 40 % cover). On worst affected
The Red Sea has many reefs with a high
reefs, bleaching occurred to the base of the reef-
conservation value in terms of uniqueness,
slopes (> 20 m depth), but was usually most
quality and those which are representative of the
intense in depths < 6 m, where more than half
area (i.e. reefs with high species diversity, high
of all coral species had been affected. High
percentage coral cover and those important as
mortality (> 90 %) occurred within the most
reservoirs of biodiversity and replenishment).
98
Coral Reefs of Saudi Arabia
The reefs are widely distributed, from the Gulf
species and species with apparently
of Aqaba and Tiran areas in the north, Duba to
restricted distributions. The size of the
Al-Wajh, the Al-Wajh Bank, Umluj (Umm Lajj)
Bank, the diversity of reef habitats and
to Ras Baridi, Yanbu to Rabigh and the Farasan
likely high level of ecological
Bank in the south.
connection in terms of larval dispersal in
ocean currents, both within the Bank and
with other parts of the Red Sea, afford it
Four sub-regions are of special conservation
great conservation significance.
importance:
The Farasan Islands and Farasan
The Gulf of Aqaba: The Gulf is noted
Bank: This area supports a wide variety
for its high levels of percentage coral
of reef types, including tower reefs
cover and species diversity, including
(ORMOND et al. 1984a) and other marine
species that are rare or apparently absent
and coastal habitats not present in other
from other parts of the region (e.g.
areas.
Cantharellus doerderleini, Caulastrea
tumida). Of particular note are the
Reef Distribution
characteristic narrow contour reefs
(< 50 m wide) which are present on steep
The central-northern area of the Red Sea,
coastal slopes. These narrow reefs are
from north of Jeddah to Haql in the Gulf of
among the most species-rich of the entire
Aqaba supports a near-continuous coral reef
region. The high species diversity is
tract composed of a wide range of reef types.
particularly significant given the
The area supports relatively complex reef
restricted reef area, cool sea
geomorphology. It is comprised of mainland and
temperatures and that the Gulf of Aqaba
island fringing reefs and various forms of patch
is at the north-westernmost extent of reef
reef, coral pinnacles and ribbon barrier reefs
development in the Indo-Pacific region.
(ORMOND et al. 1984a, provide a review of the
geomorphology and distribution of these reef
The Tiran Area: This area extends from
types).
the mainland coast north of Duba to the
entrance to the Gulf of Aqaba It is
important for the wide variety of
Mainland fringing reefs are distributed along
different biotopes and reef types,
much of the coastline and are often developed in
forming unique reef complexes with
the entrances and on the sides of sharms, a
high zoogeographical significance.
characteristic reef-form largely restricted to the
These reef complexes support a high
Red Sea (ORMOND et al. 1984c). Extensive
species diversity including Red Sea
mainland fringing reefs occur around Rabigh,
endemic corals, presently undescribed
Ras Baridi, Umluj, Al-Wajh to Duba and in the
coral species and species with restricted
Gulf of Aqaba, the latter often being narrow
distributions which are otherwise rare or
(< 30 m wide), developed as contours on the
absent in the Red Sea.
relatively steep sub-littoral topography
(FISHELSON 1973). Island fringing reefs are
The Al-Wajh Bank: This bank supports
commonly developed in the Tiran area and from
the greatest range of reef types (and
Duba to Al-Wajh Bank to Umluj.
other marine and coastal habitats) in the
region. As with the Tiran area, reefs of
the Al-Wajh Bank support Red Sea
endemic corals, undescribed coral
99
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
Circular/elongate patch reefs are also
Bank and islands (ORMOND et al. 1984a). These
widespread in offshore waters (< 50 m deep).
include tower reefs which are similar in gross
Some patch reefs support sand-coral islands
geomorphology to atolls and are rare or absent
(cays), while others are submerged and
in other areas of the Saudi Arabian Red Sea.
resemble coral carpets (RIEGL & PILLER 1999).
Both forms are common in the Al-Wajh Bank
and south from Umluj to Rabigh. `Reticulate'
Levels of reef accretion among the various
patch reefs (`labyrinths / mazes' ORMOND et al.
reef types range from small (< 1 ha) subsurface
1984a), composed of interconnected networks
patch reefs and thin coral layers which blanket
of reef matrix separated by sand and forming
wide areas with no reef flat, to narrow fringing
intricate reticulate patterns, are particularly well
reefs with reef flats < 50 m wide, and large
developed in shallow waters (< 10 m deep) of
fringing, platform and barrier reefs with reef
the Tiran area and southern Al-Wajh Bank.
flats often > 100 m wide.
Pinnacles (individual corals and coral
`bommies' surrounded by sand) are present in
shallow waters (< 10 m deep), particularly in
Coral Diversity
the Al-Wajh Bank and Tiran areas (DEVANTIER
et al. in press).
SHEPPARD & SHEPPARD (1985) identified 116
coral species or species groups in 13 coral
assemblages in the central-northern area of the
Barrier reefs composed of platform and
Red Sea. The most distinctive assemblages from
ribbon reef structures are developed further
exposed locations dominated by species of
offshore, on the edge of the continental slope,
Acropora and from sheltered locations
where water depths increase from < 50 to
dominated by species of Porites (see also
> 200 m. The best-developed barrier reef system
ANTONIUS et al. 1990). Reefs around Yanbu
occurs along the seaward margin of the Al-Wajh
were notable in supporting both a higher coral
Bank. The barrier is composed of a continuous
diversity and number of assemblage types than
line of reefs stretching for about 100 km and
had previously been reported from the Red Sea.
separated by several narrow (< 200 m wide)
In the early 1980s, 194 species of corals were
channels (ORMOND et al. 1984a, DEVANTIER
recorded from the entire Saudi Arabian Red Sea
et al. in press). Another barrier reef system of
coast, with the greatest diversity in the central
different gross geomorphological structure, the
portion (MEPA/IUCN 1987). SHEPPARD &
`Little Barrier Reef', occurs further south near
SHEPPARD (1991) and SHEPPARD (1997) revised
Yanbu (ORMOND et al. 1984a, SHEPPARD &
this species list, recording 140 species from the
SHEPPARD 1985). The central-northern Red Sea
Gulfs of Aqaba and Suez (54 genera, 15
in Saudi Arabia does not support atoll-like or
families) and 150 species (49 genera, 14
tower reefs, more characteristic of southern
families) from the central Red Sea.
areas and the outer Farasan Bank (ORMOND et al.
1984a).
More recent surveys have expanded this list
substantially, with approximately 260 species in
South of Jeddah, reefs become less well
68 genera of 16 families of reef-building
developed along the mainland coast.
Scleractinia now known to occur in Saudi
Differences in topographic features, sediment
Arabian Red Sea waters (Table 16). Of these, 26
and turbidity tend to restrict coastal reef growth
species were previously undescribed (VERON
progressively towards the Yemen border (PRICE
2000) and about 50 species were distribution
et al. 1998). Further offshore however, complex
range extensions into the Red Sea. Several
reef structures are developed on the Farasan
additional species had been described from the
100
Coral Reefs of Saudi Arabia
Red Sea in the 19th century, but had either been
sites in the central-northern Red Sea, stony coral
synonymised or lost from recent species lists,
species richness ranges from about 20 to 100
for example the branching Acropora variolosa
species, with a further 5 to 15 non-scleractinian
(KLUNZINGER
1879),
Favites vasta
taxa (DEVANTIER et al. in press). Average
(KLUNZINGER, 1879) and Echinopora
diversity for scleractinian corals per site was 61
forskaliana (MILNE EDWARDS & HAIME, 1849,
species, with deep sites usually slightly more
WALLACE 1999, VERON 2000). A further 16
species-rich than shallow sites.
species synonymised by SHEPPARD & SHEPPARD
(1991) are considered herein as valid species in
the Red Sea (VERON 2000, DEVANTIER et al. in
There were no clear latitudinal or
press).
longitudinal trends, although reefs in the
northern Gulf of Aqaba were particularly rich
given their high latitude location at the extreme
About a further 30 taxa of soft corals, fire
north-west of reef distribution in the Indo-
corals, zoanthids and gorgonians were recorded
Pacific Region (along with the adjacent Gulf of
in the NCWCD-JICA study (2000). However,
Suez). Some species in the coral assemblages
because of difficulties of field identification and
have very widespread Indo-Pacific distributions,
lack of taxonomic expertise in the non-
others appear restricted to the Red Sea (VERON
scleractinian taxa, actual species diversity is
1986, 1993, 1995, 2000; HOEKSEMA 1989, 1993;
substantially higher (DEVANTIER pers. obs., and
SHEPPARD & SHEPPARD 1991, SHEPPARD 1997,
see REINICKE 1998 for comprehensive review of
WALLACE 1999). The Saudi Arabian Red Sea
the soft coral family Xeniidae). At individual
supports a unique composite fauna of coral
Family
Genus
Species
Species
N - C Red Sea
Red Sea
N - C Red Sea N - C Red Sea
Red Sea
N - C Red Sea
*
*
Astrocoeniidae
1
1
1
2
2
2
Pocilloporidae
4
4
4
8
8
11
Acroporidae
4
4
4
32
32
64
Poritidae
4
4
3
10
10
27
Siderastreidae
4
4
4
6
7
10
Agariciidae
4
4
4
16
16
21
Fungiidae
6
6
7
21
21
26
Oculinidae
1
1
1
1
1
2
Pectinidae
3
3
3
3
3
7
Mussidae
5
5
5
8
8
15
Merulinidae
2
2
2
3
3
3
Faviidae
15
15
16
40
41
61
Caryophylliidae
6
8
2
6
9
2
Dendrophylliidae
4
4
3
6
7
10
Trachyphylliidae
1
1
0
1
1
0
Rhizangiidae
2
2
0
2
2
0
Total
66
68
59
174
180
261
Table 1: Taxonomic composition of Red Sea scleractinian coral fauna, based on SHEPPARD & SHEPPARD
(1991), SHEPPARD (1997) and the NCWCD-JICA study (2000) (source: DEVANTIER et al. in press).
