PERSGA
Newsletter of the Regional Organization for the Conservation of
the Environment of the Red Sea & Gulf of Aden
AL-SANBOUK
ISSUE 12
SEPTEMBER 2000
THIS ISSUE: CORAL REEFS
Al-Sanbouk is the name given to wooden vessels powered by sail and engine
that have taken goods to and from most ports in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
for hundreds of years.
PERSGA
The Regional Organization for the Conservation of the Environment of the Red
Sea and Gulf of Aden - PERSGA - is an intergovernmental organisation
dedicated to the conservation of the coastal and marine environments in the
region. Its legal basis stems from the Regional Convention for the Conservation
of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Environment known as the Jeddah Convention
and signed in 1982. The PERSGA member countries include Djibouti, Egypt,
Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Sudan, and Yemen. The headquarters are based
in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.
PERSGA is currently executing the Strategic Action Programme (SAP) for the
Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. This project is funded by the World Bank, United
Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP), the Islamic Development Bank (IDB) and other donor
organisations. The SAP was prepared following an extensive analysis of regional
environmental issues and has been endorsed by the PERSGA Council of
Ministers. The SAP provides a cooperatively developed framework for the long-
term conservation and management of the coastal and marine resources of the
Region. A programme of activities is being carried out through seven
complementary components: institutional strengthening, reduction of
navigation risks and marine pollution, sustainable use of living marine
resources, conservation of habitats and biodiversity, the establishment of a
network of marine protected areas, support for integrated coastal zone
management, and the enhancement of public awareness and participation.
Al-Sanbouk is
Under the Patronage of
PERSGA Secretary General,
Dr. Nizar Tawfiq
Editors
Dr. Mohammed Fawzi Chief editors
Dr. Dirar Nasr
Ms. Khulood Tubaishat
English language editor
Mr. Roderick Fleming
Photographs for this issue were kindly provided by Dr. N. Pilcher, and Mr. J.
Kuchinke.
To join our mailing list or to receive additional copies please contact:
PERSGA, P.O. Box 53662, Jeddah 21583, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
Tel.: +966 2 657 3224
Fax: +966 2 652 1901
Email: information@persga.org
Back issues of Al-Sanbouk can be found at
http://www.unep.ch/seas/main/PERSGA/index.html
Al-Sanbouk welcomes all readers to submit articles, reviews, and photographs
for publication but cannot guarantee that they will be used.
The aim of the newsletter is to provide information on conservation and
development activities taking place in the region together with articles on
marine issues of general interest. The contents of the newsletter do not
necessarily represent the position or views of PERSGA or the editorial board,
nor do they imply the expression of any opinion on the part of PERSGA
concerning the legal status of any country, territory, frontier or border. All non-
copyright material may be freely reproduced. Al-Sanbouk cordially requests
that due reference is made to the source if any news/articles/pictures are
reprinted in other publications. Articles appearing under a specific author's
name may only be reprinted with the author's express written permission.
This newsletter is printed on 100% recycled paper.
In this Issue of Al-Sanbouk:
A Word from the Secretary General
PERSGA Activities
Regional Protocols for the Conservation of Biological Diversity and the
Establishment of Protected Areas
Regional Action Plan for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-
based Activities
Navigation Risks, New Charts and Surveys
Standardisation of Fisheries Data in the Region
Coastal Zone Management and Ecotourism
A Vision for Public Awareness Programmes
Conferences
Missions
Staff Changes
Coral Reefs
Coral Reefs and Coral Bleaching in the Region (Dr. H. Vogt)
Paradise in Peril (Mr. H. Schmid)
Corals and Human Disturbance (Dr. N. Pilcher)
Links to Useful Sites on the Net
International News
Future Events
SAP Task Force Meeting (Khartoum, Sudan)
PERSGA Council Meeting (Cairo, Egypt)
Workshop on Standardisation of Survey Methods (Sharm El-Sheikh, Egypt)
Training Course on Public Awareness (Amman, Jordan)
Second Workshop on the Standardisation of Fisheries Data (Djibouti)
International Coral Reef Initiative Conference (Indonesia)
Training Course on Marine Turtle Conservation (Yemen)
A Word from the Secretary General,
Dr. Nizar Ibrahim Tawfiq
The development of regional cooperation that promotes environmental
protection and sustainable development of the valuable natural resources of the
Red Sea and Gulf of Aden is at the heart of our mission. PERSGA is passing
through a stage of growth and development as the number and range of
planned activities increases. It is therefore appropriate that an parallel
development should take place to Al-Sambouk, our dependable newsletter, a
regular source of information on our activities since January 1996.
We are keen to keep you informed about important issues concerning
protection of the marine environment in the region. The reader will notice the
following important developments in the newsletter:
§ A focus on coral reefs with emphasis on their conservation and management,
monitoring, the relationship between international organizations working in the
field, and a brief summary of the extent of coral bleaching in the region.
§ The customary section that addresses the numerous PERSGA activities, the
meetings that will take place in the near future, - including the second SAP
Task Force Meeting and the PERSGA Council Meeting, together with information
on other regional and international organisations.
§ The number of issues distributed nationally, regionally and internationally has
now doubled.
§ Printing on recycled paper - an environmental message from PERSGA.
We are always pleased to receive your comments and suggestions for the
further development of Al-Sanbouk. We would also like to encourage you to
contribute articles to be published in our newsletter.
