Strategic Action Programme
for the
Red Sea and Gulf of Aden





















Regional Organization for the
Conservation of the Environment of the
Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

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PERSGA

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1998 The International Bank
for Reconstruction and Development/ THE WORLD BANK
1818 H. Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A.

Manufactured in the United States of America

First Printing June 1998

This report has been prepared by the members of the PERSGA Strategic Action Programme Task
Force. The judgments expressed do not necessarily reflect the views of the cooperating governments
and organizations.

Cover Design by Beni Chibber-Rao
Cover photographs by Jan C. Post





Printed on Recycled Paper

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Preface
The Red Sea and Gulf of Aden is a unique
The Red Sea and Gulf of Aden are shared
environment. Its waters have been used
by many countries, and a regional approach
for thousands of years by people for fishing
is therefore essential to conserve and pro-
and trading, and for religious pilgrimages.
tect our shared heritage. The Strategic Ac-
Today the people of the Region share
tion Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf
these waters with oil tankers and cargo
of Aden has been developed by the coun-
ships, representing potentially serious risks
tries of the Region, in cooperation with the
to marine ecosystems. Coastal populations
Global Environment Facility and its imple-
are increasing, posing new and increasing
menting agencies, the United Nations Envi-
threats to the environment if this growth is
ronment Programme, the United Nations
not managed properly.
Development Programme, and the World
These ecosystems make the Red Sea and
Bank; a regional financial institution, the
Gulf of Aden internationally significant--
Islamic Development Bank; and the re-
the extensive and very beautiful coral reefs
gion's own environmental organization, the
are inhabited by many species which occur
Regional Organization for the Conservation
nowhere else in the world. Today these
of the Environment of the Red Sea and
reefs are attracting tourists in ever­
Gulf of Aden--PERSGA.
increasing numbers. However, if this grow-
The Strategic Action Programme for the
ing tourism industry is not well managed
Red Sea and Gulf of Aden is based on the
we are in danger of losing a great and sus-
most recent information from throughout
tainable resource.
the Region, and in some cases provided
Fortunately, and unlike many other regional
previously unknown insights into our unique
seas around the world, the Red Sea and
environment. It is my great hope that the
Gulf of Aden are in a relatively pristine
results of the Programme will be an asset
state. However, changes are rapidly occur-
to the countries of the Region in their plan-
ring and it is imperative that we act now as
ning for the management and conservation
a Region to prevent widespread degrada-
of our unique coastal and marine environ-
tion which is costly to repair.
ments.
Dr. Nizar I. Tawfiq
Secretary General
iii

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PERSGA

iv

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Contents
Acknowledgments.................................................................................................. vii
Abbreviations and Acronyms ..................................................................................ix
Executive Summary ................................................................................................xi
1. The Strategic Action Programme Process ..........................................................1

The Red Sea and Gulf of Aden: A Dynamic Region ................................................1

A Framework for Regional Cooperation:

Jeddah Convention, PERSGA and the SAP ............................................................2

The SAP: An Agenda for Regional, National and Local Action ................................3

National and International Efforts...........................................................................4
2. The Uniqueness of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden..............................................7

A Repository of Biodiversity..................................................................................7

Major Coastal and Marine Environments ................................................................9

Cultural Heritage.................................................................................................11
3. Threats to Coastal and Marine Environments and Resources.........................13

Environmental Degradation..................................................................................13

Non­Sustainable Use of Living Marine Resources ................................................15

Maritime Traffic, Oil Production and Transport .....................................................16

Urban and Industrial Development .......................................................................18

Rapid Expansion of Coastal Tourism ....................................................................19

Emerging Issues..................................................................................................20
4. An Agenda for Action at the Regional, National and Local Levels ..................23

Long­Term, High Level Commitment and Public Awareness.................................23

Transboundary Environmental Issues....................................................................24

Preventive Measures...........................................................................................25

Curative Measures..............................................................................................29

Resource Management Programmes....................................................................32

Outreach Activities .............................................................................................37
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Monitoring, Indicators and Evaluation ...................................................................38
5. Resource Mobilization.......................................................................................41

Introduction ........................................................................................................41

Linking the Programme to Public Investment Plans ...............................................42

Domestic and International Financing ...................................................................42

Role of International Funding Organizations ..........................................................43

Private Sector Participation..................................................................................43

Sustainable Financing of Coral Reef Conservation.................................................43

Alternative Sources of Funding ............................................................................44
Boxes
Box 1.
Socotra Archipelago
Box 2.
An Agenda for Action
Tables
Table 1.
Threats to Coastal and Marine Environments and Resources
Table 2.
Transboundary Analysis ­ Thematic Issues on a Sub­Regional Basis
Table 3.
Transboundary Analysis ­ Thematic Issues by Country
Table 4.
Transboundary Analysis ­ Common Concerns on a Sub­Regional Basis
Table 5.
Transboundary Analysis ­ Common Concerns by Country
Table 6.
Priority Actions ­ Regional
Table 7.
Priority Actions ­ Djibouti
Table 8.
Priority Actions ­ Egypt
Table 9.
Priority Actions ­ Jordan
Table 10. Priority Actions ­ Saudi Arabia
Table 11. Priority Actions ­ Gulf of Aden Coast of Somalia
Table 12. Priority Actions ­ Sudan
Table 13. Priority Actions ­ Yemen
Appendices
Appendix A.
PERSGA Secretariat, Task Force Members and Drafting Group Members
Appendix B.
Key Activities in the Preparation Process
Appendix C.
Selected Studies and Background Documents
Appendix D.
Status of International and Regional Agreements
Appendix E.
National Economic, Social and Environmental Indicators
Map
Map 1 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden ­ IBRD 29042

The documentation for the Strategic Action Programme includes three complementary pub-
lications: (a) Strategic Action Programme ­ Volume 1 ­ Main Report (this volume); and (b)
Strategic Action Programme ­ Volumes 2 and 3 ­ Supporting Studies. Volume 2 includes
Country Reports for Djibouti, Egypt, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, northern coast of Somalia, and
Yemen. Volume 3 contains the Navigation Risk Assessment and Management Plan for the
Red Sea and Gulf of Aden and the Assessment and Status of the Living Marine Resources
in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden and Their Management. The Strategic Action Programme
vi

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has also prepared a wall map which shows major environmental features of the PERSGA
Region.
vii

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Acknowledgments
Funding for preparation of the Strategic Action Programme has been provided by the Global
Environment Facility (GEF) with implementation support from the United Nations Devel-
opment Programme (UNDP), United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the
World Bank, and execution by the United Nations Office for Project Services (UNOPS).
Special support for the Navigation Risk Assessment and Management Plan has been pro-
vided by the Government of Norway through an agreement with the World Bank. Staff, of-
fice space and operating costs for the PERSGA Secretariat have been provided by GEF,
UNEP and the Government of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

viii

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Abbreviations and Acronyms
ACOPS
Advisory Committee on the Protection of the Seas
BOD
Biological Oxygen Demand
EEZ
Exclusive Economic Zone
EA
Environmental Assessment
Fund Convention
International Convention on the Establishment of a Fund
for the Compensation for Oil Pollution Damage
GDP
Gross Domestic Product
GEF
Global Environment Facility
GIS
Geographic Information System
GMDSS
Global Maritime Distress and Safety System
ICZM
Integrated Coastal Zone Management
IFC
International Finance Corporation
IMO
International Maritime Organization
IsDB
Islamic Development Bank
IUCN
World Conservation Union, formerly International Union
for the Conservation of Nature
MARPOL
The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollu-
tion from Ships
MEMAC
Marine Emergency Mutual Aid Center
MIGA
Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency
MPA
Marine Protected Area
NEAP
National Environmental Action Plan
PERSGA
Regional Organization for the Conservation of the Envi-
ronment of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
PIP
Public Investment Plan
Region
Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Region
ROPME
Regional Organization for the Protection of the Marine
Environment
RSCN
Royal Society for the Conservation of Nature of Jordan
SAP
Strategic Action Programme
SAR
International Convention on Search and Rescue
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SOLAS
International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea
UNCED
United Nations Conference on Environment and Develop-
ment
UNDP
United Nations Development Programme
UNEP
United Nations Environment Programme
UNESCO
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organi-
zation
UNOPS
United Nations Office for Project Services
VLCC
Very Large Crude Carriers
WWF
World Wide Fund for Nature
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Executive Summary
Background
creasing jeopardy. There is a growing risk
of marine pollution, and environmental deg-
The Red Sea and Gulf of Aden contain
radation from rapidly expanding maritime
some of the world's most important coastal
activities. Coastal habitat is being con-
and marine environments and resources.
verted for urban and industrial develop-
There is a great variety of reef types in the
ment. Tourism and recreation usage are
Red Sea with a structural complexity un-
growing quickly. In the Gulf of Aden the
matched on Earth. The diversity of corals
fisheries are under great pressure from
is greater than anywhere else in the Indian
over­exploitation and illegal fishing, and
Ocean, and the number of species that are
there are reports of toxic waste dumping
confined to the Red Sea and found no-
by foreign vessels.
where else is extremely high. The Red Sea
is one of the most important repositories of
Goals and Objectives
marine biodiversity on a global scale and
features a range of important coastal habi-
In view of the environmental uniqueness of
tats. The Gulf of Aden, one of the biologi-
the coasts and waters of the Region, the
cally least known branches of the Indian
threats they are facing, and the necessity
Ocean, holds fishery resources of interna-
for actions, the preparation of the Strategic
tional importance. The Socotra Archipel-
Action Programme (SAP) for the Red Sea
ago contains unique aquatic and terrestrial
and Gulf of Aden was initiated in October
ecosystems and species, with limited im-
1995. The SAP process, coordinated by
pact from human activities. The rich cul-
the Regional Organization for the Conser-
tural heritage of the Region, especially in
vation of the Environment of the Red Sea
the narrow coastal zone, includes large
and Gulf of Aden (PERSGA), has been
numbers of significant archaeological, his-
undertaken with support from the countries
torical and sacred sites which are increas-
of the Region, the Global Environment Fa-
ingly at risk from development pressure.
cility (GEF), selected international devel-
opment institutions and donor organizations.

Although the Red Sea is still one of the
least ecologically disturbed seas relative to

The SAP supports and facilitates the
other enclosed water bodies, it is in in-
primary goal of PERSGA, which is the
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xii Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

conservation of the environment of the Red
progress and agreed on the follow­up ac-
Sea and Gulf of Aden. The aims of the
tivities for the remaining stages of the
SAP are to develop a regional framework
SAP. The third and fourth meetings fo-
for the protection of the environment and
cused on technical discussion of recent
the sustainable development of coastal and
findings, the preparation of the final report
marine resources. The Programme outlined
including recommendations, and associated
in the SAP focuses on both preventive and
projects.
curative measures required to maintain the

Preparation of the SAP has been sup-
rich and diverse coastal and marine re-
ported by regional studies on navigation
sources of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden.
and fisheries. A Navigation Risk Assess-

The SAP is a significant process for
ment and Management Plan has been pre-
reaching agreement concerning environ-
pared to examine regional, national and lo-
mental trends, threats and priorities at a re-
cal issues. The Plan has been prepared
gional level. It is also a product in the form
with the support of a Working Group of re-
of an Action Programme which provides a
gional experts on maritime and port man-
framework for continued cooperation in
agement, which has held meetings in Egypt
reaching short­, medium­ and long­term
and Yemen. The regional study on living
goals through a series of complementary
and marine resources has assessed their
actions at all levels. The SAP document
current status and has been prepared with
will be implemented through a continuous,
the support of a meeting of regional ex-
consultative and cooperative process.
perts held in Saudi Arabia.
The SAP Task Force
Country Participation
The development of the SAP has been
The development of the SAP has been a
overseen by a Task Force which includes
collaborative process whereby national ex-
representatives of the PERSGA Secretar-
perts have cooperated to produce reports
iat and Member States, the Islamic Devel-
which analyze environmental issues of re-
opment Bank, the United Nations Devel-
gional, national and local significance. Na-
opment Programme (UNDP), the United
tional reports were prepared by all cooper-
Nations Environment Programme (UNEP),
ating countries and field surveys were con-
and the World Bank. The Government of
ducted in countries where baseline data are
Eritrea has also been invited to join the
limited. To widen participation further and
Task Force and to work as a partner in the
to facilitate consensus building, a pilot na-
SAP process. Under the chairmanship of
tional workshop was held in Jordan in
the Secretary General of PERSGA, the
August 1996 to review the Country Report.
Task Force has developed and supervised
This was followed by a series of national
the work programme, reviewed the results
workshops in other countries to finalize the
of the programme, and provided technical
Country Reports and to develop priority ac-
and administrative input. Four meetings of
tions required by each country to address
the Task Force have been held: in Jeddah
the environmental threats identified.
(October 1995), Amman (April 1996),

The coastline of Eritrea occupies a
Sana'a (January 1997), and Jeddah (May
considerable portion of the western Red
1997). During the first meeting, the Task
Sea, and its diverse range of marine habi-
Force's Terms of Reference were com-
tats contains species unlike those found in
piled and the work plan developed. The
the central and northern Red Sea. For
second meeting reviewed the technical
these reasons, Eritrea holds a significant

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Executive Summary xiii

place in the overall marine biodiversity of

These threats highlight the need for ef-
the Red Sea and its participation in the
fective use of environmental management
SAP, as an active partner working along-
practices. Most of the threats and impacts
side the other states, is critically important.
which have been identified can be pre-
This will be facilitated through the devel-
vented by proper environmental planning
opment of a strong and equal working
and management, use of environmental as-
partnership between the Government of
sessments, and also through the enforce-
Eritrea and PERSGA. The Secretary Gen-
ment of appropriate regulations, most of
eral of PERSGA, through the assistance of
which are already in place.
UNDP, is actively discussing the modalities

The SAP process has identified a num-
for such a partnership with representatives
ber of major threats to the environment,
of the Government of Eritrea, so that the
and to the coastal and marine resources of
Programme will be a regional process
the Region:
which reflects the needs of each country.
WIDESPREAD HABITAT DESTRUCTION:
Regional Threats
· Unplanned coastal development
The environment and resources of the Red
· Extensive dredging and filling
Sea and Gulf of Aden are threatened by a
· Destruction of coral reefs
variety of human activities. The rate of
population and economic growth in the
· Destruction of mangroves
coastal zones of the Region has resulted in
· Destruction of seagrass beds
increased pressure on the environment,
from dredging and filling operations, from
NON­SUSTAINABLE USE OF LIVING
the disposal of domestic and industrial ef-
MARINE RESOURCES:
fluent, and from the non­sustainable use of
· Overfishing for local and export mar-
freshwater resources. A major contributor
kets
to growth in the coastal zone, and the con-
sequent impacts, is the rapidly expanding
· Illegal shark fisheries for the East Asian
tourism industry. Marine resources are be-
shark fin market
ing exploited in a non­sustainable way and
· Turtle exploitation and egg collection
also illegally.
· Incidental capture of marine mammals

The global importance of petroleum
in fishing nets
and the resulting maritime traffic in the
Red Sea and Gulf of Aden pose a serious
NAVIGATION RISKS, PETROLEUM
threat to the fragile coastal and marine en-
TRANSPORT AND PETROLEUM
vironments. Routine operational leaks and
PRODUCTION:
spills from production in the Gulf of Suez
and the transport of oil constitute the prin-
· Extensive risk of ship collision and
cipal source of marine pollution in the Re-
grounding in major traffic lanes
gion. At the same time, the growing risk of
· Discharge of sewage from vessels
oil traffic­related accidents creates a con-
· Ship discharge of solid waste
siderable demand for emergency response
combined with management skills to mini-
· Oil spills from exploration, production,
mize risks and control major spills. Emerg-
and transport
ing issues will need to be addressed in a
IMPACTS OF URBAN AND INDUSTRIAL
preventive fashion.
DEVELOPMENT:

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xiv Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

· Excessive use of surface and ground-
Actions to Address Regional Threats
water resources
Many of the threats which have been iden-
· Destruction of coastal and marine habi-
tats during construction
tified are related to a lack of planning and
management of development in the coastal
· Discharge of partially treated and un-
zone, limited use of environmental assess-
treated municipal wastewater
ment procedures in making investment de-
· Industrial pollution
cisions, and the inadequate enforcement of
existing laws. Living marine resources
· Hazardous wastes
need to be managed effectively so that
· Cooling water discharge
their long­term sustainable use is assured.
Reducing the risks of navigation accidents
· Waste oil disposal
will eliminate an additional threat to the
RAPID EXPANSION OF COASTAL
marine environment. The management of
TOURISM:
coastal tourism and increased public
awareness about the value of the marine
· Surface and groundwater extraction
environment will promote habitat and re-
· Destruction of coastal and marine habi-
source conservation. Areas in which man-
tats during construction
agement is hampered by a lack of informa-
tion can be addressed by appropriate ap-
· Inadequate sewage and solid waste dis-
plied research. The SAP process has iden-
posal
tified the following actions to address these
· Disturbance to wildlife and habitats by
threats:
tourists
ENHANCING GOVERNMENT COMMITMENT
· Illegal collection of corals and mollusks
AND PUBLIC AWARENESS:
for souvenir trade
· Long­term high level commitment to
OTHER CONCERNS:
protection of the Red Sea and Gulf of
Aden
· Illegal disposal of toxic substances by
foreign vessels in the Gulf of Aden
· Ratification of MARPOL Convention
· Sedimentation from agriculture and
· Development and implementation of re-
grazing in some locations
gional programme for environmental
awareness
· Risks from pesticides and fertilizers in
some locations
IMPROVING ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING,
EMERGING ISSUES:
MANAGEMENT, AND ENFORCEMENT:
· Development of free zones
· Strengthening the capacity for planning
and management
· Improperly managed expansion of small
and medium industries
· Strengthening the capacity for coastal
zone management
· Exploitation of offshore mineral deposits
· Strengthening the capacity for environ-
· Shrimp and fish farming
mental assessment
· Ornamental fish collecting
· Strengthening the capacity for en-
forcement of existing regulations

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Executive Summary xv

· Strengthening regional environmental
· Development and implementation of
information systems through the stan-
environmental guidelines for fish and
dardization and updating of databases,
shrimp farming
including those maintained on geo-
· Development of mechanisms for con-
graphic information systems (GIS), to
trolling the collection of corals and mol-
facilitate data exchange
lusks
PROMOTING HABITAT CONSERVATION:
REDUCING NAVIGATION RISKS AND OIL
· Effectively implementing coastal zone
SPILLS:
management programmes
· Adoption and implementation of Port
· Development of a regional network of
State Control
Marine Protected Areas
· Development and implementation of re-
· Development of conservation and man-
gional and sub­regional vessel traffic
agement programmes for coral reefs
systems
· Development of conservation and man-
· Upgrading existing marine navigation
agement programmes for mangroves
aids in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
· Development of conservation and man-
· Upgrading existing navigation aids in
agement programmes for seagrass beds
narrow passage areas and high risk ar-
· Development of conservation and man-
eas
agement programmes for coastal wet-
· Development and implementation of a
lands
regional oil spill contingency plan
· Rehabilitation of mangrove stands
· Preparation or upgrading of national Oil
Spill Contingency Plans
MANAGING LIVING MARINE RESOURCES:
· Upgrading of the existing Marine Emer-
· Stock assessment programme for the
development of a fisheries management
gency Mutual Aid Centers and the es-
strategy
tablishment of similar facilities in other
sub­regions
· Development and implementation of a
management programme for shark fish-
REDUCING IMPACTS FROM URBAN AND
ery
INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT:
· Development of a regional research and
· Improving urban and industrial planning
management programme on coral reefs
· Improving coastal zone management
· Development and implementation of a
· Routine use of environmental assess-
programme for marine turtle conserva-
ment
tion
· Development of control mechanisms for
· Development and implementation of a
construction work, dredging and recla-
programme for marine mammal con-
mation
servation
· Increased priority for management of
· Development and implementation of a
surface and groundwater resources
programme for seabird conservation
· Strengthening the capacity to manage
· Strengthening the enforcement capacity
municipal wastewater and industrial ef-
for existing fisheries regulations
fluents

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xvi Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

· Strengthening the capacity to manage
· Biodiversity studies and species inven-
solid and hazardous waste
tories
· Conservation of the cultural heritage of
The SAP: A Framework for Action
the coastal zone
· Environmentally sound development of
The Strategic Action Programme process
free zones
provides a framework and a mechanism to
enhance regional environmental manage-
· Environmentally sound development of
small and medium industries
ment through a series of complementary
policy, institutional strengthening and in-
· Elaboration of regional environmental
vestment actions. The Strategic Action
guidelines for the development of non­
Programme will be supported by projects
petroleum offshore mineral deposits
designed to address the identified issues.
These projects will be implemented on a
IMPROVING MANAGEMENT OF COASTAL
short­, medium­ and long­term basis ac-
TOURISM:
cording to the nature of the issue being ad-
· Development of control mechanisms for
dressed. The SAP may be periodically up-
construction work, dredging and recla-
dated to reflect progress in implementation
mation
and to identify new measures to address
emerging issues or unanticipated events. It
· Strengthening the capacity to manage
wastewater discharge from coastal re-
is envisaged that the process will not end
sorts
with the completion of the initial SAP
document, but will continue through further
· Development of mechanisms to prevent
cooperation between PERSGA and the
the over­exploitation of fish and shell-
Task Force, with the Task Force acting as
fish for tourist consumption
an advisory body to PERSGA. The proc-
· Enforcement of existing regulations
ess will also continue through the estab-
prohibiting the collection of corals, mol-
lishment of selected Working Groups at the
lusks, and other marine life
regional and sub­regional level, whose
function will be to address transboundary
· Development of awareness pro-
issues. National Working Groups will also
grammes to reduce disturbance to wild-
be established to deal with the implementa-
life and habitats by tourists
tion of projects and activities at the national
· Proper site selection and planning for
and local levels.
tourism developments
· Establishing reasonable capacity limits
for tourism developments
PROMOTING APPLIED RESEARCH:
· Preparation and dissemination of a spe-
cies identification guide for fishery pur-
poses and environmental management
· Strengthening the capacity for applied
research and monitoring
· Strengthening of environmental labora-
tory capacity

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1
The Strategic Action Programme Process
The Red Sea and Gulf of Aden:
coastal and marine environments of the
A Dynamic Region
Region are globally among the least dis-
turbed, its living and non­living resources
OVERVIEW. In the last three decades,
are in increasing jeopardy. Coastal habitat
many countries in the Red Sea and Gulf of
is being converted to urban and industrial
Aden (the Region) have had to address the
development, and limited freshwater re-
consequences of war, civil strife, drought
sources are under intense pressure. Tour-
and famine, as well as the challenges of
ism and recreational use are growing
environmentally and socially sustainable
quickly in coastal areas, especially adjacent
development. In addition to these political,
to fragile coral reefs. There is a greater
economic, environmental and social prob-
risk of marine pollution and environmental
lems, demographic changes and pressures
degradation from rapidly expanding energy
have remained major constraints. During
development and maritime activities.
this same period, the countries of the Re-
Throughout the Region, fisheries are under
gion have included among the lowest in per
significant pressure from over­exploitation
capita income, while some have good rates
and in large areas illegal fishing is having
of economic development, and one has a
devastating results. In the Gulf of Aden,
very high record of providing donor assis-
there are reports of foreign vessels illegally
tance. In spite of their significant eco-
dumping toxic wastes. The social need for
nomic, social and political differences, the
development of basic infrastructure in the
countries of the Region share several
Socotra Archipelago will create potential
common environmental problems and
threats to the unique ecosystems of these
threats. These shared concerns have pro-
islands. The Red Sea remains one of the
vided a firm justification for regional col-
busiest marine transport regions of the
laborative efforts.
world, making this multi­national sea prone
to major oil pol ution.
ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT
TRENDS. Development activities in the Re-
gion are heavily concentrated in coastal ar-
eas and depend on a combination of fragile
terrestrial and marine resources. While the
1

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2
Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

A Framework for Regional Coopera-
gional Intergovernmental Conference also
tion: Jeddah Convention, PERSGA
adopted a "Programme for the Environ-
and the SAP
ment of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
(PERSGA)," and a Secretariat for the
THREE COMPLEMENTARY MEASURES.
Programme was established in Jeddah. In
The environmental challenges brought
addition, the Conference produced two im-
about by developments in the Region have
portant instruments: (a) an "Action Plan
been recognized, and a series of coopera-
for the Conservation of the Marine Envi-
tive initiatives taken at the regional, national
ronment and Coastal Areas in the Red Sea
and local levels. A framework for regional
and Gulf of Aden"; and (b) a "Protocol
environmental cooperation is provided by
Concerning Regional Cooperation in Com-
three complementary elements: (a) the
bating Pollution by Oil and Other Harmful
Jeddah Convention; (b) the Regional Or-
Substances in Cases of Emergency." Cur-
ganization for the Conservation of the En-
rently, Djibouti, Egypt, Jordan, Palestine,
vironment of the Red Sea and Gulf of
Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Sudan and Yemen
Aden (PERSGA); and (c) the Strategic
are parties to the Jeddah Convention. The
Action Programme for the Red Sea and
provisions of the Jeddah Convention are
Gulf of Aden (SAP). Their common goal is
complemented by those of MARPOL and
to cooperatively identify and undertake a
the Basel Conventions.
programme of well designed actions to as-
PERSGA. PERSGA is an official regional
sure long­term management and conserva-
organization responsible for the develop-
tion of the coastal and marine resources of
ment and implementation of regional pro-
the Region, in order to support environmen-
grammes for the protection and conserva-
tally and socially sustainable development.
tion of the marine environment of the Red
These elements include a legal basis for
Sea and Gulf of Aden, and was formally
cooperation, an official regional organiza-
established in September 1996, with the
tion to coordinate activities, and develop-
signing of the Cairo Declaration by all co-
ment and implementation of a strategic
operating parties to the Jeddah Convention.
programme of preventive and curative ac-
It is based in Jeddah. Major functions of
tions. The initiatives complement and build
PERSGA include the implementation of the
upon a range of actions at the national and
Jeddah Convention, the Action Plan, and
local levels being taken by the cooperating
the Protocol. It has also been given re-
parties; they include support for improved
sponsibility for preparation and
wastewater services in coastal areas, man-
implementation of the SAP and related
agement measures for control of pollution
activities. PERSGA has played an active
from industries and ports, fisheries
role in promoting regional cooperation and
regulations and establishment of Marine
has recently supported regional workshops
Protected Areas at selected sites.
concerning environmental assessment
JEDDAH CONVENTION. The Jeddah Con-
(EA), Marine Protected Areas, navigation
vention of 1982, formally titled "Regional
risks and living marine resources. In
Convention for the Conservation of the
addition, a series of national workshops
Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Environment,"
have been sponsored by PERSGA to
provides an important basis for environ-
facilitate the development and review of
mental cooperation in the Region. It was
Country Reports prepared as part of the
the result of a Regional Intergovernmental
SAP process.