101
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
species known from the following
in the northern area (north of Umluj), consistent
biogeographic provinces or sub-provinces:
with previous studies (although one colony has
been reported from the Gulf of Aden, SHEPPARD
& SHEPPARD 1991). Cantharellus doederleini is
Widespread across the entire Indo-
considered endemic to the northern Red Sea
Pacific, e.g. Pocillopora damicornis and
(CHADWICK-FURMAN & LOYA 1992, HOEKSEMA
Gardineroseris planulata,
1993). Alveopora ocellata was recorded from
the Al-Wajh Bank and adjacent waters. Three of
Widespread in the Indo-west Pacific, e.g.
these species (Stylophora wellsi, Favites vasta
Stylophora pistillata, Acropora muricata
and Symphyllia erythraea) are now known to
(previously A. formosa, WALLACE 1999),
occur outside the Red Sea, their distribution
extending into the Arabian Sea (DEVANTIER
Previously known only from the Pacific
pers. obs., VERON 2000). Conversely, most of
Ocean, e.g. Cantharellus noumeae,
the undescribed species are presently known
only from the central-northern Red Sea (VERON
Widespread in the Indian Ocean, e.g.
2000), although further work in the larger
Coscinaraea monile and Siderastrea
Arabian and western Indian Ocean regions may
savignyana,
extend their distribution ranges.
Widespread in the western Indian Ocean,
e.g. Acropora hemprichii,
Coral Communities
Red Sea endemics, e.g. Symphyllia
Within the central-northern Red Sea region,
erythraea, Merulina scheeri and
10 coral communities encompassing about 20
Cantharellus doederleini,
coral assemblage types have been described
(Table 17, SHEPPARD & SHEPPARD 1991). The
Species not yet described.
authors, whilst differentiating these assemblage
types, noted a high degree of similarity in
Several corals thought to be endemic to the
species composition within the region. Species
Red Sea are well represented and widely
at most individual reefs were a subset of the
distributed within the central-northern area
larger regional species-pool.
notably Echinopora fruticulosa, Echinopora
forskaliana, Merulina scheeri, Stylophora
wellsi, Symphyllia erythraea and Acropora
More recent studies in the area (DEVANTIER
variolosa (SHEPPARD & SHEPPARD 1991,
et al. in press) have confirmed the high degree
DEVANTIER et al. in press); all occurred at more
of homogeneity in species composition within
than a third of sites (DEVANTIER et al. in press).
the region. There were, however, major
Others were relatively uncommon (at about
differences in abundance of particular taxa in
10 % of sites: Stylophora mammilata, Favites
certain biotopes, and thus clear zonation
vasta and Erythrastrea flabellata) or rare (< 2 %
patterns in the structure of coral communities.
of sites: Cantharellus doerdeleini
and
These were related largely to the degree of
Alveopora ocellata).
physical exposure, water clarity (irradiance),
depth and steepness of reef slope (DONE 1982,
Some of these differences in abundance may
SHEPPARD 1982). Most of the assemblage types
be explained by habitat preferences. For
previously described for the central-northern
example, S. mammilata prefers reef slopes
Red Sea (Table 17) are represented in the four
> 20 m deep which have not been extensively
major community types described above (Reef
sampled. Erythrastrea flabellata was found only
Distribution). These community types form part
102
Coral Reefs of Saudi Arabia
Location in
Characteristic
Reef type, exposure and habitat
Dominant coral species Red Sea
Assemblages
Shallow patch reef, exposed in sandy
Acropora horrida, A.
Suez
None
plain
formosa
Acropora hyacinthus, A. North -
Shallow exposed fore-reef slopes
None
humulis
central
Shallow - mid - depths, moderate
None
North
None
exposure
Sheltered fringing reefs, backs of patch
North -
Porites lutea
None
reefs
central
Shallow - mid - depths in north, mid -
North -
A) Millepora, B) None,
None
deep in central region, moderate exposure
central
C) Goniopora
Moderately turbid and exposed mid-
None
North - south None
depths
Pocillopora damicornis,
Mid-depths, patch-reefs in sand
Acropora eurystoma, A. Central
None
clathrata
Pocillopora verrucosa,
Patch and barrier reefs, mid-depths
Central
None
Acropora hemprichi
Acropora hyacinthus, A.
A. hyacinthus,
Barrier and exposed fringing reefs,
digitifera, A. humilis A.
Central
A. danai,
shallow
danai,A. hemprichi,
P. verrucosa
Pocillopora verrucosa
Barrier, patch and fringing reefs, mid-
Central -
Montipora circumvallata
Porites
depths
south
Goniastrea pectinata
Table 17: Major coral communities of northern-central Red Sea (source: SHEPPARD & SHEPPARD 1991)
of a continuum, with particular species
to > 75 %, with an average of about 35 %
exhibiting differences in occurrence and
(DEVANTIER et al. in press). Approximately
abundance related to site-specific habitat
17 % of sites had high percentage cover of
characteristics and disturbance histories.
living stony coral (> 50 %), particularly on
shallow reef slopes, where large mono and
multi-specific stands of Acropora, Porites and
Coral Cover
Millepora were often conspicuous. Percentage
cover usually declined on the deeper slopes.
There is considerable variability in
percentage cover of stony and soft corals in
response to reef-specific characteristics and
Dead standing corals and rubble were
disturbance histories, and species-specific
relatively minor components of cover at most
tolerances to stress, particularly exposure, levels
sites (average about 7 %). Highest levels of
of sedimentation, turbidity and illumination.
dead coral (30 %) occurred following intense
coral bleaching in August-September 1998
(DEVANTIER et al. 2000). Mass coral mortality
In 1998-99 in the central-northern Red Sea,
following the bleaching was patchy and
percentage cover of living stony corals
restricted to < 10 % of reefs surveyed.
(including Millepora spp.) ranged from < 10 %
Bleaching and subsequent coral mortality were
103
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
most intense on reefs near the town of Rabigh,
observed close to the mainland. For example,
where up to 90 % of total coral cover was
coral coverage at the Abalat Islands declined
bleached or recently dead (20 to 40 % absolute
from approximately 80 % in 1993 to about
cover). Bleaching occurred down to the base of
10 % in 1999. Porites colonies, some in excess
the reef-slopes (> 20 m), but was most intense
of 1.5 m in diameter, suffered 100 % mortality.
at depths < 6 m, where more than half the coral
Mean monthly sea surface temperatures were
species had been affected (DEVANTIER et al.
found to be unusually high (> 32 ºC) three
2000). Further high coral mortality occurred on
months prior to the first report of coral mortality
patch reefs in the Al-Wajh Bank following
in 1996.
predation by crown-of-thorns starfish
(DEVANTIER et al. in press).
Damage and Coral Mortality
Cover of soft corals in the central-northern
Overall, most reefs (about 90 %) of the
Red Sea ranged up to 50 %, but was usually
central-northern Red Sea were in good to
less than 30 % (average about 9 %). Large
excellent condition in terms of the ratio of live
beds of Xenia spp. and stands of Sinularia cf.
to dead coral cover and levels of injury to coral
capitalis, covering hundreds of square metres,
species in 1998-99 (DEVANTIER et al. in press).
were characteristic features of some sites.
There was little to no direct human impact (e.g.
Sinularia cf. capitalis formed large tree-like
destructive fishing, anchor damage, coral
colonies up to 2 m in height and contributed
mining or pollution) on the great majority of
substantially to reef accretion (also see
reefs. The exceptions were reefs in urban areas,
REINECKE 1998, SCHUHMACHER 1997). Cover of
which were subject to land reclamation, urban
turf including coralline and macro-algae was
run-off and pollution or littering. Most damaged
usually low (< 10 %) in these coral dominated
reefs occur in the immediate vicinity of the
areas. Cover of algae usually increased on the
major coastal cities and towns.
inner reef flats.