PERSGA Activities
Regional Protocols for the Conservation of Biological Diversity and the
Establishment of Protected Areas
The European Commission (EC) has agreed to provide funding assistance for
the preparation of two protocols, one in each of the PERSGA and ROPME
regions. They are being prepared in cooperation with ROWA/UNEP and the Gulf
Cooperation Council (GCC). A committee for leading the project has been
formed comprising representatives from these regional agencies. It is expected
that the consultant nominated by the EC to prepare the protocol will start work
before the end of the year 2000.
During the meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on
Biological Diversity, held in Nairobi in May 2000, the Secretariat of the
Convention also agreed to participate in this project. Dr. Mohamed
Abdulrahman Fawzi, Deputy Secretary General represented PERSGA at the
meeting.
Regional Action Plan for the Protection of the Marine Environment from
Land-based Activities
The first draft of the Regional Action Plan for the Protection of the Marine
Environment from Land-based Activities has been prepared. Funding has been
provided through the UNEP/Global Coordination Office based in The Hague. The
draft document is now being reviewed and as soon as the Plan is ready it will be
sent to Member Countries for review prior to an Expert Meeting that will adopt
it in its final form.
Navigation Risks, New Charts and Surveys
The first meeting of the SAP Navigation Working Group was held in Amman,
Jordan, in April and was opened by Mr. Ghazi Awdat, Deputy Director General
of the General Corporation for Environmental Protection of Jordan. The
Workshop theme was Hydrographic surveying techniques. Speakers from the
United Kingdom Hydrographic Office and the International Hydrographic
Organization delivered papers. Amongst the recommendations from the
meeting the UK Hydrographic Office were requested to redesign charts of the
southern Red Sea in order to cover the proposed Traffic Separation Scheme to
the east of Jabal Zuqar, south and west of Hanish al Qubra, and the straits of
Bab el Mandeb. They were also requested to redesign the enclosure on UK
Admiralty Chart 453 to provide mariners with sufficient navigational data to
navigate safely in the proposed traffic separation lanes.
New Vessel Routing Proposals
Considerable progress has been made since the Working Group meeting on new
routing proposals and vessel traffic separation schemes. The proposals were
submitted to the International Maritime Organization 'Subcommittee for the
Safety of Navigation' on 10 July. The subcommittee has confirmed that the
proposals are sound and asked PERSGA to go ahead with hydrographic surveys
in selected areas of the southern Red Sea. Draft contract documents for this
work have been prepared and circulated to six selected companies and the
replies are currently being evaluated.
Standardisation of Fisheries Data in the Region
The First Meeting of the Living Marine Resources Working Group was held at the
Fisheries Training Institute in Aden from 29 April to 3 May together with a
Workshop on the 'Standardisation of Fisheries Data Collection and Formats'.
The Governor of Aden, Mr. Taha Ahmed Ghanem, the EPC Secretary-General,
Dr. H. Al-Gunied, and the Rector of the University of Aden, Dr. S. Ba S'urrah,
attended the opening session. The Governor delivered a brief welcoming speech
at the opening session in which he emphasised the significance of regional co-
operation and reiterated the desire that a SAP research and training centre
should be successfully established.
The workshop on data collection highlighted the fact that all the data formats
currently in use in the region are incomplete with respect to the information
required on fishing effort. There is no information on the fishing grounds or the
type of fishing effort exerted on each ground. The reliability of the data
collected is not high due to the methods used for collection.
The Workshop participants visited the Shuqra fishing complex made up of a
government owned fish-canning plant for producing canned tuna, and a number
of fisheries service installations. At a meeting with the local Fishermen's Co-
operative management the participants were shown the records of fish landed,
fish species and prices at the complex. Local journalists from 'Saba News
Agency', the daily 'Atthawra,' and '14th October' newspapers covered the
opening session and some of the meetings.
Status of Living Marine Resources
A report on the "Status of Living Marine Resources in the Red Sea and Gulf of
Aden Region and their Management" has been prepared. The report is
comprehensive, covering the resource base, the present fisheries activities,
processing and marketing activities, the socio-economic conditions of the
fishing communities, the institutional and legal frameworks in the fisheries
sector, the aquarium trade, and mariculture. The report also highlights the
threats to coastal and marine habitats arising from fisheries that include
unsustainable exploitation of the resources, environmentally harmful fishing
practices and poaching by foreign vessels.
Coastal Zone Management and Ecotourism
The SAP Integrated Coastal Zone Management Working Group participated in a
three-day Regional Workshop on 'Coastal Zone Management for Eco-tourism'
organised by CEDARE (with UNEP and PERSGA support) and held at Hurghada,
18-20 June. The workshop allowed for the exchange of ideas and of
experiences gained by countries of the CEDARE region in coastal management
for sustainable tourism.
A Vision for Public Awareness Programmes
Ms. Khulood Tubaishat, the Lead Specialist for Public Awareness and
Participation (PAP), organised a Working Group meeting and six-day training
Workshop on 'Creating a Vision of Environmental Public Awareness
Programmes' at CEDARE in Cairo during June. The course improved the
capacity of the PAP Working Group and National Board members to deliver
effective environmental education and public awareness programmes to
schools, local communities, decision-makers, and the public. The training
course provided knowledge and skills to the participants about how public
awareness programmes can contribute towards marine environmental
management and sustainable development.