At the PERSGA Council of Ministers
Conference, supported by the United Na-
meeting in Jeddah on 26 October 1996, the
tions Environment Programme. The Re-
countries of the Region, having considered

---

The Strategic Action Programme Process
3

the Executive Summary before them, gave
vironment Programme (UNEP), and the
approval to the recommendations and re-
World Bank. The SAP is complemented by
sults of the SAP preparatory phase and the
a series of specially prepared background
process as a whole. The Council of Minis-
documents which include Country Reports,
ters resolved to heighten high level political
a Regional Navigation Risk Assessment
commitment to national and international
and Management Plan, a Regional Study
cooperation on the coastal and marine en-
on the Status of the Living Marine Re-
vironments. The preparatory process for
sources in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
the SAP included PERSGA Council meet-
and Their Management, and an update of
ings, PERSGA Task Force meetings,
the bibliography of selected studies and
Country Consultation workshops, a series
background documents for the Red Sea
of meetings on special topics and conduct
and Gulf of Aden (see Appendix C).
of field surveys in four countries (see Ap-
pendices A and B). Furthermore, the
The SAP: An Agenda for Regional,
Council decided to strengthen national and
National and Local Action
regional institutional capabilities, promote
public awareness, and support integrated
THE SAP--PROCESS AND PRODUCT. The
approaches to coastal zone management,
SAP process was initiated in October 1995
environmental planning and impact as-
with the first meeting of the Task Force,
sessments. The Council also agreed to
held in conjunction with the "Sea to Sea
adopt the necessary measures to reduce
Conference" in Jeddah. The SAP repre-
navigation risks at the national and regional
sents a significant "process" for reaching
levels, strengthen environmental legislation
collective agreement concerning environ-
and enforcement capacities, reinforce re-
mental trends, threats and priorities at a re-
gional cooperation to ensure effective par-
gional level, and a "product" in the form of
ticipation in international environmental
a Strategic Action Programme which pro-
Agreements/Conventions, and strengthen
vides a framework for continued coopera-
environmental information systems.
tion in reaching short­, medium­ and long­
term goals through a series of complemen-
THE STRATEGIC ACTION PROGRAMME
tary actions at all levels. The SAP presents
FOR THE RED SEA AND GULF OF ADEN.
an overview of the environmental trends
The SAP provides a cooperatively devel-
and threats on a regional basis and recom-
oped framework for the long­term conser-
mends a phased programme of comple-
vation and management of the coastal and
mentary "preventive" and "curative" ac-
marine resources of the Region as man-
tions to address current and emerging is-
dated by the Jeddah Convention of 1982.
sues. It delineates key measures for institu-
Preparation of the SAP has been coordi-
tional strengthening, human resources de-
nated by PERSGA and has been under-
velopment and expansion of public aware-
taken with the financial support of its
ness at the regional, national and local lev-
members, the Global Environment Facility
els. The SAP also reviews opportunities
(GEF), selected international development
for the mobilization of domestic and inter-
institutions and selected donor organiza-
national resources, both public and private,
tions. The SAP is the product of a coop-
to undertake the Programme.
erative and consultative process under-
taken by a Task Force which includes:
KEY MEASURES FOR REGIONAL
PERSGA members, Islamic Development
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT. The
Bank (IsDB), United Nations Development
SAP identifies a series of key measures
Programme (UNDP), United Nations En-
for regional environmental management to

---

4
Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

support sustainable development, sound
· Management Programmes. Upgrading
management and effective conservation of
and expansion of current management
the coastal and marine environments.
programmes for critical resources in the
These measures include:
coastal and marine environments;
· High Level Commitment. Effective de-
· Monitoring and Evaluation. Estab-
velopment of long­term high­level
lishment of an affordable system for
commitment to conservation of the
monitoring and evaluation of the effec-
coastal and marine resources of the
tiveness of regional, national and local
Region;
interventions for management and con-
servation of the coastal and marine en-
· Enhanced Public Awareness. En-
hancement of public awareness of the
vironments; and
importance of these resources and the
· Resource Mobilization. Adoption of
active role of the public in their conser-
measures at the regional, national and
vation;
local level that facilitate effective and
timely mobilization of domestic and in-
· Integration into Development Plan-
ning. Integration of environmental man-
ternational resources to undertake the
agement into the public and private
Programme.
sector development planning and in-
National and International Efforts
vestment process, with the participation
of stakeholders;
NATIONAL POLICIES AND STRATEGIES. In
· Identification and Evaluation of
the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, it is impera-
Trends. Recognizing the dynamic and
tive that national efforts to improve institu-
rapid development of the Region, the
tional, policy and legislative capacity for
SAP supports identification and evalua-
environmental protection be fully sup-
tion of environmental trends in the
ported. The cooperating parties have, in
coastal and marine areas through peri-
varying ways, included sustainable devel-
odic focused studies;
opment as a key goal in most of their na-
· Strengthening of Institutions. Sus-
tional development plans and strategies
tained support for a diversity of meas-
even though coastal and marine environ-
ures for institutional strengthening and
mental considerations still need to be fully
human resources development in public
addressed in sectoral development pro-
and private institutions at all levels;
grammes. The respective SAP­related
Country Reports provide indications of the
· Preventive Measures. Support for pre-
programmes, plans and actions as well as
ventive measures to avoid adverse envi-
institutional arrangements put in place to
ronmental impacts through proper envi-
protect the marine environment. A number
ronmental planning, use of environ-
of PERSGA members have developed Na-
mental assessment and targeted proac-
tional Environmental Action Plans (NE-
tive investments;
APs), carried out country studies on the
· Curative Measures. Support for cura-
state of their environment and natural re-
tive measures which can be imple-
sources and/or prepared reports inspired by
mented in a cost­effective manner to
the United Nations Conference on Envi-
correct existing environmental and natu-
ronment and Development (UNCED). The
ral resource management problems;
improvement of institutional capacities for
environmental management remains a ma-
jor goal and challenge of the governments

---

The Strategic Action Programme Process
5

in the Region. Integrating environment and
In this regard priority considerations
development in sectoral decisionmaking
covered the following:
and economic planning is being accorded

Establishment of regional marine
greater attention.
pollution response centers;
STRENGTHENING NATIONAL AND

Support for marine pollution re-
INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL
sponse organizations;
LEGISLATION. The nations of the Region
have approved many new environmental

Support for oil spill responses
laws and standards in the last decade and
through purchase of equipment,
since the adoption of the Jeddah Conven-
training of experts, development of
tion and PERSGA. In their determination
tools such as oil spill trajectory
to strengthen participation in regional and
models; and
international agreements, the cooperating

Development of regional networks
parties have signed or ratified a number of
to monitor the incidence of oil spills
Conventions (Appendix D).
and other marine pollution incidents.
GEF­SUPPORTED ACTIVITIES. A number
A number of projects are also being
of GEF­supported projects have been
supported by the international commu-
launched in some cooperating countries.
nity, including:
Those listed below are of special relevance
to the conservation of the environment of

State of the Marine Environment
the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden:
Report of the Red Sea and Gulf of
Aden;
· Egypt­Red Sea Coastal and Marine
Resource Management Plan;

A Review of the Environmental
Legislation in the Red Sea and Gulf
· Eritrea­Conservation and Management
of Aden;
of Eritrea's Coastal Marine and Island
Biodiversity;

Study for the establishment of ship
reception facilities for wastes in the
· Jordan­Gulf of Aqaba Environmental
Red Sea ports;
Action Plan;

Training in oil spill response tech-
· Yemen­Protection of the Marine Eco-
niques for regional experts; and
systems of the Red Sea Coast; and

Directory of national capabilities in
· Yemen­Conservation and Sustainable
marine sciences in the PERSGA
Use of Biodiversity of the Socotra Ar-
Region.
chipelago.
· Environmental Baseline Data. Ac-
INTERNATIONAL EFFORTS. International
tions have been directed to acquiring
efforts and cooperation with the Region
baseline data, with particular attention
have focused on a number of critical areas,
to field inventory of existing sources of
the highlights of which include:
pollutants, development of basic envi-
· Capacity Building and Institutional
ronmental information, and assistance to
Development. Efforts have concen-
national environmental agencies in de-
trated on identification of issues and in-
veloping environmental management
ventory of capabilities to deal with the
capabilities. International efforts include
Region's marine environment concerns.
support for:

---

6
Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden


Bibliography of Oceanographic and
Marine Environmental Research:
Red Sea and Gulf of Aden;

Evaluation of the status of marine
mammals in the Red Sea and Gulf
of Aden;

Review of the geology of coral
reefs in the Red Sea;

Inventory and sustainable develop-
ment of coastal habitats in the
PERSGA Region; and

Environmental inventories of the
coasts of Saudi Arabia and Yemen.
· Information Services. International
support is being extended to the devel-
opment and dissemination of informa-
tion. These resources generally fall un-
der the following categories:

Scientific and technical information
on the baseline status of the marine
environment;

Institutional/legal information re-
garding modalities for the success-
ful establishment and operation of
regional and national programmes
of environmental management; and

Monitoring of the environment.

---

2
The Uniqueness of the Red Sea
and Gulf of Aden
A Repository of Biodiversity
seagrass beds, reefs constructed of algae
and intertidal habitats. Species endemism in
A SERIES OF UNIQUE ENVIRONMENTS. The
the Red Sea is extremely high, particularly
Region contains some of the world's
among some groups of reef fishes and
unique coastal and marine environments, in
reef­associated invertebrates.
the Gulfs of Aqaba and Suez, the Red Sea,
THE GULF OF ADEN. The Gulf of Aden is
and the Gulf of Aden. Among the most no-
strongly influenced by the upwelling of
table is the extraordinary system of coral
cool, nutrient rich waters during the south-
reefs and their associated animals and
west and northeast monsoons and is char-
plants. Surrounded by arid terrestrial envi-
acterized by a prevailing high energy cli-
ronments, which are themselves unique,
mate. These pose major constraints on
these environments support rich biological
coral reef development, hence only 5 per-
communities and representatives of several
cent of the Yemeni Gulf of Aden coast is
endangered species. The natural resources
lined with fringing reefs. Rocky cliffs alter-
have supported coastal populations for
nating with long stretches of littoral and
thousands of years, and nourished the de-
sub­littoral sand along coastal plains domi-
velopment of a maritime and trading cul-
nate the coastline. Some of the sandy
ture linking Arabia and Africa with Europe
beaches, notably Ras Sharma and Dhob-
and Asia.
bah (Ash Shihr) of Yemen, form major
THE RED SEA. The Red Sea is one of the
nesting sites for green turtles in the Region.
most important repositories of marine
Little is known about the coastal and ma-
biodiversity in the world. Its relative isola-
rine resources of the Gulf of Aden coast of
tion, and physical conditions which range
Somalia although recent visits have re-
from nearshore shallows to depths of over
vealed the occurrence of previously un-
2,000 meters in the central rift, have given
known coral reefs and mangrove stands.
rise to an extraordinary range of ecosys-
THE SOCOTRA ARCHIPELAGO. Situated at
tems and biological diversity. Its most re-
the eastern extreme of the Gulf of Aden,
nowned expression is the elaborate system
the Socotra Archipelago, which is part of
of coral reefs. There are also mangroves,
7

---

8
Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Yemen, is of global significance for island
world, Socotra has remained virtually un-
biodiversity and species endemism. Over
touched by modern development and there
one third of its plants are endemic to the
is no evidence of recent extinction or
archipelago, making it one of the top ten
large­scale changes in the vegetation. The
island groups in the world in terms of en-
marine environments of Socotra Archipel-
demism. Many of these endemics are rem-
ago remain largely in a pristine state, unal-
nants of an ancient flora which long ago
tered by coastal pollution or over­
disappeared from the African­Arabian
exploitation (see Box 1).
mainland. Unlike many island groups in the

---

The Uniqueness of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
9

Major Coastal and Marine Environ-
ecosystems are the basis of much of the
ments
Region's rich and unique biodiversity, its
fisheries production, its conservation and
MAJOR ECOSYSTEMS. The coastal and
recreational values. They are also vital to
marine environments of the Region consist
the livelihood of the coastal populations.
of a range of ecosystems: an arid coastal
They stabilize and protect the coastline,
zone, coastal wetlands, mangroves, sea-
and buffer changes in water quality. These
grasses, and coral reefs. These contrasting
ecosystems are linked by the movement of
Box 1: Socotra Archipelago
Some 400 kilometers south of the Arabian Peninsula lies the Socotra Archipelago,
which is part of the territory of the Republic of Yemen. The archipelago consists of
Socotra and three outlying islands, Abd al­Kuri, Samba and Darsa. The islands are
characterized by very high numbers of species found nowhere else on earth. Of the
850 plant species found on the island group, at least 277 are endemic. Six endemic
bird species have been recorded on Socotra Island. Recent surveys revealed that the
archipelago could be an extremely important area for marine biogeography. The archi-
pelago has been described by the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) as an "Indian
Ocean version of the Galapagos," based on the high degree of endemism and unique
vegetation types on the islands.
The total population of the Socotra Archipelago is estimated at 50,000­80,000, with
the vast majority on Socotra Island. The majority of the population on the island is de-
pendent on livestock, with the coastal population relying more on fishing and date cul-
tivation. Traditional management practices of land, livestock and fisheries play a major
role in the conservation of the archipelago's natural resources. These practices need
strengthening during the process of basic development to avoid irreversible damage of
the natural ecosystems and resources upon which the local people depend for liveli-
hood.
The Government of Yemen has shown keen commitment to conserve the natural re-
sources of the Socotra Archipelago while supporting the basic development needs of
the local people. In January 1996, a Government Decree declared the formation of the
Inter­Ministerial High Committee for Development of Socotra, chaired by the Deputy
Prime Minister and Minister of Planning. Soon after that, the Government announced
an allocation of YR256 million (approximately USD2.0 million) for the initial costs of a
Master Plan for Development of Socotra Archipelago. In September 1996, the Envi-
ronmental Protection Council was designated as the Secretariat of the High Commit-
tee.
Upon requests by the Government of Yemen, UNDP approved in 1996 a Preparatory
Assistance "Basic Needs Assistance for the People of the Socotra Archipelago" fo-
cusing on health, education, water and sanitation, and renewable energy. This was
further developed into a full­scale project (USD2.0 million). Complementary to this de-
velopment initiative is the USD4.9 million GEF project "Conservation and Sustainable
Use of the Biodiversity of Socotra Archipelago." The five­year project seeks to con-
serve the unique biodiversity of Socotra Archipelago, by integrating resource man-
agement and development strategy, driven by the local communities, and building on
sound ecological and socio­economic bases. The success of these newly developed
initiatives relies not only on the commitment of the Government, the local people and
UNDP, but also recognition and support from the global community for the islands'
globally significant biodiversity.

---

10 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

water through them, and decline in the
for example, are some of the most impor-
health of one will have impacts on the oth-
tant wetlands in Yemen and the Arabian
ers. The aridity of the coastal zone has his-
peninsula, regularly holding over 10,000
torically concentrated human settlement
waterfowl, three globally threatened spe-
near available water supplies and created a
cies, and twelve with regionally important
traditionally heavy reliance on the marine
populations.
environment as a source of food.
MANGROVES. There are extensive man-
ARID COASTAL ZONE. Perhaps the most
grove stands in the Red Sea and Gulf of
distinctive characteristic of the Region is
Aden, especially in the southern Red Sea.
the existence of an arid coastal zone which
Mangroves are an extremely important
surrounds the Sea. The zone consists of a
form of coastal vegetation: their extensive
flat coastal plain of varying width which is
root systems stabilize sediments and pro-
often bordered inland by extensive moun-
tect the coastline; they provide shelter for
tain ranges. The coastal plain in many ar-
an array of marine animals, birds--
eas is dominated by large alluvial fans
enhancing overall biodiversity--and the ju-
characterized by seasonal discharge of wa-
veniles of commercially important fish and
ter in a limited series of flood flows. Close
crustaceans. The dead leaves and
to the shore the coastal zone is dominated
branches of mangroves are a source of
by salt­tolerant vegetation which grades
food within the mangrove ecosystem and
into arid­adapted plant associations. Areas
also offshore, such as in shrimp communi-
adjacent to springs or other sources of
ties. However, environmental conditions in
permanent water are traditionally charac-
the Region, such as temperature and salin-
terized by oasis­type vegetation.
ity, are near the upper limits for mangrove
existence, which makes them very sensi-
COASTAL WETLANDS. Brackish and
tive to disturbance and probably limits their
freshwater ecosystems in the arid coastal
ability to recover.
zone are unique in their adaptation to
stressful environmental conditions. They
SEAGRASS BEDS. Seagrasses inhabit shal-
contain particularly high concentrations of
low and sheltered waters throughout much
flora and fauna with a biodiversity which
of the Region. The productivity of seagrass
far surpasses that of surrounding areas.
beds is greater than comparable areas of
They host high numbers of rare plants and
both coral reefs and mangroves. Seagrass
animals, often including species endemic to
roots stabilize sediments, and in conjunction
the Region. Their areas of distribution are
with nearby mangroves, protect the coast-
usually very limited and some of the spe-
line. Water currents are reduced in the vi-
cies are relicts of taxa which were more
cinity of seagrass beds leading to the depo-
widely distributed in the geological past.
sition of fine sediments and the clarifying
Open freshwater bodies are the breeding
of surrounding waters. Many marine ani-
sites of insects that may venture deep into
mals rely upon seagrass beds for shelter
surrounding arid lands. The presence of
and food, including water birds, fish and
freshwater attracts large numbers of rep-
crustaceans, and the internationally impor-
tiles, birds and mammals and some of the
tant dugong and green turtles. Commer-
larger wetlands of the Region host bird
cially important fish and crustaceans use
populations of international importance.
seagrass beds as nursery grounds. There
Coastal wetlands are often associated with
are strong connections between seagrass
oases which are of great importance for
beds and nearby coral reefs: nocturnally
the local populations. The Aden Wetlands,
active fish migrate at night from the reefs

---

The Uniqueness of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden 11

to the seagrass beds to feed; dead sea-
tionally important species, notably marine
grass leaves carried offshore in currents
mammals, sea turtles, and seabirds. Marine
become food for animals inhabiting deeper
mammals in the Region are represented by
marine habitats.
cetaceans such as dolphins and whales,
and dugong. Although dugong were hunted
CORAL REEFS. The coral reefs of the Re-
in the past by artisanal fishermen, this is no
gion are composed of approximately 200
longer the case and where surveys of their
species of stony corals, representing the
populations have been done, such as in
highest diversity in any section of the In-
Saudi Arabian waters, the populations are
dian Ocean. The warm water and absence
healthy. In the absence of major human
of freshwater input provide very suitable
impacts, conservation of dugong is directed
conditions for coral reef formation adjacent
towards conservation of feeding habitats,
to the coastline. In the northern Red Sea
the seagrass beds. Sea turtles feed and
the coast is fringed by an almost continu-
nest in the Region and at least three spe-
ous band of coral reef, which physically
cies--green, hawksbill and loggerhead--
protects the nearby shoreline. This beauti-
have been observed. They rely on sea-
ful environment is extremely attractive as a
grass, algae, and invertebrates for their
tourist resource and is currently visited by
food. Information on their status is gener-
hundreds of thousands of people each year,
ally lacking and hunting by humans contin-
who dive, walk, and swim in the waters ad-
ues in some parts of the Region.
jacent to the reefs. Further south the
coastal shelf becomes much broader and
RESIDENT AND MIGRATORY BIRD POPU-
shallower and the fringing reefs gradually
LATIONS. Coastal wetlands, the shallow
disappear to be replaced by shallow, sandy
waters adjacent to reefs and islands, and
shorelines and mangroves. Coral reefs be-
the numerous islands throughout the Re-
come more numerous offshore in this part
gion provide ideal habitat for a large num-
of the Region.
ber of seabirds. Some of the important
resident species include the Lesser Flamin-
CORAL REEF FRAGILITY. Coral reefs also
occur as offshore patch reefs and reefs
goes (Phoenicopterus minor) and the
fringing islands. They provide food and
Yellow­vented Bulbul (Pycnonotus xan-
shelter for a large and diverse fauna and
thopygos), while the important wintering
flora. Most fishing activities in the Region
species include the Greater Spotted Eagle
occur in shallow waters in the vicinity of
(Aquila clanga), White­eyed Gull (Larus
coral reefs. Corals require a range of
leucophthalmus) and the Greater and
physical conditions for healthy growth and
Lesser Sand Plover (Charadrius
reproduction, all of which are influenced by
leschenault, C. mongolus). The Red Sea
human activities. Physical destruction,
is a flyway for many species of birds
changes in water quality--such as raised
which seasonally migrate between Europe
nutrient levels, and changes in salinity and
and Africa, and the islands of the southern
temperature--high levels of sedimentation,
Red Sea, in particular the Farasan Islands,
and changes in water currents can all dam-
are utilized by many hundreds of thousands
age coral reefs. Recovery, through new
of birds in the spring and autumn migra-
growth and larval settlement, requires a
tions. Here there are internationally impor-
considerable amount of time and freedom
tant populations of Saunders' Little Tern
from chronic stress.
(Sterna saundersi), Bridled Tern (Sterna
anaethetus) and the resident Egyptian
GLOBALLY IMPORTANT SPECIES. The wa-
Vulture (Neophron percnopterus).
ters of the Region support many interna-

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12 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Cultural Heritage
coast of Sudan. Given the significant risk in
most coastal areas within the Region that
SITES UNDER DEVELOPMENT PRESSURE.
buried cultural heritage sites might remain
The important cultural heritage of the Re-
unknown, the use of "archaeological
gion, concentrated in the narrow coastal
chance find procedures" in projects pro-
zone, includes many archaeological, histori-
vides clear guidance if cultural materials
cal and sacred sites which are increasingly
are encountered during excavation and
at risk from development pressure through
construction activities. The economic im-
both direct destruction and disturbance.
portance of cultural heritage sites is ex-
The Red Sea has served as a major route
pected to grow given the need to diversify
for communication and trade between
activities for tourists in order to increase
Asia, Africa and Europe, as the result of
their length of stay in the Region.
which it has a large number of cultural
TRADITIONAL MARITIME CULTURE. The
heritage sites from a diversity of periods
inhabitants of the coastal areas of the Re-
and cultures. The Region has long been the
gion have a rich history of association with
focus of international religious pilgrimage,
the sea, and are an integral part of the di-
especially to the Holy cities of Mecca and
verse cultural heritage of each country.
Medina, which are traditionally reached
Artisanal fishermen have fished the Re-
through the ports of Jeddah and Yanbu.
gion's waters for thousands of years in a
This long tradition of pilgrimage and trade
sustainable manner and in many places
has diversified the kinds of sites and arti-
continue to do so with little advancement in
facts. A little examined aspect of the Re-
technology. These artisanal fishermen have
gion is the high potential for underwater
established forms of traditional manage-
sites of archaeological significance, such as
ment of their resources, including the rota-
prehistoric and early historic sites which
tion of fishing activities among reefs to
were covered as the result of land move-
prevent over­fishing and decline of stocks.
ment or sea level rise, or stemmed from
An extensive knowledge of the sea, fishing
ancient as well as modern shipwrecks.
techniques, and habits of species caught by
CONSERVATION OF CULTURAL HERITAGE.
fishermen are retained by a few individuals
Conservation of this resource requires rec-
who serve as leaders in each fishing com-
ognition of its value in the planning and de-
munity. In a few places the tradition of
velopment process. In many nations of the
pearl diving continues, although the number
Region, archaeological and historical site
of divers is dwindling. This part of the Re-
surveys are often conducted as part of the
gion's cultural heritage is at risk of disap-
environmental assessment process for a
pearing in some localities as local fisher-
proposed project and are especially impor-
men are replaced by foreign workers,
tant given the limited surveys and excava-
prices for fish fall, and competition with in-
tions in the Region. In other cases cultural
dustrial fisheries grows.
heritage values are integrated into the de-
velopment process, such as the measures
adopted for the conservation of the Islamic
city of Aqaba, historic buildings of "Old
Jeddah" and the programme supported by
the United Nations Educational, Scientific
and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) for
the restoration of the important historic
trading center of Suakin on the southern

---

3
Threats to Coastal and Marine
Environments and Resources
A RANGE OF THREATS. The important
The land is dominated by an arid coastal
coastal and marine environments and re-
zone that is the traditional site of human
sources of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
settlement and economic activities. The
are subject to a series of individual and
coastal zone is bordered by four major eco-
cumulative threats which have significant
systems: coastal wetlands, which provide
short­ and long­term consequences for
extensive habitat for resident and migratory
sustainable development of the Region.
bird species; mangroves, which extend
The threats include habitat destruction,
from the water's edge across the tidal zone
over­exploitation of living marine re-
in many places, providing critical habitat for
sources, environmental degradation from
fishery resources and buffering the coast
petroleum development, significant risks
from erosion; seagrass beds, found in
from marine transportation, pollution from
shallow waters adjacent to the coastline,
industrial activities, diverse environmental
which provide breeding habitat and refuge
impacts from urban and tourism develop-
for marine life; and offshore coral reefs
ment and a series of emerging environ-
with a great diversity of life. These ecosys-
mental issues associated with new types of
tems are under variable pressure in the
economic developments and uses of new
Region, with greatest stress adjacent to ur-
technologies. A summary of the threats to
ban and industrial areas, near port facilities
coastal and marine environments and re-
and major shipping lanes, and in the vicinity
sources is provided as Table 1.
of coastal tourism areas.
Environmental Degradation
DEGRADATION OF THE ARID COASTAL
ZONE. Ecosystems in arid zones are deli-
cately balanced and particularly sensitive to
THREATS TO KEY ECOSYSTEMS. The
unique environment of the Red Sea and
disturbance. An increasing number of no-
Gulf of Aden rests on the interaction be-
mads are moving into the coastal zone with
tween five key ecosystems which form a
their livestock, especially following long pe-
continuum between the land and the sea.
riods of drought in large parts of the Re-
13

