Pacific Regional Consultation on
Water in Small Island Countries
Sigatoka, Fiji, 29 July 3 August 2002
FROM VISION TO ACTION
TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE
WATER MANAGEMENT IN THE PACIFIC
Theme 1 Overview Report
Water Resources Management
prepared by
Tony Falkland
Ecowise Environmental
Canberra, Australia
July 2002
Pacific Regional Consultation on Water in Small Island Countries Theme 1, Water Resources Management
page i
Table of Contents
Table of Contents
i
List of Abbreviations
iv
Executive Summary
1
1.
Introduction
2
2.
Summary data for the participating islands
3
3.
Water resources and water use in small islands
4
3.1
Types of water resources
4
3.2
Naturally occurring water resources
4
3.2.1 Surface water
4
3.2.2 Groundwater
5
3.2.3 Rainwater
6
3.3
`Non-conventional' water resources
6
3.3.1 Desalination
6
3.3.2 Importation
7
3.3.3 Non-potable water sources
7
3.3.4 Substitution
7
3.4
Major influences on island surface water and groundwater
7
3.4.1 Size
7
3.4.2 Geology and topography
8
3.4.3 Climate and hydrology
8
3.4.4 Soils and vegetation
9
3.4.5 Human impacts
9
3.5
Water supply and use
10
3.5.1 Water supply and usage for human settlements
10
3.5.2 Tourism
11
3.5.3 Irrigation
11
3.5.4 Hydro-power generation
11
3.6
Freshwater resources and use in the participating islands
11
4.
Major water resources issues, concerns and constraints
12
4.1
Overview
12
4.2
Freshwater availability and demand for water
13
4.2.1 Availability of water resources
13
4.2.2 Water demand
14
4.3
Water quality degradation
15
4.3.1 Pollution sources
15
4.3.2 Major impacts of pollution
16
4.3.3 Major issue of pollution from sanitation systems
17
4.4
Insufficient knowledge of island freshwater resources
18
4.4.1 Overview of issues and constraints
18
4.4.2 Inadequate water resources assessment
19
4.4.3 Inadequate monitoring data
20
4.4.4 Limited analysis and interpretation of data
22
4.4.5 Insufficient applied research
22
4.5
Insufficient education, training and capacity in water resources
23
4.5.1 Identification of needs
23
4.6
Inappropriate technology and methods
24
4.6.1 Inappropriate groundwater pumping systems
24
4.6.2 Desalination in some applications
24
4.6.3 Inappropriate sanitation systems
24
4.7
Catchment management issues
25
4.8
Other issues and constraints
26
4.8.1 National government policy
26
Pacific Regional Consultation on Water in Small Island Countries Theme 1, Water Resources Management
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4.8.2 Legislation
26
4.8.3 Institutional arrangements
26
4.8.4 Community awareness and participation
27
5.
Actions taken to improve water resources management
27
5.1
Overview
27
5.2
Water resources assessment and monitoring
28
5.2.1 Regional level
28
5.2.2 National level
28
5.2.3 Community level
28
5.3
Water resources planning and development strategies
29
5.3.1 Planning of water resources development
30
5.3.2 Drought management strategies
30
5.3.3 Conjunctive use of water sources
32
5.3.4 Protection of water sources and supplies
32
5.3.5 Water demand management and conservation
33
5.4
Participatory catchment management
34
5.4.1 Surface water catchment management in Pohnpei
34
5.4.2 Groundwater catchment management in Tarawa
35
5.5
Appropriate technology for water supply
35
5.5.1 Overview
35
5.5.2 Rainwater harvesting
36
5.5.3 Surface water development
37
5.5.4 Groundwater extraction using infiltration galleries
38
5.5.5 Energy for pumping
38
5.5.6 Desalination appropriate or not?
39
5.6
Appropriate technology for sanitation and wastewater
39
5.6.1 Compost (waterless) toilets
39
5.6.2 Regional meetings and publications
40
5.6.3 Regional wastewater management policy
41
5.6.4 Bacteriological testing
41
5.7
Applied research projects
41
5.7.1 `UNESCO-SOPAC' projects
42
5.7.2 Groundwater and agriculture research project
42
5.7.3 Other selected research projects and publications
42
5.8
Knowledge and information transfer
43
5.8.1 Previous meetings and workshops
43
5.8.2 Relevant publications
44
5.8.3 PIC water working groups
44
5.9
Education, training and capacity building
45
5.9.1 Regional level
46
5.9.2 National level
46
5.10
Inputs by regional and international agencies and NGOs
46
5.11
Other relevant initiatives
47
5.11.1 IWRM and the Global Water Partnership
47
5.11.2 Bonn Conference on Freshwater
47
6.
Actions towards sustainable water resources management
48
6.1
Overview
48
6.2
Commitment and support from national governments
48
6.3
Integrated water resources management
49
6.4
Water resources assessment and monitoring
50
6.4.1 Pacific HYCOS project proposal for capacity building
50
6.4.2 Hydrological training needs at regional level
51
6.4.3 Capacity building and training through bilateral projects
51
6.4.4 Special needs of very small islands
52
6.4.5 Guidelines for water assessment and monitoring
52
6.4.6 Community based monitoring
52
Pacific Regional Consultation on Water in Small Island Countries Theme 1, Water Resources Management
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6.4.7 Bacteriological testing
52
6.5
Appropriate water supply and sanitation
52
6.5.1 Water supply strategies
52
6.5.2 Rainwater harvesting
53
6.5.3 Groundwater
53
6.5.4 Surface water
53
6.5.5 Desalination
54
6.5.6 Demand management and conservation
54
6.5.7 Sanitation and wastewater
54
6.6
Participatory catchment management
55
6.7
Applied research projects
55
6.8
Education and professional training
56
6.9
Knowledge and information dissemination
56
6.10
Networking and partnerships
57
6.10.1 Within countries
57
6.10.2 Within the Pacific region
57
6.10.3 Inter-regional
58
7.
Summary of proposed actions
58
8.
References
60
Pacific Regional Consultation on Water in Small Island Countries Theme 1, Water Resources Management
page iv
List of Abbreviations
ACIAR
Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research
ADB
Asian Development Bank
AusAID
Australian Agency for International Development
CSC
Commonwealth Science Council
DFID
Department for International Development (UK)
EC
European Community
ENSO
El Niño Southern Oscillation
ESCAP
Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific
FAO
Food and Agriculture Organisation
FSM
Federated States of Micronesia
GEF
Global Environment Facility
GWP
Global Water Partnership
ICM
Integrated catchment management
IETC
International Environmental Technology Centre
IHP
International Hydrological Programme (of UNESCO)
IWP
International Waters Programme (abbreviation for Strategic Action Programme for
International Waters)
JICA
Japan International Cooperation Agency
kL
kilolitres (= 1,000 litres)
km
kilometre
L
litres
L/p/d
litres per person per day
MSL
mean sea level
NIWA
National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research
NEMS
National Environment Management Strategy
NGO
Non-governmental organisation
NZODA
New Zealand Overseas Development Agency
OHP
Operational Hydrology Programme (of WMO)
PCM
Participatory catchment management
PIC
Pacific Island Country
PICs
Pacific Island Countries
PNG
Papua New Guinea
PVC
polyvinyl chloride
PWA
Pacific Water Association
PWP
Pacific Water Partnership
RO
Reverse osmosis (a method of desalination)
SAP
Strategic Action Programme for International Waters
SAPHE
Sanitation, Public Health and Environment (ADB funded project in Tarawa)
SIDS
Small Island Developing States
SIWIN
Small Islands Water Information Network
SPaRCE
Schools of the Pacific Rainfall Climate Experiment
SPC
Secretariat for the Pacific Community (formerly South Pacific Commission)
SOPAC
South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission
SPREP
South Pacific Regional Environment Programme
TNC
The Nature Conservancy
UNDDSMS
United Nations Department for Development Support and Management Services
UNDESA
United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs
UNDP
United Nations Development Programme
UNEP
United Nations Environment Programme
UNESCO
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation
UNICEF
United Nations Childrens Fund
USGS
United States Geological Survey
WERI
Water and Energy Research Institute (University of Guam)
WHO
World Health Organisation
WMO
World Meteorological Organisation
WRU
Water Resources Unit (of SOPAC)
WSSCC
Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council
Pacific Regional Consultation on Water in Small Island Countries Theme 1, Water Resources Management
page 1
Executive Summary
The integrated and sustainable management of water resources in small island countries of the
Pacific and other regions is vital for the health and social well being of their people, the protection
of their environments and the development of their economies. The very limited nature of water
resources, the vulnerability of these islands and their resources, including water, to natural
disasters, over-exploitation and pollution combined with increasing demands for freshwater due to
expanding populations and, in some cases, tourism, industry and agriculture, makes the
sustainable management of water resources a very high priority.
In reality, there are many issues which currently constrain the achievement of the goal of
sustainable water resources management. At the national level, there is often fragmentation in the
water sector, inadequate water resources legislation, policy and planning. There is often
insufficient local human resources capacity to conduct water resources assessment and
monitoring. In many islands, there is insufficient hydrological data available for analysis and water
resources planning. Other issues include conflicts related to use of water resources and locations
of water supply systems on customary land, problems with designs and implementation of
projects, and insufficient community education, awareness & participation. In addition, there are
some water resources issues which require further applied research and training in order to better
understand them and to disseminate results
This report outlines issues, concerns and constraints to sustainable water resources management.
Actions taken in recent years to address some of these issues and concerns are then presented.
The report proceeds to outline actions that could be taken to move towards a more sustainable
water resources management in the small islands countries of the Pacific region.
The focus of the report is not on the whole water sector but rather on a number of important
components including assessment of water resources; sustainable development of these
resources, especially in rural areas; appropriate technology for rural water supply and sanitation;
catchment management to improve water quality; needs for training, capacity building, applied
research, information dissemination and networking/partnerships. The needs for participation,
education and awareness of communities are also considered in relation to water resources
management.
There is no single action that will improve the sustainability of water resources management in
small island countries. Rather, an integrated approach is required at all levels in order for this to
occur. Commitment and encouragement from national governments is required. This needs to be
backed by technical and financial support from bilateral, regional and international donor agencies,
and others including NGOs and consultants. The capacity of national water agencies need to be
strengthened in many areas including water resources assessment and monitoring capabilities,
water planning, appropriate technology in water, sanitation and wastewater. In particular, there is
a need for improved sanitation systems on small coral islands where current systems continue to
seriously contaminate the groundwater and lead to major human health problems. Regional
agencies with interests and responsibilities in water resources management should also be
strengthened so that they can provide technical support to water personnel from national
agencies. Additional applied research is required in order to better understand some of the
fundamental hydrological and water quality processes in small island environments. Communities
should be encouraged and enabled to take a greater role in the management of water resources
at the local level. This should include participation in the management of their own surface water
and groundwater catchments to redress the water quality degradation that has occurred and will
continue to occur unless appropriate steps are taken. Concerted efforts in the area of community
awareness and education and greater recognition of the importance of both genders in the water
sector are also required. Through these integrated actions, the sustainability of water resources in
small island countries will improve.
Pacific Regional Consultation on Water in Small Island Countries Theme 1, Water Resources Management
page 2
1. Introduction
This report has been prepared for the Pacific Regional Consultation on Water in Small Island
Countries, Sigatoka, Fiji, 29th July 3rd August 2002. The aim of the meeting, organised by the
Asian Development Bank (ADB) and the South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission (SOPAC)
is to discuss key water management issues and to develop a regional policy statement and action
plan to be considered by donor organisations. A report will be prepared for presentation at the 3rd
World Water Forum in Kyoto, Japan in March 2003.
A Planning Meeting held in Vanuatu in February 2002 identified Water Resources Management as
one of six major themes to be addressed at the Regional Consultation. The other five themes are
Island Vulnerability, Awareness, Technology, Institutional Arrangements and Finance.
The focus in Theme 1 and this report is on the sustainable management of freshwater resources.