Conferences
Dr. Fareed Krupp, the SAP Chief Technical Advisor, participated in the
International Coral Reef Initiative - Coordination and Planning Committee
Meeting (25-26 May 2000, in Noumea) where he presented PERSGA, the SAP,
and took part in discussions on the 'Action Plan for Coral Reef Conservation in
the Arabian Region'. Mohammed Younis, presented a paper entitled:
'Development of a Regional Network of Marine Protected Areas in the Red Sea
and Gulf of Aden' at an 'International Workshop on Policy Options for the
Sustainable Use of Coral Reef and Associated Coastal Ecosystems' held in
Mombassa, Kenya, 19-22 June. The meeting acted as a valuable forum for the
exchange of ideas and the development of new contacts. It also provided
participants with an opportunity to assess lessons learnt from recent
approaches in coral reef ecosystem management, and to identify priorities for
future social, economic and policy research. A visit to Kisite Marine National
Park was offered which gave valuable insight into East African MPA
management practices. A meeting was held with the Marine Programme Co-
ordinator IUCN/East African Regional Office regarding co-operation between
PERSGA and IUCN in Northwest Somalia.
Missions
In May the Ms. Khulood Tubaishat went to Sudan to meet the PAP Working
Group member, interview suggested PAP Board members and prepare a draft
national PAP workplan. Brainstorming workshops were conducted in Khartoum
and Port Sudan with different stakeholders in order to prioritise issues of
marine conservation that should be addressed by the public awareness
programme, and to identify target groups and key messages for delivery.
In June Mr. J.B. Collier - Operations Officer at the World Bank, Dr. Fareed
Krupp - the SAP Chief Technical Advisor (CTA), and Dr. K. Hariri - Living Marine
Resources Lead Specialist met in Sana'a with local World Bank staff and the
Environment Protection Council (EPC) to discuss co-ordination between World
Bank funded coastal management pilot projects, and the Marine Protected Area
and Coastal Zone Management activities of the SAP. A general agreement was
reached with the EPC on the integration of the Belhaf/Bir Ali area into the
regional marine protected area network.
In July the CTA together with Dr. D. Nasr, the PERSGA/SAP-Coordinator, and
Eng. M. Hassan, the National Programme Coordinator for Sudan, conducted a
mission to Khartoum to explain SAP implementation arrangements to the newly
appointed Minister of Environment and Tourism and the new Secretary General
of the Higher Council for Environment and Natural Resources, Dr. Nadir Awad
(the new Task Force member). In addition the mission explored the most
suitable venues for the Second Task Force Meeting and other logistics for the
meeting.
A pre-assessment survey mission was conducted in Yemen to study PAP status,
to visit relevant organisations, public awareness and environment centres, to
establish Yemen's PAP Board, and to conduct a training-needs assessment and
brainstorming workshop with stakeholders.
Staff Changes
In August Dr. Mohammed Abdullah Ibrahim, from Egypt, joined Dr. Khaled
Hariri as part of the Living Marine Resources team.
Coral Reefs and Coral Bleaching in the Region
Dr. H. Vogt
Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
The Red Sea and Gulf of Aden lie within a particularly arid geographical region.
High seasonal fluctuations of temperatures and elevated salinity levels result in
a naturally stressful environment for shallow subtidal biological communities,
many of which exist close to their physiological limits. On the other hand, hard
substrates are abundant in these waters and freshwater influx is very limited,
resulting in exceptionally clear water, even in near-shore areas. These are
favourable conditions for coral growth and fringing reefs, barrier reefs, patch
reefs and atoll-like structures are widespread. More than 250 species of stony
corals are known from the region, which is the highest species richness in any
section of the Indian Ocean. An almost continuous band of coral reefs fringes
the shorelines of the northern and central Red Sea, including the Gulf of Aqaba.
Coral assemblages in the shallow Gulf of Suez are less well developed. In the
central Red Sea corals colonise a series of narrow banks about 3-10 km
offshore, forming a large barrier reef running parallel to the coastline. Further
south, the shelf becomes broader and shallower, soft bottom substrates prevail
and turbidity increases, resulting in a decrease in the extent and complexity of
coral reefs. Fringing reefs gradually disappear in this part of the Red Sea, while
offshore patch reefs and coral assemblages fringing islands become more
numerous. The Gulf of Aden supports surprisingly rich and complex reefs, and
the corals surrounding the Socotra islands are particularly diverse.
Regional Coral Bleaching
In 1997-98 the region's reefs suffered, to varying degrees, from the worldwide,
coral bleaching event. As a response, Saudi Arabia's National Commission for
Wildlife Conservation and Development hosted an "International Workshop on
the Extent and Effects of Coral Bleaching in the Arabian Region", which was
held in Riyadh from 6-9 February 2000.
Within the Red Sea, no bleaching was observed in the Gulf of Aqaba, the Gulf of
Suez or along the Egyptian coast of the main basin. Bleaching was patchy along
the Saudi Arabian coast, being more severe to the south. In Sudan, bleaching
occurred at several locations, above all south of Port Sudan. In Eritrea, some
coral bleaching and die-off was reported, predominantly from shallow waters,
but recovery appeared to be fast. Along the Red Sea coastline of Yemen, where
reefs are already under considerable human-induced stress, effects of coral
bleaching were severe. However, no quantitative data are available. Many areas
of the Gulf of Aden were affected by bleaching. In Somalia, almost all corals in
an area east of Berbera were killed, whereas further west, corals were only
slightly affected. In Yemen, many corals along the shoreline died, and more
than half of the corals of the Socotra Archipelago were affected by the
bleaching.