At most sites outside these areas, levels of
Some reefs with a high percentage of living
injury and death of corals were low (< 10 %
coral cover occurred in sheltered habitats,
cover of dead corals), with < 20 % of species
particularly subsurface patch reefs on the
present exhibiting injury and < 20 % average
Al-Wajh Bank. However, high percentage cover
injury to those species. Coral communities on
of stony corals, soft corals and crustose coralline
about 10 % of reefs surveyed had been
algae were all most common on shallow reefs
adversely affected by bleaching, by coral
with high exposure, steep slopes and high water
predation (mostly by crown-of-thorns starfish)
clarity.
or by sedimentation (DEVANTIER et al. in press).
Further south, in the Farasan Islands Marine
Coral Bleaching: No evidence of mass
Protected Area, abundances of live coral, dead
bleaching or other forms of major coral
coral and other benthic life-forms also varied
mortality were found during surveys in the
greatly among sites. Percentage cover of live
central-northern Red Sea in May to June 1998.
Acropora, Porites and other corals increased
Most reefs appeared to be in good condition. No
with distance from the mainland, while
bleaching was reported from other areas of
abundance of dead coral declined with distance
Saudi Arabia at the time, although reefs further
from the mainland (AL-YAMI & ROUPHAEL
to the south in the Arabian Sea and greater
2000). Significant levels of coral mortality were
Indian Ocean had already been bleached
104
Coral Reefs of Saudi Arabia
extensively (WILKINSON et al. 1999). By October
Extensive coral bleaching was reported to
1998, bleaching was patchily distributed
have occurred on reefs of the Farasan Islands,
throughout the Saudi Arabian Red Sea,
although the level of subsequent mortality and
extending north from the Farasan Islands to reefs
species affected are not known at present
around Jeddah and Yanbu (NCWCD pers.
(NCWCD, pers. comm.). Precise timing of the
comm.). Reefs offshore from Rabigh and north
bleaching at the Farasan Islands is not known.
to Yanbu experienced intense bleaching, causing
ROUPHAEL & AL-YAMI (1999) suggested that
high levels of coral mortality, while others (Ras
extensive coral mortality in the nearshore Abalat
Baridi, Al-Wajh Bank, Gulf of Aqaba) were little
Islands occurred in 1996, following elevated sea
affected or unaffected possibly due to coastal
surface temperatures.
upwelling of cooler water. Minor bleaching
occurred at some locations near Haql in the Gulf
of Aqaba, and minor to moderate bleaching
Coral Predation: Predation by crown-of-
occurred in the Tiran area near Jazirat Muksoor.
thorns starfish and muricid snails had no
Bleaching was most widespread and intense in
noticeable effect on percentage coral cover or
the shallower coral communities (depths < 6
community composition on most reefs in the
m), where recently dead and bleached corals
Saudi Arabian Red Sea, where starfish and snail
accounted for up to 90 % of the total cover of
populations were at low levels. However, coral
hard corals, soft corals and fire-corals
cover and community structure has been
(Millepora spp). Deeper communities had also
adversely affected by larger populations of the
been affected, with coral mortality of about 15
starfish (about 100 A. planci ha-1) on patch reefs
% of the species present (DEVANTIER et al.
in the Al-Wajh Bank (DEVANTIER et al. in press).
2000).
At the patch reef sites in the Al-Wajh Bank, the
starfish had caused substantial reductions in
living coral cover and coincident increases in
Of the 325 zooxanthellate anthozoan taxa
dead coral cover and shifts in relative abundance
recorded during the pre- and post-bleaching
and community structure. Starfish and snails
surveys in May to June and September to
were also implicated in coral mortality in the
October 1998, 124 taxa exhibited injury at one
Farasan Islands (ROUPHAEL & AL-YAMI 1999).
or more of the sites (84 species pre-bleaching
and 101 species post-bleaching). Both the
proportion of coral species with injury and the
Fish Communities
level of average injury per species increased
from the pre to post-bleaching surveys. As with
Numerous studies have documented species
coral cover, levels of injury to individual
composition and abundance of reef fishes in the
species were most intense on reefs around
Red Sea. Recent diversity estimates vary
Rabigh, where over half of all species had been
greatly. RANDALL (1983) lists 325 species,
affected, with coincident high mortality (about
although this was not a comprehensive
90 %) to the worst affected taxa (DEVANTIER
systematic account, rather a pictorial account of
et al. 2000). Coral species that were worst
common taxa. ORMOND & EDWARDS (1987)
affected by bleaching-related injury represented
recorded 508 species, substantially less than
a wide range of genera and growth forms. Many
BOTROS (1971) with 776 species, DOR (1984)
of the worst affected taxa were uncommon,
with 1,000 species or GOREN & DOR (1994) with
occurring at low abundance in few sites. Such
1,248 species. Differences among these various
species may be particularly susceptible to local
estimates are in part due to distinctions in the
extinction.
definition of reef fishes. Although many Red
Sea reef fishes have distribution ranges that
extend outside the Red Sea, to the Gulf of Aden,
105
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
Arabian Sea and greater Indian Ocean and Indo-
Location
Number of Boats
Pacific regions, others are presently considered
Tabuk
16
endemic to the Red Sea (KLAUSEWITZ 1987).
Levels of endemism vary among different
Wejh
50
groups of fishes, being particularly notable in
Umm Lajj
199
the Chaetodontidae. These endemics and other
Yanbu
259
Arabian and western Indian Ocean species give
Rabigh
215
a characteristic structure to Red Sea reef fish
Jeddah
254
assemblages in comparison with their central
Al-Lith
95
Indo-Pacific and eastern Pacific counterparts.
Qunfudhah
117
Jizan
470
Coral Reef Fisheries
Total
1675
Table 18. Distribution of fishing boats along the
Saudi Arabian coast in 1983/84
Until 1981, artisanal fishermen from small
boats and larger sambouks exploited Saudi
Coral reef-based fisheries are distributed
Arabia's fishery almost exclusively. Saudi
along the length of the Red Sea, with the highest
Fisheries, an industrial fishery company
proportion of fishing boats being based in the
established in 1991, currently lands around
south (Table 18). It must be noted, however, that
1,500 metric tonnes of shrimp and a similar
the greater number of boats in the south does not
amount of finfish. Despite this, landings remain
represent an increase in fishing pressure on coral
dominated by the artisanal sector.
reefs, rather it represents the greater number of
trawlers that make up the prawn and non-coral
reef-based fisheries.
Region
Number of
Annual Landings Catch per Unit Effort
Production
Fishermen
(tonnes)
(tonnes per fisherman
(tonnes per km of
per year)
shoreline)
Haql - Duba
29
80
2.758
0.3
Duba - Wejh
39
90
2.307
0.6
Wejh - Umm Lajj
86
250
2.903
1.4
Umm Lajj - Yanbu
225
670
2.978
4.4
Yanbu - Rabigh
320
1,030
3.218
5.9
Rabigh - Jeddah
303
880
2.904
6.1
Jeddah
284
1,180
4.140
---
Jeddah - Lith
174
460
2.644
4.1
Lith - Qunfudhah
176
580
3.294
6.6
Qunfudhah -
156
1,030
6.606
7.3
Suquayq
Suquayq -Jizan
50
320
6.400
2.9
Jizan - Yemen
371
2,390
6.442
35.7
Border
Farasan Islands
195
1,250
6.441
7.7
Total/Average
2,408
10,210
4.08
10.72
Table 19: Distribution of Red Sea catch and effort (source: KEDIDI et al. 1984)
106
Coral Reefs of Saudi Arabia
Threats to Coral Reef Biodiversity
Although fishery statistics have been
analysed for different sectors (Table 19),
differences between the various sources do not
Local threats to Saudi Arabia's coral reefs
allow for standardisation or comparisons. A
originate primarily through industrial
significant problem is that fishery statistics are
development and maritime transport. With these
normally aggregated for both the Red Sea and
are associated risks of oil spills, land-filling,
Arabian Gulf fisheries. A reliable long-term
pollutant discharges, effluents from desalination
series of catch and effort data, required for
activities and a number of other major impacts.
specific management suggestions, is not
Most acute damage to reefs is localised and
presently available.
restricted to and around major urban areas.
Global threats include potential mass bleaching
events associated with a global warming trend
There is an increasing trend in productivity
(WILKINSON et al. 1999) and possible reductions
from north to south. Over 74 % of the annual
in reef building through loss of calcification
Red Sea landings come from the southern
linked with changes in ocean alkalinity from
section between Al-Lith and the Yemen border
carbon dioxide increases (KLEYPAS et al. 1999).