In the context of this report, sustainability is interpreted to mean the capacity of freshwater
resources to sustain the health and social well being of communities (rural and urban) and to
provide sufficient water to meet environmental needs (particularly needs of animals and birds).
The issue of sustainability therefore relates to a broad range of topics including water availability
and quality; the water needs of communities; knowledge of water resources; appropriate
technology to develop and manage water supplies; impacts on water resources from climate
variability; land use changes and pollution; appropriate means and methods of managing
catchments and pollution sources; appropriate institutional arrangements; and vital needs in the
area of community information, education and awareness.
As this report is focused on "small islands", it is appropriate to define a small island. Islands with
areas less than 2,000 km2 or widths less than 10 km have been classified as "small" islands
(UNESCO, 1991). The classification is somewhat arbitrary, but is based on a realisation that for
areas less than 2,000 km2, a number of issues, including water resources management issues,
become more pronounced than those on larger islands and continents. Other definitions of small
islands have been applied in the past (e.g. 10,000 km2 in Hess (1990) and 5,000 km2 in CSC
(1984)). Most small islands are less than 200 km2 in area and many fit into a category of "very
small islands" which are less than 100 km2 or have a maximum width of 3 km (Dijon, 1984). In
very small islands, surface and groundwater resources are generally limited to the supply of water
to island communities and limited other uses. It is noted that many populated islands are less than
10 km2*while some, especially those on atolls, are less than 1 km2.
The Water Resources Management Theme (Theme 1) is considered in this report under the
following headings:
?? Summary data for participating countries and territories.
?? Water resources of small islands and water use.
?? Major water resources issues, concerns and constraints.
?? Actions taken to improve water resources management.
?? Actions required to move towards sustainable water resources management.
?? Summary of proposed actions.
The main focus under this theme is on the following topics:
?? Freshwater availability.
?? Water quality degradation.
?? Catchment management.
?? Knowledge of island freshwater resources.
?? Appropriate technology and methods, in relation to rural water supplies.
Where appropriate, reference is also made to aspects covered under the other five themes. Given
the wide scope of the Water Resources Management theme, there is, inevitably, some overlap
with the reports prepared for the other themes.
Pacific Regional Consultation on Water in Small Island Countries Theme 1, Water Resources Management
page 3
In addition to this theme report, four case studies dealing with specific aspects of water resources
management in small islands, have been prepared by authors from selected small island
countries. These case studies are:
?? Water management in Tuvalu with special emphasis on rainwater harvesting (Taulima,
2002).
?? Water management in Kiribati with special emphasis on groundwater development using
infiltration galleries (Metutera, 2002.
?? Water management in Maldives with special emphasis on desalination (Ibrahim, Bari and
Miles, 2002).
?? Integrated Catchment Management in `Eua, Kingdom of Tonga (Fielea, 2002).
2. Summary data for the participating islands
Summary data for each of the island countries and territories participating in the Regional
Consultation is shown in Table 1. The data focuses on characteristics which impact on freshwater
resources and water use in these island countries and territories.
Table 1 Summary data for island countries and territories
Approx.
Total Land
Number of
Country or
Island type according to
Sub-Region
Population
Area
islands or
Territory
geology
(in 2000)
(km2)
atolls
Pacific Island Countries
Cook Islands
Polynesia
16,000
240
15
Volcanic, volcanic &
limestone, atoll
Federated States
Micronesia
114,000
702
607
Volcanic, atoll, mixed
of Micronesia
Fiji
Melanesia
785,000
18,300
300 (approx.) Volcanic, limestone, atoll,
mixed
Kiribati
Micronesia
85,000
810
33
32 atolls or coral islands,
1 limestone island
Nauru
Micronesia
11,000
21
1
Limestone
Niue
Polynesia
1,700
260
1
Limestone
Palau
Micronesia
22,000
487
200 (approx.) Volcanic, some with
limestone
Papua New
Melanesia
4,400,000
462,000
?
Volcanic, limestone, coral
Guinea
islands and atolls
Republic of
Micronesia
60,000
181
29
Atolls and coral islands
Marshall Islands
Samoa
Polynesia
175,000
2,930
9
Volcanic
Solomon Islands
Melanesia
417,000
28,000
347
Volcanic, limestone, atolls
Tonga
Polynesia
99,000
747
171
Volcanic, limestone,
limestone & sand, mixed
Tuvalu
Polynesia
11,000
26
9
Atoll
Vanuatu
Melanesia
182,000
12,190
80
Predominantly volcanic with
coastal sands and limestone
Other Pacific islands (Territories of USA and France)
American Samoa
Polynesia
67,000
199
7
5 volcanic and 2 atolls
French Polynesia
Polynesia
254,000
3,660
130
Volcanic, volcanic &
limestone, atolls
Guam (USA)
Micronesia
158,000
549
1
Volcanic (south) and
limestone (north)
New Caledonia
Melanesia
205,000
18,600
7
Volcanic, limestone
(France)
Island countries in other regions
East Timor
SE Asia
800,000
24,000
1 main island Volcanic
Maldives
Indian Ocean
270,100
300
26 atolls
Approx. 1,900 islands
Notes:
?? Populations and areas from Case Studies and Country Briefing Reports for the Regional Consultation (where
available) and SOPAC (2002). Actual population data maybe different than shown, as some of the data is from 1998.
?? Number of islands from: UNDTCD (1983), UNEP (1999), UNEP (2000), various National Environment Management
Strategies (NEMS) for PICs.
?? Some numerical differences were noted between data sources.
Pacific Regional Consultation on Water in Small Island Countries Theme 1, Water Resources Management
page 4
Represented are 14 Pacific Island Countries (PICs), 4 Pacific Territories (of USA and France) and
two countries (East Timor and Maldives) outside the Pacific region.
Most of the islands belonging to the nations and territories represented at the Regional
Consultation can be considered as small islands, according to the above definition. In fact, many
fall into the very small island category. Exceptions are the larger islands in the Melanesian
countries and East Timor.
Table 1 shows that four of the 14 PICs are in Melanesia, five are in Polynesia and five are in
Micronesia. Large variations in demographic and selected physical characteristics (total area,
number and geology of islands) are evident. Often the conditions within PICs vary considerably,
with conditions on outer islands being significantly different from those on main islands.
Most of the population in the PICs live in rural villages and towns (ESCAP, 2000) and the peri-
urban areas on the fringes of the main centres. In many cases, living conditions in the peri-urban
areas (fringes of urban areas) are poor and normal urban utility services (including water supply)
are sparse, inadequate or non-existent.
3. Water resources and water use in small islands
3.1 Types of water resources
While the topic of Theme 1 is Water Resources Management, emphasis is placed on freshwater
resources. Freshwater resources in small islands can be classified in two main categories as
follows:
?? Naturally occurring water resources requiring a relatively low level of technology in order to
develop them. This category, which is sometimes referred to as `conventional' water
resources, includes:
o Surface water
o Groundwater
o Rainwater.
?? Water resources involving a higher level of technology (sometimes referred to as "non-
conventional" water resources). This category includes:
o Desalination
o Importation
o Wastewater reuse.
Other "non-conventional" water resources include:
?? Use of seawater or brackish water for selected non-potable requirements
?? Substitution.
Where available, the naturally occurring water resources are inevitably more economic to develop
than the "non-conventional" water resources. The main water resources in both categories are
described in more detail below, as well as the major influences on the occurrence and distribution
of the naturally occurring water resources.
3.2 Naturally occurring water resources
3.2.1 Surface water
Where conditions are favourable, surface water can occur on small high islands in the form of
ephemeral and perennial streams and springs, and as freshwater lagoons, lakes and swamps.
Perennial streams and springs occur mainly in high volcanic islands where the permeability of the
rock is low. Many streams are in small steep catchments and are not perennial. Some flow for
several hours or days after heavy rainfall while others flow for longer periods but become dry in
droughts.
Pacific Regional Consultation on Water in Small Island Countries Theme 1, Water Resources Management
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Freshwater lagoons and small lakes are not common but are found on some small islands. These
can occur in the craters of extinct volcanoes or depressions in the topography. Low lying coral
islands rarely have fresh surface water resources except where rainfall is abundant. Many small
island lakes, lagoons and swamps, particularly those at or close to sea level, are brackish.
3.2.2 Groundwater
Groundwater occurs on small islands as either perched (high level) or basal (low level) aquifers.
Perched aquifers commonly occur over horizontal confining layers (aquicludes). Dyke-confined
aquifers are a less common form of perched aquifer and are formed when vertical volcanic dykes
trap water in the intervening compartments (e.g. some of the islands of Hawaii and French
Polynesia).
Basal aquifers consist of unconfined, partially confined or confined freshwater bodies which form
at or below sea level. On many small coral and limestone islands, the basal aquifer takes the form
of a `freshwater lens' (or `groundwater lens') which underlies the whole island.
Basal aquifers tend to be more important than perched aquifers because they are more common
and generally have larger storage volumes. Basal aquifers are, however, vulnerable to saline
intrusion owing to the freshwater-seawater interaction, and must be carefully managed to avoid
over-exploitation and consequent seawater intrusion.
The term `freshwater lens' can be misleading as it implies a distinct freshwater aquifer. In reality,
there is no distinct boundary between freshwater and seawater but rather a transition zone (refer
Figure 1). The base of the freshwater zone can be defined on the basis of a salinity criterion such
as chloride ion concentration or electrical conductivity.
Figure 1
Cross section through a small coral island showing main features of a
freshwater lens (exaggerated vertical scale) and location of an infiltration gallery.
Freshwater lenses often have asymmetric shapes with the deepest portions displaced towards the
lagoon side of the island, as shown in Figure 1. Typically, the freshwater zone of a thick
freshwater lens on a small coral island is about 10-20 m thick, with a transition zone of a similar
Pacific Regional Consultation on Water in Small Island Countries Theme 1, Water Resources Management
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thickness. Where the freshwater zone is less than about 5 m thick, the transition zone is often
thicker than the freshwater zone. The freshwater and transition zone thicknesses are not static
but vary according to fluctuations in recharge and possibly, abstraction of groundwater.
3.2.3 Rainwater
Rainwater collection systems are common on many islands. In small islands with high rainfall (e.g.
the islands of Tuvalu), rainwater catchments using the roofs of individual houses and some
community buildings, are the primary source of freshwater (refer Tuvalu Case Study: Taulima,
2002).
In other small islands, rainwater is used as a source for essential water needs (e.g. drinking and
cooking). In drought periods, when rainfall can be very little, or nil for many months, household
rainwater storages are susceptible to being severely depleted unless very strict rationing is
imposed. Common materials for rainwater tanks are ferrocement, fibreglass and plastic. Steel
tanks are generally not used, owing to corrosion problems, unless they are well painted.
Ferrocement tanks are commonly used in some Pacific islands (e.g. Tonga, Tuvalu, Kiribati,
Federated States of Micronesia) as they can be constructed by local contractors and community
groups. In recent years, plastic tanks have become popular for household rainwater collection in
many islands of the Pacific and in Maldives.
In addition to roof catchments, rainfall is sometimes collected from specially prepared surfaces.
Examples are paved runways (e.g. Majuro, Marshall Islands) and specially prepared surfaces with
adjacent storage tanks or artificially lined reservoirs (e.g. some islands in Torres Strait, between
Australia and PNG). Simple rainwater collection systems consisting of containers (e.g. plastic
barrels) located under the crown of coconut trees where rainfall is concentrated, are still used in
some islands (e.g. outer islands of PNG).
3.3 `Non-conventional' water resources
3.3.1 Desalination
Desalination is another less common method of freshwater production. Desalination systems are
based on a distillation or a membrane process. Distillation processes include multi-stage flash
(MSF), multiple effect (ME) and vapour compression (VC) while the membrane processes include
reverse osmosis (RO) and electrodialysis (ED). Descriptions of these processes are provided
together with approximate costs and a comprehensive reference list in IETC (1998). The most
common method used in small island countries is RO. Further information is provided in UNESCO
(1991) and SOPAC (1998).