Paradise in Peril
Hagen Schmid
Well-known and respected amateur naturalist, diver and author of several
books on the marine environment of the Red Sea
Coral reefs are home to some of the greatest diversity of life forms on our
planet. They are living structures consisting of thousands of different creatures.
The coral polyps themselves are one of the principal builders of these amazing
formations. 'Modern' reef building corals are descendants of organisms which
lived in our seas more than 225 million years ago, and are quite hardy little
creatures which have survived many climatic changes in the past. However,
they have never before been faced with the multitude of environmental
problems that now confront them.
Approximately 400 species from about 100 genera of coral are the main reef
builders in our tropical seas. Their life cycle, shape and feeding habits differ so
much from any other living creatures we know that they were not fully
understood by early scientists, who described them as plants or plant-animals
(Zoophyta). Only in 1725 were they correctly classified as animals by the
French scientist, Peyssonnel.
With the help of highly specialised algae called Zooxanthellae, that actually live
within the coral polyp, they extract calcium and carbon out of seawater and
build their protective exterior skeletons. Every different species constructs a
particular shape and size of colony. Because this building work can only take
place with the support of the zooxanthellae and sufficient sunlight, we find
nearly all reef building corals in rather shallow water around the Equator, where
there is an ample and steady supply of sunshine.
With and around the corals live hundreds of other species that directly or
indirectly depend on the structures produced by these tiny builders. Tubeworms
or shells bore their way into the solid, protective calcium deposits. Fish,
invertebrates and crustaceans hide between the branches. Many animals
consider the coral polyps themselves as a nourishing food source, from the
small butterfly fish, which feeds only on single polyps, to the large bumphead
parrot fish which, with the help of their strong, fused front teeth break off coral
pieces and grind the skeletons down to extract the nourishing polyps. They
release the undigested remains onto the reef forming sandy patches, which
provide a home for other types of animals. When coral polyps die, their stony
foundations provide soft corals and sponges with an ideal base on which to
settle and start their own colonies. Pieces of broken coral can be cemented
together by calcium-producing algae to provide further areas for such life forms
to grow. Some fish, and other animals like sea urchins, play an important role
by grazing on algae or sponges that might otherwise overgrow and suffocate
the corals.
For millions of years these kingdoms were able to flourish, hidden beneath the
sea. The ballooning of the human population in the mid 1980's to 5 billion (and
in the 1990's to 6 billion), and the accompanying economic and social problems
of feeding and settling all these people, has dramatically influenced our
environment. Coral reefs, once fished in a sustainable fashion when demand
was light, are now plundered and abused by dynamiting, cyanide fishing, shell
collecting, pollution, overfishing, and excessive tourism. These once majestic
coral formations are now in deep trouble worldwide.
During the last few years scientists around the globe have become increasingly
alarmed by the rapid decline in the health of coral reefs. This marked decline
has taken place in most of the tropical seas. In the Red Sea the reefs have, so
far, remained in a relatively robust state as most of the coastal regions are
rather thinly populated. However, there have been local problems around the
larger cities like Jeddah, and Yanbu in Saudi Arabia, and on the extensively
visited diving sites along the Egyptian coastline.
When suddenly in August 1998 extensive coral bleaching was observed along
the central Red Sea coast , the once healthy reefs joined the general decline
also seen in the Pacific and the Caribbean. Under a combination of negative
environmental circumstances, corals expel their zooxanthellae. These algae
normally give the coral colonies their colour, and the loss causes the colony to
turn white. The reef building corals affected are mainly those with a massive
life-form such as Porites, Favia, and the brain corals, along with leather corals
(Alcyoniidae) other soft corals (Nephtheidae), and sea anemones
(Stichodactylidae). In some areas 80-90% of the leather and soft corals were
affected or killed. Once colourful coral gardens have become stony-white
underwater deserts.
The percentage of bleached corals was not constant. There was a significant
variation in different areas. It appears that reefs which have had to cope with
other additional sources of stress are much more sensitive to the causes of
bleaching. Reefs to the north of the city of Jeddah, where most coastal
development is currently taking place, showed much more damage (20?30%)
than reefs to the south of the city (5?10%) where relatively little or no
development has taken place.
Many possible causes for this sad phenomenon have been suggested. One of
the most widely accepted explanations is prolonged higher water temperature,
although corals can tolerate quite high temperatures. The damage in shallow
areas, where the water can heat up above 40 °C in the summer months, was
less than in deeper ones where the temperatures were not as high and were
more constant, 28-32° C, depending on the season . Changes in sunlight
intensity have also been put forward as a possible cause; however, corals under
overhangs or in caves were affected, whereas others in direct sunlight were
not.
By October it seemed that the bleaching had come to an end. Some corals
appeared to recuperate very slowly but most were dead, and green algae were
seen growing on the skeletons. A brownish tint returned to the sea anemones.
