Editorial
In This Issue of
Al Sambouk:
Dear Reader,
Welcome to issue number nine! It seems no time

at all since issue eight was rolling of the press
Editorial 1
and yet we appear to be missing our deadlines
again. Luckily this is not the Arab News or the
PERSGA Portraits: - 2
Washington Post or we would both be fired by
Dr. Mohammed A. Fawzi
now! Once again we bring you information on
Update on the SAP 2
our current progress supplemented by specialist
The SAP launching ceremony
articles.
Recruitment
PERSGA is currently going through a period of
Appointments
dramatic change, a metamorphosis no less. New
Country launches
Lead Specialists have been hired to support the
Update on PERSGA activities 4
Strategic Action Programme together with the
Council meeting
necessary support staff. The office space has
Training course
been increased and redesigned. New equipment is
Preparation of a Protocol
beginning to make its presence felt and we are
evolving from traditional Windows 95 users into
Articles:
hardened Windows 98 professionals!
Environmental Impact Assessment in 4
In particular PERSGA welcomes Dr.
Egypt, an overview
Mohammed Abdulrahman Fawzi who takes up
Sustainable Fisheries in the Framework 6
the position of Deputy to the Secretary General,
of Integrated Coastal Zone Management
see PERSGA portraits on page 2; Mr. Carlos
Haddad, the new Procurement and Finance
Coral Reef and Invertebrate Survey in 9
Specialist; Mr. Roderick Fleming who has taken
Djibouti
up the post of Editor and Information Specialist,
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of 10
and Abdullah Alsuhaibany our first SAP Lead
Aden Threatened by Bleaching and Mortality
Specialist for Habitats & Biodiversity
Conservation.
We hope you enjoy our latest contribution.
With best wishes,
Dr. Dirar Nasr & Roderick Fleming (Editors)

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for Oceanography, a member of the International
Dr. Mohammed A. Fawzi
Court for the Protection of the Mediterranean,
and a member of the High Committee for the
Protection of the Nile.
Dr. Fawzi's range of expertise has been used,
with others, in the development of a variety of
plans and programmes including for example: the
National Plan for the protection of the Egyptian
coast from pollution, technical studies for
combating oil pollution in ports, implementation
of waste reception facilities in Port Said, and
EIAs for tourism development programmes in
south Sinai and the Red Sea
Dr. Fawzi's research papers in the field of oil

transportation, the control of pollution and

protection of the marine environment have been
Dr. Fawzi was appointed to the position of
presented at many international conferences and
Assistant Secretary General of PERSGA in
symposia.
January this year.
PERSGA takes this opportunity to extend a
He was born in the city of Tanta, Egypt, is a
warm welcome to Dr. Fawzi and is delighted that
family man with both a son and daughter.
his talents will now be used to benefit the region
D. Fawzi's initial training was in Applied
as a whole.
Physics. He received his M.Sc. in 1966 and a
PhD in Experimental Physics from West
Germany in 1971. Dr. Fawzi began his academic
Update on the SAP
career at the Faculty of Science, University of
Recent Developments
Ain Shams, where he became a Lecturer in 1974.
Four years later he switched to the Arab
Academy for Maritime Transportation. Here he
Dr. Abdul Majeid Haddad
moved up through various different positions
(UNDP Programme Coordinator)
from Senior Lecturer, to Head of the Academic
Studies Department, to Deputy General Manager
The Launching Ceremony for the Strategic
and finally to the post of Director of the Marine
Action Programme
Environment Programme, where he stayed until
The SAP supports and facilitates the primary
1991.
goal of PERSGA, which is the conservation of
Having worked as a consultant for the Egyptian
the environment of the Red Sea and Gulf of
Environmental Affairs Agency for four years he
Aden. The aims of the SAP are to develop a
joined the team as a National Expert for Coastal
regional framework for the protection of the
and Water Protection Projects for the period
environment and the sustainable development of
1991-1995.
coastal and marine resources.
During his long and varied career Dr. Fawzi has
In December 1998 SAP passed a significant
been able to make an important contribution to
milestone in its short history. A meeting at the
marine environmental protection by serving on
Intercontinental Hotel in Jeddah was attended by
numerous national committees, authoring and
the Ministers of the Environment of the PERSGA
presenting many articles/scientific papers on
Member Countries together with representatives
environmental issues, and assisting with the
from the three Global Environment Facility
preparation of legal documentation.
(GEF) partners, the United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP), the United Nations
For example, he was a member of the Leading
Environment Programme (UNEP) and the World
Committee for the Development of Lake
Bank. Speeches of support and encouragement
Bardaweel, a member of the National Institute
for the protection of the marine environment were