In the Pacific region, desalination is used for regular water supply to resident populations on Nauru
(distillation using waste heat from power station) and on Ebeye, Kwajalein atoll, Marshall Islands
(reverse osmosis). On South Tarawa, Kiribati, RO units have been installed at a number of sites
including the main hotel, the hospital and one urban centre (Kiribati Case Study, Metutera, 2002).
These systems, two of which have failed, supply a small proportion of the total water supply
requirements. RO units are also used on some tourist islands for water supply (e.g. Mana Island,
Fiji and Akitua island, Aitutaki atoll, Cook Islands). In other regions, desalination is more common
on small islands for regular water supply (e.g. Malé' and resort islands in Maldives and a number
of Caribbean islands).
RO units have also been supplied and installed as an emergency source of potable water during
droughts (e.g. Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Tuvalu and PNG). In non-drought periods, are stored for
emergency use (Marshall Islands), are currently operating (Kiribati, Tuvalu) or have failed
(examples in Kiribati and PNG).
Desalination is a relatively expensive and complex method of obtaining freshwater for small
islands (UNESCO, 1991). The cost of producing desalinated water is almost invariably higher
than `conventional' options (e.g. pumping of groundwater) due to the high energy costs and other
operating costs.
The use of desalination in small islands is further discussed in sections 4.6 and 5.5,.
Pacific Regional Consultation on Water in Small Island Countries Theme 1, Water Resources Management
page 7
3.3.2 Importation
Water importation has been used for a number of islands, especially as an emergency measure
during severe drought situations. Water has been imported by sea transport (boats, or barges)
during droughts, for instance, to outer islands of Fiji and Tonga. Sometimes people on islands
with a water shortage will travel by boat or canoe to nearby islands with more plentiful water
sources.
Water can also be piped to islands close to large land masses. Water is piped, for instance, to
Manono Island, from Upolo in Samoa.
In many small islands, bottled water had become an alternative source of drinking water (either
imported or made locally by desalination plants). Invariably, its cost is higher than water supplied
by local water authorities.
3.3.3 Non-potable water sources
Non-potable water sources include seawater, brackish groundwater and treated wastewater.
There are many examples of the use of seawater and brackish waters in order to conserve
valuable freshwater resources on small islands. For example, reticulated seawater is used for
toilet flushing and as a source for fire-fighting in densely populated parts of Tarawa and Majuro.
Dual pipe systems are used to distribute water to houses and other connections one for
freshwater supply and the other for seawater. Seawater or brackish well water is often used for
bathing and some washing purposes on small islands. Seawater is also used on some islands for
cooling of electric power generation plants, for ice making and in swimming pools.
Treated wastewater is not a common non-potable source in small islands, but is sometimes
reused for irrigation of garden and recreational areas at tourist resorts and hotels on some small
islands (e.g. Fiji, Maldives).
3.3.4 Substitution
During severe drought conditions, or after natural disasters, coconut water has been used as a
substitute for fresh drinking water. People on some of the smaller outer islands in Fiji, Kiribati,
Marshall Islands and PNG, for instance, have survived on coconuts during drought periods. The
coconut tree is very salt-tolerant and can continue to produce coconuts once groundwater has
turned brackish.
3.4 Major influences on island surface water and groundwater
Major influences on the occurrence of surface water and groundwater resources are considered in
this section while further detailed information is contained in UNESCO (1991). These influences
include the physical characteristics of islands, climate and human impacts.
3.4.1 Size
The water resource management issues of scarcity and vulnerability to drought and other natural
disasters increase considerably as island size decreases. Islands can be classified as large, small
or very small, according to the definitions outlined in section 1.
Examples of very small islands are the sand cays, coral atoll islands and small limestone islands,
typically less than 1 km2 in area, where surface water resources are non-existent and fresh
groundwater resources are very limited. On these islands, freshwater sources are limited to
groundwater and rainwater. Other examples are very small volcanic islands where fresh
groundwater is very limited or non-existent, and geological conditions are not favourable for
surface water storages. On some very small limestone islands, the only freshwater source is
rainwater which may need to be supplemented in severe droughts by water imported by boats or
barges (e.g. in some islands in Tonga) or desalination units (e.g. Funafuti in Tuvalu).
The width of islands is also important. Long then islands generally have lower water resources
potential than near circular islands. Width is especially important for small coral islands, which
rarely have a permanent freshwater lens if the island width is less than about 250m.
Pacific Regional Consultation on Water in Small Island Countries Theme 1, Water Resources Management
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3.4.2 Geology and topography
Geological conditions are one of the primary determining characteristics of the type and
occurrence of freshwater resources. The structure of small oceanic islands is generally formed
from volcanic, carbonate (limestone or coral sand) or mixed geology.
Small islands are often classified according to topography as either `high' or `low'. Depending on
geological conditions, high islands have potential for surface water resources as well as
groundwater resources, while low islands generally have only groundwater resources.
High volcanic islands often have perennial streams or rivers (e.g. many islands in Fiji, Papua New
Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands and Vanuatu). In the smaller islands and small catchments of
larger islands, stream flows may becomes very low or cease during extended droughts. Volcanic
islands frequently have springs, both in elevated and coastal areas.
While raised coral limestone islands are topographically high, they generally have no surface
water owing to the high permeability of the rock. Nauru, for example, is a limestone island which
has an interior brackish lake near sea level. Surface water on low islands, if present, is likely to be
in the form of shallow, brackish lakes unless the rainfall is very high where it may be fresh (e.g.
Teraina island in Kiribati).
Coral sand and limestone islands generally have only groundwater resources (e.g. the atolls of the
northern Cook Islands, Kiribati, Marshall Islands and Maldives; coral and limestone islands in most
of Tonga, parts of the Federated States of Micronesia and some islands in almost all PICs). In
coral and limestone islands, topography does not have a significant influence on groundwater
resources (freshwater lenses) which occur at and below sea level. By contrast, the topography
and detailed geology of volcanic islands has a significant effect on the distribution of groundwater.
3.4.3 Climate and hydrology
The climate of small islands within tropical regions is quite variable, depending on geographical
location, island size and topography. The climate of small oceanic islands is governed by the
regional climate while small islands closer to continents or large islands may also be influenced by
local climatic conditions.
Average annual rainfall on small islands varies considerably between islands in the tropical Pacific
Ocean (e.g. Taylor, 1973 show variations between rainfalls in excess of 4,000 mm to less than
500 mm). In high volcanic islands, orographic effects can cause much higher rainfall at altitude
than in low-lying areas, while long-term rainfall does not usually vary much over low islands.
Two of the most important climatic influences on small islands in the Pacific region are tropical
storms and El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) episodes.
ENSO and anti-ENSO (also referred to as La Niña) episodes have a significant impact on the
climate of many small islands and can produce extensive wet and dry cycles. On many Pacific
Ocean islands there is a strong relationship between rainfall and ENSO. During ENSO episodes,
most Pacific islands experience extensive droughts while some others (e.g. the islands of Kiribati)
experience extensive wet periods.
Many small islands are affected by random cyclonic events which are a major problem for
communities, often causing significant storm damage and flooding. Storm surges have inundated
land, caused loss of life and severely damaged infrastructure in some small islands, for example,
atolls in Tuvalu, the Marshall Islands, Federated States of Micronesia and the northern Cook
Islands. During these events, freshwater lenses may receive considerable inputs of seawater, and
many months may pass before they return to a potable condition.
The impact of current climate variability in PICs, especially in relation to droughts, has been a
major focus in recent years (e.g. SOPAC, 1999a). This topic has attracted considerable attention
in the scientific community (e.g. Terry, 1998), the popular media, and by funding agencies (e.g.
World Bank, 2000).
In addition to current climatic variability, there is the possibility of climate change and sea level rise
due to the enhanced greenhouse effect resulting from worldwide emissions of greenhouse gases.
Pacific Regional Consultation on Water in Small Island Countries Theme 1, Water Resources Management
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Climate change scenarios for PICs vary according to location and the models used. Most models
predict an increase in frequency of El Niño episodes and increased intensity of cyclones (World
Bank, 2000). There is less certainty about changes to rainfall, which could impact on the
availability of island freshwater resources. Current scenarios indicate a small rise in sea level over
the next few decades (approx. 0.2-0.4 m).
The impact of current sea level rise scenarios on freshwater resources is likely to be relatively
minor, compared with other influences (e.g. present climate variability, human impacts). The main
potential impact would be inundation on the edges of low-lying islands and coastal zones of high
islands. Tarawa, Kiribati has been the focus of impact studies under possible sea level rise and
climate change scenarios. Results of groundwater modelling studies to assess the impacts on a
freshwater lens under the combined effects of pumping, climate change and sea level rise show
that impacts of sea level rise on freshwater lenses are not detrimental provided that land is not
permanently lost by inundation at the margins (World Bank, 2000).
Further aspects of the influence of climate variability and climate change scenarios on small island
water resources are presented in the Theme 2 (Vulnerability) report and in a recent publication
(Burns, 2002). These aspects will also be considered in the Dialogue on Water and Climate at the
Regional Consultation.
3.4.4 Soils and vegetation
Soils play an important role in the hydrological cycle and may significantly influence water
resources through their influence on evapotranspiration, surface runoff and groundwater recharge.
Important properties are type and thickness, infiltration capacity, and susceptibility to erosion. Soil
properties also influence the potential for contamination of groundwater, particularly on small coral
islands, and in sandy coastal areas of larger islands. In these situations, the highly permeable,
thin soils allow water and contaminants to move easily to the water table and into the groundwater.
The type and density of vegetation has important effects on the hydrological cycle and available
water resources. Vegetation intercepts part of rainfall, causes transpiration to occur and, on high
islands, may slow surface runoff and reduces erosion. Interception and transpiration by vegetation
decrease recharge. On many small islands, the native vegetation has been partially or largely
cleared for agriculture, urban development or tourism, and significant erosion of the landscape
may have occurred.
Depending on the depth to water table and type of vegetation, direct transpiration losses from a
freshwater lens may be promoted. For example, coconut trees on low coral islands act as
phreatophytes (i.e. they draw water directly from the water table) and can lead to a reduction in
groundwater resources in relatively dry periods.
3.4.5 Human impacts
Major impacts on water resources are caused by the pattern and density of human settlements
(rural, urban, peri-urban) and the location and type of activities (e.g. agriculture, forestry, mining,
industry, tourism). Impacts are most severe in sensitive water catchment areas (e.g. streams,
springs and groundwater systems which are used for town or village water supplies).
Human activities impact on both the quantity and quality of surface and groundwater resources.
Over-exploitation and various pollution sources have led to the depletion and/or contamination of
available water resources, particularly groundwater resources, on a number of small islands.
Land use changes can be significant. These may involve removal of trees and other vegetation
leading to increased problems of erosion and sedimentation; compaction and sealing of surfaces
leading to increased surface runoff, and sometimes flooding, and loss of potential recharge;
alteration of coastlines and construction of channels, leading to changes in groundwater storage.
Biological and chemical pollution of surface water and groundwater, caused by inappropriate
sanitation and inadequate solid waste disposal, is evident on many small islands. Other sources
of pollution are industrial discharges, hydrocarbon spills and leaks, and agricultural chemicals.
Further details of these impacts are presented in section 4.
Pacific Regional Consultation on Water in Small Island Countries Theme 1, Water Resources Management
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3.5 Water supply and use
As part of water resources management in small islands, it is important to understand the amount
and pattern of water use. The main uses of freshwater in small islands of the Pacific are:
?? Water supply for human settlements, both urban and rural.
?? Industrial (mainly in larger urban centres) and mining.
?? Agriculture and forestry.
?? Tourism.
?? Environmental needs.
Additional non-consumptive uses are hydropower generation (e.g. Fiji, Samoa), navigation and
recreation.
The primary use for freshwater on small islands is water supply to urban and rural communities.
Additional freshwater supplies are required in some islands to support tourist facilities, limited
industry and for farm and domestic animals. Overall, there is only minor utilisation of freshwater
for industrial purposes, including mining, on small islands. Irrigated agriculture is not common on
most small islands due to the limited water resources.
Further details of some of the more important water uses are outlined below.