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14 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

gion. Grazing by goats and sheep, and to a
are cut for firewood and for construction.
lesser extent by camels, reduces the plant
Grazing by camels reduces the height of
cover. As a result, dunes and sand sheets,
mangrove trees, their productivity, and their
which were formerly stabilized by vegeta-
reproductive capacity. The damming of
tion, are being remobilized, smothering
rivers and wadis has reduced natural
mangroves and other coastal vegetation.
freshwater inputs to the coast and de-
Plants are also being removed for fodder
graded mangrove stands. Causeways con-
and firewood. An increase in cross­
structed across bays have reduced the tidal
country driving destroys the plant cover
exchange of seawater leading to extensive
and remobilizes the sand. Urban and indus-
mangrove death. Degradation in man-
trial development result in the degradation
groves leads to impacts on fish and crusta-
and removal of coastal vegetation, intro-
cean catches. These impacts are com-
duction of exotic species, and ultimately in
pounded by a lack of awareness about the
loss of biological diversity. Extensive use of
importance of mangroves in the coastal
limited freshwater resources places addi-
and marine environments, especially the
tional pressure on biota which already have
relationship between mangroves and
to contend with a naturally irregular and
fisheries, and by the limited use of environ-
limited water supply. Coastal wetlands and
mental assessment procedures.
oases are partic ularly at risk.
LOSS OF SEAGRASS BEDS. Their location in
DISTURBANCE TO COASTAL WETLANDS.
shallow waters close to the shoreline ren-
Aquatic ecosystems in arid areas, which
ders seagrasses very susceptible to activi-
have limited and irregular freshwater sup-
ties related to unplanned and unmanaged
plies, are particularly fragile and sensitive
urban, industrial, tourism, and fishing activi-
to disturbance. Their small size makes
ties. Seagrasses are destroyed directly by
them especially vulnerable to pollution.
dredging and landfilling. Productivity is de-
Those that are easily accessible or have a
graded by changes in water flow caused
high concentration of birds and mammals,
by coastal constructions, by excessive
tend to attract large numbers of visitors,
sediment in the water reducing available
which often results in solid waste dumping
light, and by the impacts of increased nutri-
and use of detergents. Wetlands also suf-
ents in the water from sewage disposal.
fer from grazing by livestock, who destroy
These problems are compounded by a lack
the vegetation cover through trampling, and
of environmental assessment procedures
pollute the water body with excrement.
for developments, lack of awareness about
The lowering of the water level for agricul-
the importance of seagrasses, and lack of
ture and households poses the greatest
information on their distribution. Although
threat, often resulting in a collapse of these
legally protected from trawling, seagrass
fragile natural systems and the irreplace-
beds are destroyed by illegal trawling be-
able loss of biological diversity.
cause of difficulties in enforcement. Im-
pacts on seagrass beds affect the fauna
CLEARING AND DEGRADATION OF
which depend upon them, most importantly
MANGROVES. Mangroves are prone to
turtles, dugong, commercial fish and crus-
degradation and removal from a multitude
taceans, and birds.
of developmental and exploitative activities.
Mangroves are destroyed by landfilling and
DESTRUCTION OF CORAL REEFS. Coral
cleared for the construction of shrimp
reefs throughout the Region are being
ponds. In coastal areas where human
damaged by a variety of coastal develop-
population is increasing rapidly, mangroves
ments, and as a direct result of human ac-

---

Threats to Coastal and Marine Environments and Resources 15

tivities. Landfilling for urban expansion and
ster and strombids are rapidly declining.
tourism developments are destroying. Con-
Cuttlefish stocks in major fishing grounds
struction activities also alter the flow of
have completely collapsed. Although in
clear seawater that corals need to survive.
some areas shrimp catches have grown
Corals are affected by the reduced light
recently due to an increase in fishing ef-
levels, and sometimes smothered by sedi-
forts, in other areas there are indications of
ment from dredging. Release of semi­
stock depletion. The present situation is at-
treated and untreated sewage directly onto
tributed to destructive fishing practices,
coral reefs causes a proliferation of algae
possible exploitation beyond maximum sus-
that can overgrow corals. Although coral
tainable yield, the absence of fisheries
reefs are attractive to tourists, unmanaged
management plans, and a lack of surveil-
activities of divers and reef­walkers, and
lance and enforcement of existing regula-
anchors from boats, destroy corals in high­
tions. Important nursery habitats, such as
use areas. Damaged areas become
mangrove and seagrass beds, have been
unattractive and the numbers of animals
severely damaged or destroyed.
living there decline. Damage to coral reefs
is further compounded by the limited use of
UNREGULATED SHARK FISHERIES. As top
environmental assessment for
predators, sharks are critical to the health
developments and low enforcement of the
of the Region's marine ecosystems. Sharks
existing, adequate regulations. A lack of
are slow growing, begin reproduction rela-
awareness about the importance of coral
tively late in life, and produce only a small
reefs and their sensitivity puts them further
number of offspring. They are very vulner-
at risk.
able to stock collapse from overfishing, and
Non­Sustainable Use of Living Ma-
recovery takes several decades. The tradi-
rine Resources
tional artisanal fishery in the Region
catches only small numbers of sharks and
the whole animal is utilized. However,
OVER­EXPLOITATION OF RESOURCES.
there is a large­scale illegal fishery for the
Over­exploitation of species, destruction of
East Asian shark fin market involving fish-
spawning, nursery and feeding grounds,
ermen working outside their normal territo-
improper resource management and inade-
rial boundaries. Sharks are caught by lines
quate fisheries regulations, in conjunction
and also by nets which damage the coral
with a lack of law enforcement, are barri-
reefs. The fins are removed, often while
ers to sustainable development of the Re-
the shark is still alive, and the body is
gion's rich living marine resources. Ulti-
thrown back into the sea or deposited on
mately, this poses a serious threat to the
offshore islands. Fins are dried and sold to
biological diversity and productivity of the
foreign vessels waiting in international wa-
Region, and puts at risk the livelihoods of
ters, thus escaping control. Large amounts
people engaged in potentially sustainable
of bycatch from net fishing, including tur-
activities, such as fisheries, aquaculture
tles, dolphins and finfish, are discarded, al-
and tourism.
most invariably dead.
OVERFISHING. The status of fisheries in
CAPTURE OF MARINE TURTLES. Through-
some nations of the Region is unknown,
out the southern Red Sea and Gulf of
because of a lack of stock assessments
Aden, turtles are caught either accidentally
and incomplete fisheries statistics. Re-
or intentionally by fishermen. Turtle oil,
ported declines in catches and average size
meat, and eggs are eaten, and the shells
of fish landed are possible indicators of
are sold to tourists. Capture of turtles, to-
overfishing. Besides finfish, catches of lob-

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16 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

gether with egg collection and disturbance
specific ornithological surveys when pre-
or destruction of nesting sites and nesting
paring environmental studies in these sensi-
beaches, has resulted in a decline in nesting
tive areas.
populations. In areas with poor finfish re-
sources, fishermen often depend on turtles
SHRIMP AND FISH FARMING. Currently,
for subsidiary food. Stray dogs that feed on
shrimp and fish farming play a minor role in
turtle eggs and hatchlings aggravate the
the Region, but growth is expected in the
problem in some areas. The light coming
near future. Fish farming in floating rafts
from nearby urban areas and coastal roads
has a minor impact from addition of nutri-
and highways has a distortion effect on the
ents into the ecosystem. Fish ponds in
navigation system of newly hatched turtles,
coastal areas, if poorly planned, may result
causing massive casualties.
in destruction of coastal habitats and a de-
cline in water and soil quality. Shrimp
THREATS TO MARINE MAMMALS.
ponds, which are usually built in or near
Knowledge of species composition and
mangrove areas, lead to a modification of
population sizes of marine mammals in the
the coastline, irreversible conversion of
Region is limited. Detailed studies of du-
coastal habitats, mangrove destruction and
gong, which are considered vulnerable to
degraded water quality. Water quality is
extinction on a worldwide scale, exist only
also adversely affected by the use of
for Saudi Arabia. The Red Sea population
chemicals, hormones and nutrients in the
is estimated at up to 4,000 dugong. It
ponds. Shrimp farms are a source of
seems that they are no longer hunted sys-
short­term profit, but can result in the
tematically, but are frequently taken as by-
permanent loss of some of the most sensi-
catch in trawls and nets. Their meat is
tive and precious habitats.
used for human consumption. Destruction
of seagrass beds poses an additional threat.
Maritime Traffic, Oil Production and
As slow swimmers living in shallow water,
Transport
dugong also suffer from the increasing use
of motor boats, which may easily injure
A WORLD TRANSPORTATION ROUTE. In
them near the water surface.
the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Region, ex-
ploration, production, processing and trans-
THREATS TO SEABIRDS. The status of sea-
birds of the Region is poorly known. In the
portation of more than half the world's
portions of the Red Sea adjoining Saudi
proven oil reserves take place. Most of the
Arabia where systematic surveys have
oil produced from both inland and offshore
been undertaken, the number of seabirds
wells is exported, transforming the Red
present in summer may approach 200,000.
Sea into an oil tanker highway. Entering
Seabirds are threatened by hunting, distur-
the Gulf each year are some 20,000­
bance at their breeding sites and habitat
35,000 tankers which load their cargoes of
destruction. During the breeding season,
oil for shipment to the far East and Europe.
egg collecting occurs wherever there are
Many tankers proceed from the Gulf
fishermen. Seabirds are particularly sensi-
around the Arabian peninsula into the Red
tive to oil spills. When considering devel-
Sea, where they either continue north
opment of rocky coasts and offshore is-
through the Suez Canal to the Mediterra-
lands, special attention is required through-
nean, or deposit their cargo at the entrance
out the Region to avoid and/or minimize po-
to the Sumed pipeline at Ain Sukhna in
tential adverse impacts to seabird popula-
Egypt. Besides oil cargoes, many ships
tions and their habitats. This mandates site
transit the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden fully
or partly loaded with hazardous or toxic

---

Threats to Coastal and Marine Environments and Resources 17

substances that pose an added threat to the
hazardous materials from drilling operations
coastal and marine environments.
are chronic sources of pollution. These
risks will increase with the anticipated de-
PETROLEUM AND MARITIME TRAFFIC.
velopment of gas reserves and offshore oil
The global importance of petroleum and
resources in the southern Red Sea and
the resulting maritime traffic pose a serious
Gulf of Aden. The marine and coastal en-
threat to the fragile coastal and marine en-
vironment of the Region is constantly
vironments of the semi­enclosed waters of
threatened by the possibility of vessels
the Region. Routine operational leaks and
foundering while carrying harmful materi-
spills from the production and transport of
als other than oil. Though some measures
oil constitute the major source of marine
have been taken and others are planned to
pollution. At the same time, the growing
deal with oil spills, preparedness to deal
risk of oil traffic­related accidents urgently
with chemical and other hazardous materi-
requires emergency response plans com-
als is almost non­existent.
bined with management skills, to minimize
risks and control major spills.
NAVIGATION RISKS. In the Red Sea, insuf-
ficient and poorly maintained navigational
MAJOR SOURCES OF MARINE POLLUTION.
aids, and unregulated maritime traffic in
In contrast to other regional seas around
most parts, have created several high risk
the world where most pollution comes from
zones. These include the southern part of
land­based activities, the main source of
the Red Sea at Bab-al-Mandab and the
marine pollution in the Region is from ship­
Huneish Archipelago area, further north at
based sources, oil exploration and offshore
the loading points for the Yanbu Petroline
oil production. While production and trans-
in Saudi Arabia and the Sumed pipeline at
port of oil continue to play a critical role in
Ain Sukhna in Egypt, at the entrance to the
the Region's economy, they also constitute
Gulf of Suez and the Suez Canal, and
the major source of marine pollution. Over
through the Straits of Tiran at the entrance
100 million tons of oil are transported
to the Gulf of Aqaba. There are other
through the Red Sea annually, nearly half
points in the Red Sea where south and
of which enters the Region via the Yanbu
northbound traffic converge to change
Petroline from the Gulf. This high volume
course and where risks of collision are high
of transport traffic results in chronic ma-
and Traffic Separation Schemes should be
rine pollution from discharges of oily ballast
established. Shipwrecks and cargo spills
water and tank washings by vessels,
occurring in these high risk zones result in
operational spills from vessels loading or
significant oil pollution and marine debris.
unloading at port, accidental spills from
Special risks are created in the Gulf of
foundered vessels, and leaks from vessels
Suez by offshore platforms and well caps.
in transit.
In the southern Red Sea hazards are asso-
OTHER TYPES OF MARINE POLLUTION.
ciated with the increasing numbers of
Other forms of ship­generated waste in-
commercial and fishing vessels, including
clude oily sludge, bilge water, garbage and
many small local vessels. Additional risks
marine debris. The risks of oil well blow­
to navigation in the Region include inaccu-
outs, spills and other production accidents
rate navigation charts in some areas, and
associated with the offshore oil industry in
difficulties in radio communication. The po-
the northern Red Sea constitute another
tential for resumption of full­scale export
significant threat to human and wildlife re-
of oil from the Gulf region and plans to in-
sources. Routine oil leaks, gas flaring, and
crease the volume of oil transported via the
dumping of oily sludge and muds containing
Yanbu Petroline in Saudi Arabia and the

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18 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Sumed pipeline in Egypt, along with the
Region, especially on the west coast of the
possibility of expanding the capacity of the
Red Sea south of Suez, the discharge of
Suez Canal to accommodate fully laden
domestic sewage contributes, through nu-
very large crude carriers (VLCCs) of up to
trient loading and high biological oxygen
250,000 tons pose increased risks for major
demand (BOD), to the eutrophication of
oil spills in the Region.
coastal waters around selected population
centers, major ports and tourist facilities.
Urban and Industrial Development
Considerable progress has been made in
the Region in the collection and treatment
LAND USE AND COASTAL ZONE
of municipal wastewater; however, in-
PLANNING. The lack of proper land use
vestments continue to be required for ex-
planning, including effective zoning and en-
tension of collection networks, expansion
vironmental review procedures in the
and upgrading of treatment facilities, and
coastal zone--particularly with regard to
development of safe wastewater reuse and
urban development, industrial expansion
disposal systems. Serious efforts are also
and investment for domestic and foreign
needed to ensure proper operation and
tourism expansion--is a growing problem
maintenance and reliable performance of
in many parts of the Region. Development
existing treatment facilities. While levels of
often proceeds without benefit of adequate
discharge into the waters of the Region are
planning or evaluation of potential environ-
not as acute as in other regional seas given
mental impacts. In some cases local
the limited number of major population cen-
authorities allow construction activities to
ters, results are cumulative and add to the
proceed which are inconsistent with land
stress already imposed on fragile coastal
use plans and which do not make adequate
habitats by oil and other forms of marine
provision for the collection and treatment
pollution.
of liquid and solid wastes. Poorly controlled
INDUSTRIAL EFFLUENTS. Industrial efflu-
development has especially been a problem
ents, in the form of thermal pollution from
associated with medium­ and small­scale
power and desalinization plants, hypersaline
industries outside planned industrial areas
brinewater from desalinization plants, par-
and for a wide range of tourism develop-
ticulate matter and mineral dust from fertil-
ments in the northern section of the Red
izer and cement factories, and chemicals
Sea. If steps are not taken to conserve and
and organic wastes from food processing
protect the unique environments of the Re-
factories, contribute to the land­based
gion through planning activities within a
sources of pollution affecting coastal wa-
framework for integrated coastal zone
ters. Environmental standards regulating
management (ICZM), the high costs of
industrial effluents are not uniformly pre-
remediation and possibly irreversible im-
scribed or enforced. Institutional capacity
pacts from development could quickly un-
needs to be strengthened in the area of
dermine the ecological integrity of the
regulatory policy and environmental over-
coastal environment and prospects for fur-
sight. Technical capacity also needs to be
ther economic growth.
strengthened in terms of providing options
MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER. The dis-
to industry to monitor, evaluate and reduce
charge of municipal wastewater continues
harmful effluents through efficient use of
to present considerable management prob-
energy, raw materials and production tech-
lems, despite the significant progress made
nologies that incorporate waste minimiza-
over the last decade through investments to
tion approaches. In many cases industrial
control pollution from this source. In the
complexes and facilities continue to be de-

---

Threats to Coastal and Marine Environments and Resources 19

veloped without adequate environmental
tries, municipalities and agricultural sources
assessment. There is also insufficient ap-
further constrains the use of already
plication of land use planning and zoning
scarce resources. Priority should be given
procedures to assure that industrial com-
to the adoption of alternative approaches
plexes and facilities are sited in a manner
such as demand management and devel-
consistent with long­term urban develop-
opment of non­traditional sources of water
ment objectives and proper coastal zone
such as restricted wastewater reuse and
management.
expanded use of brackish water. In addi-
tion, greater emphasis should be placed on
DREDGING AND FILLING. Dredging and fill-
integrated approaches to pollution control
ing operations associated with urban ex-
to protect the quality of available renew-
pansion, industrial development and tourism
able and non­renewable sources of potable
along the coast are a significant source of
water.
environmental degradation in the Region.
Sedimentation from these operations suffo-
REDUCTION OF FRESHWATER FLOWS. The
cates the surrounding coral reef communi-
reduction of seasonal freshwater flows into
ties and has an adverse effect on other
the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden from on-
ecosystems to which currents transport the
shore water resource developments has
suspended sediment. The net results are
local, long­term impacts on coastal and
the irreversible loss of the most productive
marine ecosystems, especially coastal wet-
coastal ecosystems -- mangroves, sea-
lands and mangroves. Pressure to divert
grass beds, and coral reefs, dependent ma-
limited freshwater flows for urban, indus-
rine communities -- and the potential for
trial and tourism development in the north-
local extinction of endemic species, along
ern Red Sea and for agricultural develop-
with declines in the productivity of sur-
ment in the central and southern Red Sea
rounding areas such as shrimping grounds
will continue to affect these fragile habitats
and other demersal fisheries. Dredging and
unless their importance is recognized and
filling also alters shorelines, leading to ero-
measures taken to balance needs between
sion in some sites and accretion in others.
competing uses for scarce resources. De-
velopments which reduce freshwater
DEPLETION OF WATER RESOURCES. In the
flows, both seasonal surface water and
Region, the depletion of groundwater re-
permanent shallow groundwater, may re-
sources as a result of over­consumption
sult in saline intrusion into coastal aquifers
and over­extraction, pollution of aquifers,
and limited areas of coastal wetlands. In
insufficient recycling and inadequate reuse
Sudan and Yemen reports exist of potential
of treated wastewater may seriously ham-
adverse effects on coastal ecology from
per development of coastal areas. Water
the use of pesticides, application of dated
scarcity is a major constraint, at the na-
pesticides and the improper disposal of
tional level and in coastal areas, to security
their used containers.
and development in many parts of the Re-
gion. The principal consumptive uses of
Rapid Expansion of Coastal Tourism
water are agricultural, municipal and indus-
trial. The total annual water use in Egypt is
IMPACTS FROM TOURISM. The negative
about 97 percent of the net annual renew-
impacts of coastal tourism are evident in
able water resources, whereas in Saudi
many parts of the Region, especially in the
Arabia and Yemen, total annual use is
northern Red Sea. These impacts include
thought to already exceed the net annual
physical destruction of coastal habitats by
renewable resources. Pollution from indus-
construction works, dredging, and reclama-

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20 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

tion; anchor damage to corals by tourist
pected to result in new environmental pres-
boats and coral breakage by divers; pollu-
sures and threats to coastal and marine re-
tion from wastewater discharge from
sources. The management of emerging is-
coastal resorts; over­exploitation of fish
sues should be addressed through adoption
and shellfish to meet increased demand of
of preventive actions to avoid unnecessary
the food and souvenir markets; disturbance
environmental degradation or resource de-
to wildlife such as nesting turtles and sea-
pletion. Major emerging issues that require
birds leading to higher mortality and de-
action are discussed below.
creased fecundity. The planned massive
expansion of tourism for both domestic and
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF FREE
foreign visitors in coastal areas throughout
ZONES. The proposed development of free
the Region creates a significant demand
zones with combined port, production,
for effective integration of environmental
warehousing and transfer facilities will
concerns into the planning of government­
provide welcome opportunities for eco-
supported infrastructure and private sec-
nomic growth and employment generation.
tor­supported tourism facilities. Actions
The use of environmental planning studies
should be taken over the short and medium
and environmental assessments as an inte-
term to avoid potentially significant adverse
gral part of free zone siting, design and im-
impacts which undermine the stability of
plementation will support their development
the coastal and marine environments that
in an environmentally sound manner. Site
attract tourists to the Region.
selection for free zone development should
recognize the potentially extensive direct
TOURISM IN SUPPORT OF CONSERVATION.
and indirect environmental impacts, and
Although tourism impacts in the southern
measures should be taken to address pla n-
Red Sea and Gulf of Aden are not as
ning needs both within and outside the free
prominent as in the north, growing tourism
zone.
investment plans will potentially cause en-
vironmental impacts on a regional scale.
FREE ZONE ENVIRONMENTAL UNITS. The
The pressures from tourism are spreading
establishment of special environmental
to new areas as popular sites become
units within each free zone will allow for
over­used and as foreign tourists continue
"on­site" management of environmental
to seek new, exotic destinations. However,
issues by local staff and make environment
when carefully managed, marine tourism
part of "good practice." These environ-
can provide substantial revenue for con-
mental units should conduct "day­to­day"
servation projects. In Ras Mohammed Na-
environmental functions on the basis of
tional Park in Egypt, fees collected from
formal delegation of responsibility from the
visitors and diving tourists exceed the op-
national environmental authority. The work
erational cost of the marine park. In Jor-
of these environmental units should be
dan, there is the potential to absorb part of
complemented by oversight activities by
the growing revenue from the tourism in-
the national environmental authority. The
dustry in Aqaba to support conservation
development of free zones should include
efforts.
specific guidelines for the management of
emissions and of hazardous and solid
Emerging Issues
waste, including the requirements for asso-
ciated residential and commercial areas.
NEW ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES.
Environmental management plans for free
Current and anticipated economic and so-
zones should include the use of economic
cial developments in the Region are ex-
instruments such as fees and fines for

---

Threats to Coastal and Marine Environments and Resources 21

emissions, incentives for waste minimiza-
opment of these resources on a regional
tion, and pricing of inputs, especially water,
level.
that encourages conservation.
ORNAMENTAL FISH COLLECTING. In re-
EXPANSION OF SMALL AND MEDIUM
cent years, the collection of reef fishes for
INDUSTRIES. Although the industrial sector
the aquarium trade has gained increasing
in the Region has historically been domi-
importance as a foreign currency earner.
nated by large enterprises, it is anticipated
However, the maximum sustainable yields
that significant growth will occur in small
of the species collected are unknown and
and medium industries in the medium and
there is no monitoring of collecting meth-
long term. In order to avoid serious envi-
ods. The survival rate of captured orna-
ronmental problems, including coastal deg-
mental fish is often very low due to imper-
radation and groundwater pollution, meas-
fect handling and transport. This low sur-
ures should be taken to develop an envi-
vival rate, together with demands from for-
ronmental management framework for li-
eign markets and the depletion of species
censing and operation of these facilities.
in many parts of Asia, escalates the pres-
Key environmental concerns include: siting
sures for exploitation. This practice can
of industrial estates; siting of individual in-
also be harmful to the reef environment if it
dustries outside of industrial estates; estab-
involves the breaking of corals or the use
lishment and implementation of environ-
of cyanide. There is need for further re-
mental guidelines for industries at this
search into the effects of this activity and
scale; provision of water, wastewater and
its management.
solid/hazardous services; and environ-
mental monitoring and enforcement. Rec-
ognizing the key role that will be played by
private investors in these investments, spe-
cial measures need to be taken to provide
small and medium investors with a clear
understanding of environmental require-
ments and to create incentives for cost­
effective compliance.
DEVELOPMENT OF OFFSHORE MINERAL
DEPOSITS. The Red Sea has extensive off-
shore non­petroleum mineral deposits that
are of considerable long­term economic
interest. Economically, it may be highly de-
sirable from a regional and national per-
spective to develop these resources; how-
ever, measures should be developed and
adopted to ensure that these activities do
not cause significant or irreversible dam-
age. Given the unique nature of the Red
Sea and limited worldwide experience with
the offshore recovery of manganese nod-
ules and other forms of marine mineral
wealth, measures should be taken to estab-
lish environmental guidelines for the devel-

---

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4
An Agenda for Action at the
Regional, National and Local Levels
AN AGENDA FOR ACTION. The Strategic
programmes for sustained use and conser-
Action Programme supports and endorses
vation of resources. The development of
an "Agenda for Action" at the regional,
applied monitoring programmes, use of en-
national and local levels, the objective of
vironmental indicators and conduct of
which is the conservation of the environ-
evaluations are recommended to provide
ment of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden.
routine assessments of progress made in
The SAP includes a series of complemen-
the implementation of the SAP.
tary actions to be implemented in a phased
FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS. Key
manner over a decade or more (see Box
findings and recommendations of the Task
2). This Agenda recognizes the critical
Force are presented as a series of tables to
need for high level commitment and im-
allow for comparative review of issues and
proved public awareness for successful
actions at the regional, national and local
long­term management and conservation
level. The transboundary analysis, which
of the coastal and marine resources of the
evaluates "thematic issues" and "common
Region. It emphasizes the integration of
concerns" shared on the sub­regional and
these these concerns into the development
national level, is provided in Tables 2, 3, 4
process through the use of environmental
and 5. The recommendations of the SAP
planning, environmental assessment and
Task Force for actions at the regional level
review procedures and adoption of coastal
are provided in Table 6; these are comple-
zone management.
mented by a range of actions identified by
A DIVERSITY OF ACTIONS. The Agenda
the Country Reports and endorsed by the
supports the strengthening of institutions
Task Force. They are provided on a coun-
and development of human resources re-
try­by­country basis in Tables 7­13.
quired for environmental management. Im-
Long­Term, High Level Commitment
portantly, the Agenda proposes a series of
and Public Awareness
preventive policy and technical interven-
tions to avoid potential damage to re-
sources; curative measures to address cur-
HIGH LEVEL COMMITMENT. The effective
rent problems; and resource management
conservation and management of the
23