Al Sambouk, No. 9, July 1999, page 2

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given by Prince Fahd bin Abdulla Al-Saud
Within the same time period, applications for the
(Saudi Arabia), Dr. Nizar Tawfiq (PERSGA),
National Programme Coordinators positions in
Dr. Klaus Töpfer (UNEP), Dr. Fawaz Fokeladeh
Yemen, Sudan, Djibouti and Somalia were
(UNDP), Dr. Stephen Lintner (World Bank) and
assessed. Dr. Mohammed Mahdi Abubakr was
Mr. Farouk Yousuf Mustafa (Islamic
appointed as the NPC for Yemen, and Mr.
Development Bank).
Mahgoub Hassan for Sudan. The selections for
the other two countries have not yet been
At this historic ceremony the SAP Project
finalised.
Document was officially signed, paving the way
for the release of funds and the implementation of
Appointments: The Task Force & Specialist
the programme.
Working Groups (WG)
Recruitment
We are in close coordination with PERSGA's
focal points in each country to appoint the SAP
Our primary task has been building up the
Task Force members. It is anticipated that the
Programme Coordination Unit (PCU) with its
first meeting for the Task Force will be at the end
team of specialists, administrative support staff
of October 1999.
and necessary equipment. We are happy to report
now that the recruitment process for the Regional
A total of six Working Groups will have to be
Specialists has been concluded. After receiving
established for the various components of the
applications from all over the region, carefully
SAP. The first task of the Lead Specialists is to
screening, reviewing, and short-listing, a
start identifying their counterparts (members of
PERSGA team conducted interviews with
the WG) in the participating countries. These
potential candidates in Egypt, Jordan, Saudi
groups will constitute the core of all programme
Arabia, Sudan and Yemen. To give the reader an
activities and they are expected to contribute
idea about the scale of this operation, the total
substantially to the successful implementation
number of applications received and reviewed
and achievement of the objectives of the Strategic
was around 100, and about 40 short-listed
Action Programme. Members of the working
candidates were interviewed. It was an excellent
groups will conduct regular meetings, organize
chance for PERSGA to explore the pool of
workshops and conferences to facilitate exchange
expertise available in the Region. It is reassuring
of information and experience between member
to know how many proficient and well-qualified
countries. The first WG meeting planned is for
persons there are working in the Region, and
the Navigation Risks and Maritime Pollution
PERSGA is very proud of them all. Regardless
component and will be held in September in
of whom we selected, this expertise will definitely
Amman.
be crucial for the successful future
SAP launches in the region
implementation of the SAP. The CVs that have
been received will be the basis for establishing a
A team from PERSGA and UNDP Somalia
list of consultants at PERSGA headquarters. The
visited north-east and north-west Somalia during
final list of Lead Specialists chosen is as follows:
May 1999 to promote the SAP. The team met
with relevant local authorities and presented the
Capt. Saeed Yafai (Yemen): Navigation Risk &
SAP, outlining the elements for the Somalia coast
Maritime Pollution Advisor
and the logistical requirement for the
Dr. Ramzi Batayneh (Jordan): Specialist -
implementation of the project. The team also met
Integrated Coastal Zone Management
with local NGOs and bilateral donors engaged in
marine conservation to ensure effective
Mr. Mohammed Younis (Sudan): Specialist ­
coordination and sharing of information.
Marine Protected Areas
Interviews were also conducted for the
Mr. Abdullah Alsuhaibany (Saudi Arabia):
Programme Coordinators posts.
Specialist ­ Habitat & Biodiversity Conservation
In July, three missions will go to Djibouti, Sudan
Dr. Khaled Hariri (Yemen): Specialist -
and Yemen to establish the project offices, set up
Conservation and Management of Living Marine
the national teams and launch the SAP.
Resources