3.5.1 Water supply and usage for human settlements
Potable fresh water is used for drinking and cooking and may also be used for bathing, washing
and cleaning. Other applications may include toilet flushing, cooling, heating, freezing, drinking
water for animals and garden watering.
The types of water supplies and associated management systems vary from centralised water
supply systems in urban areas to village and household systems in rural areas. The centralised
systems most commonly consist of source works (groundwater pumping areas and/or surface
water collection and storage), transmission pipelines and networks of distribution pipe systems to
consumers. These water supplies are sometimes metered so that water usage can be monitored.
Urban water supply systems are considered in detail in Theme 4 (Technology) while rural systems
are considered in this Theme.
At the village level on many small islands, freshwater is generally obtained in traditional ways and
water usage tends to be reasonably low, on a per capita basis. Methods of obtaining freshwater
include rainwater collection at the household level, groundwater withdrawal from privately owned
wells and, on high islands, collection of water from small streams and springs. In addition to fresh
(potable) water, non-potable water (brackish water and seawater) is utilised on some islands in
order to conserve valuable freshwater reserves. During droughts, private wells that normally
supply fresh groundwater may become brackish. This water continues to be used for some
purposes, for example clothes washing and bathing. In some islands, where residents have no
access to freshwater, seawater is used for bathing.
Typical rural water supply systems consist of communal systems and/or individual household
systems. Communal systems have a distribution pipe network based on either surface or
groundwater sources. Surface water systems normally use gravity flow pipelines from streams or
springs to tanks or standpipes in the village. Groundwater systems generally consist of a pump,
which is operated for a number of hours each day supplying water to an overhead tank feeding
standpipes within the village. Individual household water supply systems typically consist of a well,
a rainwater catchment or collection from a spring or stream source near the village. In some
cases, water is extracted from shallow wells dug at low tide on the beach.
Communal water supply systems are often managed by village or community `water committees'.
This may include collection of revenue to provide for operating costs (e.g. in Tonga, most rural
water supplies use groundwater, and village water committees raise revenue to pay for pump
operation and maintenance costs). Village water committees are also the basis of rural water
supply implementation and operation in the Melanesian countries.
Pacific Regional Consultation on Water in Small Island Countries Theme 1, Water Resources Management
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In other PICs, communal water supplies are operated by island councils (e.g. Kiribati) or municipal
administrations (e.g. Federated States of Micronesia). This may or may not include the collection
of revenue from households benefiting from the water supply.
On Funafuti, the main island of Tuvalu, rainwater is collected in both household and communal
tanks. Where shortages are experienced at household tanks during extended dry periods, water
is delivered by small tanker from the communal tanks. This service is provided by government
and a fee is charged.
Per capita freshwater usage varies considerably between islands and within islands depending on
availability, quality, type and age of water distribution systems, cultural and socio-economic factors
and administrative procedures. Water usage varies from low values of approximately 20-50 litres
per person per day (L/p/d), where water is very limited, to more than 1,000 L/p/d on some islands
where water resources are plentiful. Water usage can be high where piped water supply systems
are not kept in a good state of repair (leading to high leakage rates). Typical water usage in well-
managed pipe systems is in the order of 50-150 L/p/d.
Water usage tends to be higher in urban than in rural areas for a number of reasons, including the
use of water consuming devices (e.g. washing machines) and the inevitable leakage and wastage
from distribution systems.
3.5.2 Tourism
Water supply to tourist resorts may represent a reasonably high proportion of total water
consumption in some small islands, or parts of these islands. Water usage rates of 500 L/p/d are
not uncommon (UNESCO, 1991).
3.5.3 Irrigation
Irrigated agriculture schemes on small islands, where they exist, tend to be on a relatively minor
scale, although there are exceptions. Many small islands, particularly coral atolls and small
limestone islands, generally do not have either sufficient water resources or suitable soil conditions
for irrigated agriculture. Irrigation is possible and is practised on a relatively small scale, however,
in some of the high volcanic islands where water is more prevalent and soils are suitable for
agriculture.
Cultivation of root and tuber crops is practised in many Pacific Ocean, islands. One important
example is the cultivation of swamp taro on some coral atolls by digging pits to the water table.
The production of cash crops, such as sugar cane, involves high water use. These crops are
commercially grown with irrigation schemes on some islands. In Fiji, for instance, the greatest use
of water is for agriculture, primarily sugar cane cultivation.
3.5.4 Hydro-power generation
There are a number of small high islands where hydroelectric power generation schemes have
been implemented (e.g. French Polynesia and Pohnpei). Some larger islands have extensive
hydroelectric power generation schemes (e.g. Viti Levu, Fiji). Many other high islands have the
potential for hydroelectric power generation.
3.6 Freshwater resources and use in the participating islands
A summary of the main freshwater resources and uses for each of the island countries and
territories participating in the Regional Consultation is shown in Table 2.
Pacific Regional Consultation on Water in Small Island Countries Theme 1, Water Resources Management
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Table 2 Summary of freshwater resources in participating islands
Country or
Main freshwater resources1
Main freshwater uses2
Territory
Pacific Island Countries
Cook Islands
SW, GW, RW
WS, T
Federated States of
SW, GW, RW
Micronesia
Fiji
SW, GW, RW, D (tourist resort only)
WS, T, H, I
Kiribati
GW, RW, D (limited)
WS
Marshall Islands
RW (from airport catchment and buildings),
WS
GW, D (emergency)
Nauru
D (regular use), RW, GW (limited)
WS
Niue
GW, RW
WS
Palau
SW, GW, RW
WS
Papua New Guinea
SW, GW, RW
WS, M
Samoa
SW, GW, RW
WS
Solomon Islands
SW, GW, RW
WS
Tonga
GW, RW, SW (limited)
WS
Tuvalu
RW (primary), GW (limited), D (emergency)
WS
Vanuatu
SW, GW, RW
WS
Other Pacific islands (Territories of USA and France)
American Samoa
SW, GW, RW
WS
French Polynesia
SW, GW, RW
WS, T
Guam
SW, GW, RW, D
WS
New Caledonia
SW, GW, RW
WS
Island countries in other regions
East Timor
SW, GW, RW
WS, I
Maldives
D (main island of Malé); GW, RW (outer
WS
islands)
Notes:
1. SW = Surface water, GW = groundwater, RW = rainwater; D = desalination.
2. WS = water supply to communities, T = tourism, H = hydroelectricity, M = mining.
4. Major water resources issues, concerns and constraints
4.1 Overview
This section summarises major issues and concerns about, and current constraints to, sustainable
management of water resources in small island countries of the Pacific region. Many of these also
apply to small and larger islands in other regions. As mentioned in section 1, sustainability is
interpreted to mean the capacity of freshwater resources to sustain the health and social well
being of communities (rural and urban) and to provide sufficient water to meet environmental
needs (particularly needs of animals and birds). The issue of sustainable water resources
management therefore relates to a broad range of topics, some of which are considered in detail
in Theme 1, while others are considered in the five other themes.
Key issues, concerns and constraints, which are considered in this section within the scope of
Theme 1, are:
?? Freshwater availability issues including increasing demands for water.
?? Water quality degradation in surface water and groundwater catchments, with consequent
downstream impacts on human health and the environment.
?? Insufficient knowledge of island freshwater resources.
?? Insufficient education, training and capacity in water resources.
Pacific Regional Consultation on Water in Small Island Countries Theme 1, Water Resources Management
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?? Inappropriate technology and methods, in relation to rural water supplies.
?? Catchment management issues.
?? Other issues and constraints.
Other key water resource management issues and concerns, as listed below, are considered in
detail in the overview reports for the other five themes. These issues and concerns are also briefly
mentioned, as appropriate, in this section.
?? Vulnerability of water resources to natural hazards and climate variability and change
(Theme 2, Vulnerability).
?? Insufficient community education, awareness and participation (Theme 3, Awareness).
?? Water leakage and other losses including wastage in distribution systems (Theme 4,
Technology).
?? Legislation, policy, planning and administrative issues (Theme 5, Institutional
Arrangements).
?? Role of donor agencies and other financing organisations in water resources projects
(Theme 6, Finance).
Much of the material in this section is based on a synopsis of information on freshwater and
watershed management issues in the Pacific region, which was prepared for SPREP as part of
their International Waters Programme (Falkland, 2002).
4.2 Freshwater availability and demand for water
Sustainability of freshwater resources is dependent on both their availability and on the demand
for these resources. The issue of sustainability becomes more critical for islands of small size
where population densities are high, for example some of the more densely populated islands of
atolls (e.g. Tarawa, Kiribati; Majuro, Marshall Islands, Funafuti, Tuvalu and Malé, Maldives). In
such islands, the fresh groundwater resources are (or have been in the case of Malé) under stress
to supply even basic human needs. In the case of Malé, the groundwater resources have been
depleted to the extent where desalination of seawater is now required to supply most of the water
needs of the population (refer Maldives Case Study: Bari, Ibrahim, Bari and Miles, 2002).
4.2.1 Availability of water resources
Major influences and constraints on the availability of water resources on small islands are:
?? Physical characteristics and climatic conditions, as outlined in section 3.4. In particular, the
area and geology of islands have major influences on available naturally occurring water
resources.
?? Climatic variability. Surface water resources are often severely depleted, and sometimes
exhausted, during extended droughts. Groundwater resources also become depleted in
drought periods, and may under natural (no pumping) conditions become brackish on small
islands or near coastal zones of larger islands. During moderate to severe droughts,
rainwater storages may become very low or empty, and insufficient even for the most basic
of needs (e.g. drinking and cooking). In many small islands with low average rainfall and a
high variability (e.g. Kiritimati Island in Kiribati), rainwater catchments do not offer a
sustainable water supply and other sources are required (e.g. groundwater). Very small
islands with highly permeable geological conditions (e.g. small limestone islands) are
particularly vulnerable to droughts. These islands have no potential for surface water and
very little, if any, potential for fresh groundwater. During droughts when rainwater
catchments are no longer able to supply freshwater, other measures have been
implemented such as importation by boat (e.g. outer islands of Tonga and Fiji) or installation
of desalination units (e.g. Marshall Islands, Kiribati, PNG, Tuvalu). These measures are
expensive and only partially successful.
?? Water resources development methods. For example, in otherwise favourable conditions,
inappropriate groundwater pumping systems can readily induce saltwater intrusion if care is
not taken in their design and operation. Systems are sometimes designed and implemented
Pacific Regional Consultation on Water in Small Island Countries Theme 1, Water Resources Management
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without the necessary investigations and monitoring arrangements required to ensure
sustainable pumping rates (i.e. rates which do not induce saline intrusion) are applied.
?? Land management practices. On high islands, inappropriate clearing of native forest for
timber, agricultural land and other activities, can easily cause erosion problems with
consequent downstream water quality deterioration. Clearing of native vegetation and
conversion to open land for grazing of animals or planting of crops increases peak stream
flows after heavy rainfall. This is due to decreased interception and retention of water by the
vegetation and leaf litter and decreased infiltration into the soil. Clearing can also lead to
decreased baseflow (low flow) in streams causing lower yields for other purposes (e.g.
potable water supply).
?? Biological and chemical pollution. These have major impacts on the quality of fresh surface
water and groundwater resources with ensuing impacts on human health, as outlined in
section 4.3.
4.2.2 Water demand
Demands on available water resources are increasing, sometimes rapidly, in many small islands in
the Pacific and other regions, due to the following factors:
?? Increasing populations and urbanisation. Populations are increasing, sometimes rapidly, in
many PICs, especially on main islands. Urban water supplies have difficulty keeping pace
with urban expansion in some cases. In others, water supplies are not capable of delivering
water on a 24-hour basis owing to the additional demand, but also due to high leakage and
sometimes wastage. A current example is urban Tarawa, Kiribati, where the piped water
supply system is available for a few hours only each day.