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24 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

unique coastal and marine environments
cilitated through existing fisheries extension
and resources of the Region will primarily
networks. The water conservation out-
depend on long­term, high level commit-
reach programme undertaken in Jordan by
ment by governments. Government support
the Ministry of Water and Irrigation, with
is required to ensure that the priorities
the cooperation of the Jordan Environment
established under the SAP are supported
Society, is an excellent example of an ef-
through policy measures, effective imple-
fective public awareness programme in-
mentation of laws and regulations, invest-
volving government and nongovernmental
ment activities and capacity building of re-
organizations.
gional, national and local institutions. Gov-
ernment support for the SAP will be criti-
Transboundary Environmental Issues
cal given the need to take preventive ac-
tions that require control of development in
OPPORTUNITIES FOR REGIONAL COOP­
sensitive areas, enforcement of existing
ERATION. The SAP provides a framework
regulations, and investments to avoid po-
for PERSGA and the cooperating parties
tential adverse impacts.
to address management of transboundary
environmental issues as an opportunity for
ENHANCED PUBLIC AWARENESS AND
regional cooperation. The Task Force pre-
PARTICIPATION. Environmental aware-
pared a transboundary analysis that identi-
ness is key to obtaining and maintaining
fied both thematic issues (Tables 2 and 3)
public support for environmental protection
and common concerns (Tables 4 and 5).
and nature conservation. The large number
The thematic issues encompass marine
of stakeholders involved in the coastal zone
pollution, vessel traffic, and many types of
requires multi­level awareness pro-
fishery resources, among others, that can
grammes targeting different groups. The
be effectively addressed only if understood
SAP anticipates broad­based participation
and managed on a broader transboundary
by representatives of the general public,
basis. Common concerns, on the other
private sector associations, academic and
hand, are primarily those environmental
applied research institutions and local non-
impacts felt at a national level, but which
governmental organizations. The active
can also result in significant long­term and
participation of these parties will promote
cumulative secondary impacts at the re-
effective dissemination of information to a
gional or sub­regional level. They are most
wide audience, allowing the programme to
effectively managed by joint activities or
benefit from the experience of others.
adoption of complementary approaches.
TYPES OF ACTIVITIES. At the national
SUB­REGIONAL ANALYSIS. In preparing
level, frequent environmental workshops
the transboundary analysis, the Task Force
and meetings can be held to trigger interest
evaluated the issues from a sub­regional
among decisionmakers in the government
perspective, recognizing the diversity of
and different sectors such as fisheries, in-
environments within the Region, and from
dustry and tourism. Integration or strength-
a national perspective, given the range of
ening of environmental subjects in existing
common problems shared by the countries.
academic curricula is crucial in building
The sub­regions adopted for use in the
awareness among the younger generations.
SAP are based on scientifically recognized
The public media, educational displays and
geological and biogeographical units which
well designed aquaria will reach an even
reflect distinct natural differences of sig-
wider audience. At the local level, envi-
nificance for environmental management.
ronmental awareness activities may be fa-

---

An Agenda for Action 25

APPLICATION IN SAP IMPLEMENTATION.
and local level, the Programme gives high
The transboundary analysis will be used to
priority to promoting expanded use of envi-
support planning and organization of SAP­
ronmental assessments in the planning and
related preventive and curative measures
review of proposed projects. This is a sig-
and outreach activities, to allow for more
nificant preventive action, which although
effective cooperation between parties who
mandated by many countries in the Region,
share an interest in management of envi-
is not being used on a systematic basis to
ronmental issues that transcend borders at
support environmentally sound develop-
the regional and sub­regional level. In de-
ment decisions. It is especially important
signing SAP activities to address specific
that environmental assessments be pre-
concerns in the various parts of the Region,
pared for all actions concerning coastal
the findings of the analysis will promote
dredging and landfilling, port and harbor
use of a consistent strategy, effective de-
development and expansion, siting and con-
velopment of joint actions, transfer of ex-
struction of major industrial and energy fa-
perience and opportunities for collective
cilities, large tourism developments, and
training.
aquaculture.
Preventive Measures
ADOPTION OF MEASURES TO CONSERVE
CULTURAL HERITAGE. All countries in the
Region have legislation protecting archaeo-
KEY PREVENTIVE ACTIONS. In the Region,
especially where environmental degrada-
logical, historical and sacred sites. This leg-
tion is still limited to specific locations as-
islation is normally implemented by gov-
sociated with coastal development, the
ernment agencies responsible for antiqui-
timely introduction of enforceable preven-
ties, or religious affairs in the case of sa-
tive measures can be an extremely cost­
cred sites and graves. These organizations,
effective approach to reducing the risk of
given the limited staff and budgets, are of-
major environmental impacts in the future.
ten unable to fully implement the provisions
Suggested measures for prevention include
of the laws. Steps should be taken to inte-
the following:
grate measures to conserve cultural heri-
tage into the planning and development
EMPHASIS ON INTEGRATED COASTAL
process. This includes addressing cultural
ZONE PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT.
heritage issues in integrated coastal zone
The use of integrated coastal zone planning
management plans. The evaluation of po-
combined with implementation of approved
tential impacts to cultural heritage values
plans could significantly reduce the degra-
should be a routine element of all environ-
dation of the coastal environment occurring
mental assessments conducted for pro-
in many parts of the Region. The experi-
posed projects. Given the often high risk of
ence of Egypt, Jordan and Saudi Arabia in
unknown buried sites being encountered
the inventory of coastal and offshore habi-
during the course of construction activities,
tats and the preparation of integrated
the use of archaeological chance find pro-
coastal zone management plans should be
cedures should be a standard part of con-
reviewed for application elsewhere. It
struction contracts.
should be noted that a number of practical
REPLICATION OF SUCCESSFUL REGIONAL
guidelines are available to support efforts
within the Region.
MODELS IN THE INDUSTRIAL SECTOR. The
Region has some successful models of en-
EXPANDED USE OF ENVIRONMENTAL
vironmental management that should be
ASSESSMENTS. At the regional, national
considered for replication elsewhere. An

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26 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

example is the effective integration of envi-
provement of navigational systems and
ronmental protection measures into the de-
aids to lower the risk of maritime acci-
sign and management of the industrial port
dents. The large volume of vessel traf-
cities of the Royal Commission for Jubail
fic, increasingly dominated by oil tank-
and Yanbu in Saudi Arabia. The measures
ers, warrants significant improvements
used by the Commission and other organi-
in navigational services at the regional,
zations to promote the use of integrated
sub­regional, national and local levels.
pollution control, energy­ and water­
At the regional level, an effective coor-
efficient industrial processes and waste
dination mechanism for management of
minimization approaches in industrial facili-
navigational issues should be adopted,
ties of all scales, should be promoted.
complemented by specific arrange-
ments between concerned parties on a
ADOPTION OF MEASURES TO CONTROL
sub­regional basis. The development of
EXPLOITATION OF COASTAL AQUIFERS.
new and improved Traffic Separation
In the Region, as in the case of the Medi-
Schemes is a key regional measure,
terranean, improved management and pro-
while at the sub­regional level coopera-
tection of coastal groundwater aquifers is a
tive agreements on vessel traffic man-
high priority. Measures should be taken by
agement should be given priority for
all nations to establish firm regulatory con-
Bab-al-Mandab and the Straits of Tiran.
trol over the extraction of groundwater and
National and local actions include im-
all wells should be licensed. Efforts should
proved navigation management in the
be made, especially for non­renewable
Gulf of Suez, the loading points for the
groundwater, to ensure that the water is
Yanbu Petroline and Sumed pipeline,
being appropriately used, that proper con-
and in the vicinity of all major regional
servation measures are being applied, and
ports. Special measures should be con-
that pollution is prevented. Land use plan-
sidered for the current and planned free
ning should include measures to avoid the
zone ports in Djibouti, Sudan, and
placement of industrial facilities and waste
Yemen. The Navigation Risk Assess-
disposal sites on aquifer recharge zones.
ment and Management Plan for the
ACTIONS TO REDUCE RISKS OF MARINE
Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, prepared as
ACCIDENTS. The Programme supports ac-
an element of the SAP, provides de-
tions to reduce the risk of marine acci-
tailed recommendations on these issues.
dents, a major threat to environmental qual-
· Adoption of Port State Control. The
ity in the Region. Establishment of Traffic
Paris Memorandum of Understanding
Separation Schemes and improved naviga-
on Port State Control, operating in
tional aids, especially in high risk areas,
Europe, provides a potential model for
should be given priority. The adoption of a
establishment of a similar system in the
system of Port State Control will allow for
Region. Because of ships' right of free
effective enforcement of marine pollution
passage while transiting through waters
control and safety standards. The following
that may fall within the Exclusive Eco-
actions, to be undertaken by the appropri-
nomic Zone (EEZ) of sovereign states,
ate marine and port authorities, should be
the only opportunity for coastal states to
viewed as significant contributions to envi-
ensure that vessels are complying with
ronmental protection:
international agreements that are in
· Improved Navigational Systems and
force in the Region is through inspec-
Aids. An important opportunity for pre-
tions and certification of vessels at port.
ventive action in the Region lies in im-
A systematic and well executed inspec-

---

An Agenda for Action 27

tion programme should be operational-
vention. The Fund is financed by oil im-
ized in every major port in the Region,
porting countries or oil industries in
so that vessels will not resort to calling
these countries. Port states that do not
at ports where regulations are lax and
import oil, but are vulnerable to pollution
reception facilities inadequate. Such a
because of their location along transport
regional system will enable govern-
routes, are afforded free and full cover-
ments to pool scarce resources and en-
age in the case of an oil spill, provided
sure that as many ships as possible are
they are contracting parties to the Con-
inspected for their compliance with In-
vention. In 1992, the CLC and Fund
ternational Maritime Organization
Conventions were amended to signifi-
(IMO) regulations regarding safety and
cantly increase compensation that
marine pollution prevention. Under the
coastal states can receive under them
memorandum of understanding, the Port
for damages caused by oil spills and for
State has the right to inspect vessels en-
the first time, damage by other harmful
tering its national jurisdiction and could
substances was included. Despite this,
detain vessels that did not meet their
only one country in the Region is a Fund
certification requirements until deficien-
member.
cies were corrected. The enforcement
· Radio Communications. The Global
of such a system in the Region will go a
Maritime Distress and Safety System
long way to reducing the risks posed by
(GMDSS) has come into force and is
unseaworthy or sub­standard vessels
related to the International Convention
with respect to accidents and spills, and
for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS
will facilitate the imposition of penalties
1974), as amended, and the Interna-
or fees for violations.
tional Convention on Search and Res-
· Adoption of Complementary Conven-
cue (SAR 1979). Under GMDSS, all
tions and Protocols. There are a num-
ships must be fitted with certain radio
ber of complementary legal instruments
communication equipment and coastal
that reinforce regional conventions and,
states must properly equip coastal sta-
if subscribed to on a regional basis,
tions to communicate with vessels
could advance the objectives of the
which ply in waters that fall under their
PERSGA agreements. Some of these,
responsibility. Such radio communica-
such as the International Convention on
tion systems should be established and
Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage
organized on a regional level to give full
(CLC) of 1969, have already been rati-
coverage to the Red Sea and Gulf of
fied by selected contracting parties to
Aden.
the Jeddah Convention. The purpose of
the CLC is to provide insurance to ship
STRENGTHENED MANAGEMENT OF OIL
owners for liability for oil spills from
SPILLS. Oil is one of the major polluters in
their vessels in the territorial waters of
the Region, and various surveys of the
a sovereign state. A parallel agreement
state of the marine environment indicate
is the 1971 International Convention on
that the most significant forms of pollution
the Establishment of a Fund for Com-
include pollution by oil. Furthermore, the
pensation for Oil Pollution Damage
Red Sea is one of the most important ma-
(Fund Convention). The purpose of this
rine routes in the area. Consequently, oil
Fund is to provide compensation to
pollution resulting from tank washing and
coastal states for damages in excess of
discharges from passing ships is increasing,
the sums provided for by the CLC Con-
and as new oil exploration and production

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28 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

activities take place, the Region is more
regard is the current UNEP­funded
and more susceptible to major oil incidents.
PERSGA project, entitled "Protection of
A number of such incidents have already
the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Environ-
been reported in certain coastal waters.
ment: Initiation of Marine Pollution Control
Policies and Development of Tools for
IMPACTS FROM OIL. At the local level, oil
Coastal Area Management." As part of
pollution is evidently more severe in the
this project, it has been agreed that the first
oil­producing areas of the Region. Chronic
phase of a trajectory model for oil spills in
oil pollution has been observed in the im-
the Red Sea will be developed. This consti-
mediate vicinity of some major ports as a
tutes an important step in the preparation
result of operations at oil terminals or dis-
of regional Contingency Plans for oil spills.
charges from power plants. Oil spills and
The development of the model will also as-
incidents have constituted serious threats
sist oil spill working groups in the Region to
and have visible and invisible impacts. The
make the decisions necessary to minimize
greatest danger to coral reefs from an oil
oil spill impacts and to use available re-
spill is probably the indiscriminate use of
sources to combat oil pollution in a cost­
dispersants. There is also a threat to all
effective manner. Such a model can aid in
forms of marine life as a result of oil spills.
predicting the spread and fate of oil spills.
Such spills affect the dugong that are fre-
It also includes calculations regarding the
quently found in shallow inshore waters.
dispersal of oil on water as well as in the
There is evidence of significant damage to
water column, oil evaporation, and its
bird populations, which are normally de-
spread on the coast. The project is ex-
pendent on the seas and coastlines for
pected to be completed within two years.
feeding and reproduction, and also to fish-
eries production from impacts on the vul-
OIL SPILL CONTINGENCY PLANS. When an
nerable larval stages.
oil spill takes place the most important fac-
tor is time. A spill can spread over a large
REGIONAL PROGRAMMES TO CONTROL
area very quickly depending on the
OIL SPILLS. Given these threats and the
strength of wind and surface currents and
importance of the Region as an interna-
therefore no time should be wasted in deal-
tional shipping lane for oil transportation,
ing with it. This can only be achieved if a
regional programmes to promote monitor-
proper Contingency Plan is in effect and all
ing of oil spills and oil pollution should be
participants, through regular exercises, ac-
established or strengthened. In particular,
cept the proper chain of command and per-
such programmes should promote en-
form their respective roles for spill re-
forcement standards for limiting oil spills.
sponse. Therefore National Contingency
Greater attention should be accorded to is-
Plans are essential for all countries of the
sues such as coordinating oil pollution
Region. On the other hand, oil spills do not
monitoring; carrying out pollution studies;
recognize political boundaries and an oil
undertaking surveillance by ships, aircraft,
spill in one country could cause far more
and satellites within national and interna-
damage in a neighboring country depending
tional waters; strengthening enforcement
on the strength and direction of prevailing
procedures; and developing comprehensive
winds and surface currents. Therefore Re-
Oil Spill Contingency Plans.
gional and Sub­Regional Contingency
CURRENT REGIONAL EFFORTS. Current ef-
Plans are essential.
forts to address oil spills should be the sub-
MARINE EMERGENCY MUTUAL AID
ject of increased national and international
CENTERS. Very few countries in the world
support. A significant contribution in this

---

An Agenda for Action 29

have the full capacity to combat a major oil
to control the export of highly priced fisher-
spill on their own. All the major oil spills
ies products, such as shark fins.
that happened recently such as the "Tor-
rey Canyon" in the UK, the "Amoco
Curative Measures
Cadiz" in France or the "Exxon Valdez"
in Alaska, USA, required the resources of
KEY CURATIVE ACTIONS. Within the Re-
more than one country. Mutual Aid Cen-
gion a series of key curative actions are
ters are therefore most appropriate. At
needed to address current sources of pollu-
present only one such center exists in the
tion and resource degradation. These prob-
Region. It was established in Djibouti with
lems tend to be focused in the coastal ur-
the help of the International Maritime Or-
ban and industrial areas, in the vicinity of
ganization and financed by the Government
ports and major maritime traffic lanes, and
of Norway to serve the countries bordering
in areas with coastal and offshore exploita-
the Gulf of Aden only. The reunification of
tion of oil. Key issues that need to be ad-
Yemen with a coastline on the Red Sea as
dressed through curative measures include
well as the Gulf of Aden and the estab-
the following:
lishment of PERSGA in Jeddah, call for the
revision of the Agreement of the Djibouti
WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT. The
Center to make it a Regional Center under
availability of water is a serious constraint
the umbrella of PERSGA. Measures
to development in the Region and a major
should also be taken for establishment of
environmental management issue in the
the planned Sub­Regional Mutual Aid
coastal zone. Surface water sources occur
Center in Hurghada, Egypt. The Govern-
only on a seasonal basis and play a critical
ment of Egypt has indicated that it would
role in the recharge of groundwater aqui-
be prepared to support this initiative
fers and in the ecology of mangroves,
through the provision of land and infra-
freshwater­dependent vegetation and
structure for the facility. In addition, a re-
coastal wetlands. Groundwater resources
view should be conducted to determine if
are being depleted in the cooperating coun-
an additional Sub­Regional Mutual Aid
tries through over­consumption, which re-
Center is required to provide adequate
duces the quantity of the resource, and pol-
coverage of the Red Sea.
lution of aquifers, which reduces quality. In
order to address this issue, priority meas-
JOINT MANAGEMENT OF
ures need to be taken in all littoral nations
TRANSBOUNDARY FISHERIES RESOURCES.
to promote the efficient use of these limited
In order to achieve sustainable use of
water resources through improved man-
transboundary fish stocks, the management
agement actions and investment activities.
and exploitation of this resource should be

From a management perspective the
regulated in a regional agreement. Joint ef-
most critical issue is to effectively regulate
forts among the littoral nations are needed
development and allocation to ensure effi-
to carry out stock assessment of major mi-
cient use. Key interventions include a for-
gratory species, including data on their
mal permit process for use, demand man-
routes of migration and seasonality, fol-
agement programmes to assist users in
lowed by adoption of regional management
making a transition to more effective use
plans for the concerned species. Sustain-
of water, water charges that promote con-
able management could include monitoring,
servation, and specialized waste reduction
surveillance and control of fishing, based
programmes in all sectors. Support should
on a regionally coordinated licensing and
also be provided for innovative investments
quota system. Special attention is needed
to develop non­traditional sources of wa-

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30 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

ter, including restricted reuse of treated
settlements along the coast that often lack
domestic wastewater and expanded use of
formal systems for waste collection and
brackish water for irrigation. In conjunction
disposal. In many cases, the existing solid
with these measures, actions should be
waste disposal facilities have been devel-
taken to control pollution in order to protect
oped and are operated without adequate
the quality of potable water sources and
concern for environmental factors. Often
ensure that basic allocations are maintained
selected sites endanger groundwater aqui-
to support the needs of critical aquatic eco-
fers or involve disposal of waste at the
systems such as mangroves and coastal
margins of mangroves and coastal wet-
wetlands.
lands. In some instances solid waste dis-
posal has been used as a technique for
WATER SUPPLY AND WASTEWATER
small­scale land reclamation in coastal ar-
TREATMENT. Actions to improve water
eas. Measures should be adopted to sup-
quality through upgrading of water and
port properly located and developed dis-
wastewater services remain a priority at
posal sites in the Region. A special issue is
the regional level to protect public health,
the marine disposal of solid waste from
reduce ecological damage and control ad-
ships in both national and international wa-
verse economic impacts. Successful devel-
ters. This is especially a problem in areas
opment and implementation of projects in
that have heavy ferry service traffic. Ship
this sector requires the commitment of na-
operators should be held accountable for
tional/local governments and utilities to un-
the proper disposal of solid wastes and
dertake institutional, financial and technical
adequate onshore facilities should be pro-
measures. Such measures should promote
vided to accept these wastes at an afford-
the long­term development of autonomous
able cost.
and self­financing institutions that provide
reliable services to their customers. In-
INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION CONTROL. Indus-
vestments in wastewater treatment should
trial pollution--thermal pollution, hyper-
focus on technologies that are reliable un-
saline brines, particulate matter and chemi-
der local conditions and provide opportuni-
cals--contributes to land­based sources of
ties for full or partial restricted reuse of
pollution affecting the shoreline and coastal
treated wastewater. Care should be taken
waters of the Region. In many cases major
in the design of projects to ensure that in-
industrial facilities, both estates and individ-
vestments are balanced between water
ual plants, have been sited without regard
supply and wastewater management. The
to their potential environmental impact on
absence of bala nced investments, espe-
groundwater quality, air quality or coastal
cially provision of extensive household wa-
environments. Within the Region environ-
ter services without complementary in-
mental standards regulating industrial facili-
vestments in wastewater collection and
ties are not uniformly prescribed or en-
treatment, has led to rising groundwater
forced. Institutional and technical capacity
tables, street flooding and standing pools of
is weak and policy incentives for private
raw sewage in many cities of the Region.
sector compliance are inadequate. Activi-
ties to strengthen and enforce regulatory
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT. The man-
standards for industry should be supported;
agement of solid waste from household,
new plants should be subject to environ-
commercial, industrial and construction ac-
mental assessments and existing pla nts
tivities is a major problem for coastal urban
should have environmental audits con-
areas, industrial facilities and ports. It is
ducted on a regular basis; cost­effective
also an increasing problem in the smaller
control technologies should be adopted

---

An Agenda for Action 31

where absent; and support should be pro-
CONTROL OF POLLUTION FROM OIL
vided for the implementation of waste
EXPLORATION AND PRODUCTION. Opera-
minimization programmes. The success of
tional spills, periodic blow­outs, oil well
Saudi Arabia's Yanbu industrial city in in-
leakage, gas flaring and oily sludge from
tegrating environmental concerns into all
drilling operations all contribute to the cu-
phases of project development, implemen-
mulative impacts of marine pollution in the
tation and operation should serve as a
Region. Little regulatory oversight exists to
model for major industrial ports and free
mitigate these impacts. The Gulf of Suez is
zone investments. National and local
particularly vulnerable given its enclosed
authorities, in particular special environ-
nature and large number of oil fields. In
mental units established for industrial ports
conjunction with the Jeddah Convention, a
and free zones, should promote regular en-
protocol should be adopted and imple-
vironmental auditing by industries and im-
mented that provides clear measures for
plementation of management­oriented ap-
control of pollution resulting from explora-
plied monitoring programmes.
tion and exploitation of coastal and off-
PORT RECEPTION FACILITIES. The lack of
shore oil reserves. PERSGA and national
adequate port reception facilities to collect
authorities should undertake a dialog with
and process ship waste is a leading cause
the oil companies, both national and inter-
of illegal dumping and marine pollution by
national, to establish an understanding on
vessels in the Region. A number of major
good environmental practices and to sup-
ports do not have adequate waste recep-
port their cooperative implementation. In
tion facilities and in others the existing fa-
addition, the oil companies should under-
cilities require significant rehabilitation due
take environmental audits and, in coopera-
to inadequate maintenance. Recognizing
tion with national environmental authorities,
the ecological sensitivity of coastal and ma-
establish programmes to address routine
rine resources to these discharges and the
operational problems and development of
impacts on tourist facilities, measures
special measures for emergency and acci-
should be taken to ensure that ship waste
dent situations. Applied monitoring pro-
reception facilities are available at all major
grammes should be developed by the op-
ports in the Region and that their use is ef-
erators that evaluate their performance and
fectively enforced. This problem should be
are subject to review by environmental
coordinated on a regional basis, with im-
authorities.
plementation at the national and local level.
DREDGING AND FILLING. Dredging and fill-
The construction of ship waste reception
ing of coastal areas are permanently elimi-
facilities should be mandated for all new
nating many of the most productive and di-
industrial port and free zone developments.
verse coastal and marine habitats in the
At established ports that lack facilities or
Region, often filling in mangroves and
require rehabilitation of existing facilities,
coastal wetlands and suffocating nearby
priority should be given to these invest-
coral reefs. Given the extensive areas of
ments. User fees should not be set so high
undeveloped coastline in many littoral na-
as to discourage operators from using the
tions of the Region, these operations are
facilities. Effective enforcement will re-
often environmentally unjustified and con-
quire cooperation among ship operators,
tinue in many places despite government
environmental authorities and maritime
restrictions. Existing legislation prohibiting
authorities, including the coast guard and
these activities should be enforced; all pro-
naval vessels operating in the Region.
posed dredging and filling operations should
require a formal permit and be conducted

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32 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

consistent with land use and coastal zone
coastal zone. Coastal zone management
management plans; all large operations and
concerns can be addressed in a cost­
those adjacent to environmentally sensitive
effective manner through integration into
areas should require the preparation of an
land use planning; preparation of environ-
environmental assessment; and clear stan-
mental assessments and environmental
dards should be adopted for environmental
audits; processes for issuing licenses and
management and monitoring of authorized
permits for activities in the coastal zone;
dredging operations. Measures should be
decisions on the siting of public and private
developed in the planning process to avoid,
facilities; and monitoring of development
to the fullest extent possible, dredging and
trends and environmental impacts.
filling operations that adversely impact
mangroves, coastal wetlands and coral
NATIONAL AND LOCAL PLANS. It is
reefs unless they are fully justified and
strongly recommended that priority be
have been subject to proper analysis and
given to the development of coastal zone
review. In addition, set backs should be re-
management plans in all littoral countries,
quired for all coastal construction to reduce
as appropriate for the various types of is-
the tendency in many locations to expand
sues that currently or potentially exist in
existing facilities incrementally by dredging
different areas of the coastal zone. In this
and filling.
context, it is anticipated that national plans
will be developed to provide an overall
Resource Management Programmes
framework for coastal zone management,
complemented by more specific plans for
urban and industrial areas, zones around
STRENGTHENING RESOURCE
industrial ports and free zones, and special
MANAGEMENT. A major challenge in the
plans for management of tourist areas and
Region is the strengthening of resource
ecologically sensitive areas including
management in the coastal and marine ar-
coastal and marine reserves. To be effec-
eas. This includes adoption and implemen-
tively implemented, these plans should be
tation of coastal zone management, a broad
developed in cooperation with all the con-
range of measures to support conservation
cerned users of the coastal zone and
of terrestrial and marine ecosystems and
should provide agreed mechanisms for all
habitats, and development of effective pro-
parties to support sustainable development
grammes for sustainable management of
of these areas. Experience throughout the
living marine resources.
world has demonstrated that the coopera-
IMPROVING COASTAL ZONE
tive process used in development and im-
MANAGEMENT. The use of integrated
plementation of ICZM plans provides an
coastal zone management plans provides
important mechanism to achieve consensus
an effective mechanism for sustainable
on the use of coastal areas and avoids ma-
long­term use of the coastal zone that
jor conflicts between user groups which
forms the interface between land and sea.
can be highly disruptive to the development
Throughout the Region adoption of ICZM
process.
to support development decisions could
KEY FEATURES OF PLANS. ICZM plans
significantly decrease unnecessary degra-
should emphasize siting of new develop-
dation of coastal and marine environments.
ments and resource exploitation activities in
This is especially important for long­term
areas that do not adversely affect fragile
development of high value local and inter-
and non­renewable resources or disrupt
national tourism and for maintenance of the
coastal processes such as currents, and
rich and diverse cultural heritage of the