Al Sambouk, No. 9, July 1999, page 3

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New protocol
Update on PERSGA activities
A specialized protocol is being developed to
enhance regional cooperation in the protection of
Third Council Meeting
the marine environment from pollution arising
from coastal activities. The first draft of this
The PERSGA Council held their third meeting at
protocol will be sent to the countries of the region
the Intercontinental Hotel in Jeddah, on Sunday
for their consideration and suggestions through
13th of December 1998 under the chairmanship
October 1999. The protocol will be discussed
of Mohammed Tahir Elaa the Minister of
and finalised at a meeting of scientific experts
Environment and Tourism for the Republic of
scheduled for 1st January 2000, prior to the
Sudan. The meeting was attended by their
following PERSGA Council meeting where it
Excellencies the Ministers of the Environment
will be submitted for approval.
from the PERSGA Member countries, or their
representatives, together with interested Arab
organisations. A preparatory meeting of experts
Environmental Impact
was held before the Council meeting on the 8th
and 9th of December.
Assessment in Egypt, an
overview
The Council agreed on the following:

Secretary General's financial report for
1997-98
Dr. M.A. Fawzi
SAP plan for the Red Sea and Gulf of
Introduction
Aden
Pressure on Egypt's environment caused by rapid
general budget for the financial year
urbanization, increasing industrial pollution,
1999-2000
inappropriate exploitation and tourism
financial rules and regulations for
development has a reached critical level.
PERSGA and the rules and regulations
Activities or development projects taking place,
for the employment of PERSGA staff
particularly in the coastal zone but also
Dr. Nizar Tawfiq's appointment as
elsewhere, often compete with other local
Secretary General of PERSGA for four
interests or have negative impacts upon them.
years starting from 1st January 1999, Dr.
Being aware of these problems the Egyptian
Mohammad A. Fawzi as Deputy
government has recently paid special attention to
Secretary General and Dr. Dirar Nasr as
coordinating the need to protect the environment
Coordinator for the programme.
with the parallel need to support economic
Training Programme
progress. The aim is to ensure sustainable
development for present and future generations.
Under the remit of joint projects between
As laid down in the Environmental Protection
PERSGA and ALECSO, a training programme
Law (No. 4/1994) the Egyptian Environmental
will take place on `The Environmental Impact of
Affairs Agency (EEAA) has developed an
Development Projects'. This will be held in
Environmental Impact Assessment system (EIA)
Hurghada, Egypt, in cooperation with the
so that the negative aspects of development can
Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency and the
be identified and plans put forward for their
Red Sea Governorate, between 11th and 15th of
mitigation at the planning stage.
September 1999. The countries in the region
have nominated scientists and specialists to join
An EIA is a systematic examination of the
this training programme and the staff at
consequences of a development project. The
PERSGA headquarters is carrying out the
purpose is to reduce, mitigate or eliminate
necessary preparatory work.
negative consequences of the project on the
environment and to capitalize on the positive
ones. In practice, this means the study and
analysis of the environmental feasibility of a
proposed project in so far as the construction and

Al Sambouk, No. 9, July 1999, page 4

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operation of the project affect the sustainability
manufacturing plants and factories for the
of the environment, human health and the well-
production and assembly of vehicles, sugar
being and conservation of natural resources.
refineries, short pipelines, hospitals and landfill
developments are all included here.
Benefits of EIA
Black projects
First of all the EIA process provides important
information for project design, identifying
This class includes establishments/projects which
changes that may improve the technological
due to their potentially severe environmental
efficiency and economic feasibility of the project
impacts need a full EIA study. Examples would
in the long term, apart from the environmental
include factories for the production of pesticides,
benefits involved.
oil refineries, lead factories, large industrial
complexes and new hotels and tourist facilities in
By incorporating environmental concerns into the
environmentally sensitive areas.
decision making process at an early stage it
reveals potential future impacts before they occur
A detailed account of the classification system
and therefore prevents additional costs arising
and the requirements is provided in Arabic and
and delaying the project during implementation.
English in an EIA package available from the
Competent Administrative Authorities.
It is therefore not just an additional requirement
costing investors time and money but an
The scope of an EIA study report
important management tool that benefits
When studying the impact on the environment
economic development while protecting human
made by a proposed project, the physical/
health, natural resources and the environment in
chemical, biological/ ecological, social/ cultural
general.
and economic/ operational aspects must all be
Law and procedure
considered. Due to this variety of aspects the
study needs to be prepared by a multidisciplinary
The Law No.4 states that new establishments or
team.
projects as well as expansions or renovations of
existing establishments must be subject to an