(MAW 1989). This is indicated both by
increasing production per km of shoreline and
per fisherman. This increase is based on
Oil Pollution
productivity and size of the fishing grounds.
Physico-chemical, chemical and pollution
levels in water and sediment, oil and its
derivatives (persistent carcinogens) were
Red Sea landings are evenly divided
correlated with coral disease in the Red Sea.
between benthic species associated with coral
Coral reef health was not affected south of
reefs and the continental shelf and pelagic
Jeddah but to the north there were significant
species (Table 20).
levels of diseases, especially black band disease
(AWAD 2000).
Major threats to diversity and abundance of
fishes in the Red Sea include increasing fishing
Industrial Development
pressure and development pressures near coastal
Along the Red Sea coast, industrial
towns and cities.
development is concentrated at Jeddah, Yanbu,
Rabigh and Jizan. Oil refineries and other
petroleum facilities have been constructed at
Species
Percentage of Total
Species
Percentage of Total
Landings
Landings
Spanish Mackerel
30.4
Sharks
2.0
Jacks
12.0
Mullets
2.0
Cutlass Fish
3.0
Parrotfishes
1.0
Cobia
0.1
Wrasses
0.1
Indian Mackerel
3.0
Sea Breams
0.03
Emperors
13.9
Surgeon Fish
0.02
Groupers
13.0
Rabbit Fish
0.02
Snappers
8.0
Goat Fish
0.01
Barracudas
7.0
Miscellaneous
4.4
Table 20: Species composition of Saudi Arabian Red Sea landings (source: MAW 1996)
107
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
Yanbu where the Trans-Arabian Pipeline
creating a boundary for fill operations.
(TAPLINE) terminates. Desalination, waste-
However, land-filling has taken place mostly
water treatment, cement, and power plants are
around Jeddah (causing the death of large tracts
sited intermittently along the coast.
of fringing reefs), Yanbu and Jizan.
Marine Transportation
Dredging
An estimated 25,000 to 30,000 ships transit
Dredging causes destruction of the resources
the Red Sea annually (LINTNER et al. 1995).
in the dredged area and often has indirect
Much of this is associated with transport of
impacts from increased sedimentation. On the
crude oil and petrochemical products between
Red Sea coast, dredging has been concentrated
the northern Red Sea port of Yanbu, the Suez
around Jeddah, Yanbu and in Sharm Jubba
Canal and the Egyptian oil pipeline from the
(north of Duba).
Gulf of Suez to the Mediterranean. The Red Sea
receives many times more pollution from
marine transport and refinery inputs than the
Water Pollution
global average. It is inherently dangerous to
There are numerous sources of coastal water
maritime traffic because of its narrow and
pollution, including discharges of oil and other
congested navigation routes, which are bounded
chemicals, and effluents from industrial and
on either side by very restricted anchorages and
residential sources. Some urban areas have
coral reefs. Shipwrecks and collisions continue,
waste-water treatment facilities, but in many
despite advances in safety and navigational
places these are inadequate or non-existent. On
systems. Even at a major port such as Jeddah, 5
the Red Sea coast, Jeddah, Yanbu and Rabigh
to 10 spills and maritime accidents occur
are the main areas with pollution problems.
annually.
Desalination
Commercial and Residential Development
There is extensive use of desalinated water
Commercial and residential development is
to meet demands of the population and industry.
clustered around urban areas. On the Red Sea
As of 1992 there were eighteen desalination
coast, the expansion of urban or residential areas
plants operating along Saudi Arabia's Red Sea
also has a considerable effect on the coastline.
coast (Table 21), with a total combined capacity
The major areas of urban and related
of 726,343 m3/day (SWCC 1992). In Jeddah the
development are found around Jeddah, Yanbu,
desalination plant produces a major portion of
Rabigh and Jizan.
the NO2 and SO2 emissions and contributes
heavily to the particulate and trace metal
emissions load. Discharges into the marine
Land-filling
environment from the Jeddah plants include
Land-filling is one of the most disruptive
chorine and anti-scaling chemicals and 1.73
activities to coastal and marine resources. Land-
billion m3 of brine at 51 ppm and 41 °C.
filling has caused severe and permanent
destruction of coastal habitats and has changed
sedimentation patterns that have damaged
Recreation and Tourism Activities
adjacent resources. Changes in water circulation
Recreation and tourism have caused
caused by land-filling have altered the
significant disturbances to coastal and marine
distribution of plant and animal communities.
habitats. Collection of corals and other souvenir
On the Red Sea coast the seabed drops off to
species, a widespread practice in the 1970s and
over 20 m immediately following the reef edge,
1980s, has contributed to the loss of coral reef-
108
Coral Reefs of Saudi Arabia
Location
Capacity m3/day
Start Up Date
Location
Capacity m3/day
Start Up Date
Haql
3,785
1989
Jeddah II
37,850
1978
Duba
3,785
1989
Jeddah III
75,700
1979
Al-Wajh II
473
1979
Jeddah IV
189,250
1982
Al-Wajh IIa
825
1986
Jeddah ROI
48,827
1989
Al-Wajh IIb
1,032
1989
Shu'aybah
181,800
1989
Umm Lajj
3,785
1986
Al-Birk
1,952
1984
Yanbu
95,000
1980
Assir
75,700
1989
Rabigh
1,204
1982
Farasan Isl.
430
1979
Aziziah
3,870
1987
Farasan Isl.
1,075
1989
Table 21: Seawater desalination plants on the Red Sea coast of Saudi Arabia (source: PERSGA 1998)
Background
associated fauna. Along parts of the Saudi
Arabian Red Sea coast, particularly near Jeddah
and Yanbu, the reefs have been damaged by
Protection of marine habitats in Saudi
extensive food and souvenir collecting and by
Arabia has a fairly recent history. In 1977, the
spearfishing.
small island of Umm al-Qamari was given de
facto protected area status by the national
hunting regulations of 1977. The Ministry of
Bleaching
Agriculture and Water (MAW) established Asir
As discussed, the most recent mass
National Park in 1981 (CHILD & GRAINGER
bleaching event in 1997-98, the largest ever
1990). Following this, MEPA identified 46
recorded, affected reefs world-wide. There are
coastal areas for inclusion in a system of coastal
now widespread concerns that the incidence and
protected areas (MEPA/IUCN 1987). Under
intensity of bleaching are increasing, perhaps
Saudi Arabia's Environmental Protection
linked with a trend in global warming (HOEGH-
Coordinating Committee (EPCCOM) these
GULDBERG 1999, TIMMERMAN et al. 1999,
were designated Environmentally Sensitive
WILKINSON et al. 1999).
Areas. In 1987, the National Commission for
Wildlife Conservation and Development
(NCWCD) was formed with the express mission
Marine Protected Areas and Level
of handling the Kingdom's wildlife and
of Management
conservation management issues, using its own
classification system (Table 22).
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has
established a number of extensive terrestrial
By 1989, this programme had placed 2.4 %
protected areas, but lags behind in the
of Saudi Arabia's total area (51,405 km2) under
development and implementation of marine
protected status, none of which encompassed
protected areas. Many areas have been proposed
marine habitats. In 1990, the NCWCD
and suggested, dating back to the mid and late
published its `Plan to Protect Areas in Saudi
1980s, and remain that way to date. With the
Arabia' that presented a system of protected
exception of the Farasan Islands, protected in
areas, which, if designated, would place 12.8 %
1996, no other marine protected areas have been
of Saudi Arabia's land-mass under conservation
established.
management.
109
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
NCWCD Category
IUCN Equivalent(s)
Special Natural Reserves
1. Strict Nature Reserve/Scientific Park
2. National Park
4. Nature Conservation Reserve or Managed Reserve/Wildlife Sanctuary
Natural Reserves
1. National Park
4. Nature Conservation Reserve or Managed Reserve/Wildlife Sanctuary
Biological Reserves
1. Strict Nature Reserve/Scientific Park
4. Managed Reserve
Resource Use Reserves
5. Protected Landscape or Seascape
6. Resource Reserve
8. Multiple Use Management Area/Managed Resource Area.
9. Biosphere Reserve
Controlled Hunting Reserves
8. Managed Resource Area.
Table 22: NCWCD conservation categories and their IUCN equivalents (source: CHILD & GRAINGER 1990)
MPAs Declared
De facto and Planned MPAs
Yanbu Royal Commission Protected
Straits of Tiran: Straddling the Saudi
Area: Protected by the Royal Commission
Arabia/Egypt border, it encompasses islands
through an agreement with the Meteorological
and extensive coral reefs with diverse reef-
and Environmental Protection Administration
associated fauna in the transition area between
(MEPA). It covers an area of about 5 km2 and
the Gulf of Aqaba and the Red Sea. It is an
encompasses fringing reefs, mangroves and
important habitat for marine turtles and dugong.
seabird nesting sites, including ospreys.
There is tourist activity on the Egyptian side.