?? Growing expectations for water supply by urban populations is increasing the water demand
per capita. Past estimates of reasonable per capita water usage (say 50 litres/person/day or
L/p/d) are now not capable of meeting normal expectations of reasonable consumption
levels. Recent design estimates, based on analysis of usage in larger villages and small
towns, suggest demands of about 100-150 L/p/d (e.g. TWB, 1997; Goodwin, 2000; AusAID,
2000). Per capita water usage in principal regional towns with continuous water supplies
can be of the order of 250-330 L/p/d, according to a finding from an ADB funded
benchmarking survey of PIC water utilities in 2000-2001 (information supplied by SOPAC).
?? On islands where flush toilets are installed (normally only in urban areas), significant
quantities of water (30- 40% of total demand) may be used for flushing. Hence, the use of
flush toilets may have a large impact on water resources. This was taken into consideration
for the design of reticulated sewerage systems in Tarawa and Majuro with seawater being
used as the flushing water.
?? Increasing demands for water in other sectors, for example, tourism, agriculture, industry
and mining. The growth of tourism on some very small islands puts considerable pressure
on available water resources and, in many cases, requires the use of other solutions (e.g.
desalination, wastewater reuse).
?? Leakage and other losses from piped distribution systems act to increase the demand for
freshwater. Such losses in urban centres and larger rural villages of many PICs are
recognised as a major issue by the Pacific Water Association (PWA) and SOPAC (e.g.
SOPAC, 1999b). Where metering data is available, it is often found that over 50% of the
water diverted or pumped from sources is lost through leakage from pipelines. Increased
abstractions to supply leakages may lead to over-exploitation of available water sources. In
many cases, water shortages during droughts (and often in more normal rainfall periods)
could be averted or at least minimised, if regular and systematic leakage control and other
demand management measures (education and awareness) were implemented. In addition,
infrastructure costs to develop additional sources to supply future demands could be
delayed.
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4.3 Water quality degradation
Degradation of water quality is a major problem and an increasing threat to surface water and
groundwater resources and potable water supply systems in many small islands of the Pacific and
other regions. Contamination can originate from point source discharges of pollutants and diffuse
pollution sources.
The small size and steep slopes of many surface water catchments on many high islands enable
water and pollutants to move quickly to downstream areas. Also, the highly permeable soils and
shallow water tables on many small coral islands enable pollutants to easily migrate to fresh
groundwater. While the timeframe is rapid for the impacts of pollution to occur, the reversal of
impacts is difficult and time consuming.
The issue of water quality degradation in PICs has been highlighted in reports over many years,
for example, Brodie et al (1984), Lau and Mink (1987), Detay et al (1989), Miller et al (1991),
UNESCO (1991), Dillon (1997), UNEP (2000), Crennan (2001), Falkland (2002) and Crennan and
Berry (2002).
4.3.1 Pollution sources
Surface water and groundwater quality has been degraded in many small islands by a variety of
pollution sources as follows.
?? Discharges of untreated or partially treated wastewater (from sanitation and greywater
systems) with associated pathogenic organisms into streams, rivers and groundwater
aquifers. The rapid urbanisation in some islands has put great pressure on both surface
water supply catchments used for urban and nearby rural water supplies (e.g. Apia, Samoa).
The dominant source of serious faecal contamination in the Ba River and estuary, Fiji was
found to be the nearby urban area (Anderson et al, 1999). Groundwater underlying
settlements, both urban and rural, is highly vulnerable to contamination, especially on low-
lying coral islands. Further details of this major issue are provided in section 4.3.3.
?? Direct faecal contamination from animals (e.g. cattle, pigs). Waste matter runoff from
commercial piggeries and from less formalised urban and village pigpens is a major source
of stream pollution in many small Pacific islands (UNEP, 2000). On some islands including
those with vulnerable groundwater resources, animals are allowed to wander freely through
village areas with defecation occurring at random and sometimes close to wells. Human
defecation in the `bush' (often in urban areas) or on the beach is a necessary sanitation
practice in some crowded urban communities on atolls, where sanitation systems are not
available for all to use. Wells utilised for potable and other purposes are not always
covered, and often have inadequate protection around the base, enabling pollutants to wash
in after heavy rainfall.
?? Inadequate solid waste disposal sites (e.g. close to streams; above groundwater systems; in
or above water catchment areas). This is especially serious where solid waste, containing
toxic chemicals and hydrocarbon residues, is dumped over, or close to, fresh groundwater
areas. Locating landfill sites on the edges of an island (as in some very small islands with
limited options for land disposal of solid waste), acts to keep pollution away from freshwater
resources but can have major impact on near-shore water quality and marine resources. On
some islands, there is also a threat of groundwater pollution from cemeteries and burial
sites.
?? Increased sediment discharges, high turbidity and colour problems in streams due to soil
erosion on high islands. Serious erosion is often caused by extensive or inappropriate
logging of native forests, poorly designed or constructed roads and unplanned development
activities. Another issue is the use of fire to clear undesired weeds in farming and forestry
areas, which exposes the soil and destroys the structure of the upper soil layer (Baisyet,
1994). The risk of erosion in small `high' tropical islands is very significant due to high
intensity rainfall, destructive forces from cyclones and other major natural disasters, steep
island topography and often unstable soils if vegetation is removed.
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?? Chemical contamination of surface water and groundwater resources, caused by
uncontrolled use of agricultural chemicals (fertilisers, and often toxic insecticides and
pesticides). The extent of the problem is not always known, owing to little or no monitoring.
?? Leakage of hydrocarbons (e.g. from poorly maintained fuel storages, power stations and
pumping stations) and untreated industrial effluent discharges. On the island of Betio,
Tarawa atoll, Kiribati, the disposal of waste oil on the ground adjacent to the power station is
a source of contamination for groundwater. Detailed water quality tests at special pollution
holes near power stations on another atoll, namely, South Keeling atoll in the Cocos
(Keeling) Islands have revealed heavy hydrocarbon, lead and arsenic contamination (Barratt
& Falkland, 1999). Similar contaminants are likely to be present in polluted groundwater
near power stations on other small islands, especially small coral islands.
?? Persistent organic pollutants (POPs). These are a threat in some Pacific islands due to their
high toxicity, persistence in the environment, and ability to be transported long distances
(Aalbersberg & Thaman, 2000). In PICs, there is only limited data on the levels of the
12 UNEP-designated POPs.
?? Discharges and accidental spillages of toxic chemicals from mining sites into streams and
rivers (e.g. from some of the gold mining sites in PNG).
In addition to the pollution sources, groundwater systems on small islands and in the coastal
margins of larger islands can be contaminated by seawater intrusion resulting from inappropriate
pumping systems. This has led to the depletion of groundwater resources on a number of small
islands, as mentioned previously.
4.3.2 Major impacts of pollution
Impacts of pollution sources on both surface water and groundwater are often severe for
communities and the environment, as summarised below:
?? Impacts on human health due to microbiological contamination and elevated nitrate levels in
water supplies. Case studies prepared for this Regional Consultation highlight this problem
(e.g. Metutera, 2002; Ibrahim, Bari and Miles, 2002) although this issue has been recognised
for many years. For example, Baisyet, (1994) stated that "the pollution of drinking water
and the resulting health hazard may be one of the biggest watershed issues in island
countries of the South Pacific." Also, this major issue of water pollution in the Pacific region
(and other regions) and the linkages with waterborne diseases has been raised in the past
(e.g. Detay et al (1989), Miller et al (1991) and UNESCO (1991)) and reiterated in more
recent reports including ADB (1999), SOPAC et al (2001), Falkland (2002), Crennan and
Berry (2002). The high incidence of diarrhoeal diseases and other infectious diseases (e.g.
hepatitis, typhoid and sometimes cholera) on some small islands is often caused by poor
quality groundwater used as a source of drinking water (e.g. Micronesian Source Water
Protection Coalition, 2001; FSM, 2002, Metutera, 2002). Outbreaks of cholera in PICs have
been linked to contaminated water (e.g. Tarawa in 1977, and Federated States of
Micronesia (e.g. Chuuk in 1982-83 and Pohnpei in 2000). The incidence of diarrhoeal
diseases in PICs has been found to vary with water availability and climate. High incidences
tend to be associated with low water availability and higher temperatures (Singh et al, 2001)
?? Impacts on human health from chemical pollution, either directly from the water or through
the food chain.
?? Impacts on physical quality of water supplies making the water unusable for days to months.
On the island of `Eua in Tonga, high turbidity and suspended solids are experienced by
consumers after periods of heavy rainfall. The water becomes unusable for a day or more.
The water quality problems on `Eua are at least partly due to tree clearing and cattle grazing
within the formerly forested catchment above the water supply intakes. Further details are
provided in the Case Study for `Eua, Tonga (Fielea, 2002).
?? The effectiveness of water supply intakes and treatment systems is compromised by high
suspended sediment loads, leading to higher costs of providing clean, safe water supplies.
For instance, Apia's water supply, which is fed from a number of catchments above the
town, requires filtration (roughing filter and slow sand filter) and disinfection (chlorination) to
Pacific Regional Consultation on Water in Small Island Countries Theme 1, Water Resources Management
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achieve adequate water quality for the consumers. After very heavy rainfall, treatment
plants have been overtopped by floods and covered in sediment from contributing catchment
areas, causing disruption to water supplies for months (e.g. water supply for Apia was
severely disrupted after a major flood in April 2001). This sort of event is most likely
unavoidable, but the frequency of major flooding which can cause such problems is
increased by catchment clearing, leading to higher and more rapidly rising flows than under
uncleared conditions.
?? Sedimentation in water supply reservoirs and rivers is a problem in some islands due to
disturbances in upstream catchments (e.g. islands of Melanesia impacted by logging and
mining operations).
?? Adverse impacts from sediments, nutrients, chemicals and bacteria on riverine and coastal
environments (including aquatic life, fish resources, inner reef lagoons, mangrove areas and
coral communities).
4.3.3 Major issue of pollution from sanitation systems
Pollution from sanitation systems, as outlined above, is a priority issue since it severely impacts on
water resources and the health of populations in many small islands. Especially affected are those
islands with high population densities such as the main population centres in atolls. This problem
is a major one for many small island communities, as alternatives, while available, are not
necessarily affordable or acceptable to all people. Unless urgent action is taken, the problem is
likely to get worse as populations increase. Without appropriate, affordable sanitation systems in
many small communities on islands, there will not be any significant reduction in microbiological
pollution of groundwater or surface water resources currently impacted by unsatisfactory sanitation
systems.
The pollution problems are generally greater in urban and peri-urban areas with high population
densities where the sanitation systems are principally pit toilets (either latrine or pour flush) and
septic tanks. Many smaller villages however, also exhibit high bacterial levels in groundwater or
have the potential for such pollution. This problem is endemic in many small low-lying coral
islands of the Pacific and other regions and is a major constraint to improvements in water quality.
Pit toilets, which are normally dug to the water table, allow direct contamination of the freshwater
lens. Where septic tanks are used, the situation is better as long as they are well constructed and
maintained. However, this is often not the case, with raw sewage leaking from septic tanks due to
poor construction or overflowing due to blockages caused by lack of de-sludging.
On islands with thin highly permeable soils and shallow water tables (e.g. atoll islands and other
small coral islands), contamination can occur readily (e.g. a high level of contamination was found
in village wells on Lifuka, Tonga: UNESCO, 2001). Similar high levels of contamination were
noted in extensive surveys as part of the implementation of a reticulated sewerage project on
Tarawa in the early 1980s (TSP, undated) and continue to be a major problem (Kiribati Case
Study; Metutera, 2002). Detay et al (1989) and Miller et al (1991) report extensive bacterial
contamination of wells in islands in the Federated States of Micronesia. Dillon (1997) found the
thickness of the unsaturated zone (i.e. zone between ground surface and water table) is the most
significant influencing factor on groundwater contamination. Hence islands with sandy
unsaturated zones with thickness of 1 to 2 m are probably the most vulnerable of all. Limestone
islands also offer little protection to groundwater contamination unless they are overlain by thick
soil sequences.