However it seemed that they had lost some of their stinging ability because
wrasses could be seen swimming in and out of the mouths of these once
aggressive animals.
With the pollution of our planet we undermine the healthy functioning of our
ocean ecosystems, which were in equilibrium over millennia without us in the
equation. The question now is how much abuse can the living ocean-system
continue to take? Let us remember that our oceans are among the main
producers of oxygen for the atmosphere, and a valuable source of food. They
should not be used as a site to dispose of our waste and should not be
contaminated with pollutants from the land or the air. We need to live
compatibly with nature and not to continue to systematically destroy our
supporting ecosystems.
Corals and Human Disturbance
Nicolas J. Pilcher
Institute of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation, Universiti Malaysia
Sarawak,
94300 Kota Samarahan, Sarawak, Malaysia. Email: nick@tualang.unimas.my
Introduction
Coral reefs are centres of marine biodiversity. Reefs are constructed by a host
of reef-building (hermatypic) coral species, but also are home to ahermatypic,
or non-calcium carbonate depositing corals such as soft corals, black corals and
gorgonians. Much like their terrestrial counterparts the tropical rainforests,
reefs combine a host of micro-habitats and a diverse array of life-forms that are
still being discovered and described. Coral reefs are distributed throughout the
tropics, and a large proportion are located in developing countries.
To understand how human activities affect coral reefs, it is necessary to briefly
review their basic life history. Coral reefs are made up of numerous coral
colonies. These colonies are made up of thousands of minute coral polyps each
of which secretes a calcium carbonate skeleton. The deposition rate for
individual coral species varies, but is generally considered to range between 0.1
mm and 10.0 cm per year. The accumulation of these skeletons over an
enormously long period of time results in massive, three dimensional geological
structures. The actual living tissue however, is only a very thin layer lining the
surface. Coral polyps feed by filtering plankton, aided by tentacles tipped with
stinging-cells (nematocysts); they also receive organic matter through their
symbiotic relationship with minute algae (dinoflagellates) called zooxanthellae.
These small algal cells use sunlight to photosynthesise carbonates and water
into organic matter and oxygen, both of which are used by the polyp.
Coral reefs support complex food and energy webs that are inter-linked with
nutrient inputs from outside sources (such as those brought with ocean
currents and run-off from nearby rivers) and from the reef itself (where natural
predation and die-off recirculate organic matter). These complex webs mean
that any effect on one group of individuals will ultimately impact another, and
single disturbances can have multiple effects on reef inhabitants. For example,
the complete eradication of the giant Triton Charonia trinis through overfishing
usually results in outbreaks of Crown-of-Thorns starfish Acanthaster planci. This
in turn leads to massive coral mortalities as the starfish reproduce and feed on
the coral polyps. Habitats and food sources for reef fishes are then reduced
leading to declines in the population of larger predatory fishes. The following
sections provide a brief review of human disturbances and their general effects
on coral reefs.
Collection of corals
Corals have been mined for construction purposes in several countries including
Sudan and Saudi Arabia, broken into manageable sizes or crushed for the
manufacture of cement and lime.
Corals are also collected for use in the ornamental trade as curios, souvenirs, or
as jewellery. The aquarium industry is also responsible for the coral collection,
either for direct sale as live colonies or through the process of fish collecting.
The removal of coral colonies decreases the shelter and niche areas available to
numerous other reef inhabitants. Juvenile stages of fishes that seek shelter
among the branching species of corals, and worms and ascidians that take up
residence on massive life-forms, are deprived of protection and refuges and
may become prey to other reef organisms. Furthermore, removal of entire
colonies reduces the overall structural stability of the reef, and increases rates
of erosion from wave damage.
Destructive Fishing
Destructive fishing pressures are taking their toll on coral reefs. Today this is
done with the use of home-made explosives composed of fertiliser, fuel and
fuse caps inserted into empty beer bottles. Blast-fishers hunt for schooling fish
such as sweetlips and fusiliers, which aggregate in groups in the open or hide
under large coral heads. The bombs are usually dropped into the centre of an
area judged to have many fish and after the bomb has exploded the fishermen
use dip nets to collect the stunned and dying fish.
Blast fishing also damages corals. Lightly bombed reefs are usually pockmarked
with blast craters, but many reefs in developing countries have been reduced to
a continuous band of coral rubble instead of a reef crest and upper reef slope.
The blasts change the three-dimensional structure of reefs, and blasted areas
no longer provide food or shelter to reef inhabitants. Further, once the reef
structure has been weakened or destroyed by blast fishing it is much more
susceptible to wave action and the reef is unable to maintain its role in
coastline protection. Larvae do not settle on rubble and thus replenishment and
rehabilitation is minimal. The recovery of such areas has been measured in
decades, and only then with complete protection and cessation of fishery
pressure of any kind.
One of the most destructive fishing methods involves the use of cyanide. An
aqueous solution of sodium cyanide or other chemical is squirted at fish to stun
them, after which they are collected and sold to the live-fish trade. In the
process of stunning the fish, the cyanide affects corals, small fish and
invertebrates. A solution, which is narcotising to large fish, is often lethal to
smaller ones. Cyanide has also been shown to limit coral growth, cause
diseases, bleaching, and ultimately, in many coral species, leads to death.