EIA before a permit is issued. The Executive
The EIA report should include:
Regulations to the law identify which type of
establishments or projects must be subject to an
1. Executive summary
EIA. The system encompasses a flexible
2. Description of the proposed project
screening system that divides projects into three
3. Description of the surrounding environment
groups (white, grey and black) which require
(baseline study)
different levels of EIA according to the severity
of possible environmental impacts.
4. Determination of the potential impacts of the
project
White projects
5. Alternatives to improve the proposed project
This class includes developments likely to cause
minor impacts on the environment and which can
6. Development of a management plan to
normally be approved on the basis of a simple
mitigate negative impacts
Environmental Screening procedure. This class
7. Development of a monitoring plan
includes both textile factories that do not dye
cloth and leather or shoe factories if located in
8. Public participation considerations
certified industrial areas; factories producing less
Appeals
than 1000 tonnes of smoked fish per year; and
expansions of irrigation systems less than 10%.
The owner of an establishment may appeal the
decision of the authorities by writing to a
Grey projects
Permanent Appeals Committee. However the
Projects in this class are likely to cause
classification of projects according to their
significant environmental impact so a more
potential impact cannot be appealed.
elaborate Environmental Screening is required.
Small capacity iron and steel factories, glass

Al Sambouk, No. 9, July 1999, page 5

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The Appeals Board is made up of representatives
integrated and friction occurs between different
from the EEAA, the Competent Administrative
users of the available coastal resources.
or Licensing Authority, the owner of the
At the same time the sea has been used as a
establishment or his competent representative
reservoir for human and industrial refuse and
together with three independent experts. A
overexploitation of the resources in some areas
Councillor from the State Council chairs the
threatens its sustainable development. The
Committee.
accumulation of pollutants, the degradation of
the coastal habitats and accelerated loss of
Sustainable Fisheries in the
biodiversity are problems resulting from a failure
to give the environment due consideration in
Framework of Integrated Coastal
coastal area development.
Zone Management
Taking Egypt as an example, the coastal area is
known for natural habitats such as lagoons,
sabkha, sand dunes, mangroves and coral reefs.
Dr. Ahmed A. Barrania
The population of the Egyptian coastal zone,
within 60 km of the sea, is about 8 million and it
Introduction
is expected to rise at 3.5%. About 40% of
Current estimates suggest that about 60% of the
Egyptian industry will soon be found in coastal
world's population lives in a 60 km-wide belt
areas along with tourist facilities, rural
alongside the oceans and it is expected that this
development activities, land reclamation, ports,
percentage will rise to 75% by the year 2025.
and national security installations. Several
Population growth in this coastal zone is
problems already resulting from this pressure
estimated at 2.4% compared to a global average
include coastal erosion, water pollution, pressure
of 1.7%. These joint statements, which indicate
on natural resources and the over-exploitation of
that accelerated development will take place in
fish stocks.
the region that is already the most densely
Conservation of the `environment' means the
populated, should cause those concerned with
conservation of `environmental systems' so that
planning and environmental protection to be
they can respond to human needs. The
concerned. Many people live in coastal areas
conservation of natural living marine resources is
because they provide good conditions for life and
therefore crucial in development plans.
economic development. This increase in growth
will inevitably lead to a parallel increase in
The deterioration of the situation in coastal areas
pressure on valuable national economic and
of the world has led various international
environmental resources.
organisations to call for new measures to be
established. In 1995 GEF insisted on the need for
The situation in the Arab world does not differ
integrated sectoral planning for coastal
significantly from anywhere else. In fact the
development in the general framework of
situation is more pronounced as desert occupies
integrated coastal zone management (ICZM).
more than 80% of Arabian land, squeezing the
This includes plans for the control of
population towards the coast. Each kilometre of
development activities and other human activities
the coastline serves, on average, between 500 and
that affect the state of natural economic
700 square kilometres of the interior. Valuable
resources and the quality of the environment in
living marine resources are found along the
coastal areas - in other words, integration
coast, regarded as the source of life for local
between economic development on the one hand
communities and inland areas. Economic
and conservation of natural resources on the
activities based on trade, industry, agriculture,
other.
rural development, tourism, recreation, and
transportation all find homes in the coastal zone.
ICZM
Conflicts between the dynamics of natural
Coastal areas are used extensively for a large
resources and of economic development have
number of activities:
become obvious in Arab countries in recent
Rural settlement
years. The activities taking place are not