Umm al Qamari: Established in 1977 and
Ras Suwayhil: Proposed to cover an area of
covering an area of only 2 km2, this small
267 km2, the site encompasses pristine and
protected area in the southern Red Sea has two
diverse coral reefs and reef-associated fauna and
islands with surrounding fringing reefs and is an
is a prime example of the Gulf of Aqaba reefs
important habitat for thousands of seabirds
and high cliffs. It provides habitat for seabirds
especially doves, herons, pelicans, gulls and
and dugong.
sooty falcons.
Sharm Zubayr: Proposed to cover 80 km2,
Farasan Islands: Established in 1996 and
the area encloses open coastline and a sharm
covering an area of 3,310 km2, this terrestrial
with fossil reef cliffs, narrow fringing reefs and
and coastal reserve is an archipelago of small
the northernmost mangroves in Saudi Arabia. A
islands at the southern extreme of Saudi
causeway has been proposed to cut through the
Arabia's Red Sea shores. It supports several
area.
important habitats and species, including
mangroves, seagrass, coral reefs with high
biological diversity, marine mammals, marine
Ghubbat Bal'aksh: Covering 33 km2, this
turtles, seabirds and endemic gazelle. It is
is a sharm and open coastline with coral reefs
threatened by fishing, development and
with particularly high species diversity, seagrass
recreation activities.
beds and seabirds, but is subject to unregulated
recreation activities.
110
Coral Reefs of Saudi Arabia
Sharm Dumagyh and Sharm Antar:
mangrove and seagrass beds and fringing reefs
Covering an area of 70 km2, these two inlets
and is an important seabird area.
contain fringing reefs, seagrass beds, and
mangroves and are habitats for green and
hawksbill turtles and seabirds. The area is
Shi'b al-Qirin: Extending over 15 km2, this
subject to fishing and recreation pressures.
is a high quality inshore reef complex that is
also an important seabird area.
Al-Wajh Bank: Including Sharm Habban
and Sharm Munaybirah, this protected area will
Marsa as-Sarraj: Proposed to cover 200
cover 2,840 km2. It is home to the most
km2, this is the largest land-locked lagoon on the
extensive coral reef system of the entire Red
Saudi Arabian Red Sea coast. Seasonally
Sea, diverse reef-associated fauna, seagrass
inundated, it contains mangroves, halophytes,
beds and mangroves. It is inhabited by marine
seagrass beds and high quality coral reefs. It is
turtles and seabirds and is a key area for dugong.
threatened by agricultural development and
fishing activities.
Qalib Islands: Actually included in the Al-
Wajh Bank, these islands are surrounded by
Ras Hatiba: Covering about 450 km2, this
fringing reefs and are important nesting sites for
is a large shallow lagoon with sandy and
seabirds and marine turtles.
coralline spits, small mangrove stands,
extensive offshore reefs and is a prime site for
environmental and education programmes. It is
Al-Hasani and Libanah Islands: These are
currently threatened by recreation and
high-aspect islands with extensive fringing coral
unregulated development.
reefs and are important nesting sites for seabirds
and marine turtles.
Jeddah Salt Marsh: Proposed to cover
100 km2, this is a marshland area with extensive
Ras Abu Madd and Sharm Hasi: These
offshore reefs, but is threatened by oil pollution
are scenic sharms and have high quality fringing
and other waste disposal.
coral reefs, fossil reef terraces and are an
important seabird area. To be combined with the
Al-Hasani and Libanah Island protected area.
Ash-Shu'aybah and Mastaba: Proposed to
They are threatened by fishing activities.
cover about 100 km2, this is a large lagoon with
extensive mangroves, fossil reef terraces and
good quality offshore reefs. It is a key site for
Ras Baridi and Sharm Al-Khawr: The
seabirds, but is threatened by unregulated
area (30 km2) encompasses sand beaches, small
development, mangrove felling and a possible
islands, high quality coral reefs and seagrass
major highway project.
beds. It is the most important marine turtle
nesting site in the Red Sea. It is threatened by
unchecked fallout from a nearby cement factory.
Qishran: A complex of coral reefs, coral
spits, seagrass beds and extensive mangroves. It
provides important seabird and dugong habitat.
Sharm Yanbu: Enclosing 50 km2, the
sharm is a deep, bi-lobed lagoon that contains
111
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
Outer Farasan Bank: A major reef and
other related subjects. The faculty has sites at
island system contiguous with the Farasan
Obhur on the Red Sea coast north of Jeddah and
Islands. It has diverse mangrove, seagrass and
on the University campus. Facilities include
coral reef habitats, and is an important turtle and
research laboratories (3,000 m2), aquarium (17
seabird nesting area.
tanks), a small museum, workshop, computers,
a research vessel, a well-established library and
Khawr Nahoud: Proposed to cover about
teaching facilities.
33 km2, this is a lagoon with fringing corals,
seagrass beds and mangroves. It provides
important dugong and seabird habitat.
King Fahd University of Petroleum and
Minerals Research Institute: This university
Khawr Itwad: Proposed to cover about
carries out research projects related to the
70 km2, this is a lagoon with fringing corals,
protection of the Saudi Arabian environment.
seagrass beds and mangroves.
These include research and studies of the
ecology of the marine environment. Facilities
include laboratory space (2,200 m2), research
Shi'b Abu al-Liqa and Shi'b al-Kabir:
vessels, aquarium, museum, library and
Proposed to cover about 140 km2, these are two
teaching facilities. The Arabian Journal of
lagoons with abundant fringing corals and
Science and Engineering is published by the
mangroves.
University (four issues a year). It has
cooperative programmes with many institutions
including the Austrian Academy of Science,
Other proposed sites include the Inner
Kuwait Institute of Science and Research
Farasan Bank, Marsa al-Usalla and Marsa
(KISR), MEPA/ROPME and UNESCO.
Tawil, Mastura beach, Marsa Umm Misk and
Haramil Island, Marka Island, Ras Tarfa, Khawr
Wahlan, Duwayyimah, and Khawr Amiq. These
The geographic scale of the reef tracts of
areas do not contain important coral reef sites,
Saudi Arabia (both in the Red Sea and Arabian
but have been selected for their halophytes,
Gulf) are such that an adequate long-term
mangroves, seagrass beds or their importance
monitoring programme would require a
for species such as dugongs or turtles.
minimum of four dedicated NCWCD personnel.
Following training and technology transfer
(DEVANTIER et al. in press, VOGT & AL SHAIKH
Monitoring and Management
2000, ROUPHAEL & AL-YAMI pers. comm.),
Capacity to Conserve Coral Reef
sufficient expertise exists within the NCWCD to
Resources
develop such a team. This would facilitate coral
reef monitoring and research within the
Kingdom, essential adjuncts to future MPA
management.
Monitoring Capacity
Faculty of Marine Science, King Abdul
Aziz University: The objectives are teaching
Management Capacity
and research. The main geographic area of
The key to any efforts to reconcile
research is the Red Sea. Research is practical in
environmental concerns with economic and
nature and relates to resource exploitation,
population expansion in Saudi Arabia will be the
including fisheries, aquaculture, mangroves,
establishment of the institutional basis for co-
microfaunal distribution, coastal processes,
ordination and implementation of necessary
pollution, circulation, mixing and fronts and
economic expansion in a sustainable manner.
112
Coral Reefs of Saudi Arabia
Several institutions in the Kingdom are
centralised coastal zone management has
mandated through a variety of mechanisms to
not been achieved, and each individual
carry out conservation tasks that in one way or
agency operates under its own specific
another impact coral reefs:
mandate and numerous overlaps and
potential conflicts abound. Day-to-day
National Commission for Wildlife
co-ordination mechanisms and a central
Conservation and Development
planning authority specific to the coastal
(NCWCD): NCWCD is responsible for
zone are lacking. MEPA also has
the management of protected areas
jurisdiction for oil spill response (co-
(Royal Decree No. M/22, dated
ordination mechanism established under
12/9/1406). The NCWCD's main role is
Royal Decree 7/B/13307, dated
to preserve, protect and develop the
22/7/1411) and for prevention of
wildlife within the Kingdom. Specific
pollution including effluent from
objectives are to develop and implement
landfills (Royal Decree No. 7/505M,
projects to protect wildlife and their
dated 28/3/1406). MEPA is responsible
habitats, conduct surveys and promote
for setting standards for the environment
research and public interest in
(Royal Decree No. 7/M/8903, dated
environmental issues related to the
2/14/1401) and for carrying out a
wildlife in Saudi Arabia and co-ordinate
programme of environmental impact
different ministries, authorities and
assessment. It is also the designated
national and international institutions to
coastal zone management agency.
accomplish these objectives.
Saudi Arabian Coast Guard:
Meteorology and Environmental
Established by Royal Decree No. 33,
Protection Administration (MEPA):
dated 27/7/1377, the coast Guard has
Established by Council of Ministers
jurisdiction between the border of the
decision No. 157, Dated 20/11/1411 and
territorial seas (12 miles offshore) and
Royal Decree No. 7/505M, dated
10 km inland.