Also among destructive fishing practices are normal trawl and purse fishing
operations, when these take place close to or over reefs. Trawlers try to
operate close to reefs to take advantage of the higher levels of fish aggregated
around them, but often end up with their trawls caught on the reefs. Many of
these then have to be cut away and discarded, becoming further entangled,
breaking corals and smothering others. Spearfishing may also damage corals if
fishermen trample and break coral to get at fish that disappear into crevices.
Discharges
Mankind also has an impact on corals through the uncontrolled and often
unregulated discharge of a number of industrial and domestic effluents. Many of
these are 'point-source' discharges that affect localised reef areas, rather than
causing broad-scale reef mortality. Discharges may release chemicals that are
debilitating, toxic, or lead to a change in the environmental conditions. The
release of fluids high in organic matter or nutrients, such as sewage or abattoir
refuse can lead to a phenomenon known as eutrophication. Plague quantities of
algae may grow, stimulated by the high nutrient levels. When these die, the
bacteria that cause decomposition can deplete the water of oxygen to such an
extent that it becomes impossible for corals and other animals to survive.
Untreated and partially treated sewage is often discharged where fringing reefs
are located close to shore, such as the reefs that fringe the length of the Red
Sea. Raw sewage can also result in tumours on fish, and erosion of fins from
the high concentrations of bacteria that develop.
Petroleum hydrocarbons from the oil industry have also caused widespread
damage to coral reefs. The levels of oil and its derivatives in the marine
environment (many of which are persistent carcinogens) have been correlated
with coral diseases in the Red Sea, especially Black Band Disease. Drilling
activities frequently occur near reefs, such as along the Saudi Arabian shoreline
in the Arabian Gulf. Drilling mud can suffocate reefs and it also contains
compounds that disrupt growth and cause diseases. Discharges result in an
increase in diatoms (algae) and a decrease in marine fauna in their vicinity.
Many millions of tonnes of oil are transported through the region each year. Oil
spills affect coral reefs through smothering, resulting in a lack of further
colonisation, as occurred in the Gulf of Aqaba in 1970 when the coral
Stylophora pistillata was found not to re-colonise oil-contaminated areas. There
have been more than 20 oil spills along the Egyptian coast since 1982, some
which have smothered and poisoned corals and other organisms.
Industrial effluents also impact coral reefs and their associated fauna and
habitats. Discharge of heavy metals may give rise to elevated levels of lead,
mercury or copper in bivalves and fish, or elevated levels of cadmium,
vanadium and zinc in sediments. Larval stages of crustaceans and fish are
particularly affected, and effluents often inhibit the growth of phytoplankton,
resulting in a lack of zooplankton, a major food source for corals.
The outflow from desalination plants is typically 5-10 ºC higher in temperature
and up to 3?10 ppt higher in salinity than normal seawater. These discharges
may also include chorine and anti-scaling chemicals. The higher temperatures
decrease the water's ability to dissolve oxygen, slowing reef processes, and
usually result in localised bleaching of coral colonies. The higher salinity of the
discharges increases coral mucus production and results in the expulsion of
zooxanthellae and eventual bleaching and algal overgrowth. Often these waters
are also chlorinated and contain compounds that are non-biodegradable and
circulate in the environment for years. These compounds are absorbed by
phytoplankton and then by filter-feeding corals. Through the complex food
webs on the reef these compounds concentrate in carnivorous fishes, which
may become poisonous to mankind.
Many airborne particles are also deposited over coral reefs, such as fertiliser
dust, or dust from construction activities. At Ras Baridi, on the Red Sea coast of
Saudi Arabia, a cement plant operating without filtered chimneys discharges
more than 100 tonnes of partially processed cement over the nearby coral reefs
each day. The reefs are now smothered by over 10 cm of fine silt.
Solid Waste Dumping
Plastics, metal, wood, rubber, and glass can all be found littering coral reefs.
These wastes are often non-biodegradable, or persist over long periods of time,
causing damage which is primarily of a physical nature. Solid wastes damage
coral colonies at the time of dumping, and thereafter through movements with
natural tidal and surge action.
Construction
Construction activities include coastal reclamation works, port development,
dredging, and urban and industrial development. Commercial and residential
property development in Jeddah have filled in reef lagoon areas out to the reef
crest and bulldozed rocks over the reef crest for protection against erosion and
wave action. 'Landfill' activities of this type generally result in increased levels
of sedimentation as soil is nearly always dumped without the benefit of screens
or silt barriers. Coral polyps, although able to withstand moderate sediment
loading, cannot displace heavier loads and perish through suffocation.
The development of ports and marinas also involves dredging deep channels
through reef areas for safe navigation and berthing, and damages reefs through
the direct removal of coral colonies, sediment fallout, and disruption of the
normal current patterns on which the reefs depend for nutrients.
Port Activities
Port activities can have adverse effects on nearby reefs through spills of bulk
cargoes and petrochemicals. Fertilisers, phosphates, manganese and bauxite
are often loaded and offloaded using massive mechanical grabs which spill a
little of their contents on each haul. In Jordan, the death of corals was up to
four times higher near a port that had frequent phosphate spills compared to
control sites. The input of these nutrients inhibits calcification and increases
sedimentation. Algal blooms also develop through input of nutrients (nitrogen
and phosphorous compounds), limiting light penetration and depleting dissolved
oxygen.