Al Sambouk, No. 9, July 1999, page 6

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Industrial projects
However its width depends on a variety of
Agriculture
different considerations. It could extend to the
limits of maritime influence, to a political
Waste disposal, (sewage, agricultural,
boundary, or an economic, ecological, or legal
industrial)
one. Sometimes the most important limit depends
Coastal defence
on a special issue that needs resolution through
Port construction and maritime transport
ICZM. Accordingly, the limits for ICZM differ
Roads transport and infrastructure
not only from country to country but also from

area to area depending upon the nature of the
Marine fisheries
issues and their local priority.
Aquaculture

2. Identification of the issues and problems
Oil exploration
facing coastal areas
Tourism and recreation
This includes collecting information on
National security
renewable coastal resources such as fisheries and
Rarely are any of these activities integrated, on
agriculture, identifying the current users of
the contrary they are usually planned
coastal resources and determining the impact of
independently and conflicts arise between them.
these activities on ecological systems. This can
Many of these activities have a negative impact
be done from previous studies or by initiating
on components of the natural environment and
new research. From an analysis of such
hence on economic fishery resources. The most
information it is possible to define the priority
important impacts are from water pollution,
issues which will be considered by ICZM. For
(sewage, agriculture, or industrial) pollution by
example, the result could show that the most
oil, landfill and dredging, coastal construction,
important issues in a certain area are erosion, or
recreation and tourism projects.
water pollution and degradation of the natural
The objective of ICZM is to ensure coordination
resources and habitats.
between developmental activities to reduce
3. Defining the Institutional Framework
conflicts and ensure that the ecological systems
are not impaired so that sustainable use of
A basic objective of ICZM is coordination
natural resources can continue.
between government agencies responsible for
various developmental sectors in coastal areas,
ICZM Planning
the purpose being to conserve natural resources
Initially there must be a focus on defining the
and their sustainable use. This necessitates a
goals for ICZM. Long-term goals should be
framework or institutional skeleton that has
integrated as essential components of the general
authority over or within the different sectors. The
strategic development plans for each country.
shape and size of this institutional framework
These objectives will include:
may differ from one country to another, e.g. it
could be a single new Ministry or power could be
Maintaining good quality coastal
invested in a Ministry already in existence.
environments

ICZM requires a high level of integration
Protection of marine species of value
between various institutions. It needs high-level
Conservation of sensitive habitats (coral
horizontal integration between institutional
reef, mangrove etc)
sectors in the planning phase, and a high level of
Conservation of ecological processes
vertical integration between these institutions in
Rehabilitation of ecological systems
the implementation phase of plans or
ICZM planning is then accomplished by means
programmes.
of several collective operations:
At the national level, a general policy on coastal
1. Identification of the coastal area likely to be
management that defines the level of
affected
environmental protection for coastal areas needs
to be established. This may include the use of
In general terms, the coastal zone could be
planning directives that require regional,
defined as the area of land that borders the sea.