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An Agenda for Action 33

that avoid creation of physically unfavor-
ence and lessons learned shared among
able conditions such as embayments with
countries.
poor circulation. The plans should give
special attention to properly locating
PROTECTION OF THE ARID COASTAL
coastal urban infrastructure such as power
ZONE. The incremental costs of soil ero-
plants, desalinization plants, and wastewa-
sion are usually much higher than the bene-
ter treatment plants. They should support
fit from livestock husbandry. Therefore the
environmentally sound development of in-
carrying capacity of coastal areas for
dustrial ports and free zones by ensuring
goats, sheep and camels should be estab-
that construction and operation maximize
lished and livestock access regulated, pref-
effective use of the coastal zone and mini-
erably by promoting traditional conserva-
mize impacts on key coastal resources and
tion schemes. The introduction of exotic
industrial facilities. In developing plans, pri-
species of plants or animals should be
ority should be given to areas of rapid ur-
banned entirely. In certain cases, the re-
ban, industrial and tourism growth.
moval of exotic species that are in the pro-
PERSGA can play a key role in this proc-
cess of replacing indigenous flora or fauna
ess by facilitating the sharing of experience
may be considered. Vehicle traffic in the
between the cooperating parties and by
coastal zone has to be restricted to clearly
identifying regional experts from the public
marked tracks. Special consideration
and private sector.
should be given to the fragile nature of ter-
restrial and freshwater ecosystems in arid
HABITAT CONSERVATION. The protection
zones when preparing environmental as-
and, where necessary, restoration of
sessments for urban, industrial or tourism
coastal and marine habitats is of highest
development. Sufficiently large terrestrial
priority for biodiversity conservation.
sectors should be included in coastal and
Spawning grounds and critical nursery ar-
marine protected areas, in order to serve
eas of key species are of particular impor-
as buffer zones and to protect plant and
tance. The integrity of the Region must be
animal communities indigenous to the area.
taken into consideration and areas that are
Re­stabilization of mobile dunes by resto-
of regional significance should receive spe-
ration of the plant cover may be under-
cial attention. Both national and regional
taken where necessary.
regulatory systems need to be improved to
enhance habitat conservation. Specific
PROTECTION OF COASTAL WETLANDS.
schemes for key habitats, such as coastal
The diversion of water from coastal wet-
wetlands, salt marshes, mangroves, sea-
lands should only be allowed where there is
grass beds and coral reefs must be devel-
good scientific evidence that the amount
oped. An efficient means of habitat con-
taken will not adversely affect the ecosys-
servation is establishment of a network of
tem. Measures to protect quantity and
coastal and marine protected areas sup-
quality of water entering coastal wetlands
ported by effective ICZM and planning.
should be taken, with special attention to
Management of existing conservation ar-
critical periods of water availability for
eas should be improved and new areas
aquatic and terrestrial species in these ar-
designated. Public awareness programmes
eas. Access to coastal wetlands by tourists
for selected target groups will support habi-
and livestock must be regulated. Use of
tat conservation efforts. Where appropri-
coastal wetlands as disposal sites for liquid
ate, they should be coordinated at the re-
and solid wastes must be avoided. The
gional level, so that conservation of migra-
wetlands should also be protected from fill-
tory species can be achieved and experi-
ing for land reclamation, a common threat

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34 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

in many areas. Surrounding areas should
PROTECTION OF SEAGRASS BEDS. Be-
be protected from overgrazing, to prevent
cause of the value of seagrasses to endan-
damage to wetlands by wind­blown sedi-
gered species and a host of commercially
ments. The more important coastal wet-
important finfish and shellfish, their conser-
lands should be included in protected areas
vation and protection must be a high prior-
and traditional conservation systems should
ity in coastal zone management planning.
be revived and supported. Direct and indi-
Activities which are particularly detrimen-
rect impacts to the ecological values of
tal to seagrasses--dredging, landfilling,
coastal wetlands should be considered in all
wastewater disposal, illegal shrimp trawl-
environmental assessments prepared for
ing--need to be effectively managed and
water resources development programmes
existing regulations enforced. Impacts on
in the drainage area of the Red Sea and
seagrass beds must be considered in envi-
Gulf of Aden. Studies for coastal agricul-
ronmental assessments. Especially impor-
ture and aquaculture developments should
tant seagrass beds, such as those used by
include systematic evaluation of potential
dugong, need to be included in Marine Pro-
impacts to these fragile and important eco-
tected Areas. Links between seagrass
systems.
beds and the value of commercial and arti-
sanal fisheries should be an element in
MANAGEMENT AND CONSERVATION OF
awareness programmes, and the locations
MANGROVES. Because of their value as
of seagrass beds throughout the Region
spawning grounds and nurseries of com-
mapped.
mercially important fish and shrimp spe-
cies, the protection of mangrove ecosys-
CONSERVATION OF CORAL REEFS. Con-
tems needs special attention. National
servation of coral reefs in the face of rap-
schemes for forestry management and
idly growing coastal development requires
conservation should be extended to man-
preparation and implementation of coastal
groves. Grazing access should be con-
zone management plans. The plans should
trolled and selected mangrove areas must
specifically address the activities that are
be set aside for complete protection. It is
particularly damaging to coral reefs, includ-
essential that alternative sources of building
ing dredging, physical destruction, landfill-
materials and fuel for communities living
ing, wastewater disposal, and disturbance
near mangrove areas be explored. The di-
from excessive tourism activities. This can
version of freshwater from mangrove ar-
be accomplished by requiring environ-
eas needs strict regulation, to guarantee at
mental assessment for all developments.
least a minimum supply to the mangrove
Reefs that are representative and of par-
stands, and to prevent sea water intrusion
ticularly high value for conservation require
and increased salinity. Environmental as-
protection through the establishment of
sessments for development, especially for
Marine Protected Areas, ideally as part of
construction of shrimp farms, must give
a regional network. Laws relating to
special attention to the protection of man-
coastal zone management and Marine Pro-
grove areas. Where mangroves have been
tected Areas must be effectively enforced.
severely damaged or destroyed, natural re-
A large number of people use coral reefs
covery must be enhanced, supported as
in a variety of ways that are potentially
necessary by repla ntation schemes and es-
damaging; these impacts can be limited
tablishment of local mangrove nurseries. It
through controlled access, quotas on the
is imperative that within these replantation
number of visitors, and awareness cam-
programmes, special attention be given to
paigns addressing the commercial value
the genetic source of the seedlings.
and ecological significance of coral reefs.

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An Agenda for Action 35

MARINE PROTECTED AREAS. The Region
marine resources, the extent, intensity, and
has many sites of unique beauty, that sup-
types of human uses vary throughout the
port populations of globally important spe-
Region. Information about use as well as
cies or contain ecologically critical habitats.
socio­economic values is inadequate. In
These require protection from human ac-
some instances there is also very little sci-
tivities, to maintain their ecological impor-
entific information available on the species
tance and their availability to be appreci-
targeted. Tools for management include
ated and enjoyed by the Region's inhabi-
legislation, specific management pro-
tants. If protected, they can also serve as
grammes (e.g. stock quotas, seasonal clo-
areas for scientific research and as valu-
sures and gear restrictions), training, ap-
able assets for raising public awareness.
plied research, stock assessments, and
Such sites should be designated as Marine
public awareness.
Protected Areas and form an important
MANAGEMENT OF COMMERCIAL FISH-
component of national coastal zone man-
agement programmes. A network of Ma-
ERIES. Commercially exploited living re-
rine Protected Areas throughout the Re-
sources are an integral part of the marine
gion will ensure conservation of important
and coastal ecosystems. The sustainable
representative sites, including sites in the
use of these resources depends on proper
Gulf of Aqaba, the Straits of Tiran, the Si-
management of fishing activities and pro-
nai Peninsula, the Wejh Bank, the Sanga-
tection of resources essential to the fisher-
nab Atoll, the Farasan Islands, the Dhahlak
ies. Spawning and nursery areas, such as
Archipelago, and the Socotra Archipelago.
mangroves and seagrass beds, need special
The establishment of Marine Protected
protection, or rehabilitation where already
Areas requires management planning, pub-
damaged. Stock assessment of trans-
lic awareness, enforcement, supporting le g-
boundary species requires collaborative ef-
islation, trained personnel, and monitoring
forts among littoral countries. Where nec-
and evaluation programmes.
essary, field guides should be updated and
adapted for use as a tool for stock assess-
MANAGEMENT OF LIVING MARINE
ment, and training provided to fisheries
RESOURCES. Proper management of living
workers. Based on the results, fishing ef-
marine resources is important to sustain the
forts and methods will be reviewed, fisher-
livelihoods of people dependent on the re-
ies management policies defined, and catch
sources, to maintain the ecological integrity
quota assigned to the user groups in mutual
of marine communities, and to conserve
agreement. The implementation of a fisher-
biodiversity. This is generally the responsi-
ies management programme, and the en-
bility of national governments; however, in
forcement of regional and national fisheries
the Region there are a number of important
regulations will largely depend upon
species that migrate across national
strengthening the enforcement capacity in
boundaries, posing additional challenges to
the Region. Public awareness programmes
management agencies. Management capa-
should stress the linkages between healthy
bilities are further stretched by the impacts
ecosystems and the sustainability of fisher-
of foreign fishermen in national waters, and
ies resources.
trends in seafood consumption in interna-
SHARK FISHERIES MANAGEMENT. Since
tional markets. This is exemplified by the
many shark species are migratory, both re-
demand for shark fins that are increasingly
gional and national management systems
being supplied from the Region. Although it
are required to prevent the collapse of
is understood that there is a great reliance
shark populations--as has happened in
for subsistence by coastal populations on

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36 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

many other parts of the world--and to at-
CONSERVATION OF SEABIRDS. To ade-
tain a sustainable level of use of this impor-
quately manage the conservation of sea-
tant resource. Management systems should
birds, their status must be assessed region-
include stock assessments, protection of
ally, including a mapping of breeding colo-
areas used by sharks for breeding and
nies, a census of the number of breeding
nurseries, gear restrictions, a coordinated
birds, evaluation of breeding success, and
national fishing licensing system for all
documentation of breeding and feeding bi-
shark fishing vessels, and a quota system.
ology. These studies should be combined
Greater enforcement of existing regulations
with a ringing programme. Birds must be
will limit exploitation through illegal fishing
protected from direct threats, such as non­
for the non­sustainable shark fin market
sustainable hunting, egg collecting, and fe-
outside the Region.
ral cats. During the breeding season, tour-
ists and fishermen should be kept away
CONSERVATION OF MARINE TURTLES.
Thus far, only Saudi Arabia has established
from islands with breeding colonies. Major
a comprehensive conservation and moni-
breeding sites should be included in Marine
toring programme for marine turtles. Such
Protected Areas. Nesting and feeding sites
a programme should be extended to the re-
of seabirds must be given a high priority in
gional level. It should include a survey of
oil spill contingency planning.
nesting areas and feeding grounds; annual
CONTROL OF CORAL AND SHELL
tagging of adult turtles and collection of re-
COLLECTION. In most of the Region, col-
capture data; protection of nesting sites
lection of corals and reef­associated inver-
from egg collecting and other forms of dis-
tebrates is illegal, but marine curios are still
turbance; and annual monitoring of nesting
offered for sale throughout the Region. Ex-
success. The use of turtle exclusion de-
isting regulations are in need of revision in
vices should be compulsory in trawl fisher-
a regional context. Control mechanisms
ies. The ban on trade in turtle shells, which
and enforcement of regulations should be
already exists in most countries, must be
strengthened and accompanied by an ex-
strictly enforced. The success of these ac-
tensive public awareness programme. Ex-
tivities will be enhanced by a public aware-
isting initiatives in Egypt, Jordan, Saudi
ness programme and a rural development
Arabia, and Sudan may serve as a basis
programme to improve local food supply
for the development of a comprehensive
and diet, reducing the need for turtle meat
programme.
as a supplementary food.
MANAGEMENT OF THE AQUARIUM FISH
CONSERVATION OF MARINE MAMMALS.
TRADE. Reef fishes for the aquarium trade
A survey of the diversity and distribution of
can be collected at a sustainable level if
marine mammals in the Region is required
properly managed. This requires the identi-
for sound conservation. Case studies from
fication of suitable reef areas, assessment
other regions should be considered to for-
of fish stock and determination of catch
mulate management strategies for individ-
quota and size ranges. Collection should be
ual species in the Region. Consideration
restricted to suitable aquarium species.
should be given to modifying fishing prac-
Destructive collecting methods and the use
tices that affect marine mammals, as by-
of poison or anesthetics must be banned
catch, during normal operations. Seagrass
entirely. Divers should be trained to collect
beds with heavy concentrations of dugong
fishes with hand nets without damaging the
should be included as high priority in Ma-
reef. Proper transport and adaptation of
rine Protected Areas.
fishes to aquarium conditions will assure

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An Agenda for Action 37

high quality, keeping fish mortality low and
Management Plan, and the Study on the
promoting credibility on international mar-
Status of the Living Marine Resources in
kets.
the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden and Their
Management. This process demonstrated
Outreach Activities
that both regional and national level consul-
tations can contribute significantly to the
PUBLIC EDUCATIONAL AQUARIA AND
development of a better strategy that is
NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUMS. Museums
more firmly based on "facts on the
and public aquaria play an important role in
ground" and can be more readily imple-
informing and educating the general public
mented due to "broad­based support" for
on environmental issues. There is a clear
the recommended interventions. They also
need to improve taxonomic knowledge and
showed that effective dialogue can be held
plant and animal species inventories, based
between representatives of PERSGA, na-
on well curated scientific collections.
tional and local governments, academic and
Taxonomic research institutes and natural
applied research institutions and nongov-
history museums are essential to biodiver-
ernmental organizations in development
sity research and conservation. Museum
and implementation of programme and pro-
collections provide evidence of organism
ject activities in support of the SAP. Ex-
diversity with documented geographical
panded use of these approaches will pro-
data and are a major source of compara-
vide widespread information about the fra-
tive information. Well managed museums
gility of coastal and marine resources and
can provide the needed venue and materi-
measures for their efficient use and protec-
als to train local scientists in biodiversity
tion to decisionmakers, user groups and the
conservation.
public.
PUBLIC PARTICIPATION AND
COOPERATION WITH
CONSULTATION. Evidence around the
NONGOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS.
world demonstrates that the use of broad­
The participation of international, national
based consultation and participation can, in
and local nongovernmental organizations
many instances, improve the quality, effec-
will be important for realization of the
tiveness and sustainability of programmes
long­term goals of the SAP. Development
and projects. Consultation provides oppor-
of the SAP has benefited from environ-
tunities for interested parties to make input
mental information developed at the re-
into the development, review and approval
gional and national level by international
of proposeds projects. The participation
nongovernmental organizations such as the
process involves a dialogue with interested
World Conservation Union (IUCN), Bird-
parties in the review of key issues and de-
life International and the World Wide Fund
cisions related to the programmes and pro-
for Nature (WWF). The preparation of the
jects under development and/or implemen-
Country Reports benefited from participa-
tation. The development of the SAP has
tion of national nongovernmental organiza-
benefited from both these approaches and
tions in the provision of data, review of
they will be continue to be used at a variety
threats and identification of recommended
of levels to support the programme.
actions. Representatives of these organiza-
tions also participated in many of the

An important element of SAP prepara-
PERSGA­sponsored workshops on the
tion was the use of a consultation process
Country Reports.
for development and review of the Country
Reports, Navigation Risk Assessment and

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38 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden


National nongovernmental organiza-
and evaluation of programmes at the re-
tions are currently playing important roles
gional and national level. Following a re-
in implementation of SAP­related activities
view of experience from other regional en-
in the Region. In Jordan, the Royal Society
vironmental programmes such as those for
for the Conservation of Nature (RSCN)
the Baltic, Black and Mediterranean Seas,
supports a number of government organi-
PERSGA will work with the cooperating
zations in planning, development and man-
parties in the development of applied moni-
agement of protected areas in several loca-
toring programmes. Priority will be given to
tions. Also in Jordan, the Royal Jordanian
establishment of an affordable programme
Ecological Divers' Society has begun a
that includes routine and reliable monitoring
programme of monitoring coral reefs in the
of parameters to evaluate environmental
Gulf of Aqaba with the support of a small
management activities. The monitoring
grant from the GEF. The Sudan Nature
programme will complement ongoing scien-
Conservation Society, with 5,000 members,
tific programmes that have a research ob-
plays an extremely important role in pro-
jective. In order to support effective
moting public awareness of environmental
evaluation of the Programme, PERSGA
and conservation issues in the country. The
plans to establish environmental indicators
Yemeni branch of Birdlife International has
for assessment of trends and evaluation of
conducted studies of critical habitats for
progress in addressing environmental man-
resident and migratory birds and collects
agement issues at the regional and national
data collection on bird migration.
levels. These indicators will be designed to
include measures of progress in establish-
Monitoring, Indicators and Evaluation
ment of a regional framework for coopera-
tion, performance of key preventive and
MEASURING PROGRESS. The SAP includes
curative actions, and assessment of cumu-
support for development and implementa-
lative and specific impacts from operational
tion of cost­effective applied monitoring
activities.

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An Agenda for Action 39

Box 2: An Agenda for Action
The SAP supports and facilitates the primary goal of PERSGA, which is the conservation of the en-
vironment of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. The aims of the SAP are to develop a regional frame-
work for the protection of the environment and the sustainable development of coastal and marine
resources. The Programme outlined in the SAP focuses on both preventive and curative meas-
ures required to maintain the rich and diverse coastal and marine resources of the Red Sea and
Gulf of Aden.
Long­Term, High Level Commitment
Curative Measures
and Public Awareness


· Water Resources Management.
· High Level Commitment.
· Water Supply and Wastewater Treatment.
· Enhanced Public Awareness and Par-
· Solid Waste Management.
ticipation.
· Industrial Pollution Control.
· Types of Activities.
· Port Reception Facilities.

· Control of Pollution from Oil Exploration and Pro-
Transboundary Environmental Issues
duction.
· Opportunities for Regional Coopera-
· Control of Dredging And Filling.
tion.

· Sub­Regional Analysis.
Resource Management Programmes
· Application in SAP Implementation.


· Strengthening Resource Management.
Preventive Measures
· Improving Coastal Zone Management.

· National and Local Plans.
· Integrated Coastal Zone Planning and · Habitat Conservation.
Management.
· Protection of Arid Coastal Zone.
· Expanded Use of Environmental As-
· Protection of Coastal Wetlands.
sessments .
· Management and Conservation of Mangroves.
· Measures to Conserve Cultural Heri-
· Protection of Seagrass Beds.
tage.
· Conservation of Coral Reefs.
· Replication of Successful Regional
· Marine Protected Areas.
Models in Industrial Sector.
· Management of Living Marine Resources.
· Measures to Control Exploitation of
· Management of Commercial Fisheries.
Coastal Aquifers.
· Shark Fisheries Management.
· Actions to Reduce Risks of Marine
· Conservation of Marine Turtles.
Accidents.
· Conservation of Marine Mammals.
Improved Navigational Systems
· Conservation of Sea Birds.
and Aids.
· Control of Coral and Shell Collection.
Port State Control.
· Management of Aquarium Fish Trade.
Complementary Conventions and

Protocols.
Outreach Activities
Radio Communications.

· Strengthened Management of Oil
· Public Educational Aquaria.
Spills.
· Natural History Museums.
· Regional Programmes to Control Oil
· Public Participation and Consultation.
Spills.
· Cooperation with NGOs.
· Oil Spill Contingency Plans.

· Marine Emergency Mutual Aid Cen-
Monitoring, Indicators and Evaluation
ters.

· Joint Management of Transboundary
· Measuring Progress.
Fisheries Resources.

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40 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

---

5
Resource Mobilization
Introduction
text, it is important to clearly limit expecta-
tions concerning the pace at which actions
FROM PLANNING TO IMPLEMENTATION.
can be funded, as environment and natural
The most important challenge for all parties
resources management are not the only
concerned with sustainable development
priorities for scarce resources within the
and conservation of the unique environ-
Region.
ment of the Region is to successfully make
A RANGE OF RESOURCES. Successful im-
the critical transition from the "planning
plementation of the SAP requires mobiliza-
stage" of the Programme in which goals
tion of a range of resources--human and
and priorities are established, to the "im-
financial--to support Programme priorities.
plementation stage" during which the ob-
The work of existing regional, national and
jectives are incrementally reached on a re-
local organizations should be effectively
gional, national and local basis. To achieve
directed to address SAP objectives; this
this transition, resources from domestic and
can be accomplished by making current
international sources, both public and pri-
staff and budget resources available to
vate, must be mobilized. The diverse range
support priority actions. Integration of Pro-
of actions identified in the SAP cannot all
gramme priorities into public investment
be undertaken at once; however, with the
plans is a critical measure to facilitate allo-
commitment of the cooperating parties, re-
cation of domestic and international re-
sources can be identified for key activities
sources for investment activities. In imple-
to launch the implementation phase of the
menting Programme investments, a bal-
SAP. Additional activities can begin as
ance between preventive and curative
success is achieved in the first phase of the
measures must be part of long­term devel-
Programme and as more funding becomes
opment strategies. Domestic funding, at the
available. Resource mobilization should be
national and local level, should be antici-
viewed as a continuous process for realiza-
pated in most nations to be the primary
tion of SAP objectives that will require co-
source for investment activities. These
ordination by PERSGA and national gov-
funds can be supplemented by loans and
ernments over the long term. In this con-
grants from international financial institu-
41

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42 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

tions and bilateral donors to support the im-
implementation and long­term operation.
plementation of priority investments.
Investments for environmental improve-
ments should be well justified and should
NEW SOURCES OF SUPPORT. Environment
be expected to compete with other priority
and natural resource management pro-
sectors for the use of the limited funds
grammes and investments in the Region
available to any government from both do-
has traditionally been funded by national
mestic and international sources. This
governments, often with support from in-
should be viewed as a continuous and in-
ternational and bilateral organizations. In
teractive process that must be conducted
implementing the SAP, consideration
regularly during the course of the Pro-
should be given to the new types of re-
gramme to assure adequate access to fi-
sources being used in many countries to
nancial resources.
support such measures. Especially in mu-
nicipal services and industry, the private
Domestic and International Financing
sector should be viewed as a potential
partner in investments to provide environ-
Normally in regional environmental pro-
mental services on a commercial basis,
grammes, the higher income countries pro-
with appropriate measures to ensure that
vide self­financing for Programme activi-
their activities are environmentally respon-
ties, while the lower­income countries use
sible. Full or partial self­financing of man-
a mixture of domestic resources, long­term
agement costs for protected areas used by
and concessional loans, and grants. In
tourists can also be considered. Other non­
some cases limited international grant fund-
traditional sources may also be mobilized
ing is available to support institutional
for selected SAP activities.
strengthening, human resources develop-
ment, and cooperative applied research ac-
Linking the Programme to Public In-
tivities on a regional basis. With rare ex-
vestment Plans
ceptions, all types of loans and most types
of grant funds from international sources
Many governments have adopted Public
for investment activities are only available
Investment Plans (PIPs) to effectively use
on a "bilateral basis" rather than from a
their available domestic budget, interna-
pooled regional fund. The availability of
tional loans and foreign grants to support
concessional loans and grants is "means
development objectives. To ensure timely
tested" whereby a country's financial need
implementation of regional environmental
is assessed by international financial institu-
programmes such as the SAP, priority ac-
tions and bilateral donors so that funds are
tivities should be integrated into national
targeted to the lower­income countries. In
PIPs. Representatives of the environ-
addition, local governments, major ports
mental ministry, which normally coordi-
and industrial complexes should be ex-
nates participation in such programmes,
pected to play a role in the investment pro-
must work regularly and closely with the
gramme to assure their facilities meet the
ministries of planning and finance to in-
environmental objectives of the Pro-
clude priority Programme actions at the na-
gramme in a cost­effective and timely
tional and local level in the PIP. To ac-
manner. For effective mobilization of re-
complish this, basic information should be
sources, it important to adopt a phased ap-
available concerning the projected invest-
proach to Programme implementation, with
ment and operation/maintenance cost,
investments to be made over several years,
length of implementation period, and clear
consistent with an established schedule that
identification of the parties responsible for
allows budget support for other priority in-

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Resource Mobilization 43

vestments required for economic and social
· Solid waste collection and disposal serv-
development.
ices;
Role of International Funding Organi-
· Industrial pollution control measures;
zations
· Development of tourism facilities that
are environmentally friendly;
In addition to the donor coordination role of
· Improved environmental management
UNDP and catalytic role of UNEP, spe-
of ports and free zones;
cific provisions have been made in the de-
velopment of the SAP for direct participa-
· Adoption and implementation of good
tion of potential international, regional and
practices in the oil industry;
bilateral funding organizations in pro-
· In cooperation with regional and na-
gramme design, implementation, monitoring
tional authorities, identification and im-
and evaluation. It is recognized by
plementation of measures to reduce
PERSGA and the cooperating parties that
navigation risks; and
these organizations can provide financial
support and specialized expertise gained
· Development of sustainable fisheries
from their participation in other regional
practices, including reduction of by-
environmental programmes and individual
catch.
development projects. PERSGA and the

The private sector can also play an im-
cooperating parties plan to seek the active
portant role in providing opportunities and
participation of these organizations, at the
facilities for training experts from regional,
regional and national level, in the identifica-
national and local organizations concerned
tion of investment activities, development
with environmental management. Public
of institutional strengthening programmes
and private partnerships can also be a ma-
and cooperative preparation of implemen-
jor source of support for public awareness
tation plans and cost estimates for these
and environmental education activities. The
measures.
World Bank, working through its affiliates,
the International Finance Corporation
Private Sector Participation
(IFC) and the Multilateral Investment
Guarantee Agency (MIGA), can support
Implementation of the SAP provides an
the participation of the private sector in se-
excellent opportunity for strong collabora-
lected aspects of the Programme.
tion between PERSGA, the cooperating
parties and the private sector in improved
Sustainable Financing of Coral Reef
management of the coastal and marine en-
Conservation
vironments. The private sector has a sig-
nificant role to play in both preventive and
The wide range of coral reefs and their
curative actions in all sectors in which it is
ecological and economic importance to the
involved and the formation of an effective
Region mandate that special attention be
"public­private partnership" at the regional
given to development of sustainable financ-
and national level is important to the suc-
ing mechanisms for their conservation. Re-
cess of the Programme. Major elements of
cent reviews prepared by the World Bank
the SAP in which the private sector can
provide examples of the worldwide range
play an important role include:
of experience in addressing this complex
· Expansion and management of water
issue. Key to success is establishing the
and wastewater services;
principle that coral reefs are economic re-

---

44 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

sources and that their users should pay
fees, where appropriate. Measures to as-
sure their sustainable use by a range of
user groups must also be taken. This is
especially important in the Region, given
the increased demand from the rapidly
expanding tourism industry to use the coral
reefs for recreational purposes. The inno-
vative work undertaken by Egypt in the
South Sinai for the conservation of these
resources, which includes the use of an
"Environmental Cost Recovery Charge,"
may provide a model that could be
replicated elsewhere in the Region.
Alternative Sources of Funding
Given the limited financial resources of na-
tional and local governments, international
organizations, international financial institu-
tions and bilateral donors, it is necessary
that non­traditional financial resources be
mobilized to support implementation of the
SAP at the regional and national level.
These alternative approaches could include
the use of environmental fees and fines;
tourism taxes; user fees for parks and pro-
tected areas; application of lottery pro-
ceeds for SAP activities; debt for nature
swaps; public­private cooperation for spe-
cial activities; and use of funds from pri-
vate foundations from within and outside
the Region. The Saudi Environmental
Awareness Programme, funded jointly by
government and the private sector, pro-
vides a model of non­traditional funding
that should be considered for extension to
other nations in the Region.