Recreation
The recreation industry has caused small but significant localised damage to
coral reefs. Flipper damage by SCUBA divers is widespread, but certain
activities, such as underwater photography, finds divers breaking corals to get
at subjects and trampling reef habitats in order to get the perfect shot.
Anchor damage from boats is another problem at tourist destinations.
Experiments have proven that repeated breakage of corals, such as caused by
intensive diving tourism, may lead to substantially reduced sexual reproduction
in corals, and eventually lower rates of re-colonisation. In the northern Red
Sea, another popular diving destination, efforts are underway to install
permanent moorings to minimise the damage to reefs from anchors.
Indirect Effects
Most anthropogenic effects and disturbances to coral reefs are easily
identifiable. Blast debris and lost fishing nets can be seen. Pollutant levels and
sediment loads can be measured. However, many other man-made or induced
problems have indirect impacts on coral reefs that are both problematic to link
directly to coral mortality and difficult to quantify. Agricultural practices and
logging, for instance, contribute to coral reef degradation through the runoff of
sediment, fertilisers and pesticides. These result in the smothering of corals,
limited larval settlement and localised nutrient enrichment.
Global warming, resulting from the Greenhouse effect and the build-up of
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, might also kill corals. The extensive coral-
beaching event that took place in 1998, which was particularly severe in the
Indian Ocean region, is accepted as having been the result of a rise in sea
surface temperature. Bleaching of coral colonies occurs through the expulsion
of zooxanthellae as coral polyps become stressed by adverse thermal gradients.
Coupled with global warming is sea level rise; this is predicted to be 25 cm by
the year 2050. If not matched by coral growth, this will mean that corals will be
submerged deeper and will not receive the levels of sunlight required for
photosynthesis by the zooxanthellae. Additionally, the ability of coral reefs to
protect coastlines from erosion will be lost if the waves are able to wash over
the newly submerged reefs.
The Future
Mankind has contributed to the widespread destruction of corals, reef areas and
their associated fauna through a number of acute and chronic pollutant
discharges, destructive processes, and through uncontrolled and unregulated
development. These effects are more noticeable where social and traditional
practices have changed with a lack of infrastructure, finances, and educational
resources. Destructive fishing pressures and the development of coastal
industry affects reefs throughout their geographic range. If mankind is to be
the saviour of coral reefs in the coming millennium, there is going to have to be
a change in fishing practices, and adherence to development and shipping
guidelines and regulations, and integrated coastal management programmes
that take into account the socio-economic status of people, the environment,
and developmental needs.
Links to Useful Sites on the Net
The Internet is a wonderful source of information on coral reefs.
http://www.seaworld.org A simple but valuable introduction to corals and
coral reefs.
http://www.reefcheck.org The site for those interested in reef monitoring.
Scientists from the region will be trained in Reef Check methodology at a
Workshop in Sharm El-Sheikh in September. This method will be used for
future monitoring and evaluation of the status of the reefs in the Red Sea and
Gulf of Aden.
http://www.enn.com/news Environmental News Network Inc. Visit this site to
read a recent report from Margot Higgins on the dispersal of larvae and their
role in the protection of the world's declining coral reef resources.
http://www.ovi.ca Ocean Voice International works for harmony between
people, marine life and the environment. It is environmental, humanitarian and
global in its concerns. A source of information on some useful publications and
videos including "Coral Divers Say No to Cyanide" an 18 minute video film on
fishermen who used to collect aquarium fish by stunning with cyanide but have
now switched to the use of environmentally-friendly nets.
http://www.epa.gov/owow/oceans/coral This is the site for The International
Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI), - information about coral reefs, and activities taking
place for their monitoring and protection. Great links to other reef related sites
- U.S. Government and NGOs.
http://www.wri.org The World Resources Institute provides information,
ideas, and solutions to global environmental problems. Mission - to move
human society to live in ways that protect the Earth's environment for current
and future generations.
http://www.reefrelief.org Reef relief is a non-profit organisation dedicated to
preserving and protecting living coral reef ecosystems through local, regional
and global efforts.
International News
EVENTS
IUCN's World Conservation Congress, expected to be the biggest environmental
gathering ever to be held in the Middle East, will take place in Amman, Jordan
from 4-11 October 2000.
The theme of the Amman Congress is "ecospace", a term indicating that
environmental protection at various geographical scales is a prerequisite for the
social, economic, and even political security of people. Redefining the frontiers
of conservation will address the problem of the current inadequacy in social and
spatial organisation for environmental management, involving knowledge,
empowerment, and governance at global, national, and local levels. It will link
ecosystem conservation with the need to stem the global loss of biodiversity,
and thus build on IUCN's traditional strengths in species and protected areas.
(Copied from http://www.iucn.org/amman/content/about.htm)
News from the States (from the Environmental News Network, see 'Links to
Sites on the Net'); reports tell that the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
has granted a Puerto Rican wastewater treatment plant a 20-year extension to
comply with the U.S. Clean Water Act. Environmentalists are calling this 'a
death act'. Sewage wastewater will be allowed to pollute the coastal
environment after only receiving primary treatment - the removal of solids.
Secondary treatment using bacteria and aeration to decompose most of the
organic material can significantly reduce the level of pollutants entering the
ocean. Most of the discharge is occurring in shallow tropical waters and
discharge plumes are not properly diluted by the ocean currents.