Sanitation facilities are often sited without concern for the direction of groundwater flow, and
possibly according to guidelines which are not applicable to island environments (UNESCO, 1991;
Falkland, 1999a). The normally accepted minimum distance between a sanitation facility and a
well is about 15 m (50 feet). This is based on studies in hydrogeological environments quite
different from those found on many small islands. In many small coral islands such conditions do
not apply. Travel times through the groundwater between sanitation facilities (where wastewater is
injected into the groundwater), and groundwater wells can be short in such environments. This
has been clearly demonstrated in an applied research and training project on the island of Lifuka
in Tonga where tracers (dye and bromide) were used to measure the travel times between
Pacific Regional Consultation on Water in Small Island Countries Theme 1, Water Resources Management
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injection points and measuring points several metres away (Crennan et al, 1998; UNESCO, 2001;
Crennan and Berry, 2002).
The density of household sanitation systems is also a problem, especially in the small coral
islands. Acceptable densities and separation distances outlined from studies relevant to tropical
islands (Dillon, 1997) are well exceeded in many PICs, especially in urban areas.
The problem of extensive groundwater pollution is prevalent not only in coral islands in the Pacific,
but also impacts on many other small islands (e.g. coral islands in the Maldives). Pollution is
widespread and, as there are very few animals compared with the Pacific (e.g. no pigs, dogs), the
major proportion of this pollution is of human origin. As septic tanks are not always well
constructed and often dug to the water table and have soak pits near the water table, direct
contamination of the groundwater occurs (Falkland, 2000; Ibrahim, Bari and Miles, 2002).
4.4 Insufficient knowledge of island freshwater resources
4.4.1 Overview of issues and constraints
Insufficient knowledge of water resources, especially freshwater resources is a major constraint to
the sustainable water resources development and management on many small islands.
In many small islands, the knowledge of the type, extent and sustainable yields of surface and
groundwater resources is very limited. This is the case, even on some islands where water
shortages occur due to the exiting water resources being inadequate to supply demands in
drought periods.
Contributing factors to insufficient knowledge of island water resources are:
?? Inadequate baseline water resources assessments.
?? Insufficient regular monitoring of water resources.
?? Limited analysis and interpretation of water resources data for planning and design of water
resources development projects, and for water resources management of catchments.
?? Knowledge gaps requiring new or further applied research in a range of island environments.
These issues have been raised at many regional workshops and meetings over the past 20 or so
years (e.g. CSC, 1984; UNDTCD, 1989; UNESCO/SOPAC/UNDDSMS, 1994; WMO, 1999) but
the issues still remain. A summary of key issues is contained in specific publications (e.g.,
UNESCO, 1991; IETC (1998). Similar concerns are expressed for small islands in other regions
(e.g. Maldives: refer Case Study by Ibrahim, Bari and Miles, 2002). National agencies concerned
with water resources monitoring have indicated their problems and needs at these workshops and
meetings. Major problems cited are shortages of trained staff and training opportunities, limited
budgets and problems of co-ordination between internal agencies and with external stakeholders
(donor agencies, consultants). Further difficulties are presented by large travel distances, access
to remote sites, equipment failures due to exposure to harsh environmental conditions (humid
tropical environment, sea spray) and natural disasters (e.g. cyclones, flood damage).
The WMO meeting in 1999 reported that the most important reasons for undertaking water
resources assessment in small islands countries were:
?? Water resources development
o Databases for future planning and development;
o Master Plans for water supply development and water allocation to existing and potential
users;
o Knowledge of availability of water (for example, averages and extremes (droughts and
floods));
o Baseline data (hydrological and environmental) prior to future development;
o Identification of potential water supply for specific purposes (for example, hydropower,
mining, etc.); and
o Integrated water resources management (for example, taking account of the interactions
amongst land, water and environment)
Pacific Regional Consultation on Water in Small Island Countries Theme 1, Water Resources Management
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?? Sustainable management of water resources
o Sustainability of ecosystems
?? Hazard mitigation
o Flood forecasting and flood risk assessment; and
o Drought risk management
?? Development of water related infrastructure (for example, dams, bridges, culverts, etc)
o Island design standards based on local data for optimal design of future projects
The concerns about the inadequate capacity to collect good quality hydrological data and
undertake water resources assessments in PICs have been reiterated in two recent
review/proposals (Mosley, 2000; SOPAC/WMO/UNESCO, 2001). These are considered in section
4.4.3 and elsewhere in this report.
Further details of some of the key issues are provided below.
4.4.2 Inadequate water resources assessment
While adequate baseline water resource assessments have been undertaken for some islands,
particularly for some of the major urban centres on the main islands in PICs, this is often not the
case for smaller towns and villages on main islands and for outer (rural) islands.
In some cases, unsatisfactory water supply and water management solutions have been
implemented due to inadequate water resources assessments having being undertaken.
Examples of problems include:
?? Inadequate assessment of groundwater resources on small coral islands and selection of
inappropriate pumping technology leading to saline water intrusion and hence saline water in
water supply systems.
?? Inadequate assessment of surface water resources leading to installation of groundwater
pumping systems in the coastal area of a high island where a surface water source could
have been used, with lower operational costs, to provide supply to nearby villages.
?? Allowing settlement to occur in areas which once had good potential for freshwater resource
development but have become polluted to such an extent that they are unusable, or require
expensive treatment.
?? Installation of desalination plants on small islands as a "quick-fix" response to water shortage
problems in droughts, rather than a structured approach to assessing all water management
options and implementing appropriate water resources and water supply solutions.
Major causes of these problems include:
?? Insufficient and sometimes no hydrological data on which to base the assessments (e.g.
insufficient rainfall and climate data).
?? Insufficient emphasis given to water resources assessment in the planning phase of water
supply and water resources development projects.
?? Short-term consultants undertaking water resources assessments without a thorough
knowledge of island hydrology and water resources. Most water resource assessment
projects in small islands are implemented by external consultants, most commonly through
bilateral or multilateral funding agencies, and sometimes in partnership with local staff of
water supply or water resources agencies. The quality of the assessments therefore
depends largely on the expertise and knowledge of the consultant(s). As external
consultants are selected according to criteria used by donor agencies, which do not
generally involve procedures for vetting the knowledge and experience of the consultants.
Hence, the quality of the work can be compromised. There are many examples in the PICs
where water resources assessments have been inadequately performed with the inevitable
result that poor management decisions follow.
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4.4.3 Inadequate monitoring data
"If you do not measure it, you cannot manage it" is a very relevant statement in relation to water
resources management. Water resources monitoring (also known as "hydrological monitoring" or
"water resources data collection") should be a regular and ongoing activity, in order to assess the
long-term behaviour of water resources due to climate variability and change and the impacts of
various developments and land management practices. There is, however, often a shortage of
good quality meteorological, hydrological, hydrogeological and water quality data on many PICs.
From a review of issues faced by national hydrological services (Mosley, 2000), the following were
identified as priority items.
?? Real-time rainfall and streamflow information for flood forecasting.
?? A drought forecasting capability
?? Baseline information on the water resource in waterways having hydropower potential, most
of which would be at the micro- or mini-hydro scale.
?? Baseline information on surface waters likely to be affected by mining or forestry
development, and subsequent monitoring.
?? Water resource information, including streams, springs, and aquifers, at a reconnaissance
scale, in support of rural water supply projects
?? Baseline and ongoing monitoring information on the quality of groundwater, particularly in
the low islands and atolls where aquifers are subject to contamination by human and animal
wastes: about ten countries.
It is noted that these priorities were based on visits by two consultants (Rishi Raj, Fiji and Paul
Mosley, New Zealand) to 7 PICs (Cook Islands, Fiji, PNG, Solomon Islands, Tonga and Vanuatu)
and 2 territories (French Polynesia and New Caledonia). In addition, two other countries, Niue and
Samoa attended the WMO Meeting of Experts on Hydrological Needs of Small Islands (WMO,
1999) prior to the consultant' visits. The needs tend to reflect those of the larger high islands in
Polynesia and Melanesia.
A similar, but not identical, list of needs was presented in a review of hydrological needs and
proposal "A Programme to meet Hydrological Training Needs of Small Island Countries in the
Pacific"), jointly prepared by SOPAC, WMO and UNESCO (SOPAC/WMO/UNESCO, 2001). This
review considered a wider scope of countries including those mentioned above as well as the
Micronesian countries, Kiribati, Marshall Islands and Nauru. In SOPAC/WMO/UNESO (2001), the
main water-related issues and water monitoring needs were identified as:
?? Domestic, industrial / commercial water supplies.
?? Hydropower development - including mini and micro projects.
?? Irrigation.
?? Flood forecasting and river training.
?? Drought forecasting and resource management.
?? Saline intrusion into unconfined freshwater aquifers (lenses).
From the above mentioned reports, and the various meetings preceding these (section 4.4.1), the
causes of inadequate data are multiple, but include:
?? Inadequate and often declining commitment and funding from governments.
?? Insufficient institutional capacity to carry out water resource assessments including
inadequately trained or even no water resources staff.
?? Outdated or faulty water resources monitoring equipment.
?? Lack of logistical support items such as transport to travel to monitoring sites.
Government's are often reluctant to invest in water resources monitoring. It is often seen as a
non-essential activity, which can be delayed or cut until funding becomes available. This issue is
not only a problem in small island developing countries but affects developed and developing
countries alike. At a time when it could be argued that water resources monitoring is even more
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crucial then before (due to increasing stresses on water resources expanding populations,
increasing pollution, uncertainty over climate change and even climate variability), it appears that
the level of commitment to water resources monitoring is static or declining.
At present, the agencies with the most potential for water monitoring are the water supply
authorities, whose budgets and income maybe more adequate than other government agencies
involved with natural resources management
In some islands, monitoring is often only conducted over short periods in some islands in
association with specific projects, mainly donor funded and often aimed at water supply
improvements. The issues become greater in the smaller island countries, particularly in the outer
islands. Once the project is completed, the local staff, however willing to continue, inevitably incur
problems including equipment failures, no funding for maintenance and repairs of equipment, work
schedules which do not cater for such activity, lack of transport and other logistical factors.
Some specific issues and concerns related to water resources monitoring are as follows:
?? Good rainfall records are essential ingredients for long-term water resources assessment.
In some small islands, there appears to be a decline in recent years in the quality of rainfall
and climate data. Recent gaps in data in previously continuous records, often over decades,
are a symptom of the problem. The causes are not always evident but point to a general
lower commitment to data collection at all levels.
?? Higher technology solutions have been implemented to overcome staff shortages due to
budget cuts but these have led to inadequate data being collected. An example is the
replacement of manually read raingauges in outer islands with automatic raingauges
connected via radio or other communications links to main islands. In theory, this enables
rainfall to be captured on a central office computer. In practice, valuable data is often lost
due to (a) malfunctions with the automatic raingauges e.g. blockages which are not cleared
and (b) communications problems meaning that data is not transmitted.
?? In some islands, school-based raingauge readings (under the Schools of the Pacific Rainfall
Climate Experiment or SPaRCE program) are used as substitutes for former meteorological
stations with paid observers. While this is a commendable move to fill an `institutional gap'
with a community-based initiative, there are concerns about the quality and continuity of the
record. Monitoring of these (non-standard) raingauges serve as a very useful educational
tool for young people and the collected data is a useful supplementary source of data.
However, it should not be seen as a long-term substitute for records obtained from standard
raingauges by trained observers.
?? Insufficient streamflow monitoring stations for water resources assessment and other needs
(e.g. flash flood forecasting). Basic hydrological monitoring networks do not exist in nearly
all PICs. Most streamflow stations have been established for specific projects (Mosley,
2000)
?? There is generally very little, and sometimes no baseline water quality data. Water quality
testing, particularly for pathogenic organisms, is also not commonly conducted, especially in
outer islands. Testing is often conducted only after major health problems are detected.
?? There is also insufficient data available about the physical, chemical and other biological
processes that take place in island watersheds, including soil erosion and loss of biodiversity
as a result of land conversion due to logging and other practices. Quantitative evidence of
microbiological and chemical water quality deterioration in streams is largely unavailable
despite much anecdotal and visual evidence of physical deterioration.