Al Sambouk, No. 9, July 1999, page 7

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provincial or local authorities to implement the
establishment of national, regional and local
agreed development policies.
development guidelines. When integrated into the
national framework, the cooperation and
As a general rule, the Authority that will take the
coordination between different sectoral agencies
responsibility for ICZM should have the means
with competing interests in the coastal zone, will
of affecting the Ministries or agencies that
allow for the development of plans that reduce
currently have control in the coastal zone and it
conflicts. This will enhance sustainable
is expected that this Authority will have the full
development while protecting the country's
power to implement the management plan.
natural resources and habitats.
4. Legal support
The implementation of coastal zone management
Coral Reefs and Invertebrate
must be supported by the necessary legislation.
Some countries have already approved ICZM
Survey in Djibouti
legislation that includes institutional measures,
property rights, user rights, and arbitration
procedures in addition to the necessary financial
Dr. David Obura and Nasser Djama Abdi
means for coastal area planning.
A recent GEF funded project was undertaken in
However in most countries there is sectoral
Djibouti. Dr. David Obura and Nasser Djama led
legislation for the environment and separate
a team of national counterparts in a coral and
legislation concerning activities such as maritime
invertebrate survey, aimed at drafting a strategy
transportation, fisheries and local government.
for the conservation of biodiversity.
All the existing legislation needs to be reviewed
and the conflicts between existing legislation and
In December they surveyed a number of areas
possible new legislation resolved to allow for the
including the reefs around the islands of Musha
implementation of ICZM plans.
and Maskali, two sites off-shore from Maskali,
Khor Ambado, Les Trois Plages, Sable Blanc,
5. Funding
Ras Duan, Sept Frères, Recif d'Ambouli (near
The necessary funds need to be supplied for the
the Djibouti port), and one site off-shore from
preparatory and implementation phases of ICZM
Tadjourah. This survey will complement the
plans. This includes the initiation of the
PERSGA/ALECSO survey carried out in April
information system and means for reviewing and
1998.
analysing various projects, infrastructure
components, the control of pollution and the
means of environmental conservation.
6. Provision of human resources
Scientists, researchers, technicians and
administrators are necessary for the preparation
and implementation of the plans and
programmes. Suitable personnel may be found in
universities and scientific research centres.

Training programmes may be required for
various specialised topics when local expertise

Coral, Dendrophyta sp.
cannot be found.

Conclusion
Using a circular plot survey system the number
In conclusion, ICZM is both a process and an
of hard and soft corals and percentage cover was
institutional framework. It involves the
investigated. A total of 162 different species of
establishment of a legal structure within which
corals were recorded. The distribution pattern
cross-sectoral planning takes place at a national
however, was irregular. Only 10% of the species
and a local level. The planning process itself
were found at all locations, 40% at several sites
involves data collection, analysis and the
with the other 50% of species found in only one
or two places. Trois Plages and the Sept Frères

Al Sambouk, No. 9, July 1999, page 8

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exhibited the highest percentages of live hard-
coral cover. The latter site was found to be in
Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and
pristine condition. The corals at Khor Ambado
Gulf of Aden Threatened by
and Maskali showed degradation, especially of
Bleaching and Mortality
Acropora species. The condition of the former
site may be due to the high visitor pressure the
reef experiences. The Recif d'Ambouli, near the
Dr. Fareed Krupp
port, shows signs of stress from shipping
operations and local land-filling activities.
Coral reefs are amongst the most productive and
Conditions for soft-coral growth are particularly
biologically diverse ecosystems on earth. They
good at the Seven Brothers due to the presence of
are a critical habitat for an immense number of
uprising cold water.
plant and animal species which find food and
shelter in the reef, settle on or attach to corals or
The fish populations showed a similar
burrow into their skeletons, creating a complex
distribution pattern to the corals. Butterfly-fish
and dynamic ecosystem. Corals form the largest
species, which are indicators of healthy corals,
colonies within the animal kingdom. They are
were particularly numerous at the Trois Plages;
able to do so, because they derive energy and
the Red Sea Raccoon, the Arabian butterfly-fish,
nourishment from symbiotic zooxanthellae,
the Vagabond butterfly-fish and the Orange-face
butterfly-fish all being present. There is a wide
diversity of habitat type at the Seven Brothers
and a high potential for sustainable fisheries due
to uprising cold water rich in plankton. Illegal
shark fishing is currently taking place in these
waters which may lead to a collapse of stocks.
The abundance and diversity of large invertebrate
species was low. At Khor-Ambado, an Acropora
coral showed the effects of a recent encounter
with a crown-of-thorns starfish. Many sea
urchins were found at Sable Blanc, an indication
that the reef is currently under stress.
Acropora hemprichi