FUTURE EVENTS
Regional Training Workshop on Industrial Waste Management
PERSGA and ALECSO will hold a regional training workshop on Industrial Waste
Management in Aqaba, Jordan during the period 16-20 September 2000. The
Workshop will concentrate on the sound management of industrial waste and
its effect on the environment. Key issues being covered include:
New technologies for dealing with industrial waste materials
Methods of reducing the quantity of waste produced and opportunities for
recycling
Appropriate procedures to ensure compliance with environmental legislation
SAP Task Force Meeting
The Second Strategic Action Programme Task Force Meeting will be held in
Khartoum, Sudan on 26-27 September. The Friendship Hotel at Khartoum
North has been selected as the venue for the meeting. H.E. Mr. El-Tijani Adam
El-Tahir, the Minister of Environment and Tourism in Sudan, will give a
welcoming address and Professor Nizar Tawfiq, the PERSGA Secretary General,
will take the chair.
The meeting will concentrate on the SAP implementation progress and key
achievements, exchange of experience with similar Regional Seas Programmes,
in addition to monitoring and evaluation issues.
A one-day retreat for PERSGA staff and all personnel involved with the
implementation of the SAP will take place on 28 September following the
meeting.
PERSGA Council Meeting
A preparatory meeting for the approaching PERSGA Council Meeting will take
place in Jeddah during the period 14-15 October 2000, together with the
PERSGA Executive Committee Meeting.
The Fourth PERSGA Council Meeting will take place in Cairo on 4 November
2000. The main topics of the agenda will include:
§ The report of the Secretary General for 1999-2000
§ The budget of PERSGA and the SAP for the financial years 2001 and 2002
Workshop on Standardisation of Survey Methodology
The second SAP Habitat and Biodiversity Working Group meeting will take place
on 11-12 September in Sharm El-Sheikh. Each member will present the status
of the critical habitats in his country and propose methods of promoting
conservation. Following this meeting (on 13-14 September) the Working Group
will take part in a Workshop designed to standardise survey methodologies in
the region. This will cover important natural habitats such as coral reefs,
mangroves, and seagrass beds, as well as important species such as the marine
mammals, marine turtles, coral reef fish, and seabirds. Four international
experts and the HBC Working Group will be invited to the workshop. Each
expert will prepare a set of guidelines describing survey methods suitable for
the Region, which will be collated into a single volume titled "A Guide to
Standard Survey Methods for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden". Following the
Workshop (16-20 September) a practical session on coral reef monitoring will
be conducted using the Reef Check methodology.
Training Course on Public Awareness
In collaboration with IUCN, Ms. K. Tubaishat (PAP-LS) is organising a second
workshop/training course focussing on capacity building for public awareness
specialists. This will take place in Amman, Jordan in conjunction with the IUCN
Congress, from 3 October. The two-week course will provide training on specific
marine issues, how public awareness and participation can be generated,
international examples of public awareness programmes in action, strategic
thinking and planning, effective presentation skills, and the role of social
marketing.
Second Workshop on the Standardisation of Fisheries Data
The Living Marine Resources Working Group, led by Dr. K. Hariri, will hold its
second meeting in Djibouti from 18-21 November. The group will review the
work on the standardisation of fisheries statistical systems begun at the first
meeting, and consider the establishment of an LMR database. Technical papers
on elasmobranch identification and stock assessment will be discussed.
International Coral Reef Initiative Conference
The 'Regional Action Plan for the Conservation of Coral Reefs in the Arabian
Region' will be presented at the ICRI Conference in Bali, Indonesia (23-29
October, 2000).
Training Course on Marine Turtle Conservation
A training course for regional specialists will be conducted on 4-10 November in
Yemen. Specialists will learn about survey methods, data collection and
analysis, tagging, measuring and conservation philosophy. The specialists will
form a regional Turtle Group and become national trainers in their home
countries.
Did You Know?
(Information kindly provided by The World Conservation Monitoring Centre)
Coral reefs are the earth's most diverse marine ecosystem with as many as
3,000 different species living together on a single reef. They are a valuable
source of protein and income for subsistence communities and an important
source of tourist revenue for countries around the world.
Australia's Great Barrier Reef sustains a $250 million fishing industry and a
$1.5 BILLION tourist market.
Aquarium fish lovers - if your fish dies in the tank within a week of purchase,
then the quality of the fish is suspect. It could have been caught using cyanide.
If the vendor says the fish came from Singapore, Taiwan or Hong Kong then
most probably it was caught in the Philippines or Indonesia using cyanide.
The Great Barrier Reef is the largest structure made by living organisms and is
visible from outer space.
Most corals feed at night - so you will get the best photographs of corals with
their tentacles extended during night dives!
Corals aren't soft and gentle. They are voracious carnivores!
A single coral colony is a clone of genetically identical animals.
Corals colonies form a thin sheet of soft, living tissue over the rock surface.
The reef building corals have plant cells living inside them!
Australian scientists are developing new sunscreens from chemicals found in
some coral species. These chemicals prevent ultra violet light causing tissue
damage.
The rare 'mushroom' corals are protected by the Convention on the
International Trade in Endangered Species of Fauna and Flora.
Some of the massive boulder corals grow less than 0.5 cm per year.
The branching staghorn corals may grow at 10 to 20 cm per year.
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