28/3/1406, MEPA has jurisdiction for the
prevention of pollution in the territorial
Ministry of Transport:
Has
seas. MEPA is the central environmental
responsibility for marine navigation in
agency in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
territorial waters.
However, the Kingdom distinguishes
between the establishment of
Sea Ports Authority: Has responsibility
environmental criteria, such as
for ports (Royal Decree No. 7/505M,
standards, and actual operational
dated 28/3/1406) and has been directed
management. Thus operational agencies
by Royal Decrees to enforce a
such as the Ministry of Petroleum,
moratorium on landfill in ports (Royal
Ministry of Agriculture, and Ministry of
Decree No. M/9, dated 27/3/1408).
Industry and Electricity retain regulatory
control over activities carried out under
Ministry of Agriculture:
Has
their respective mandates. MEPA sets
jurisdiction over fishery activities (Royal
environmental performance standards,
Decree No. 7/505M, dated 28/3/1406).
monitors the activities of operational
agencies and serves as a co-ordinator for
Royal Commission for Jubail and
environmental management, including
Yanbu: Responsible for industrial
coastal zone management. Despite this,
development within the two industrial
institutionalisation of authority for
cities. It is also responsible (under a
113
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
memorandum of understanding with
their consideration (in particular those
MEPA) for environmental management
concerning the designation of coral and
within the two industrial cities.
sandy islands as marine protectorates)
Government Legislation, Strategies
Council of Ministers Decision No. 271
and Policy Pertinent to Reef
(23.11.1404) obliging the use of best
available technology to reduce pollutant
Conservation
emissions (such as cement dust)
Saudi Arabia is signatory to regional and
Rules and Regulations for Saudi Arabian
international agreements that place obligations
Seaports
upon it for the prevention of pollution and pro-
tection of resources, including coral reefs.
draft national Fisheries Regulations
Among these are a number of international
agreements and memoranda of understanding
establishment of the National
and a series of national laws and royal decrees
Commission for Wildlife Conservation
that are pertinent to coral reef conservation.
and Development (NCWCD)
Royal Decree 7/B/13307 (22/7/1411)
International Agreements
concerning oil spill response activities
Among others the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
Royal Decree No. 7/505M (28/3/1406)
is a signatory to:
concerning effluent from landfill ports
the Regional Convention for the
Royal Decree No. 7/M/8903 (2/14/1401)
Conservation of the Red Sea and Gulf of
concerning standards for the
Aden Environment (1982)
environment
the Protocol Concerning Regional Co-
Royal Decree No. M/9 (27/3/1408)
operation in Combating Pollution by Oil
establishing a moratorium on land-filling
and other Harmful Substances in Cases
in port areas
of Emergency (1982)
Royal Decree for jurisdiction of fishery
National Legislation
activities.
A number of national decrees and laws
Gaps in Capacity and Requirements
affect coral reef conservation measures in the
for Improved Conservation
Kingdom, including:
Many of the environmental problems facing
Environmental Protection Standards
the Kingdom require an integrated approach to
Document No. 1401-01 (1402 H)
provide a solution. Such an approach has been
difficult due to the strongly sectoral organisation
National Oil Spill and Hazardous
of its government. Recent efforts in creating
Substances Contingency Plan
advisory councils and a national coastal zone
management plan may begin to address this
resolutions adopted by EPCCOM and
issue.
proposed to the Council of Ministers for
114
Coral Reefs of Saudi Arabia
Research
Funding and Expertise
Research needs to be carried out in order to
A larger proportion of funds allocated to
update baseline environmental conditions, and
protected areas and environmental research
follow-up monitoring should refer to these
needs to be appropriated for marine
baselines to detect changes in environmental
conservation efforts. Within the NCWCD for
quality.
instance, this would also require the expansion
of the Marine Department, which is currently
staffed by only three people with limited
Networking
research funds and equipment.
There is a need to integrate current research
into global initiatives such as ICRI and
Recommendations to Improve the
GCRMN, and regionally among the PERSGA
Conservation of Coral Reef
Member States.
Resources
Planning and Coastal Development
Saudi Arabia has carried out a number of
programmes and adopted a number of legal
Direct use and indirect development
measures to conserve coral reefs. These include
activities that affect reef systems need to be
laws on pollution discharges and the
carefully evaluated in the design stages and be
establishment of protected areas. However, a
subject to continued monitoring through the
number of issues remain unresolved or poorly
implementation stages.
addressed. Foremost, these include the
enforcement of existing emission standards,
control over industrial development, which
Community Education
includes land-filling, and integration of the
public and private sectors in reef conservation.
There is a need to develop community
education programmes that highlight the role of
communities in reef ecology, including
The Kingdom would also see a marked
degradation.
improvement in the conservation of coral reefs
through a comprehensive system of marine
protected areas. This will need strict
Legislation
enforcement and further research and
monitoring to acquire or update baseline
The Kingdom needs to take bold steps in the
information.
establishment of marine protected areas and
monitor the implementation of legislation
concerning these areas with regard to coastal
Legislation and Environmental Management
development, fisheries and tourism. The
There is a need to strengthen enforcement of
designation of marine protectorates needs to
legislation related to management of coastal and
become a priority issue within the country.
marine areas. The Kingdom must effectively
implement the Coastal Zone Management Plan;
improve mechanisms for co-ordination of
environmental activities among sectoral
ministries and review each institution's
mandates; and expand the EIA requirements for
115
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
industrial, municipal and private sectors.
of oil and other hazardous materials, and include
a review and upgrading of port reception
facilities for solid and liquid waste.
Habitat and Biodiversity Conservation
Saudi Arabia must implement a management
programme for the Farasan Islands and develop
Industrial Development
and implement a management programme for
Saudi Arabia needs to improve the
marine protected areas at Al-Wajh Bank, the
management of air pollution, brine disposal and
Straits of Tiran and other areas in the Red Sea.
thermal discharges (from desalination plants)
For coral reef resources, the Kingdom must
and improve the control of emissions from
establish measures to control spearfishing and
cement plants such as the one at Ras Baridi.
intensive collection of fish and invertebrates on
There is a need to control dredging and land-
reef flats. It also needs to update its current
filling in the development of ports.
fisheries management programme.
Research
Tourism Management
Saudi Arabia should strengthen its current
Saudi Arabia should further enforce
programme for development of a national
regulations and develop public awareness
database of biological resources and
programmes for coral reef conservation,
environmental information, and further
including control of overfishing, anchor
strengthen and expand monitoring programmes
damage, littering and souvenir collection.
to support operations and enforcement
activities.
Navigation Risks
There is a need to improve navigational aids
Environmental Education
and radio communication in Saudi Arabian
There is a need to expand environmental
waters, especially on major shipping channels,
education activities in both public and private
and to implement the current Oil Spill
sectors, and to encourage public participation in
Contingency Plan. This should include the
conservation efforts, as they were invited to
development of site-specific plans,
participate in wildlife rescue efforts after the
improvement in the capacity to respond to spills
1991 Gulf War.
116
Coral Reefs of Jordan
Introduction
Natural impacts on coral reefs include
predation, such as that from the snail, Drupella
cornus, disease and extreme low tides.
The coastline of the Hashemite Kingdom of
Jordan extends approximately 27 km along the
north-eastern reaches of the Gulf of Aqaba
There are currently no official marine
(Fig. 11). The climate in the region is arid, with
protected areas in Jordan, although one is
an annual rainfall of 20 to 30 mm and mean
proposed that will encompass coral reefs at the
daily air temperatures ranging from 14 to 32 ºC.
northern tip of the Gulf of Aqaba, through
The Gulf of Aqaba is a semi-enclosed system
funding by a GEF-Jordan initiative.
with limited water circulation (residence time of
two to three years). The coast is home to
Jordan's only seaport and is a centre of industry,
Several efforts are underway to develop
tourism and transportation. Approximately 30 %
regulatory and institutional mechanisms for
of the coast is used for port facilities.
promoting sustainable development in the
Aqaba region, however, coral reef conservation
in the Gulf of Aqaba will only come about by
Fringing reefs border up to 50 % of the
limiting the effects of industry, maritime
coast and support a high diversity of coral and
activities and tourism.
associated fauna. It has been reported that the
reefs support 158 coral species from 51 genera
(AL-MOGHRABI 2000) and over 280 species of
Surveys
fish (PERSGA/GEF 2001). Overall, Jordan's
coral reefs are in good condition supporting up
to 90 % cover of scleractinian corals. No
Current research involves studies on the
bleaching events were recorded following the
coral communities near the fertiliser factories (a
1997-98 global warming event, possibly due to
critical site), and along the entire coastline (a
the extreme northern latitude.
national programme). This involves the
monitoring of biological and physical
characteristics including currents, temperature
Pollution from industry, primarily in the
and nutrients levels. Studies are also aimed at
form of phosphates and fertilisers, constitutes
identifying temporal and spatial changes in reef
the major threat to coral reefs. The influx of
structure, coral coverage, fish population
nutrients smothers the coral polyps and
diversity and density, and addressing the
promotes the growth of opportunistic species
impacts of industry, diving and tourism.
such as Stylophora pistillata, which ultimately
alters the ecological balance on the reefs. The
slow water circulation patterns in the Gulf of
Aqaba exacerbate these problems.