Marine Biology is still in its infancy in Djibouti.
The SAP proposes the creation of an `Institute of
microscopic algae which inhabit their tissues.
Marine Biology and/or Oceanography' that
Due to their photosynthetic activity,
would work with other departments involved in
zooxanthellae provide the bulk of the corals'
the marine environment such as Maritime
energy requirements. They also support the
Affairs, Fisheries, Environment, The Port and the
corals in generating their limestone skeletons,
Tourism Authority. This new Institute would
which form the framework structure of the reef.
carry out the scientific research necessary for the
Since this process is temperature dependent, reef-
future management and protection of the marine
building or hermatypic corals are largely
environment.
restricted to tropical seas. Reefs are of
outstanding economic importance as a valuable
source of food and various medicinal compounds,
they also attract large numbers of diving and
snorkeling tourists that are a major source of
revenue for many coastal countries, and they
protect the coastline from erosion. Due to their
sensitivity towards temperature change they are
among the first systems to respond to global
warming and form important ecological

indicators.


Al Sambouk, No. 9, July 1999, page 9

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The Red Sea and Gulf of Aden lie within the
· Construction activities altering water
most arid part of the Indian Ocean. High
circulation patterns
seasonal fluctuations in temperature and elevated
· Limited use of environmental impact
salinity levels result in a naturally stressful
assessments for developments and low level
environment for coastal and shallow subtidal
of enforcement of existing laws and
biological communities, many of which exist
regulations
close to their physiological limits. On the other
hand, hard substrates are abundant in shallow
· Release of insufficiently treated or untreated
waters and freshwater influx is very limited,
sewage, resulting in proliferation of algae
resulting in exceptionally clear water, even in
that may smother the reef
nearshore areas. These are favourable conditions
· Increased siltation from sources as diverse as
for coral growth and fringing reefs, barrier reefs,
construction activities and overgrazing,
patch reefs and atoll-like structures are
resulting in reduced light levels
widespread. About 250 species of stony corals
are known from the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden,
· Destructive fishing methods on and near
which is the highest species richness in any
reefs
section of the Indian Ocean. An almost
· Uncontrolled activities by divers, such as
continuous band of coral reef fringes the
anchoring on the reef and coral breakage
shorelines of the northern and central Red Sea,
including the Gulf of Aqaba. One of the largest
· Insufficient awareness about the importance
fringing reefs in the world occurs along the coast
of coral reefs and their sensitivity
of Saudi Arabia. Coral assemblages in the
When corals are stressed, the delicate balance
shallow Gulf of Suez are less well developed. In
that maintains the symbiotic relationship between
the central Red Sea corals colonize a series of
the zooxanthellae and their coral hosts is put at
narrow banks about 3 to 10 km offshore, forming
risk. The algae are lost from the coral or die in
a large barrier reef running parallel to the
their tissue. The polyp then turns transparent and
coastline. Further south, the continental shelf
the underlying white skeleton becomes visible.
becomes broader and shallower, soft bottom
This process is called "bleaching". Tissue growth
substrates prevail and turbidity increases,
and skeletal accretion are markedly reduced or
resulting in a decrease in the extent and
stopped and reproduction is suspended, since the
complexity of coral reefs. Fringing reefs
coral has lost its major source of energy. The
gradually disappear in this part of the Red Sea,
causes of bleaching include low or high
while offshore patch reefs and coral assemblages
temperature and/or salinity, elevated levels of
fringing islands become more numerous. It had
solar radiation, exposure to air during extremely
been assumed that corals were rare in the Gulf of
low tides, siltation and pollution.
Aden due to a seasonal upwelling of cold water,
however recent studies have revealed that the
In 1998 reefs around the globe suffered the most
Gulf of Aden is rich in diverse and complex reefs
extensive and severe bleaching ever recorded,
and other coral assemblages.
resulting in high coral mortality. Bleaching
particularly effected branching corals of the
Reefs worldwide are in a state of rapid decline
genus Acropora, which are widespread
and it is estimated that, on a global scale, 60 %
throughout the Region. Reefs in shallow waters
of the coral reefs are threatened. Throughout the
suffered the greatest losses. Once the corals die
Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, reefs are damaged by
off, the skeleton becomes colonized by numerous
coastal development and other human activities.
other organisms. As long as the structure of the
The "Strategic Action Programme for the Red
reef is maintained, it still provides shelter to
Sea and Gulf of Aden" has identified the
fishes and other marine life. However, if eroded
following causes of reef degradation and
and reduced to coral rubble these organisms
destruction:
disappear, affecting fisheries and tourism alike,
· Landfill for urban expansion, industrial
and exposing the shoreline to erosion. The socio-
facilities and tourism development
economic consequences are very severe. Even
sublethal temperature stress may make corals
highly susceptible to diseases, which result in