?? Regular groundwater monitoring is not a common practice in some PICs. Very few islands
have monitoring boreholes specifically for the purpose of monitoring the status of
groundwater resources in response to climatic and pumping impacts, despite recognition of
this issue. For example, FSM (2002) recognises the need to undertake groundwater
monitoring for aquifer protection but mentions that this not being done.
?? Metering of groundwater pumps and surface water flow diversions, required for assessment
of water usage, is not always done. Where meters installed as part of water development
projects, they are often not maintained and sometimes not read. Valuable data is thus lost.
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?? Damage due to direct damage or flash flooding from cyclones and storms can cause
destruction to water resources monitoring equipment. Streamflow recorders established in
water supply catchments in Apia, Samoa were damaged by flash floods after very heavy
rainfall occurred in early 2001. The recent cyclone in the northern Pacific (Typhoon
Chata'an, July 2002 which devastated parts of Federated States of Micronesia and Guam)
caused very extensive damage and destruction to a network of 11 stream gauging stations
on Guam.
?? Vandalism and/or theft of monitoring equipment by landowners are another concern in some
islands. Vandalism of groundwater monitoring boreholes has occurred over many years on
the island of Bonriki, Tarawa due to disputes between the landowners and government.
Vandalism and theft of surface water resource monitoring equipment has occurred in an
number of countries. Solar panels used for charging of batteries at remote sites are often a
target of theft.
4.4.4 Limited analysis and interpretation of data
?? In many PICS, routine data processing, quality assurance checks and storage of the data
require improvements. Databases are usually limited to water quantity data in the form of
water levels, discharge measurements, and rainfall data, but few include water quality data.
Databases with partial datasets are sometimes distributed over several agencies involved in
water resources (e.g. Ministries responsible for water supply, natural resources, environment
and health). In some cases data has been lost due to computer problems (e.g. hard drive
failures and lack of back-up facilities).
?? There is often very little or no analysis, interpretation and use made of the hydrological data
by water personnel within PICs, as they are often too busy on other tasks or lack the
necessary training. Where analysis of available data for water resources planning,
development and management purposes is done, it is normally done by external consultants.
An example is the review of groundwater sustainable yields for the islands of Bonriki and
Buota, Tarawa using groundwater and other data and groundwater models (e.g. Alam et al,
2002).
4.4.5 Insufficient applied research
There has been insufficient research into some key hydrological issues in small island
environments. The need for further applied research in small island countries was raised in a
major review of water resources of small islands including PICs (UNESCO, 1991) and reiterated at
the Pacific Water Sector Planning, Research and Training Workshop in Honiara, 1994
(UNESCO/SOPAC/UNDDSMS, 1994). It has been noted that the results of hydrological research
and investigations from large islands or continents are not directly applicable to small islands,
owing to the different scales and response times. For instance, groundwater pollution, saline
intrusion caused by over-pumping, and the impacts of activities in surface water catchments can
occur very rapidly in small islands.
The Honiara workshop recognised that the need extended not only to technical and scientific
areas but also required an emphasis on social science and community-based issues. It was also
emphasised that training of personnel involved in water resources and freshwater supply systems
was a major need in PICs.
Despite some progress in certain applied research areas, knowledge gaps and the need for further
applied research and training remain. More recent workshops and meetings have again reiterated
priority lists of projects for funding (e.g. Sankey et al, 1997 and White et al, 2000). Falkland
(1999b) identifies current knowledge of island water resources and future needs for applied
research.
National governments have also recognised this need. For instance, the "Water for All'' draft
national water policy for Samoa (Samoa Government, 2000) states that ongoing research and
measurement of all aspects of water resources in Samoa is an essential step towards protection
and enhancement of water resources. National governments are also keen to be involved with
such projects, as demonstrated by the level of interest in two applied research projects undertaken
in Kiribati and Tonga in the late 1990s.
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Further details of applied research projects, either undertaken or imminent, are contained in
section 5.7 and recommended applied research needs are presented in section 6.8.
4.5 Insufficient education, training and capacity in water resources
4.5.1 Identification of needs
The issues raised in section 4.4 are to a large degree a symptom of insufficient capacity within
PICs to conduct adequate water resources assessments, to collect adequate hydrological data
and to analyse such data, and to carry out applied research into areas requiring further
understanding.
The need for appropriate water resources and hydrological training and education for water sector
professional and technical staff continues to be raised by representatives of PICs as a key
concern and constraint to water resources development and management in their countries.
Regional workshops and meetings in recent years where these concerns have been raised
include:
?? Water Sector Planning, Research and Training Workshop, Honiara, Solomon Islands, June
1994 (UNESCO/SOPAC/UNDDSMS, 1994).
?? Water Resources Workshop, Suva, Fiji, July 1997; (Sankey et al, 1994).
?? Meeting of Experts on Hydrological Needs of Small Islands, Nadi, Fiji, October 1999 (WMO,
1999).
Based on the concerns expressed at the meetings mentioned above, a review/proposal ("A
Programme to Meet Hydrological Training Needs of Small Island Countries in the Pacific") was
developed by SOPAC, WMO and UNESCO summarising the hydrological training needs of PICs
and recommending steps to address these needs (SOPAC/WMO/UNESCO, 2001).
SOPAC/WMO/UNESCO (2001) state that the most fundamental need arising from various needs
analyses was that of human resources development in association with wider institutional or
capacity building. As mentioned in section 4.4, a constraint raised in the report to developing
effective water resources assessment and management capability is the fragmented responsibility
for water resources.
The issue of training needs and overall capacity building has also been reiterated in a needs
analysis in a report on the implementation of a Hydrological Cycle Observing System for the
Pacific Island Countries or "Pacific-HYCOS" (Mosley, 2000). The "Pacific HYCOS" concept is
further considered in section 6.4 and in the Theme 2 report.
Again the need for training of water technicians was viewed as the highest priority at a recent
meeting of the Working Group on Hydrology of the WMO Regional Association V (South-West
Pacific) in January 2002 (WMO, 2002). PICs represented at the meeting (members of WMO)
were Cook Islands, Fiji, Niue, PNG, Solomon Islands, Samoa and Vanuatu.
One of the constraints to current bilateral assistance projects aimed at strengthening water
resources assessment capacity is the low number of staff involved in hydrology and water
resources at both technical and professional level in many PICs (SOPAC/WMO/UNESCO, 2001).
Often there may be only one or two people involved in these matters, and generally on a part time
basis, as they usually have other responsibilities. Bilateral and multi-lateral donors have, in the
past, placed water resources specialists into PICs to assist in training and development of local
personnel. These specialists have found themselves on occasions with few or even no personnel
to train as the limited relevant staff are away (e.g. training course elsewhere, leave, etc).
An additional issue in relation to education and training is staff retention, as sometimes staff, once
trained, move on to other government agencies, the private sector or move away (Mosley, 2000).
Current education and training initiatives, presented in section 5.9 while discussion of actions
required to address training and education needs are presented in sections 6.4 and 6.9.
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4.6 Inappropriate technology and methods
Numerous water supply technologies and methods have been trialled in small island countries.
While many have been successful, there are also examples of water supply technology that have
not been appropriate for either the natural environment or the socio-economic conditions.
Generally, systems requiring a high degree of operation and maintenance have led to problems.
Simple systems using tried and tested technology are the most enduring.
Some examples of inappropriate technology are mentioned below.
4.6.1 Inappropriate groundwater pumping systems
Inappropriate groundwater pumping systems have caused saline water intrusion and hence a
brackish water supply in a number of small islands. Problems have arisen where pumping rates
have been set too high, the wrong type of pumping system has been installed, or insufficient
consideration has being given to the sustainable yield of the groundwater system. This issue is
particularly important for freshwater lenses on small coral islands, where conventional wells or
vertical boreholes (tubewells) are not necessarily the most suitable groundwater pumping solution.
4.6.2 Desalination in some applications
While desalination technology itself is proven, the application of this technology in small island
countries presents a number of problems, which have often led to the failure of such systems.
Desalination is a relatively expensive and complex technology for obtaining freshwater in small
islands. The cost of producing desalinated water is invariably higher than `conventional' options
(e.g. pumping of groundwater) due to the high energy costs and other operating costs. In the
Maldives, desalination is considered as an expensive alternative, but one that is necessary in
some islands (Ibrahim, Bari and Miles, 2002). In addition, trained operators and a reliable source
of supply for chemicals and spare parts are essential for reliable operation.
The unit cost of supplying desalinated water from a reverse osmosis system installed on the island
of Betio, Tarawa is A$5.40/m3, compared with A$2.40/m3 for groundwater (refer Kiribati Case
Study: Metutera, 2002). In terms of energy (electricity) costs, desalinated water is about 16 times
more expensive than groundwater (A$2.81 compared with A$0.71).
Emergency water supply shortages due to the impact of droughts have led to the introduction of
desalination systems in some small islands. However, operational problems (e.g. inadequate
filtering of feed water or insufficiently trained operators) and high operating costs have resulted in
many of these units being shut down and, in some cases, stored for future emergency use.
Desalination units were installed in two of the Lihir islands of PNG as an emergency drought
measure in late 2000. These units only operated for short periods before the intakes were
damaged by high seas. Other problems were the high expense for fuel costs and lack of suitably
trained operators.
Similar negative experiences have been witnessed in the past on other small Pacific Islands where
this type of technology has been introduced in small islands in the Pacific (e.g. Kiribati, Tonga and
Tuvalu). A number of lessons have been learnt from these experiences and the application of this
technology should be carefully managed in future. Further comments are provided in section
5.5.6.
4.6.3 Inappropriate sanitation systems
While sanitation is not a specific aspect of this theme, it is necessary to make mention of
inappropriate sanitation systems, as these often adversely impact on the microbiological and
chemical quality of freshwater resources. As mentioned in section 4.3.3, pit toilets and poorly
maintained septic tanks are two examples. Because of their high pollution potential, particularly in
island environments where soils are very permeable and water tables are shallow (e.g. small coral
islands), pit toilets are often very inappropriate. Septic tank systems, while in theory a reasonable
wastewater treatment option, are often unsuitable due to poor construction and lack of
maintenance. In the past, these sanitation practices have been introduced by well-meaning donor
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agencies without a full consideration or appreciation of the groundwater conditions on small
islands.
4.7 Catchment management issues
The major issue for both surface water and groundwater catchments (watersheds) is water quality
degradation caused by human activity. Examples of activities and impacts on water quality are
provided in section 4.3. Problems have arisen on many small islands because people are living
above or very close to the water resources they use for water supply, including potable water.
Catchment management concerns the rational use and management of land and resources,
including water, with minimum impact on the environment within and downstream or under of the
catchment. Catchment management necessarily involves the people who own, reside on and use
the land and water resources. In many PICs, land (often called `customary' or `traditional' land) is
owned by customary landowners and decisions about the land are community-based. The issue
of customary land and its relationship to water resources and catchment management is a special
and important one in many PICs. Customary land tenure systems are not readily compatible with
areas designated by governments for water supply or water resources protection, especially where
restrictions have been imposed rather than agreed upon. Also, water rights are often not clear.
Legislation may claim that water resources are vested in the government yet customary land
ownership encompasses land and other resources, including water (e.g. Samoa Government,
2000).
In some PICs, conflicts have arisen due to the actual or attempted imposition or regulation by
governments of land uses for public purposes on customary land. In cases where mutual
agreement over land use has not occurred, conflicts, uncertainty and protracted delays in
achieving effective land and water management have resulted. Such conflicts affect both surface
water catchments and groundwater catchments where the main water resources issues are the
use of the water, building of water supply infrastructure and protection of the water resources from
pollution.
Catchment management issues related to the clearing of customary land to cultivate kava (or
sakau) in surface water catchments of Pohnpei, Federated States of Micronesia to resolve these
issues are well documented in Dahl and Raynor (1996) and Raynor and Kostka, (2001).