117
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
Jordan
Aqaba Airport
flats are subjected to extreme low tides that dry
Egypt
out the entire zone during February and
September each year.
Saudi Arabia
Sudan
Aqaba Town
Coral Cover
Djibouti
Somalia
An estimated 50% of the shoreline is fringed
Gulf of
Main Port
with coral reefs (PERSGA/GEF 2001).
Aqaba
Power Station
Fish Communities
Container Port
According to conservative accounts, 268
Marine Science Station
JORDAN
species of tropical and semi-tropical fish are
found in the Gulf of Aqaba but the actual
number could be as high as 1,000 species.
Tourism
Area
Blacktip, hammerhead and whale sharks as well
as pelagic fish species including skipjack tuna
and bonito can be found in the Gulf of Aqaba's
open waters (PERSGA/GEF 2001). It is
interesting to note that, in general, Gulf of
Industrial Area
Aqaba fish assemblages are unique in
comparison to other neighbouring regions
(SHEPPARD et al. 1992). For example, a number
Fig. 11: Map showing the coastline of Jordan in the
of deep water fishes found elsewhere in the Red
Gulf of Aqaba
Sea are found living close to the surface in the
Coral Reefs Benthos and Fish
Gulf of Aqaba (e.g. the flashlight fish,
Photobleraphon palpebratus), while many
shallow water species are found closer to the
Information for this review is drawn
surface in the Gulf than elsewhere. In addition,
primarily from AL MOGHRABI 2000 and
species resident at the mouth of the Gulf appear
PERSGA/GEF 2001. These reports indicate that
unable to live within it. Furthermore, there are
reefs are in relatively good condition, with over
species in the Gulf not found in any other part of
90 % coral cover with no evidence of bleaching
the Red Sea/Gulf complex. These changes in
observed after the 1997-98 climatic event.
ecological structure have been attributed to
differing temperature regimes (ORMOND et al.
1984), although the argument is still under
Coral Health
debate (SHEPPARD et al. 1992).
A high number (212/m2) of muricid
gastropod, Drupella cornus, was recorded in
Coral Reef Fisheries
1994. Black band disease was also found to
infect 61 colonies in a survey area of 10 m
The fishing industry in Aqaba is small and
diameter at reefs near the Industrial Area, and
artisanal, consisting of approximately 85
only six colonies in a similar sample in the de
fishermen and 40 boats (1995 data). Total catch
facto protected area immediately offshore from
in 1995 was 15 metric tonnes, down from the
the Marine Science Station in 1997. The reef
103 metric tonnes recorded for 1993 and the
118
Coral Reefs of Jordan
maximum of 194 metric tonnes in 1966. There
megawatts). The primary concern with these
are no cold storage facilities and catches are sold
power generation installations is the high
upon landing (PERSGA/GEF 2001).
volume of cooling water discharges (warm,
Recreational SCUBA divers are reported to
chlorinated brine). At present some 38,000
collect a small number of aquarium fish, but no
cubic metres per hour are discharged 200m from
data regarding volume are available.
shore at a depth of 20 m. Discharge water is
3 ºC above ambient temperature.
Threats to Coral Reef Biodiversity
Port Related Activities
The Port of Aqaba is a major regional
The Gulf of Aqaba is highly susceptible to
shipping centre (second only to Suez and
pollution. At present, however, pollution is
Jeddah), and exports from 1989 to 1993 ranged
limited and localised. The main threats are oil
from 6.6 to 10 million metric tons per year
spills, industrial discharges, municipal and ship-
(PERSGA/GEF 2001). During this period,
based sewage, and solid waste. The
more than 2,300 vessels entered the port and
development of the tourism sector may threaten
plans aimed to double the volume by 2000.
coral reef habitats in the future.
Rock phosphate is the primary export, ranging
from 3.6 to 6.4 million metric tonnes (mt)
between 1989 to 1993. In the same period, 1.2 to
Fertiliser Discharges
1.4 million mt of potash and 0.4 to 0.7 million
Aqaba's main manufacturing facility is the
mt of phosphate fertiliser were also handled.
Jordan Phosphate Mines Company fertiliser
One concern is the possibility of reef-damaging
plant in the Industrial Area, producing 740,000
runoff from an accumulated stockpile of
metric tonnes (mt) of diammonium phosphate
fluorine-containing gypsum during flash floods.
(DAP) and 432,000 metric tonnes of phosphoric
Waste oil is occasionally discharged from bulk
acid annually. The fertilisers account for 10 %
cargo transport trucks in sensitive tidal areas,
of Jordan's annual export commodities. A
eventually reaching the sea.
second plant is under construction (Nippon
Jordan Fertiliser Company), which will increase
this industry sector significantly, with an
Tourism
estimated production of 300,000 metric tonnes
Tourism is an important sector of Jordan's
of nitrogen-phosphorus-potassium fertiliser
economy. The number of tourists has risen
(NPK) destined for the Japanese market. A
steadily over the last two decades, with over 1.5
concern is the cooling discharge (warm,
million people in 1995. Although tourism has
chlorinated brine) which is released 140 m
not reached the levels attained in neighbouring
from shore at a depth of 30 m. Small quantities
Egypt and Israel, the number of divers rises
of sulphur and DAP are routinely spilled during
steadily each year. Current operations are able to
ship loading operations.
handle 160 divers per day, with direct
destruction occurring through walking on
exposed reefs, souvenir collection, aquarium
Power Generation
fish collection, fin and anchor damage.
The Jordan Electrical Authority operates two
power stations (260 megawatts and 14
megawatts) and is constructing a third (130
119
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
Oil Pollution
surface temperatures, may at some point result
The ports in Aqaba have no reception
in bleaching and mortality of scleractinian
facilities for oil-contaminated bilge or ballast
corals, which could compound anthropogenic
water. Contamination risks from small spills
effects on coral reef environments. The slowly
come from:
rising sea levels may also affect a coral reef's
ability to act as a natural erosion barrier, given
that current models indicate the upward growth
bilge or ballast water from freighters (0
of low lying coral cays is insufficient to keep
to 2 mt),
pace with predicted rates of sea level rise.
spills from bilge or ballast water from oil
tankers (2 to 20 mt),
Marine Protected Areas and Level
of Management
release of oil as a result of defective
equipment or procedures (100 mt);
major spills from a bunker tank rupture
An initial feasibility study for the
(> 500 mt),
establishment of a MPA was carried out by
IUCN through PERSGA in the late 1980's and a
complete sinking of a cargo vessel
management plan developed following a series
(> 1,500 mt),
of studies and consultations. The official
designation and establishment of the Aqaba
tanker collisions (> 7,500 mt) and
Marine Park (AMP) was issued on 29 July 1997
by Decree No. 5 of the Aqaba Regional
wreckage and loss of a fully loaded
Authority Board of Directors.
tanker (>100,000 mt).
Given the slow cycling period for water in
The AMP is located in the southern portion
the Gulf of Aqaba, oil spills might remain for
of the Jordanian Gulf of Aqaba. It extends north
several years, with a severe risk to coral reefs
to south for approximately 7 km, from the
through smothering or the uptake of
southern boundary of the passenger terminal to
hydrocarbons by polyps.
the southern boundary of the Public Security
Officer's Club, equivalent to the stretch marked
'Tourism Area' on the previous map. Its
Sewage
development has been supported by the Global
Discharges into the Gulf of Aqaba have
Environment Facility.
resulted in the proliferation of algae, limiting
coral growth in the northern reefs. Sewage from
the 1.2 million passengers who use the Arab
Current Monitoring and
Bridge Marine Company vessels is discharged
Management Capacity to Conserve
directly to the sea.
Coral Reef Resources
Bleaching
No evidence of bleaching was observed after
Monitoring Capacity
the 1997-98 climatic event, and the northern
The Water Authority of Jordan (WAJ) is
latitudes of the region were considered to have
responsible for monitoring industrial discharges
moderated to some degree any surface water
on a semi-monthly basis to ensure compliance
warming. However, the generally rising sea
with Jordan Standard Specifications (JSS) 212.