Al Sambouk, No. 9, July 1999, page 10

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increased mortality. Besides corals, bleaching
consequences, and paths for recovery. PERSGA
effects other organisms which have symbiotic
is in the process of developing a Regional Action
zooxanthellae.
Plan for the Management and Conservation of
Coral Reefs.
Since the start of temperature recording 150
years ago, the 1990s were the warmest decade

and in 1998 sea surface temperatures were higher
Further reading:
than ever before. Last year also had the strongest
El Niño event ever observed. In many parts of the
SHEPPARD, C.R.C. & SHEPPARD, A.L.S. 1991.
world, sea surface temperatures were 3-6 °C
Corals and coral communities of Arabia. Fauna
above normal. Satellite-derived sea surface
of Saudi Arabia 12: 3-170. Riyadh & Basle.
temperature records by the US National Oceanic
WILKINSON, C., LINDEN, O., CESAR, H.,
and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) show
HODGSON, G., RUBENS, J. & STRONG, A.E.
a significant correlation between large-scale
1999. Ecological and socioeconomic impacts of
bleaching and high sea surface temperatures.
1998 coral mortality in the Indian Ocean: An
Our knowledge of the extent and severity of coral
ENSO impact and a warning of future change?
bleaching in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden is
Ambio 28 (2): 188-196. Stockholm.
very limited. According to preliminary and

largely unpublished observations, the Gulf of
Aqaba and much of the northern Red Sea are

amongst the few areas in the world which have
largely escaped bleaching. In the central Red Sea
This issue of Al Sambouk has been produced
there are patches of bleached corals but further
at the PERSGA office by Dr. Dirar Nasr
south the situation becomes more severe and
(Editor) and Roderick Fleming (Assistant
large areas of coral reef have died off. Here
Editor) with assistance from Abdullah
mortality obviously started before the disastrous
Alsuhaibany and Ahmed Daoud.
1998 global bleaching event. In the Gulf of Aden

some areas are severely affected while others
Translation by Dr. Dirar Nasr.

hardly show any signs of bleaching.

Corals usually recover from short-term
Coral Acropora with permission from Fauna
bleaching, but if temperature stress prevails over
of Saudi Arabia Volume 12, 1991.
prolonged periods it causes irreversible damage
Coral Dendrophyta sp. from Hurghada,
and eventual mortality. Recovery, through larval
(Egypt) Marine Protected Area brochure.
settlement and new growth, will only occur if the
Sharks by Microsoft

environment is free from chronic stress. This

process requires a considerable amount of time,
Additional copies can be obtained from:
in most cases at least one to two decades. During
PERSGA,
the recovery phase the reef is particularly
P.O. Box 53662,
sensitive to all forms of stress, natural and
Jeddah 21583,
human induced.
Saudi Arabia.
Tel./Fax: 966 2 657 3224
Natural recovery must be supported by resource

management. However, a meaningful
Email: dirar.nasr@persga.org
management is only possible, if all major
components of a specific reef ecosystem are
known and its dynamic processes are fully
understood. Coral reefs of the Arabian Region
are still the least known within the entire Indo-
Pacific realm, which hampers the Region's
participation in recent international coral reef
initiatives. Priorities of applied research include
the determination of the extent and severity of the
bleaching, its ecological and socio-economic

Al Sambouk, No. 9, July 1999, page 11

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