---

Tables
45

---

46 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Table 1. Threats to Coastal and Marine Environments and Resources
Issue
Symptoms /
Immediate
Root Causes
Scale
Severity
Impacts
Causes
Habitat Destruction:
Coastal
Extensive dredging Large­scale urban Inadequate
Localized,
Moderate to
development
and filling; change and industrial
environmental
throughout the severe
of currents and
development; port planning guidelines
Region;
coastal processes; development and
for coastal
concentrated
destruction of
maintenance
development; lack of in urban,
coral reefs,
dredging; tourist
enforcement; limited
industrial,
intertidal areas,
development
use of environmental tourism areas
lagoons, seagrass
assessment; limited
and free
beds and sabkhas
awareness
zones
Beach mining
Disturbance of
Sand collecting
Lack of regulations,
Localized
Low to
and quarrying
sandy beaches,
and quarrying for
and lack of
moderate
increased
coral rock
enforcement
sedimentation,
smothering of
seagrass and
corals
Mangrove
Deterioration of
Landfill, camel
Mangroves exist
Regional
Moderate to
destruction
mangrove habitats; grazing, wood
under sub­optimal
severe
decreased fish
collection, shrimp
conditions; lack of
and shrimp
farm construction, regulations and
catches; reduced
decreased
management, lack of
water quality;
freshwater supply awareness,
coastal erosion
damming of wadis
and rivers; increased
population pressure
Destruction of Signs of physical
Trawling, including Lack of adequate
Localized,
Moderate to
seagrass beds disturbance; loss
illegal trawling by
regulations and
adjacent to
severe
and other sub­ of seagrass­
foreign vessels;
enforcement; limited
urban and
tidal habitats
associated
coastal dredging
awareness; limited
industrial
species
and filling; release knowledge of
areas;
of untreated
seagrass distribution trawling
waste waters
impacts
from municipalities
severe in Gulf
and shrimp/fish
of Suez,
farms
southern Red
Sea and Gulf
of Aden
Physical
Loss of coral
Anchor damage,
Poor navigational
Regional
Moderate to
damage to
habitat by collision coral mining, ship
control systems and
severe
coral reefs
and removal;
groundings
error; lack of
indirect impacts
moorings; lack of
through siltation;
awareness;
declining reef­
inappropriate mining
associated fauna
operations;
inadequate training
Damage to
Coral breakage by Trampling of
Lack of education
Northern Red
Moderate to
coral reefs by visitors; decrease shallow reef flats, about sensitivity of
Sea and
severe
visitors
in live coral cover; breaking of corals, marine ecosystems; western Gulf
decline in reef­
collecting of
lack of management; of Aden;
associated fauna; marine souvenirs; lack of enforcement
problem
presence of solid
anchor damage
anticipated to
waste
spread
Region­wide

---

Tables 47

Table 1. Threats to Coastal and Marine Environments and Resources
Issue
Symptoms /
Immediate
Root Causes
Scale
Severity
Impacts
Causes
Exploitation of Living Marine Resources:
Overfishing of Decline in landings, Increased fishing
Lack of stock
Regional
Moderate to
finfish for local decrease in
efforts, landing
assessment and
severe
and export
average size
beyond Maximum
reliable statistics
markets
Sustainable Yield
hampers fisheries
management;
mangroves
destroyed; lack of
surveillance and
enforcement of
existing regulations
Capture of
Decline in shark
Increased fishing
Lack of surveillance Regional
Severe
sharks for
stocks; Other
effort, use of nets and enforcement of
shark fin
impacts include
in shark fisheries, existing regulations;
market,
bycatch of turtles, high profits
expanding demand
frequently in
dolphins and
outside the Region
areas beyond
finfish
for shark fins
territorial
waters
Overfishing of Decline in catches, Increased fishing
Lack of monitoring
Gulf of Aden
Severe
shrimp and
decrease in
effort, illegal
and enforcement of
and southern
lobster for
average size
fishing
existing regulations;
Red Sea
export markets
lack of stock
assessment
hampers resource
management;
destruction of
nursery habitats
(mangroves and
seagrasses); illegal
trawling
Overfishing of Decline in catches Fishing effort
Lack of monitoring
Gulf of Aden
Severe
cuttlefish for
beyond Maximum
and enforcement of
export markets
Sustainable Yield, regulations; lack of
improper fishing
trained staff for
practices
surveillance
Overfishing of Decline in landings Increased fishing
Lack of stock
Southern Red Severe
Strombus for
efforts
assessment
Sea
local markets
hampers resource
management
Overfishing of Decrease in
Increased fishing
Lack of stock
Southern Red Low to
sea cucumber average size
efforts in limited
assessment
Sea and Gulf
moderate
for export
areas
hampers resource
of Aden
markets
management
Turtle capture
Decrease in
Need for
Lack of public
Southern Red Severe
and egg
nesting populations subsidiary food
awareness, lack of
Sea and Gulf
collection by
supply in areas of alternative food
of Aden
local fishermen
poor fish
sources; lack of
and
resources;
enforcement and
communities;
Economic returns
stock assessment;
sale of shells
from sales to
lack of protection of
to tourists and
tourists; Bycatch
eggs from stray
for export
of turtles in
dogs
fisheries; Lack of
turtle­excluding
devices
Collection of
Breakage of corals Unregulated
Expansion of
Regional,
Moderate to
corals and
and decline of live collection of corals tourism; lack of
especially the severe
mollusks for
coral cover;
and mollusks
awareness; lack of
central and
souvenir trade decline in reef­
regulations and
southern Red
associated fauna
enforcement
Sea

---

48 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Table 1. Threats to Coastal and Marine Environments and Resources
Issue
Symptoms /
Immediate
Root Causes
Scale
Severity
Impacts
Causes
Ornamental
Potential decrease Potential
Lack of stock
Localized,
Presently
fish collection
in reef fish
overfishing of
assessment,
throughout the low
for export
populations,
individual species, monitoring and
Region
damage to the reef destructive fishing management; lack of
methods
collector training
Conservation
Potential decline in Accidental capture Lack of awareness
Regional
Moderate to
of marine
populations
in fisheries
severe
mammals
(dugong as an
(especially
endangered
dugong)
species)
Spearfishing
Decline in size and Indiscriminate
Lack of enforcement Localized,
Locally
stocks of reef fish; spearing of many
of existing
throughout the severe
reef fish avoid
species of reef
regulations; lack of
Region
divers
fishes, of all sizes; relevant legislation in
often in dive sites
some countries
Shrimp and
Irreversible
Pond construction; Lack of regulations
Currently
Severe
fish farming
conversion of
mangrove
and poor planning
localized with
coastal habitats;
destruction
a growing
mangrove
resulting in
potential
destruction;
reduced water
throughout the
declining water
quality; use of
Region
quality;
chemicals,
modification of
hormones and
coastline
nutrients
Navigation Risks and Maritime Transport:
Regional
Extensive and
Limited
Complex navigational Regional, with Moderate to
navigation
routine risks of
navigational
hazards combined
serious issues severe
risks
ship collisions and devices and poorly with heavy maritime
in the Gulf of
groundings in
separated traffic;
traffic, including
Suez, Gulf of
major international weak regional
large­scale
Aqaba and the
traffic lanes
coordination on
movement of oil and
Bab-al-
navigation issues; other cargoes
Mandab
inaccurate
navigational charts
Local
Extensive and
Limited
Complex navigational Significant
Moderate to
navigation
routine risks of
navigational
hazards due to
problems in
severe
risks
ship collisions and devices and poorly limited depth of
areas of major
groundings in
separated traffic;
shipping channels
ports and key
approaches to
weak regional and and approaches to
oil loading
major and minor
national
ports; large volumes facilities;
ports, oil loading
coordination on
of maritime traffic
Anticipated to
facilities and near
navigation issues; which includes a
become a
coral reefs
inaccurate
variety of vessels
concern in
navigational
operating with a
areas adjacent
charts; increasing wide range of safety to proposed
local traffic by
standards
free ports and
small vessels
free zones;

---

Tables 49

Table 1. Threats to Coastal and Marine Environments and Resources
Issue
Symptoms /
Immediate
Root Causes
Scale
Severity
Impacts
Causes
Petroleum and Mineral Development and Transport:
Oil and gas
Construction
Capped wells as a Normal risks
Gulf of Suez,
Moderate to
exploration and debris; tar balls
navigation hazard; associated with oil
northern Red
severe
production
and slicks on
seepage of oil;
exploration and
Sea and
beaches and in
production
production, made
southern Red
water
emergencies
worse by poor
Sea
including blow ­
operator
outs; pipeline
performance and
breakages
poor field
procedures
Small oil spills
Beach
Discharge of
Lack of reception
Localized,
Moderate
(< 20 tons)
contamination,
ballast and bilge
facilities at ports;
throughout the
damage to coastal water, bunker oil
inadequate control,
Region
and marine biota
spill
lack of enforcement
Medium oil
Beach
Discharges from
Inadequate control
Localized,
Moderate to
spills
contamination,
pipelines or
and monitoring of
throughout the severe
(< 100 tons)
damage to coastal terminals, small
procedures,
Region
and marine biota
accidents at sea
equipment and
personnel;
Inadequate training
Potential large
Destruction of
Rupture of oil
Insufficient tanker
Localized,
Severe
oil spills and
coastal and marine tanks in collision or safety
throughout the
disasters
habitats and biota, wreckage
specifications; Poor
Region
devastation of
navigation aids
beaches
Industrial Activities:
Surface and
Excessive
Use of industrial
Allocation of limited
Regional,
Moderate to
groundwater
exploitation for
technology often
surface and
especially in
severe
use
industrial use and
with inadequate
groundwater
coastal urban
cooling; re­
concern for water sources for industrial areas
allocation to
conservation and
use with limited
industrial uses;
excessive
regard for overall
draw ­down of
pumping of
usage needs and
limited
groundwater
inadequate pricing;
groundwater
resources
lack of incentives for
resources;
water conservation;
saltwater intrusion
poor regulation of
into coastal
water exploitation
aquifers
Industrial
Health risk,
Accidental spill
Inadequate
Localized,
Moderate to
chemical spills potential damage to during transport,
monitoring and
vicinity of
severe
marine life
storage or use of
control of hazardous chemical
chemicals
substances
industrial
installations
Cooling water
Increased
Release of high
Inadequate thermal
Localized in
Low
discharges
temperatures,
temperature
pollution control
the vicinity of
alteration of marine cooling waters
standards
power plants,
environment
from power plants,
industries and
industries and
desalinization
desalinization
plants
plants
Hypersaline
Increased salinity
Release of
Inadequate salinity
Localized, in
Low
water
near outfalls,
hypersaline water control standards
vicinity of
discharges
alteration of marine from desalination
seawater
environment
plants
desalination
plants

---

50 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Table 1. Threats to Coastal and Marine Environments and Resources
Issue
Symptoms /
Immediate
Root Causes
Scale
Severity
Impacts
Causes
Phosphate
Decreased coral
Release of
Inadequate pollution
Local
Low
dust emissions growth
phosphate dust
control standards,
during port
monitoring and
operations
enforcement
Industrial
Decline in water
Chronic release of Lack of regulations
Localized in
Currently
pollution
quality, marine life pollutants
and enforcement;
the vicinity of moderate
affected
Inadequate
industrial
technology
zones and at
individual
facilities
Pollution from
Consolidation of
Deposition of
Lack of controls and Localized
Severe
cement
beach sands;
cement dust
inadequate
factories
Altered coastal
technology
and marine
sediments;
Hampered turtle
nesting
Waste oil
Soil and
Improper disposal
Lack of proper oil
Localized,
Moderate to
disposal
groundwater
of used motor oil,
disposal or recovery throughout the severe
impacts
use of oil as dust
options; lack of
Region
suppressant
effective regulations
and enforcement
Urban and Tourism Development:
Surface and
Excessive
Use of water
Allocation of limited
Regional, in
Moderate to
groundwater
exploitation of
distribution and
surface and
municipal
severe
surface and
household
groundwater
areas
groundwater for
systems often
sources for
municipal use; re­
with inadequate
municipal use with
allocation of
concern for water inadequate regard
surface water to
conservation and
for conservation
municipal uses;
excessive
measures including
draw ­down of
pumping of
maintenance of
limited
groundwater
distribution systems
groundwater
resources
and household
resources;
plumbing; inadequate
saltwater intrusion
pricing of water; lack
into coastal
of incentives for
aquifers
water conservation
Urban land use Destruction of
Extensive
Inadequate
Regional
Moderate to
coastal areas and development of
development
severe
adjacent marine
coastal areas
planning and coastal
habitats
often with limited
zone management;
regard to
lack of coordination
availability of
between ministries;
water resources;
limited enforcement
inadequate
of regulations
infrastructure and
development in
areas with fragile
coastal ecology

---

Tables 51

Table 1. Threats to Coastal and Marine Environments and Resources
Issue
Symptoms /
Immediate
Root Causes
Scale
Severity
Impacts
Causes
Discharge of
Raised water
Lack of sewage
Inadequate pollution
Localized in
Severe
untreated or
table, groundwater treatment plants or control regulations,
the vicinity of
insufficiently
impacts,
lack of
monitoring and
coastal urban
treated
eutrophication and maintenance of
enforcement
areas and
sewage
alteration of marine existing sewage
large tourist
(municipal,
environment,
treatment plants
developments
hospital,
threats to public
slaughter
health
house)
Disposal of
Deterioration of
Improper garbage
Lack of adequate
Localized in
Moderate
solid waste
aesthetics,
disposal, beach
waste disposal
the vicinity of
alteration of
litter
regulations and
coastal urban
coastal habitats,
enforcement,
areas, coastal
physical damage to
inadequate public
villages,
coastal and marine
awareness
tourism
life; contamination
developments
of groundwater
and adjacent
from landfill
to major
shipping lanes
Tourism
Destruction of
Intense tourism
Limited use of
Regional; with Low to
development
coastal areas and development;
coastal zone
current
severe
adjacent marine
over­exploitation
planning and
problems in
habitats
of available water infrastructure
the Gulf of
resources; poor
planning; limited
Suez, Gulf of
infrastructure
awareness of
Aqaba and
linkages;
adverse tourism
northern Red
excessive use of
impacts; unregulated Sea; Problems
marine habitat;
tourism activities and are developing
landfilling
access
in the central
and southern
Red Sea
Degradation of Direct and indirect Inadequate
Lack of adequate
Regional,
Moderate to
Cultural
adverse impacts to evaluation of
recognition of the
especially in
severe
Heritage
archaeological,
potential impacts to importance of
coastal urban
historical and
cultural heritage in cultural heritage,
areas and
sacred sites;
the planning,
limited application of along
destruction of
design,
Antiquities Laws in
traditional
unique and non­
construction and
the cooperating
transportation
renewable cultural operation of
countries and poor
routes
heritage sites in
investments;
integration of these
coastal areas with Limited use of
concerns into the
serious pressure
chance find
planning process
on historic urban
procedures to
areas
address the
discovery of
unknown buried
artifacts during
construction
Special Concerns:

---

52 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Table 1. Threats to Coastal and Marine Environments and Resources
Issue
Symptoms /
Immediate
Root Causes
Scale
Severity
Impacts
Causes
Illegal disposal Threat to marine
Intentional disposal Lack of control
Southern Gulf Severe
of harmful
biota and human
of hazardous
mechanisms and
of Aden
substances
health
waste at sea
enforcement
Sedimentation
Depletion of
Overgrazing by
Inadequate
Central and
Low to
from
vegetation cover
livestock,
management of
southern Red moderate
agriculture and resulting in
especially sheep
coastal grazing
Sea and Gulf
grazing
mobilization of
and goats
areas; increased,
of Aden
formerly stabilized
unregulated access
sand sheets and
to imported feed
dunes; smothering
supplements; use of
of seagrass and
tankers for
corals
supplemental water
supplies
Discharge of
Detection of
Occasional runoff Lack of control and
Southern Red Low
pesticides and pesticides in
from agricultural
management of
Sea
fertilizers
sediments and
areas after
agrochemicals
biota, fish kills,
torrential floods;
eutrophication
dust storms
Coral die­off
Large areas of
Unknown
Unknown, but could
Southern Red Severe
dead coral reefs,
be natural and
Sea
decrease in coral­
related to unusual
associated
sea temperatures; no
organisms and
apparent human
fisheries
cause
Pollution from
Declining water
Mangrove
Lack of planning,
Localized
Moderate
shrimp and fish quality
destruction; use of regulations and
farming
chemicals and
enforcement
nutrients
Marine vessel
Localized marine
Direct discharge
Inadequate on­board Regional
Moderate to
sewage
and beach pollution from ships
treatment, lack of
severe
port reception
facilities
Ship discharge Solid waste on
Discharge of solid Inadequate disposal
Regional
Low to
of solid waste shoreline,
waste from ships
facilities; excessive
severe
mangroves,
fees for onshore
seagrass and
disposal; lack of
coral reefs;
awareness;
aesthetic impacts
inadequate
on recreation and
surveillance and
tourism; risks from
enforcement
ingestion to marine
animals

---

---

54 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Table 2. Transboundary Analysis ­ Thematic Issues on a Sub­Regional Basis
THEMATIC ISSUES
Gulf of Gulf of North and South Red Gulf of Socotra
Suez
Aqaba Central
Sea & Bab- Aden
Archipelago
Red Sea
al-Mandab
A. Management of Marine
**
***
***
**
***
***
Protected Areas (MPAs)
1. Establish a system of MPAs







2. Strengthen understanding and experience in principles of MPAs







3. Support stakeholder involvement in planning and implementation







4. Facilitate the mobilization of resources from international and domestic sources







B. Sustainable Use of Living ***
**
**
***
***
**
Marine Resources
1. Avoid and mitigate coastal impacts from current and proposed shrimp and fish farming







2. Improve regional data on transboundary stocks







3. Address regulation of exploitation of high profile species (including sharks & lobster)







3. Reduce threats to marine turtles, seabirds and marine mammals







4. Strengthen surveillance and enforcement mechanisms for existing fisheries







5. Support regional cooperation in management of shared stocks







C. Reduction of Navigation
***
***
**
***
**
*
Risks and Marine Pollu-
tion
1. Continuation of PERSGA Navigation Working Group







2. Implementation of International Conventions and adoption of Port State control measures







3. Development of improved traffic separation schemes and other routing systems in coordina-
tion with IMO







4. Development and implementation of Sub­Regional Vessel Traffic Systems for Gulf of Suez,
Gulf of Aqaba and Bab-al-Mandab







5. Establishment of a radio communications network to support Global Maritime Distress and
Safety Systems (GMDSS)







6. Upgrading of existing maritime navigation aids in Main Red Sea, Gulf of Aqaba and Bab-al-
Mandab








=not applicable

* =important

=requires action

** =very important

=requires priority action

*** =extremely important

---

Tables 55

Table 2. Transboundary Analysis ­ Thematic Issues on a Sub­Regional Basis
THEMATIC ISSUES
Gulf of Gulf of North and South Red Gulf of Socotra
Suez
Aqaba Central
Sea & Bab- Aden
Archipelago
Red Sea
al-Mandab
D. Emergency Management ***
**
**
***
**
*
1. Development and implementation of a Regional Oil Spill Contingency Plan







2. Development of a Sub­Regional System for Emergency Mutual Aid Centers







3. Expand system of Sub­Regional Marine Emergency Mutual Aid Centers by establishing the
planned center at Hurghada, in Egypt







4. Strengthen existing Sub­Regional Marine Emergency Aid Center in Djibouti







E. Environmental Education **
**
***
***
***
***
Public Awareness and
Participation
1. Support for training and public awareness in resource use







2. Increase awareness and priority within existing government structure







3. Increase expertise within countries for environmental education







4. Increase participation of community groups







5. Increase emphasis on environmental education and awareness in school curriculum







6. Increase financial resources for community groups concerned with the environment








=not applicable

* =important

=requires action

** =very important

=requires priority action

*** =extremely important

---

56 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden


Table 3. Transboundary Analysis ­ Thematic Issues by Country
THEMATIC ISSUES
PERSGA Egypt Jordan Saudi Sudan Yemen Djibouti Somalia
Arabia
A. Institutional Strengthen-
***
**
**
**
***
***
***
***
ing
1. Reinforce institutional capacity of PERSGA Secretariat









2. Strengthen environmental planning and management capacity









3. Introduce of new policies and legislation









4. Establishing and reinforcing better linkages between national and regional goals









5. Strengthen national legislation and administrative support for Integrated Coastal Zone Manage-
ment









B. Management of Marine
***
***
**
**
***
**
**
*
Protected Areas (MPAs)
1. Establish a system of MPAs.









2. Strengthen understanding and experience in principles of MPAs.









3. Support stakeholder involvement in planning and implementation









4. Facilitate the mobilization of resources from international and domestic sources









C. Sustainable Use of Liv-
***
**
**
**
**
**
**
***
ing Marine Resources
1. Avoid and mitigate coastal impacts from current and proposed shrimp and fish farming









2. Improve regional data on transboundary stocks









3. Address regulation of exploitation of high profile species (including sharks & lobster)









4. Reduce threats to marine turtles, seabirds and marine mammals









5. Strengthen surveillance and enforcement mechanisms for existing fisheries









6. Support regional cooperation in management of shared stocks









D. Reduction of Navigation ***
***
***
**
***
***
**
*
Risks and Marine Pollu-
tion
1. Continuation of PERSGA Navigation Working Group









2. Implementation of international Conventions and adoption of Port State Control measures









3. Development of improved Traffic Separation Schemes and other routing systems in coordination
with IMO









4. Development and implementation of Sub­Regional Vessel Traffic Systems for Gulf of Suez, Gulf of
Aqaba and Bab-al-Mandab

=not applicable

* =important

=requires action

** =very important

=requires priority action

*** =extremely important

---

Tables 57

Table 3. Transboundary Analysis ­ Thematic Issues by Country
THEMATIC ISSUES
PERSGA Egypt Jordan Saudi Sudan Yemen Djibouti Somalia
Arabia









5. Establishment of a radio communication network to support Global Maritime Distress and Safety
System (GMDSS)









6. Upgrading of existing maritime navigation aids in Main Red Sea, Gulf of Aqaba and Bab-al-Mandab









E. Emergency Management ***
***
**
**
**
***
**
*
1. Development and implementation of a Regional Oil Spill Contingency Plan









2. Development of a Sub­Regional System for Emergency Mutual Aid Centers









3. Expand system of Sub­Regional Marine Emergency Mutual Aid Centers by establishing the
planned center at Hurghada, in Egypt









4. Strengthen existing Sub­Regional Marine Emergency Aid Center in Djibouti









F. Environmental Education ***
**
**
***
***
***
***
***
Public Awareness and
Participation
1. Support for training and public awareness in resource use









2. Increase awareness and priority within existing government structure









3. Increase expertise within countries for environmental education









4. Increase participation of community groups









5. Increase emphasis on environmental education and awareness in existing school curriculum









6. Increase financial resources for community groups concerned with the environment









G. Monitoring and Indicator ***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
Evaluation
1. Establish Working Group









2. Establish Monitoring System









3. Prepare Annual Reports









4. Dissemination of Lessons Learned











=not applicable

* =important

=requires action

** =very important

=requires priority action

*** =extremely important

---

58 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Table 4. Transboundary Analysis ­ Common Concerns on a Sub­Regional Basis
COMMON CONCERNS
Gulf of Gulf of
North and South Red
Gulf
Socotra
Suez
Aqaba
Central
Sea & Bab-
of
Archipelago
Red Sea
al-Mandab
Aden
A. Habitat Destruction
***
***
***
***
*
*
1. Coastal development







2. Beach mining and quarrying







3. Mangrove destruction







4. Destruction of seagrass beds and other sub­tidal habitats







5. Physical damage to coral reefs







6. Damage to coral reefs by visitors







B. Living Marine Re-
***
***
**
***
***
**
sources
1. Current and potential overfishing of finfish for local and export markets