120
Coral Reefs of Jordan
To date, monitoring has not taken place at this
ships, but if ships are observed discharging oil,
frequency and enforcement actions based on
the Department works with the Royal Jordanian
JSS 212 are rare. At present, no standards or
Navy (which patrols port areas and anchorage
guidelines are currently in force regarding the
areas) to keep vessels in custody until the case is
treatment of sewage sludge under JSS 893,
heard in a court of law. Court hearings
which sets maximum limits for pollutants in
invariably take place within 48 hours but fines
sewage plant discharges.
only range from USD 1,000 to 16,000. No cases
were heard between 1993 and 1995.
The Aqaba Marine Science Station (MSS)
monitors trends on coral reefs and provides
Government Legislation, Strategies
facilities for training and research. Studies are
and Policy Pertinent to Reef
conducted on water quality, impacts of
Conservation
pollutants and baseline coral reef ecology. MSS
also administers the Aqaba Marine Science
Centre, which occupies 500 m of the coastline
In recent years Jordan has improved the
(de facto protected).
legal and regulatory framework for
environmental protection at a national and
international level. The country is party to eight
Three NGOs also address marine
international conventions or treaties that directly
environmental concerns in Aqaba: The Royal
or indirectly have an impact on the conservation
Society for the Conservation of Nature, which
of coral reefs.
funds an inspector to patrol merchant vessels;
the Jordan Environment Society, which
introduces awareness programmes, and the
International Agreements
Jordan Royal Ecological Diving Society, which
organises underwater clean-ups, awareness
Jordan is party to eight international
programmes and monitoring of coral reefs.
conventions that are relevant to the conservation
of coral reef resources. These are the
International Convention for the Prevention of
Management Capacity
Pollution of the Sea by Oil, the Convention on
The responsibility for development of the
the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping
Aqaba region is borne by the Aqaba Regional
Wastes and other Matter (London Convention),
Authority (ARA), with conservation works
the Convention on International Trade in
carried out through the ARA Environment Unit
Endangered Species of Wild Fauna or Flora
(established in 1994). ARA supervises town
(CITES), the International Convention for the
planning, tenders and public works, finance,
Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL);
administration, regional planning and research
the Regional Convention for the Conservation
and studies.
of the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden
Environment (Jeddah Convention) and
Protocol; the Convention for the Control of
The Ports Commission is responsible for the
Trans-boundary Movements of Hazardous
construction, operation and maintenance of
Wastes and their Disposal (Basel Convention);
Aqaba port facilities. The commission also
the United Nations Convention on Biological
addresses environmental protection concerns
Diversity (CBD); and the United Nations
and, through its Marine Department, the safety
Framework Convention on Climate Change.
of shipping operations. This department does
not monitor environmental law compliance of
121
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
Year
National Laws and Regulations
Government Agency Concerned
(in force)
Shipping Law No. 51
1961
Ports Corporation
Aqaba Port Quarantine Law No. 32
1972
Ports Corporation
Agricultural Law No. 20
1973
Ministry of Agriculture
Port Services Fees Law No. 49
1976
Ports Corporation
Jordan Standard Specifications No. 212
1982
Water Authority of Jordan
Law of the Aqaba Region Authority No. 7
1987
Aqaba Regional Authority
Port Services Fees Law No. 20
1987
Ports Corporation
Jordan Standard Specifications No. 893
1994
Water Authority of Jordan
Higher Council for Environmental Protection
Law of the Environmental Protection No. 12
1995
General Corporation for Environmental Protection
Table 23: National Laws and Regulations pertinent to coral reefs (PERSGA/GEF 2001)
National Legislation
regulations including inspection and
monitoring. The Law also harmonises
Several national laws exist that are either
existing laws and settles jurisdictional
directly or indirectly relevant to reef
conflicts.
conservation (Table 23), in particular the Law of
Environmental Protection.
Law of Environmental Protection
(Article 35) - bans the removal, damage
to and use of corals and shellfish from
Law of the Aqaba Regional Authority
the Gulf of Aqaba.
No. 7 (1987) - delegates the power to
plan and execute tourism, industrial and
Jordan Standard Specifications No. 212
agricultural projects in the region. The
(1982 updated 1991) - establishes
Law has been the key instrument for
maximum allowable limits for pollutant
strengthening environmental controls
discharges into streams, wadis or the sea,
including the use of EIAs and coastal
and includes standards for the protection
zone management guidelines.
of aquatic life.
Regulations for the Jordanian Red Sea
Marine Park are being developed under
Jordan Standard Specifications No. 893
this Law.
(1994 updated 1995) - sets maximum
limits for pollutants in sewage plant
Law of Environmental Protection No.
discharges, which include publicly
12 (1995) - establishes a national
owned waste water works operated by
framework for environmental policy,
the WAJ.
including the formation of a Higher
Council for Environmental Protection
Shipping Law No. 51 (1961) - bans
(HCEP). The HCEP sets national
ships from dumping soils, stones, sand,
environmental policy and reviews
scum, toxic and chemical waste or any
proposed laws, specifications and
other material into the sea. Spills that
standards prepared by the General
occur during the loading and unloading
Corporation for Environmental
of ships are also classified under this
Protection (GCEP). The GCEP
Law.
implements pollution prevention
122
Coral Reefs of Jordan
Aqaba Port Quarantine Law No. 32
system chosen must be designed to promote
(1972) - bans the discharge of ship-based
planning, monitoring and enforcement actions.
pollution including bilge water. The Law
This initiative must acquire a computer/GIS
may impose fines and order remediation
system and conduct staff training in information
works.
technology applications for specific projects.
Agricultural Law No. 20 (1973) - issues
fishing licences and prohibits the
Recommendations to Improve the
removal of corals.
Conservation of Coral Reef
Resources
Gaps in Capacity and Requirements
for Improved Conservation
The institutional capacity of Jordanian
government agencies could be strengthened by
Most of Jordan's departments and
the hiring and training of extra staff, the full
organisations appear to be well staffed. Certain
implementation of environmental protection
areas, including coastal zone management and
laws, and enhanced regional coordination.
computerisation, need to be strengthened to
Jordan has improved its capacity for
meet the demands of effective development and
environmental protection through the
implementation of legislature, and for the
establishment of the new national environmental
establishment of a marine park.
law, and the creation of the ARA Environment
Unit. Several additional measures are needed if
coral reefs are to be protected, including the
Institutional Capacity Building
development of an integrated coastal zone
A training programme should be developed
management strategy, capacity building at the
and implemented to strengthen the capacity to
legislative, management and operational levels,
regulate industrial performance. Essential for
the establishment of a marine protected area and
the development of this programme are an
the harmonisation of existing regulations at the
industrial pollution prevention specialist and an
national and international level.
environmental monitoring technician. The
industrial pollution prevention specialist will
implement the new permitting process, conduct
Pollution
facility inspections and review specific industry
To meet its obligations under MARPOL,
documents and practices relevant to the control
Jordan is expected to develop and implement
of industrial pollution. The environmental
standards and regulations for management of
monitoring technician will be responsible for
oily waste (bilge and ballast water and tank
the collection and analysis of both air and water
washings), noxious liquid substances, solid
samples. At the same time, coastal zone
waste and sewage. The option of establishing a
management efforts need strengthening to
coordinated (Jordan-Egypt-Israel) waste oil
integrate current conservation measures with
recovery scheme should be assessed.
development plans.
Oil Spills
Computer/GIS Database Capability
The present contingency project, targeting
There is a need to determine the information
spills of up to 600 metric tonnes of oil, does not
technology appropriate to support the work of
address the risk of potentially catastrophic spills
the Aqaba Regional Authority (ARA)
(up to 150,000 metric tonnes) from tanker
Environment Unit. The information technology
collision or grounding.
123
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
Coastal Zone Management Plan
new construction, coordinated with
Implementation
requirements that may be developed by the
Regulations, standards, coastal zone
GCEP. The capacity to implement new
management and environmental auditing
regulations needs to be developed.
procedures should be implemented for coastal
industries, including the adoption and
implementation of guidelines for industrial
Gulf of Aqaba Marine Park
pollution prevention. This effort should monitor
Legislation for Park management has been
air and water discharges, compile and analyse
drafted. It is anticipated (March 2000) that a
inspection data, review industrial emergency
new bye-law will be passed based on
preparedness plans and assist industries in the
Environment Law No. 12. This will create a
preparation of industrial environmental audits.
legal mandate for management. The Park
management plan includes regulations
governing different user activities (e.g.
Monitoring Marine Water Quality
motorised and non-motorised boating, SCUBA
A monitoring project is needed to assess
diving, snorkelling, swimming, fishing, beach
current marine water quality and to establish
recreation); installation of boundary
measures for maintaining and improving water
demarcations for different user zones within the
quality. The monitoring programme must
marine park, including mooring and marker
include monthly baseline testing to assess the
buoys (AL-SAIFI 2000).
horizontal and vertical distribution and
movement of nutrients, inorganic components,
algae, oxygen, salinity and other parameters.
Legislation and Implementation
Coastal Zone Management and
Environmental Impact Assessment procedures
need to be implemented as do guidelines for
124
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