2. Capture of sharks for shark fin market, frequently in areas beyond territorial waters







3. Current and potential overfishing of shrimp and lobster for export markets







4. Current and potential overfishing of sea cucumber for export markets







5. Turtle capture and egg collection by local fishermen and communities; sale of shells to tourists
and for export







6. Collection of corals and mollusks for souvenir trade







7. Ornamental fish collection for export







8. Conservation of marine mammals (especially dugong)







9. Spearfishing







10. Shrimp and fish farming







C. Navigation Risks
***
***
**
***
*
*
1. Review current navigation charts, conduct hydrographic re­surveys and prepare updated
charts in vicinity of major ports







2. Expanded use of emergency anchors







3. Expanded use of harbor tugs








=not applicable

* =important

=requires action

** =very important

=requires priority action

*** =extremely important



n.a. =not applicable

---

Tables 59

Table 4. Transboundary Analysis ­ Common Concerns on a Sub­Regional Basis
COMMON CONCERNS
Gulf of Gulf of
North and South Red
Gulf
Socotra
Suez
Aqaba
Central
Sea & Bab-
of
Archipelago
Red Sea
al-Mandab
Aden
D. Emergency Manage-
**
**
**
**
*
*
ment
1. Update or prepare National and Local Oil Spill Contingency Plans







E. Oil and Gas Develop-
***
***
**
***
**
n.a.
ment
1. Use of environmental management practices in oil and gas development, including major
pipelines and marine terminals







F. Industrial Activities
***
***
**
**
*
n.a.
1. Surface and groundwater use







2. Industrial Pollution







G. Urban and Tourism De- ***
***
*
*
*
*
velopment
1. Surface and groundwater use







2. Disposal of solid waste







3. Tourism Development







H. Special Concerns
*
*
**
**
***
*
1. Illegal disposal of harmful substances







2. Sedimentation from agriculture and grazing







3. Discharge of pesticides and fertilizers









=not applicable

* =important

=requires action

** =very important

=requires priority action

*** =extremely important



n.a. =not applicable

---

60 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Table 5. Transboundary Analysis ­ Common Concerns by Country
COMMON CONCERNS
PERSGA Egypt Jordan Saudi Sudan Yemen Djibouti Somalia
Arabia
A. Habitat Destruction ***
***
**
**
***
**
***
*
1. Coastal development









2. Beach mining and quarrying









3. Mangrove destruction









4. Destruction of seagrass beds and other sub­tidal habitats









5. Physical damage to coral reefs









6. Damage to coral reefs by visitors









B. Living Marine Re-
***
**
*
**
**
***
**
**
sources
1. Current and potential overfishing of finfish for local and export markets









2. Capture of sharks for shark fin market, frequently in areas beyond territorial waters









3. Current and potential overfishing of shrimp and lobster for export markets









4. Current and potential overfishing of sea cucumber for export markets









5. Turtle capture and egg collection by local fishermen and communities; sale of shells to tourists
and for export









6. Collection of corals and mollusks for souvenir trade









7. Ornamental fish collection for export









8. Conservation of marine mammals (especially dugong)









9. Spearfishing









10. Shrimp and fish farming









C. Navigation Risks
**
***
**
**
**
**
**
*
1 .Review current navigation charts, conduct hydrographic re­surveys and prepare updated charts
in vicinity of major ports









2. Expanded use of emergency anchors









3. Expanded use of harbor tugs










=not applicable

* =important

=requires action

** =very important

=requires priority action

*** =extremely important

---

Tables 61

Table 5. Transboundary Analysis ­ Common Concerns by Country
COMMON CONCERNS
PERSGA Egypt Jordan Saudi Sudan Yemen Djibouti Somalia
Arabia
D. Emergency Man-
***
**
**
**
**
**
**
*
agement
1. Update or prepare National and Local Oil Spill Contingency Plans









E. Oil and Gas Devel-
**
***
*
***
*
***
*
*
opment
1. Use of environmental management practices in oil and gas development, including major
pipelines and marine terminals









F. Industrial Activities
*
***
***
***
**
**


1. Surface and groundwater use









2. Industrial pollution









G. Urban and Tourism ***
***
***
***
*
**
***
*
Development
1. Surface and groundwater use









2. Urban land use









3. Discharge of untreated or insufficiently treated sewage (municipal, hospital, slaughter house)









4. Disposal of solid waste









5. Tourism Development









H. Special Concerns
**


*
**
**

***
1. Illegal disposal of harmful substances









2. Sedimentation from agriculture and grazing









3. Discharge of pesticides and fertilizers












=not applicable

* =important

=requires action

** =very important

=requires priority action

*** =extremely important

---

---

Tables 63


Table 6. Priority Actions: REGIONAL
Environmenta
Priority Action
Scale
Emphasis
Urgency
l Issue
Long­term
High­level commitment by
Regional
Commitment
***
commitment
governments to achieve long­term
National
Public awareness
goal of conservation and sustainable Local
use of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
Public
Development and implementation of a Regional
Capacity building
***
awareness
regional programme for environmental National
Public awareness
awareness, including educational
Local
materials, media information, training
International
Ratification of MARPOL Convention
International International
***
agreements
Civil Liability Convention (CLC) 1969
Regional
framework
and 1992 Protocol
National
Preventive action
The Fund Convention 1971 and 1992
Protocol
Maritime
Adoption of Port State Control by
Regional
National framework for
***
transport
countries in the Region
National
maritime supervision
Preventive action
Environmental
Strengthened capacity of
Regional
Preventive action
***
management
governments to regularly use
National
Capacity building
environmental assessments in
Local
Planning studies
development decisions and project
implementation
Environmental
Strengthened regional capacity for
Regional
Preventive action
***
management
development and implementation of
National
Capacity building
coastal zone management
Local
Planning studies
programmes
Environmental
Preparation and dissemination of
Regional
Management
**
management
guidelines for standardization and
National
information
routine updating of Geographic
Capacity building
Information Systems data collection ,
Technical development
input and display to allow for a
compatible spatial data base
Habitat
Development of a regional programme Regional
Management
***
conservation
for the conservation of key bird
National
programme
habitats, turtle nesting sites and
Local
Capacity building
conservation of other ecosystems in
Enforcement
the coastal and marine zones
Habitat
Development of institutional capacity Regional
Management
***
conservation
and framework for a regional
National
programme
network of Marine Protected Areas
Capacity building
Living marine
Regional stock assessment of pelagic Regional
Management
***
resources
species and development of regional National
information
management programme
Management
programme
Living marine
Development and implementation of
Regional
Management
***
resources
management programme for shark
National
information
fisheries
Local
Management
programme
Living marine
Development and implementation of
Regional
Management
***
resources
management programme for turtles
National
information
Local
Management
programme
Living marine
Strengthened enforcement capacity
Regional
Management
***
resources
for fisheries regulations
National
programme
Local
Technical development
* =important
** =very important
*** =extremely important

---

64 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Table 6. Priority Actions: REGIONAL
Environmenta
Priority Action
Scale
Emphasis
Urgency
l Issue
Living marine
Development and implementation of
Regional
Management
**
resources
marine mammal management and
National
information
conservation programme
Local
Management
programme
Living marine
Development and implementation of
Regional
Management
**
resources
management programme for reef
National
information
fisheries
Local
Management
programme
Living marine
Development of a regional research
Regional
Management
*
resources
programme on coral reef
information
management, including coral die­off,
Capacity building
fisheries dynamics and environmental
monitoring, using indicator species
Living marine
Development of regulations and
National
Enforcement
*
resources
control mechanisms for the collection
Public awareness
of corals and shells for souvenir
trade
Living marine
Development of regulations and
Regional
Legislative framework/
*
resources
control mechanisms for collection of
National
Enforcement
and trade in ornamental fish
Public awareness
Navigation risk
Development of improved Traffic
Regional
Preventive action
***
Separation Schemes in coordination
Sub­
Capacity building
with IMO
Regional
Management
National
information
Navigation risk
Development and implementation of
Sub­
Preventive action
**
sub­regional vessel traffic systems
Regional
Capacity building
for Gulf of Suez, Gulf of Aqaba ,
National
Technical development
Bab-al-Mandab
Navigation risk
Review of current navigation charts, Regional
Capacity building
***
conduct hydrographic surveys and
Sub­
Technical development
prepare updated charts for key areas Regional
Management
along shipping routes and in vicinity
National
information
of major ports
Local
Navigation risk
Establishment of a radio
Regional
Preventive action
**
communication network to support
Sub­
Capacity building
GMDSS
Regional
Technical development
National
Management
Local
information
Navigation risk
Upgrading of existing marine
Regional,
Preventive action
**
navigation aids in main Red Sea, Gulf Sub­
Technical development
of Aqaba and Bab-al-Mandab
Regional
Management
National
information
Petroleum
Development and implementation of a Regional
Capacity building
***
development
regional oil spill contingency plan
Sub­
Technical development
and transport
Regional
National
Local
Petroleum
Expand system of Sub­Regional
Regional
Capacity building
***
development
Marine Emergency Mutual Aid
Sub­
Technical development
and transport
Centers by establishing the planned
Regional
Management
center at Hurghada, in Egypt,
National
information
strengthening the existing MEMAC in
Djibouti and upgrading national
capacities in emergency response
* =important
** =very important
*** =extremely important

---

Tables 65

Table 6. Priority Actions: REGIONAL
Environmenta
Priority Action
Scale
Emphasis
Urgency
l Issue
Urban and
Increased priority for management of Regional
Capacity building
***
industrial
surface and groundwater, through
National
Technical development
development
technical and non­technical
Local
Public awareness
interventions, to promote water
conservation and reuse of treated
wastewater
Urban and
Increased priority for management of Regional
Capacity building
**
industrial
solid waste, through technical and
National
Technical development
development
non­technical interventions, including Local
Public awareness
public awareness activities
Urban
Development and implementation of
Regional
Management
***
development
measures for conservation of the
National
information
rich cultural heritage of the coastal
Local
Management
zone, including archaeological,
programme
historical and sacred sites
Enforcement
Public awareness
Applied
Preparation and dissemination of
Regional
Basic scientific
**
research
species identification guides to living
National
information
coastal and marine resources of the
Capacity building
Region in a variety of languages
Management
information
Public awareness
Applied
Strengthening of environmental
Regional
Management
**
research
laboratory and monitoring capacity,
National
information
including standardization of sample
Capacity building
collection, testing and reporting
Technical development
procedures on a regional basis

* =important
** =very important
*** =extremely important

---

66 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden


Table 7. Priority Actions: DJIBOUTI
Environmental
Priority Action
Scale
Emphasis
Urgency
Issue
Legislation
Development of national maritime law National
Legal framework
**
and revision of related laws
Environmental
Strengthened enforcement of
National
Capacity building
***
management
legislation related to management of
Technical development
coastal and marine areas
Environmental
Development and implementation of
Local
Legal framework
***
management
management plan for Marine
Management information
Protected Areas (Parc Territorial de
Management programme
Musha, Réserve Intégrale de
Maskali­Sud)
Environmental
Feasibility study for conservation
National
Legal framework
**
management
and management of additional Marine Local
Management information
Protected Areas (including Iles des
Technical development
Sept Frères, Ras Bir, Mangrove de
Godoriya)
Environmental
Preparation and implementation of a
National
Legal framework
**
management
coastal zone management plan,
Capacity building
mangrove management plan and
Planning framework
coral reef management plan
Habitat
Rehabilitation of coral reefs from
National
Legal framework
***
conservation
damage by visitors
Local
Management information
Management programme
Public awareness
Habitat
Rehabilitation of mangroves from
National
Legal framework
**
conservation
damages caused by landfilling and
Local
Management information
camel grazing and identification of
Management programme
alternative sources of fuel
Tourism
Development of a framework and
National
Legal framework
***
management
programme for visitors to coral reef
Local
Management programme
areas, including guidelines for boats
Technical development
and moorings
Public awareness
Living marine
Development and implementation of
National
Management information
**
resources
fisheries production and marketing
Production programme
plan, based on results of recent
stock assessments
Living marine
Development and implementation of
National
Enforcement
**
resources
turtle protection and management
Local
Management information
programme
Management programme
Public awareness
Living marine
Stock assessment of reef fish
Local
Legal framework
*
resources
population, development and
Management information
implementation of management
Management programme
programme for collection of
ornamental fish
Community
Development and implementation of
National
Feasibility studies
***
development
poverty alleviation programmes in
Local
Technical assistance
fishing communities, including
Technical development
provision of basic fishing gear
Navigation risk
Review of current navigation charts, Regional
Capacity building
**
hydrographic re­surveys and
National
Technical development
preparation of updated charts for
Local
Management information
key areas along shipping routes and
in vicinity of key ports
* =important
** =very important
*** =extremely important

---

Tables 67

Table 7. Priority Actions: DJIBOUTI
Environmental
Priority Action
Scale
Emphasis
Urgency
Issue
Navigation risk
Improved navigational aids and radio
National
Capacity building
*
communication, especially along
Local
Technical development
major shipping lanes
Petroleum
Revision and implementation of oil
National
Capacity building
**
development and
spill contingency plan in the
Local
Technical development
transport
framework of the Marine Emergency
Mutual Aid Center (MEMAC) in
Djibouti
Industrial
Preparation of feasibility study and
Local
Feasibility study
**
development
development of port reception
Capacity building
facilities
Technical development
Urban
Upgrading of wastewater collection
Local
Feasibility studies
***
development
and treatment in coastal areas,
Capacity building
especially Djibouti town
Technical development
Urban
Upgrading of solid waste
Local
Feasibility studies
***
development
management and disposal in coastal
Capacity building
areas, especially in the vicinity of
Technical development
Djibouti town
Institutional
Establishment of a marine biology
National
Capacity building
***
strengthening
department and training of marine
Technical development
biologists and marine ecologists
Applied research
Development of data base for
National
Management information
***
biological resources and
environmental information;
establishment of a monitoring
programme to support operations
and enforcement activities
* =important
** =very important
*** =extremely important

---

68 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden


Table 8. Priority Actions: EGYPT
Environmental
Priority Action
Scale
Emphasis
Urgency
Issue
Legislation
Review and update existing
National
Legislative framework
***
regulations for the protection of
Local
natural resources

Legislation
Review and update existing
National
Legislative framework
***
pollution control regulations
Local

Institutional
Training programmes for
National
Capacity building
**
strengthening
strengthening institutional
Local
capacities of agencies involved in
management of Red Sea coastal
areas
Institutional
Establishment of water pollution
National
Management information
**
strengthening
monitoring units for Red Sea
Local
Capacity building
linked to the national level
Technical development
Environmental
Development of National Coastal
National
Legal framework
***
Management
Zone Management Plan for Red
Local
Management information
Sea coast, including the Gulfs of
Management programme
Aqaba and Suez

Environmental
Strengthened enforcement
National
Capacity building
***
management
capacity of Egyptian
Local
Environmental Affairs Agency
Habitat
Effective enforcement of Law
National;
Capacity building
***
conservation
4/94 for protected areas
Local
Enforcement
Living marine
Review and update of current
National
Legal framework
***
resources
fishery legislation
Local
Living marine
Establishment of a stock
Regional
Management information
**
resources
assessment data base
National
Capacity building
Living marine
Development and adoption of
National
Capacity building
**
resources
improved fishing techniques
Local
Technical development
Living marine
Establishment of Marine Protected Regional
Preventive action
***
resources
Areas at priority sites
National
Capacity building
Local
Technical development
Navigation risk
Development and implementation
Sub­
Preventive action
***
of sub­regional vessel traffic
Regional
Capacity building
systems for the Gulf of Aqaba
National
Technical development
and Gulf of Suez
Local
Navigation Risk
Establishment of a Regional
Regional
Preventive action
**
and Pollution
Emergency Aid Center in
Sub­
Capacity building
Control
Hurghada, with Egypt providing
Regional
Technical development
the land and infrastructure
National
Local
Navigation Risk
Provision of adequate reception
Sub­
Preventive action
***
and Pollution
facilities for oily wastes in
Regional
Capacity building
Control
Egyptian Red Sea ports
National
Technical development
consistent with MARPOL (1973­
Local
1978)
Petroleum
Development of an Oil Spill
National

**
development and Contingency Plan
Local
transportation

Petroleum
Preparation of guidelines for the
National
Technical development
**
development and use of dispersants for use in oil
Local

transportation
spills given the ecological
vulnerability of the Red Sea
* =important
** =very important
*** =extremely important

---

Tables 69

Table 8. Priority Actions: EGYPT
Environmental
Priority Action
Scale
Emphasis
Urgency
Issue
Urban and
Development of an evaluation of
National
Environmental information
**
industrial
point source pollution from urban
Local
Capacity building
development
and industrial sites
Urban
Development of a National Plan
National
Planning studies
***
development
for Solid Waste Management in
Local
Capacity building
coastal cities in the Red Sea
Technical development
Urban
Public awareness programme for
National
Feasibility studies
**
development
recycling of wastes in coastal
Local
Capacity building
areas

Technical development
Urban
Shoreline profiling programme
Local
Technical studies
**
development
and identification of "hot spots"
Urban
Evaluation and implementation of
Local
Management information

development
flood control measures to protect
Capacity building
coastal zone and marine
Technical development
environment
Urban
Establishment of flood prediction
Regional
Capacity building
**
development
and warning centers
Local
Technical development

Urban
Support for the expanded use of
Local
Capacity building
**
development
flood water in agriculture
Technical development


Environmental
Creation of an inventory of land
National
Management information
**
Information
resources of the coastal areas
Local
Capacity building
as an element of a National GIS
Technical development
Data Base


* =important
** =very important
*** =extremely important

---

70 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden


Table 9. Priority Actions: JORDAN
Environmenta
Priority Action
Scale
Emphasis
Urgenc
l Issue
y
Environmental
Recruitment and training of staff
National
Capacity building
***
management
to implement Gulf of Aqaba
Local
Management programme
environmental protection policies
and regulations
Environmental
Development of an improved
Local
Management information
*
management
computer and GIS database
Capacity building
capability for environmental
management of the Gulf of Aqaba
Habitat
Implementation of GEF Project­
National
Management programme
***
conservation
supported Advance Coastal Zone
Local
Enforcement
Management and Environmental
Assessment procedures
Habitat
Establishment and implementation
Regional
Legal framework
***
conservation
of a management plan and
National
Capacity building
regulations for a Gulf of Aqaba
Local
Management programme
Marine Park, including fisheries
Enforcement
management
Habitat
Recruitment and training of staff
Local
Capacity building
**
conservation
to implement regulations for new
Management programme
coastal development to reduce
Enforcement
physical threats to coral reef
ecosystems
Navigation risk
Improvement of navigational aids
Sub­
Capacity building
**
and radio communications in
Regional
Technical development
Jordanian waters, especially on
National
major shipping channels
Local
Maritime
Development and implementation
Local
Legal framework
***
transport
of pollution prevention for ship­
Capacity building
based sources, control standards
Enforcement
and regulations
Maritime
Development and implementation
Regional
Legal framework
***
transport
of a management programme to
National
Enforcement
control disposal of solid waste
Local
Public awareness
and litter from ships and ferry
boats
Maritime
Preparation of a feasibility study
Local
Feasibility study
***
transport
for bilge and ballast water
Technical development
reception facilities at the Port of
Aqaba and implementation of
priority recommendations
Petroleum
Preparation of a pre­feasibility
Regional
Management information
***
development
study on mechanisms to reduce
National
Management programme
and transport
the risk of catastrophic oil spills
Local

Industrial
Design and implementation of a
Regional
Demonstration activity
***
development
demonstration project for marine
Local
Technical development
waste oil recovery
Industrial
Adoption and implementation of
National
Strengthening standards
***
development
regulations, standards, coastal
Local
Enforcement
zone management and
environmental auditing procedures
for coastal industries
* =important
** =very important
*** =extremely important

---

Tables 71

Table 9. Priority Actions: JORDAN
Environmenta
Priority Action
Scale
Emphasis
Urgenc
l Issue
y
Industrial
Recruitment and training of staff
National
Capacity building
***
development
for implementation of industrial
Local
Strengthening standards
pollution prevention regulations
Enforcement
Industrial
Waste oil contamination monitoring Local
Management information
**
development
and demonstration project in
Technical development
waste oil recovery from land­
based sources
Industrial
Programme to monitor marine
Local
Information gathering
**
development
water quality for pollution from
industries
Industrial
Implementation of measures to
Local
Technical development
*
development
further reduce phosphate dust
emissions
Urban and
Cooperative actions to manage
Sub­
Regional cooperation
**
industrial
transboundary marine pollution in
Regional
Management programme
development
the upper Gulf of Aqaba
National
Technical development
Local
Urban
Development and implementation
Local
Technical development
***
development
of a plan for municipal
wastewater conservation and
reuse
Urban
Development and implementation
Regional
Management information
**
development
of a groundwater quality
Local
Management programme
management programme
Urban
Development and implementation
Local
Technical development
**
development
of a solid waste collection,
Regional cooperation
recycling and disposal plan
Applied
Strengthening of current
National
Capacity building
*
research
programme for development of
Local
Management information
data base for biological resources
and environmental information;
further strengthening and
expansion of programmes to
support operations and
enforcement activities


* =important
** =very important
*** =extremely important

---

72 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden


Table 10. Priority Actions: SAUDI ARABIA
Environmental
Priority Action
Scale
Emphasis
Urgency
Issue
Legislation
Enforcement of legislation related to
National
Capacity building
***
management of coastal and marine
Technical development
areas
Environmental
Final approval and effective
National
Legal framework
***
management
implementation of the coastal zone
Capacity building
management plan
Environmental
Implementation of management
National
Legal framework
***
management
programme for the Farasan Islands
Local
Management information
Marine Protected Area
Management programme
Environmental
Development and implementation of
National
Legal framework
***
management
management programme for Marine
Local
Management information
Protected Areas at Wejh Bank, sites
Management programme
in Straits of Tiran and other areas on
the Red Sea
Habitat
Rehabilitation of mangroves from
National
Management programme
**
conservation
damages caused by landfilling and
Local
Public awareness
camel grazing
Living marine
Stock assessment and management
National
Management information
***
resources
programme for finfish and shrimp
Management programme
with an evaluation of catch and
effort
Living marine
Measures to control intensive
National
Enforcement
**
resources
collection of fish and invertebrates
Local
Public awareness
on reef flats and spearfishing
Living marine
Development and implementation of a National
Legal framework
**
resources
conservation and management
Local
Management information
programme for breeding birds and
Management programme
nesting turtles on offshore islands
Living marine
Update of current fisheries
National
Management information
*
resources
management programme
Management programme
Production programme
Tourism
Enforcement and public awareness
National
Legal framework
**
management
activities for coral reef conservation, Local
Management programme
including control of overfishing,
Public awareness
trampling of corals, anchor damage,
littering and souvenir collection
Navigation risk
Review current navigation charts,
Regional
Capacity building
**
conduct hydrographic re­surveys
National
Technical development
and prepare updated charts for key
Local
Management information
areas along shipping routes and in
vicinity of key ports
Navigation risk
Improvement of navigational aids and National
Capacity building
**
radio communication in Saudi
Local
Technical development
waters, especially on major shipping
channels
Petroleum
Implementation of current Oil Spill
National
Capacity building
**
development and
Contingency Plan, including
Local
Technical development
transport
development of local response plans
Maritime transport Review of port reception facilities
Local
Technical review
**
and upgrade of measures as
Technical development
appropriate
* =important
** =very important
*** =extremely important

---

Tables 73

Table 10. Priority Actions: SAUDI ARABIA
Environmental
Priority Action
Scale
Emphasis
Urgency
Issue
Industrial
Improved management of air
National
Technical development
**
development
pollution, brine disposal and thermal
Local
discharges from desalination plants
at urban areas and industrial ports
Industrial
Improved control of emissions from
National
Technical development
*
development
cement plants in coastal areas,
Local
especially Ras Baridi
Urban
Effective control of dredging and
Local
Enforcement
***
development
filling for urban and industrial
Environmental planning
development, port construction and
Monitoring
maintenance dredging of navigation
Public awareness
channels
Urban
Upgrading of wastewater collection
Local
Feasibility studies
***
development
and treatment in coastal areas,
Capacity building
especially Jeddah
Technical development
Urban
Development and implementation of a Local
Management programme
***
development
special programme for the
Technical development
management and reduction of
elevated groundwater tables in the
Jeddah urban area
Urban
Strengthening of environmental
Local
Environmental planning
**
development
planning and management of urban
development in the Jeddah Region
Applied research
Strengthening of current programme
National
Capacity building
*
for development of database for
Management information
biological resources and

environmental information, and
further strengthening and expansion
of monitoring programmes to support
operations and enforcement
activities
Environmental
Expand activities of Saudi Public
National
Public awareness
***
Education
Awareness Programme implemented Local
Environmental education
by public and private sector parties


* =important
** =very important
*** =extremely important

---

74 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden


Table 11. Priority Actions: GULF OF ADEN COAST OF SOMALIA
Environmental
Priority Action
Scale
Emphasis
Urgency
Issue
Special issue
Introduction of control
Gulf of
Enforcement
***
measures against illegal
Aden
dumping of hazardous waste
Coast
by foreign vessels
Environmental
Establishment of a joint
Gulf of
Capacity building
**
management
Coastal and Marine
Aden
Technical assistance
Environment Commission
Coast
Technical development
Environmental
Preparation and
Gulf of
Legal framework
**
management
implementation of a coastal
Aden
Capacity building
zone management plan
Coast
Planning framework
Environmental
Feasibility study for
Gulf of
Legal framework
*
management
establishment of Marine
Aden
Management information
Protected Areas
Coast
Management programme
Environmental
Development and
Gulf of
Capacity building
**
management
implementation of
Aden
Management information
conservation and
Coast
Management programme
management plans for Mait
Island and Saadadin Island
Habitat
Development of a mangrove
Gulf of
Management programme
*
conservation
conservation programme and
Aden
identification of alternative
Coast
sources of fuel
Living marine
Introduction of measures
Gulf of
Enforcement
***
resources
against illegal fishing activities Aden
by foreign vessels
Coast
Local
Living marine
Stock assessment for shark
Gulf of
Management information
***
resources
fishery
Aden
Management programme
Coast
Living marine
Stock assessment for finfish
Gulf of
Management information
***
resources
and lobster fisheries
Aden
Management programme
Coast
Living marine
Development of a
Gulf of
Technical study
***
resources
management programme for
Aden
Management information
fisheries, including marketing
Coast
Management programme
Production programme
Community
Development and
Gulf of
Feasibility studies
***
development
implementation of poverty
Aden
Technical assistance
alleviation programmes in
Coast
Technical development
fishing communities, including
provision of basic fishing gear
Navigation risk
Review current navigation
Gulf of
Capacity building
*
charts, conduct hydrographic Aden
Technical development
re­surveys and prepare
Coast
Management information
updated charts for key areas
Local
along shipping routes and in
vicinity of key ports
Navigation risk
Improvement of navigational
Gulf of
Capacity building
*
aids and radio
Aden
Technical development
communications in northern
Coast
Somali waters, especially on
Local
major shipping channels
* =important
** =very important
*** =extremely important

---

Tables 75

Table 11. Priority Actions: GULF OF ADEN COAST OF SOMALIA
Environmental
Priority Action
Scale
Emphasis
Urgency
Issue
Petroleum
Development and
Gulf of
Capacity building
**
development and
implementation of oil spill
Aden
Technical development
transport
contingency plan, in the
Coast
framework of the Marine
Local
Emergency Mutual Aide
Center (MEMAC) in Djibouti
Industrial
Preparation of feasibility study Local
Feasibility study
*
development
and development of port
Capacity building
reception facilities for Berbera
Technical development
port, in the medium term
Urban
Development of wastewater
Local
Feasibility study
*
development
collection and treatment
Capacity building
facilities in Berbera and
Technical development
Boosaaso, in the medium term
Applied research
Establishment of database for Gulf of
Capacity building
**
biological resources and
Aden
Management information
environmental information;
Coast

preparation of a programme
for environmental monitoring
Applied research
Development of a proposed
Gulf of
Legal framework
*
sub­regional maritime law and Aden
Capacity building
proposed revision of
Coast
legislation for application in
the Gulf of Aden Coast
management area
Note: Information provided in this table covers proposed priority activities on the Gulf of Aden Coast of
Somalia which is included as a portion of the PERSGA Region.
* =important
** =very important
*** =extremely important

---

76 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden


Table 12. Priority Actions: SUDAN
Environmental
Priority Action
Scale
Emphasis
Urgency
Issue
Legislation
Strengthened enforcement of
National
Capacity building
***
legislation related to management of
Technical development
coastal and marine areas
Legislation
Issuance of National Maritime Law
National
Legislative framework
**
and revision of related laws
Environmental
Declaration of all mangrove stands
National
Legal framework
***
management
as Reserved Forest, development
Local
Management information
and implementation of a
Management programme
management programme
Environmental
Preparation and implementation of a National
Legal framework
**
management
coastal zone management plan
Capacity building
Planning framework
Environmental
Development of management
National
Legal framework
**
management
programme for Marine Protected
Local
Management information
Areas (including Sanganab Marine
Technical development
National Park and proposed
protected areas at Shaub Rumi,
Meshairifa, Magarsum and some
islands in Suakin Archipelago)
Tourism
Development of a framework and
National
Legal framework
***
management
programme for visitors to coral reef Local
Management programme
areas, including guidelines for
Technical development
boats and moorings
Public awareness
Living marine
Stock assessment and
National
Management information
***
resources
management programme for finfish,
Management programme
shellfish and sea cucumber,
including Trochus, Strombus and
Najil (Plectromus)
Living marine
Development of a fisheries
National
Technical study
*
resources
management plan, including
Management information
marketing
Management programme
Production programme
Community
Development and implementation of National
Feasibility studies
**
development
poverty alleviation programmes in
Local
Technical assistance
fishing communities, including
Technical development
provision of basic fishing gear
Navigation risk
Review current navigation charts,
Regional
Capacity building
***
conduct hydrographic re­surveys
National
Technical development
and prepare updated charts for key Local
Management information
areas along shipping routes and in
vicinity of key ports
Navigation risk
Improved navigational aids and
National
Capacity building
***
radio communication in Sudanese
Local
Technical development
waters, especially along major
shipping lanes
Petroleum
Development and implementation of National
Capacity building
***
transport
oil spill contingency plan
Local
Technical development
Industrial
Preparation of feasibility study and
Local
Feasibility study
***
development
development of port reception
Capacity building
facilities
Technical development
Industrial
Establishment of framework for
National
Environmental studies
***
development
development and operation of the
Local
Capacity building
Free Zone in an environmentally
Technical development
sound manner
* =important
** =very important
*** =extremely important

---

Tables 77

Table 12. Priority Actions: SUDAN
Environmental
Priority Action
Scale
Emphasis
Urgency
Issue
Urban
Upgrading of wastewater
Local
Feasibility study
**
development
collection and treatment in coastal
Capacity building
areas, especially Port Sudan
Technical development
Urban
Upgrading of solid waste
Local
Feasibility study
**
development
management and disposal in
Capacity building
coastal areas, especially Port
Technical development
Sudan
Applied
Development of database for
National
Management information
***
research
biological resources and

environmental information and
establishment of a monitoring
programme to support operations
and enforcement activities


* =important
** =very important
*** =extremely important

---

78 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden


Table 13. Priority Actions: YEMEN
Environmenta
Priority Action
Scale
Emphasis
Urgency
l Issue
Legislation
Development of rules and human
National
Legislative framework
***
resources to implement the Maritime
Law and the Law for Protection of
the Marine Environment from Pollution
Legislation
Finalization and implementation of
National
Legislative framework
***
environmental assessment
procedures and guidelines
Legislation
Development and implementation of a National
Legislative framework
**
protected area law
Local
Institutional
Strengthening the institutional
National
Capacity building
***
strengthening
capability of the Environment
Local
Management information
Protection Council to coordinate and
Enforcement
monitor activities affecting the marine
environment
Institutional
Strengthening the Public Corporation
National
Capacity building
***
strengthening
for Maritime Affairs to enable it to
Local
Management information
protect the marine environment from
Enforcement
pollution and promote the safety of
shipping, including Port and Flag
State duties
Institutional
Strengthening institutional capacity
National
Capacity building
***
strengthening
for enforcement of environmental
Enforcement
and fisheries regulations
Environmental
Development and implementation of a National
Legal framework
***
management
mangrove management programme
Local
Management information
involving protected mangrove
Management programme
reserves, regulatory mechanisms
and identification of alternative
sources of fuel
Environmental
Development and implementation of a National
Legal framework
***
management
master plan for conservation and
Local
Management information
sustainable development of Socotra
Management programme
Archipelago
Technical development
Environmental
Preparation and implementation of a
National
Management information
***
management
coastal zone management plan
Management programme
Capacity building
Environmental
Strengthening the capacity of GTA,
National
Management programme
**
management
GIA and the Free Zone Authority for
Local
Capacity building
environmental management
Environmental
Development and establishment of a
National
Legal framework
**
management
system of representative Marine
Local
Management information
Protected Areas with effectively
Management programme
implemented management plans
Habitat
Design and conduct of inventory
National
Management information
**
conservation
surveys, habitat mapping and
Local
Capacity building
sensitivity analyses of the entire
coastline, including distribution of
rare and endangered species
Living marine
Development and implementation of a National
Management information
***
resources
turtle conservation programme,
Local
Management programme
involving protection of nesting sites,
Public awareness
monitoring of nesting turtles and
Enforcement
public awareness
* =important
** =very important
*** =extremely important

---

Tables 79

Table 13. Priority Actions: YEMEN
Environmenta
Priority Action
Scale
Emphasis
Urgency
l Issue
Living marine
Stock assessment and management
National
Management information
***
resources
programme for finfish (including
Management programme
cuttlefish and sharks), shellfish and
Public awareness
sea cucumbers
Navigation risk
Improve navigational aids and radio
National
Capacity building
***
communication in Yemeni waters,
Technical development
especially along major shipping lanes
Navigation risk
Review current navigation charts,
Regional
Capacity building
***
conduct hydrographic re­surveys
National
Technical development
and prepare updated charts for key
Local
Management information
areas along shipping routes and in
vicinity of key ports
Petroleum
Development and implementation of
National
Capacity building
***
development
oil spill contingency plan, in the
Local
Technical development
and transport
framework of the Marine Emergency
Mutual Aid Center (MEMAC) in
Djibouti
Industrial
Establishment of framework for
National
Environmental studies
***
development
development and operation of the
Local
Capacity building
Aden Free Zone in an
Technical development
environmentally sound manner
Industrial
Development and implementation of a National
Technical studies
**
development
port reception facilities plan
Local
Capacity building
Technical development
Urban
Upgrading of wastewater collection
Local
Feasibility studies
**
development
and treatment in coastal areas,
Capacity building
including Aden, Hudaydah, and
Technical development
Mukallah
Urban
Upgrading of solid waste
Local
Feasibility studies
**
development
management and disposal in coastal
Capacity building
areas, including Aden, Hudaydah,
Technical development
and Mukallah
Applied
Development of database for
National
Management information
***
research
biological resources and

environmental information and
establishment of a monitoring
programme to support operations
and enforcement activities
Applied
Development of training programmes National
Management information
**
research
for marine resource surveys,
Capacity building
monitoring and management, and

geographic information systems
applications
Applied
Design and implementation of
Local
Management information
*
research
programme to evaluate potential
Management programme
impacts from agricultural chemicals

on the Tihama coastal zone
Public
Promote the broad­based
National
Public awareness
*
participation
participation of nongovernmental
Local
organizations

* =important
** =very important
*** =extremely important

---

---

Appendix A
PERSGA Secretariat, Task Force Members and
Drafting Group Members
PERSGA Secretariat
Task Force Members
Dr. Nizar I. Tawfiq
DJIBOUTI
Secretary General, PERSGA, and Chair-
Mr. Mohammed Ali Mumen
man of the Task Force
Deputy Director of Soil Improvement and
PO Box 1358
Environment
Jeddah 21431
PO Box 2344
Saudi Arabia
Djibouti
Tel/fax: 966 2 651 9868
Tel: 253 351 559, 253 352 801
Dr. William Gladstone
Fax: 253 351 812
Chief Technical Adviser and Coordinator,
Mr. Ahmed Osman Omar
PERSGA
Director of Maritime Affairs
PO Box 1358
Ministry of Transport and Telecommunica-
Jeddah 21431
tions
Saudi Arabia
PO Box 59
Tel: 966 2 651 4472
Djibouti
Fax: 966 2 651 9868
Tel: 253 353 475
Dr. Dirar Nasr
Fax: 253 351 538
Assistant Coordinator, PERSGA
EGYPT
PO Box 1358
Jeddah 21431
Dr. Mohamad Fawzi
Saudi Arabia
Head, Environmental Management Sector
Tel: 966 2 651 4472
Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency
Fax: 966 2 651 9868
30 Misr­Helwan Agricultural Road
Back of Maadi Sovotel
Cairo
Egypt
Tel: 202 3750874, 3753441, 3757306
Fax: 202 3784285
81

---

82 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

ISLAMIC DEVELOPMENT BANK
SUDAN
Mr. Ahmed Salih Hariri
Professor Yousif B. Abu Gideiri
Operations Officer
Director
Operations and Projects Department
Institute of Environmental Studies
PO Box 5925
University of Khartoum
Jeddah 21432
PO Box 321
Saudi Arabia
Khartoum
Tel: 966 2 636 1400/6620
Sudan
Fax: 966 2 636 6871
Tel: 249 11 80993
JORDAN
Fax. 249 11 773807
Telex: 22738KUP / 22113GAMA SD
Dr. Salih A. Al­Shara
Director General
YEMEN
General Corporation for the Protection of
Dr. Hussein Al Gunied
the Environment
Secretary General
PO Box 35206
Environmental Protection Council
Amman
PO Box 19719
Jordan
Sana'a
Tel: 962 6 673 149
Yemen
Fax: 962 6 695 627
Tel: 967 1 264 072
Eng. Ahmed Khattab
Fax: 967 1 264 062
Head, Water and Marine Environment
UNDP
General Corporation for the Protection of
Ms. Catherine Cheung
the Environment
International Waters and Biodiversity Spe-
PO Box 540841
cialist
Amman
RBAS/UNDP
Jordan
One United Nations Plaza
Tel: 962 6 672 131
New York, NY 10017
Fax:
962 6 695 627
USA
SAUDI ARABIA
Tel: 1 212 906 5456
Mr. Abdulwahab Dakkak
Fax: 1 212 906 5487
Director General of Natural Resources

Meteorology and Environmental Protection
Dr. Friedhelm Krupp
Administration
Chief Technical Consultant, SAP
PO Box 1358
Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg
Jeddah 21431
Senckenberganlage 25
Saudi Arabia
60235 Frankfurt a.M.
Tel: 966 2 651 7832
Germany
Fax: 966 2 651 7832
Tel: 49 69 754 2255
Fax: 49 69 754 2253
E­mail: fkrupp@sng.uni­frankfurt.de

---

Appendices 83
UNEP
Dr. Abdul Majeid Haddad
Mr. Halifa Drammeh
Sustainable Development Advisor UNDP
Senior Programme Officer
PO Box 551
Water Branch, UNEP
Sana'a
PO Box 47074
Republic of Yemen
Nairobi
Tel: 967 1 415505
Kenya
Fax: 967 1 412541
Tel: 254 2 624 278
E­mail: undp 017
Fax: 254 2 624 249
Dr. Khaled I. Hariri
E­mail: Halifa.Drammeh@unep.org
Fisheries Specialist
WORLD BANK
PO Box 234
Crater, Aden
Dr. Stephen F. Lintner
Yemen
Principal Environmental Specialist
Tel: 967 2 253 595 or 231 042
Environment Department
World Bank
Dr. Sherif E. Ramadan
1818 H Street, NW
National Institute of Oceanography and
Washington, DC 20433
Fisheries
USA
Kayet Bey
Tel: 1 202 473 2508
Alexandria
Fax: 1 202 522 0367
Egypt
E­mail: slintner@worldbank.org
Tel: 203 4807138, 4807140
Fax: 203 4801174, 4801189
Drafting Group
Captain Saeed A.H. Yafai
Mr. Roger Aertgeerts
Chairman
Senior Portfolio Manager
Public Corporation for Maritime Affairs
UNOPS
PO Box 19395
220 East 42nd Street, 15th Floor
Sana'a
New York, New York 10017
Yemen
USA
Tel: 967 1 414412, 419914
Tel: 1 212 906 6544
Fax: 967 1 414645
Fax: 212 906 6903
Telex: 4025 BIMAR
E­mail: rogera@unops.org
Report Preparation
Dr. Ali I. Beltagy
National Institute of Oceanography and
This document was prepared for publica-
Fisheries
tion at the World Bank by Katherin
Kayet Bey
Golitzen and Anthony J. Hooten. Support
Alexandria
was also provided by Jennifer Bossard,
Egypt
Marea E. Hatziolos, and Jeffrey N.
Tel: 203 480 1189
Lecksell.
Fax: 203 480 1189

---

Appendix B
Key Activities in the Preparation Process
A. Meetings of the PERSGA Coun-
C. Country Report Consultation
cil
Workshops (PERSGA/GEF)
1. First PERSGA Council Meeting
1. Djibouti Country Report

September 1995

December 1996

Cairo, Egypt

Djibouti City, Djibouti
2. Second PERSGA Council Meet-
2. Egypt Country Report
ing

May 1997

October 1996

Cairo, Egypt

Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
3. Jordan Country Report
3. Third PERSGA Council Meeting

July 1996

Planned for November 1998

Aqaba, Jordan
B. Meetings of the PERSGA Task
4. Sudan Country Report
Force

November 1996
1. First Task Force Meeting

Port Sudan

October 1995
5. Yemen Country Report

Jeddah, Saudi Arabia

December 1996
2. Second Task Force Meeting

Sana'a, Yemen

April 1996
D. Regional Navigation Risk As-

Amman, Jordan
sessment and Management Plan
3. Third Task Force Meeting
Meetings (PERSGA/World Bank)

January 1997
1. First Meeting of Expert Group

Sana'a, Yemen

November 1996
4. Fourth Task Force Meeting

Aden, Yemen

May 1997
2. Second Meeting of Expert Group

Jeddah, Saudi Arabia

April 1997

Ismailia, Egypt
84

---

Appendices 85
E. Regional Study on Status of the
H. Meetings of the PERSGA SAP
Living Marine Resources in the
Drafting Group
Red Sea and Gulf of Aden and
1. First Meeting of the Drafting
Their Management
Group
(PERSGA/GEF)
September 1996
1. Meeting of Expert Group
Jeddah, Saudi Arabia

May 1997
2. Second Meeting of the Drafting

Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
Group
F. Special Meetings and Regional
January 1997
Training Programmes
Sana'a, Yemen
1. Sea to Sea Conference
3. Third Meeting of the Drafting
(PERSGA/ROPME/ACOPS/
Group
UNEP)
May 1997
October 1995
Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
2. Coastal Zone Management
(World Bank/EDI)
October 1995
Aqaba, Jordan
3. Environmental Assessment
(PERSGA/GEF)
January 1996
Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
4. Marine Protected Areas Man-
agement (PERSGA/GEF)
June 1996
Ras Mohammed National Park,
Egypt
5. Marine Surveys and Monitoring
(PERSGA/GEF)
Planned for 1997
Al Hudaydah, Yemen
G. Field Surveys (PERSGA/GEF)
1. Northern Coast of Somalia Field
Survey
March­April 1996
2. Sudan Field Survey

June 1996
3. Djibouti Field Survey

June­July 1996
4. Yemen Field Survey

July­August 1996

---

Appendix C
Selected Studies and Background Documents
A. SAP Country Reports
B. SAP Technical Reports
Arab Republic of Egypt. 1997. Country
Det Norske Veritas (DNV). 1997. Navi-
Report. Prepared for PERSGA with
gation Risk Assessment and Manage-
support of GEF.
ment Plan for the Red Sea and Gulf of
Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. 1997.
Aden. Prepared for PERSGA and the
Country Report. Prepared for PERSGA
World Bank with support from the Gov-
and the World Bank with support of
ernment of Norway.
GEF.
Elder, D. 1997. Analysis of Regional Ma-
Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. 1997. Country
rine and Ground Water Problems and
Report. Prepared for PERSGA with
Ongoing Projects Addressing Re-
support of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
gional Environmental Concerns. Pre-
pared for PERSGA and UNEP with
Republic of Sudan. 1997. Country Report.
support from GEF.
Prepared for PERSGA and UNDP with
support of GEF.
Krupp, F. and K.I. Hariri (eds.) 1998. Re-
gional Study on the Status of the Liv-
Republic of Djibouti. 1997. Country Re-
ing Marine Resources in the Red Sea
port. Prepared for PERSGA and UNDP
and Gulf of Aden and Their Manage-
with support of GEF.
ment. Prepared for PERSGA and
Gulf of Aden Coast of Somalia. 1997.
UNDP with support of GEF.
Country Report. Prepared for PERSGA
Rogge Marine Consulting. 1995. Maritime
and UNDP with support of GEF.
Traffic and Marine Pollution in the
Republic of Yemen. 1997. Country Re-
Red Sea. Prepared for the World Bank.
port. Prepared for PERSGA and UNDP
C. Background Documents
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Edwards, A.J., S.M. Head. (eds.). 1987.
ronmental Programmes: Potential Ap-
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Evans, M.L. 1994. Important Bird Areas
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tion Series No. 2. Bird Life Interna-
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tional.
Lundin, C.G. and J. Post. (eds.). 1996.
IOC, PERSGA, UNEP, ACOPS, IUCN.
Guidelines for Integrated Coastal
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Environmentally Sustainable Develop-
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No. 9.
Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority,
MacAlister, Elliott and Partners, 1996. So-
World Bank, International Union for the
cotra Coastal and Marine Habitat
Conservation of Nature. 1995. A Global
Survey, Biodiversity Conservation and
Representative System of Marine Pro-
Sustainable Development Programme.
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Mission Report. MacAlister, Elliott and
dian Ocean, Arabian Seas, East Af-
Partners, Ltd. Lymington, United King-
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Hatziolos, M.E., A.J. Hooten and M. Fodor
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Action for Sustainable Utilization of

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---

---

Appendix D
Status of International Agreements

International Maritime Organization (IMO) Conventions related to the Marine Environment (as
of June 1998)

Egypt
Jordan
Saudi
Sudan
Yeme
Djibouti
Soma-
Arabia
n
lia
IMO Convention 48
ü
ü
ü
ü
ü
ü
ü
IMO amendments 91
ü






IMO amendments 93
ü

ü




SOLAS Convention 74
ü
ü
ü
ü
ü
ü

SOLAS Protocol 78
ü

ü




SOLAS Protocol 88
ü






Stockholm Agreement 96







LOAD LINES Convention 66
ü

ü
ü
ü
ü
ü
LOAD LINES Protocol 88
ü






TONNAGE Convention 69

ü
ü

ü


COLREG Convention 72
ü

ü

ü
ü

CSC Convention 72


ü

ü


CSC amendments 93







SFV Protocol 93







STCW Convention 78
ü

ü
ü



STCW­F Convention 95







SAR Convention 79







STP Agreement 71
ü

ü

ü


STP Protocol 73
ü

ü

ü


INMARSAT Convention 76
ü

ü




INMARSAT amendments 94


ü




INMARSAT OA 76
ü

ü




INMARSAT OA amendments 94


ü




FACILITATION Convention 65
ü
ü


ü


MARPOL 73/78 Annex I/II)
ü




ü

MARPOL 7378 (Annex III)
ü






MARPOL 73/78 (Annex IV)
ü






MARPOL 73/78 (Annex V)
ü






MARPOL Protocol 97 (Annex VI)







LC Convention 72
ü
ü





LC Protocol 96







Intervention Convention 69
ü



ü
ü

Intervention Protocol 73
ü



ü


90

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Appendices 91
International Maritime Organization (IMO) Conventions related to the Marine Environment (as
of June 1998)

Egypt
Jordan
Saudi
Sudan
Yeme
Djibouti
Soma-
Arabia
n
lia
CLC Convention 69
ü

ü

ü
ü

CLC Protocol 76
ü

ü

ü


CLC Protocol 92
ü






Fund Convention 71





ü

Fund Protocol 76







Fund Protocol 92







NUCLEAR Convention 71




ü


PAL Convention 74
ü
ü


ü


PAL Protocol 76




ü


PAL Protocol 90
ü






LLMC Convention 76
ü



ü


LLMC Protocol 96







SUA Convention 88
ü






SUA Protocol 88
ü






SALVAGE Convention 89
ü
ü
ü




OPRC Convention 90
ü




ü

HNS Convention 96








IMO Convention
International Convention to establish the International Maritime Organization
SOLAS Convention
International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea
Stockholm Agreement
United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm 1972
LOAD LINES Convention
International Convention on Load Lines
TONNAGE Convention
International Convention on Tonnage Measurement of Ships
COLREG Convention
International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea
CSC Convention
International Convention for Safe Containers
SFV Protocol
The Torremolinos International Convention for the Safety of Fishing Vessels
STCW Convention
International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeep-
ing for Seafarers
STCW­F Convention
International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeep-
ing for Fishing Vessel Personnel
SAR Convention
International Convention on Maritime Search and Rescue
STP Agreement
Special Trade Passenger Ships Agreement
INMARSAT Convention
Convention on the International Maritime Satellite Organization
FACILITATION Convention
Convention on Facilitation of International Maritime Traffic
MARPOL 73/78
International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973, as
modified by the Protocol of 1978 relating thereto
LC Convention
Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and
Other Matter
Intervention Convention
International Convention Relating to Intervention on the High Seas in Cases of
Oil Pollution Casualties
Intervention Protocol
Protocol related to Intervention on the High Seas in cases of Pollution by Sub-
stances other than Oil, 1973, as amended.
CLC Convention
International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage
Fund Convention
International Convention on the Establishment of an International Fund for Com-
pensation for Oil Pollution Damage
NUCLEAR Convention
Convention relating to Civil Liability in the Field of Maritime Carriage of Nuclear
Materials
PAL Convention
Athens Convention relating to the Carriage of Passengers and their Luggage by
Sea
LLMC Convention
Convention on Limitation of Liability for Maritime Claims
SUA Convention
Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of Mari-
time Navigation
SALVAGE Convention
International Convention on Salvage
OPRC Convention
International Convention on Oill Pollution Preparedness, Response and Co-
operation

---

92 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

HNS Convention
International Convention on Liability and Compensation for Damage in connec-
tion with the Carriage of Hazardous and Noxious Substances by Sea

---

Appendix E
National Economic and Social Indicators

Egypt
Jordan
Saudi
Sudan
Yemen
Djibouti Somalia
Arabia
Area (million km2)
1.01
0.09
2.25
2.51
0.53
0.02
0.64
Estimated length of
Red Sea/Gulf of Aden
1,800
26
1,840
853
2,200
370
1,300b
Coastline (kms)a
Total population (mil-
lions)
65.9
4.9
19.4
28.0
13.2
0.6
9.2
Population in coastal
urban areas on Red
Sea and Gulf of Aden
0.62
0.06
2.50
.70
1.20
0.50
0.27
(millions)c
Projected population
growth rate
2.0
3.8
3.1
2.7
3.7
2.1
2.7
(1993­2000)
Urban population
growth rate
2.6
4.7
3.6
4.6
6.6
7.6
4.3
GDP per capita
3,847
4,187
9,338
1,084
805
1,270
712*
Literacy rate
50.5
85.5
61.8
44.8
41.1
45
24.9*
HDI
.614
.73
.77
.33
.33
.31
.22*
HDI rank
109
84
73
158
148
162
172*
Sources:
Except where noted below, Human Development Report 1997, UNDP; World Re-
sources 1994­1995 and 1996­1997, World Resources Institute, and the World De-
velopment Indicators 1998, World Bank.

a
Source: Country Reports prepared for the Strategic Action Programme for the Red
Sea and Gulf of Aden.

b
This is for the North Coast of Somalia, which is included under the Jeddah Conven-
tion as part of the PERSGA area.

c
Source: Country Reports prepared for the Strategic Action Programme for the Red
Sea and Gulf of Aden.
* = 1994 data (more recent data unavailable).
HDI = Human Development Index.
93

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