Cultivations of kava on steep slopes in upland areas led to soil erosion and sedimentation in
downstream mangroves, lagoons and coral reefs and adverse effects on water supplies. The
need for catchment management in Pohnpei was recognised since the late 1970s but initial
catchment management procedures were focused on a regulatory approach. Enforcement of
legislation failed as it did not recognise customary land tenure and resource use, and there was
very little community awareness and support for it. Measures taken since the late 1980s to
resolve these issue have focused on participatory catchment management (refer section 5.4.1).
An example of groundwater catchment issues on a designated water reserve in Tarawa, Kiribati is
documented in White et al (1999), and the Kiribati Case Study (Metutera, 2002). Bonriki Island in
Tarawa, Kiribati has an international airport and a declared water reserve (i.e. a groundwater
protection zone) above the main part of a large freshwater lens. Groundwater is pumped from the
lens for water supply for South Tarawa. Legislation from the 1970s has place restrictions over
land use within the water reserve to protect the quality of the groundwater which have been a
source of friction over many years between the landowners and the government. The
establishment of water reserves have failed to appreciate local community needs, culture, land
tenure and land use requirements (White et al, 1999). In addition, the legislation for the water
reserves shows a lack of identified roles and responsibilities due to the absence of overarching
water resources legislation. In the past 10-15 years, some landowners and tenants have moved
onto parts of the water reserve and established dwellings and associated gardens, presenting a
threat to the groundwater quality. At the same time, the condition of coconut trees and other
vegetation within the reserve has deteriorated. Further details are presented in White et al (1999).
Recent measures taken to resolve this issue, including the establishment of a Water Resources
Protection Committee to enable the local community and landowners in participate in measures to
protect the groundwater resource are outlined in section 5.4.2.
Pacific Regional Consultation on Water in Small Island Countries Theme 1, Water Resources Management
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Issues of water quality degradation in catchments are not confined to customary land. The Tonga
Case Study (Fielea, 2002) provides an example of catchment management problems in a surface
water supply catchment on the island of `Eua in Tonga. There the land is owned by the
government. Other parcels of land in Tonga which are used for groundwater extraction are owned
by either the monarchy, the nobility or the government, as there is no private or customary and
ownership under the unique land tenure system in Tonga.
4.8 Other issues and constraints
There are many other issues and constraints to sustainable water resources management. Many
of these are not specifically identified as aspects to be covered under Theme 1, but rather will be
addressed in detail in reports of the other five themes. However, as some issues and constraints
are very important in the overall context of water resources management and impinge on aspects
already covered in this Theme, a summary of the most important aspects is presented below.
These water resources management issues cover the following areas:
?? Government policy.
?? Water legislation.
?? Institutional arrangements.
?? Community awareness and participation.
?? Customary land and catchment management.
Many of these issues are identified in a number of key sources (e.g. UNESCO, 1991;
UNESCO/SOPAC/UNDDSMS, 1994; and ADB 1996) as well as other specific reports (e.g. White
et al, 1999; Crennan, 2001). A brief summary of some of the major issues is provided below.
4.8.1 National government policy
Based on the results of a recent study (Mosley, 2000), water resources management has, in
general, a low profile in many South Pacific Island countries. This is a major constraint to
achieving sustainable and effective water resources management. Governments generally see
other issues as having a much higher priority than water resources management issues.
Concerns about water resources management issues tend to be focused during droughts due to
water shortages, and shortly after floods, especially where there is loss of life and major damage
to housing and infrastructure. At other times, however, activities such as long-term water
resources monitoring tend not to be viewed as important and receive a corresponding level of
support and funding.
In general, there is a need for greater and ongoing commitment and support from national
governments in the area of water resources management and, indeed, in the wider water sector.
The Tuvalu Case Study (Taulima, 2002) provides an example of this issue.
4.8.2 Legislation
Important issues related to water legislation are:
?? There is often inadequate or no legislation to protect and conserve water resources and to
manage surface water and groundwater catchments (watersheds). Sometimes there is
legislation related to forest management or environmental conservation, but no specific
watershed management legislation.
?? Water rights are often unclear. Legislation may claim that water resources are vested in the
government, yet customary land ownership encompasses land and other resources,
including water (e.g. Samoa Government, 2000).
?? There is often insufficient political will and/or institutional capacity to enforce legislation.
4.8.3 Institutional arrangements
?? In some island countries, there is effectively no national water resources agency or `national
hydrological service' (Mosley, 2000). There is generally a meteorological service with a
prime function of collecting, storing and disseminating climate data. However, surface water
and groundwater resources data is often not collected, especially in outer islands.
Pacific Regional Consultation on Water in Small Island Countries Theme 1, Water Resources Management
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?? Where water resources data is collected, it may be by the water supply authority or by some
form of national hydrological service located in a ministry for the environment, public works,
or natural resources (Mosley, 2002). Such `services' are often under-resourced reducing
their capacity .
?? Roles and responsibilities of agencies involved in water matters are sometimes unclear,
fragmented and un-coordinated. For instance, there may be a lack of clear distinction
between agencies involved in the provision of water supply and the regulation and protection
of water resources.
?? Competition for funding between government agencies involved in water management.
?? Environmental impact assessment is almost non-existent in some PICs, and is in its infancy
in others. This may encourage the development of projects that are not sound from a
catchment management perspective.
?? National water quality standards and water supply guidelines are sometimes non-existent.
4.8.4 Community awareness and participation
Important issues related to the involvement and participation of communities in water resources
planning and management are:
?? Insufficient emphasis placed on community education and awareness.
?? Insufficient consultation with communities and opportunities for participation in decisions
affecting water resource development, management and protection in many PICs.
?? Insufficient recognition of the important role of women in the provision of water and
sanitation, particularly in rural communities within PICs.
?? Insufficient use of local knowledge in relation to the assessment of water resources potential
in some islands.
Measures taken since the late 1980s to resolve this issue and promote participatory watershed
management are outlined in section 6.2.2.
5. Actions taken to improve water resources management
5.1 Overview
This section presents an overview of actions taken in recent years to address the issues and
concerns raised in section 4. The focus is on the PICs but many of these measures apply to small
island countries in other regions.
The information presented in this section within the defined scope of Theme 1, is organised under
the following headings:
?? Water resources assessment and monitoring
?? Water resources planning and development strategies
?? Participatory catchment management
?? Appropriate technology for water supply
?? Appropriate technology for sanitation and wastewater
?? Applied research projects
?? Knowledge and information transfer
?? Education, training and capacity building
?? Inputs by regional and international agencies and NGOs.
?? Other relevant initiatives.
Measures taken to address other aspects of water resources management, as raised in section
4.8 (government water policy, legislation, institutional arrangements and community awareness
and participation), are covered in other theme reports for the Regional Consultation and in
Falkland (2002).
Pacific Regional Consultation on Water in Small Island Countries Theme 1, Water Resources Management
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5.2 Water resources assessment and monitoring
This section examines some of the steps taken to address these issues and concerns, presented
in section 4.4. Actions required to improve water resources assessment and monitoring, including
recommendations from recent detailed needs analyses (WMO, 1999; Mosley, 2000 and
SOPAC/WMO/UNESCO (2001), are outlined in section 6.4.
The actions taken to improve water resources monitoring are considered at regional, national or
institutional level and community or local level.
5.2.1 Regional level
SOPAC has provide assistance to water resources assessment projects in some PICs. Examples
include a groundwater potential assessment of Rarotonga coastal plain, Cook Islands (SOPAC,
1998b) and a water resources assessment on Banaba Island (SOPAC, 2000b).
Further inputs by SOPAC are provided in Annex B.
5.2.2 National level
Surface and groundwater monitoring programmes are being implemented in most PICs but to
varying levels of effectiveness. There have been a number of projects in individual PICs in recent
years, funded by either bilateral development assistance agencies, multilateral agencies and
private companies, which have been targeted directly at, or have included elements which have
assisted with, water resources assessment and monitoring. Examples include:
?? Installation of raingauges and stream gauging stations in Samoa and Rarotonga, Cook
Islands. These gauging stations and related water resources and database training for
Ministry of Works staff are part of a 5 year NZODA funded project.
?? Drilling of replacement and some new groundwater monitoring boreholes on Tarawa atoll,
Kiribati. These are to be used for investigation and monitoring of the freshwater lenses used
for public water supply on the islands of Bonriki and Buota (part of the ADB funded SAPHE
Project).
?? Drilling of groundwater monitoring boreholes, water resources monitoring training, database
installation in conjunction with groundwater development projects on 3 islands, Tongatapu,
Lifuka and Vava'u in Tonga for the Tonga Water Board (AusAID and EC funded projects).
?? Installation of streamflow monitoring weirs and groundwater investigations for a community
village water management project as part of a wider community development program in the
Lihir Islands, PNG (funded by Lihir Management Company, a gold mining company).
5.2.3 Community level
Initiatives to involve communities, particularly schools, in water resources monitoring programs
have been implemented in a number of PICs. One of the most widely implemented projects is the
Schools of the Pacific Rainfall Climate Experiment (SPaRCE) which is a co-operative field project
involving local meteorological services and schools. There are over 160 schools from
approximately 22 different countries involved in this program. Data from SPaRCE stations is
normally rainfall but in some cases includes additional climatic information (e.g. temperature and
humidity). This program is co-ordinated through the University of Oklahoma in the USA and
sponsored by a number of agencies. Further information is available at the SPaRCE website
(http://www.evac.ou.edu/sparce).
Live & Learn Environmental Education have developed a `River Care' project for implementation
through schools and their local communities. Based on the Streamwatch programme in Australia,
River Care is a water quality monitoring and education project designed to help raise community
awareness of pollution in rivers (Live & Learn; 2000, 2002). It is not intended to be a solution in
itself but is designed to raise awareness in students through river monitoring. Initially, it is
intended to introduce it to schools and communities in the four most polluted river catchments in
Fiji including the Rewa River catchment.
To overcome the shortage of staff to undertake routine water resource monitoring in Vanuatu, a
proposal has been written which would utilise school students in streamflow and water quality
Pacific Regional Consultation on Water in Small Island Countries Theme 1, Water Resources Management
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assessments (Vanuatu Hydrology Section, 2001). Students would receive training in appropriate
water resources monitoring and would be expected to undertake regular visits to selected sites to
undertake this work.
Specific projects have also been undertaken in conjunction with schools. An example was the
conducting of part of an applied research project at a secondary school on the island of Lifuka.
The purposes of the project was to study groundwater movement of pollutants in a small coral
island environment. The project was a practical example of groundwater quality monitoring and
dye tracing used to educate and raise awareness of water resources management issues
(Crennan et al, 1998, Crennan, 2001).
A number potential community based pilot projects focusing on specific freshwater management
issues have been identified in a recent report for SPREP under their International Waters
Programme (Falkland, 2002). These potential projects include the following
?? `Stream Health' (similar to `River Care') which involves monitoring of stream water quality
and demonstrating the linkage between upstream catchment uses and downstream water
quality impacts,
?? `Groundwater Health' focusing on groundwater monitoring to demonstrate linkages between
groundwater pollution from sanitation systems and water quality impacts in nearby wells.
?? `Leakage Watch' which involves flow monitoring at schools and other institutions to
demonstrate patterns of water consumption and promote water conservation.
In each proposed pilot project, the key elements are:
?? Community education and awareness raising of the issue.
?? Improvement of understanding of catchment (watershed) processes and impacts on
freshwater quantity and quality through appropriate data collection and monitoring.
?? Examination of factors which are impacting on sustainability and water quality of the
freshwater resources.
?? Demonstration of methods or technologies that can be used to resolve or improve current
conditions.
?? Discussion with communities and other stakeholders and preparation of future management
options and preferred approaches.
?? Local and wider dissemination of results through appropriate media.
In addition, community based projects related to sanitation, wastewater and solid waste
management are presented in a parallel report for SPREP under their International Waters
Programme on waste management (Crennan and Berry, 2002). These are also relevant to the
water resources management theme as many current waste disposal methods have a direct on
freshwater pollution and degradation.
5.3 Water resources planning and development strategies
This section examines activities taken in small island countries to improve the sustainability of
freshwater resources through effective and appropriate water resources planning and
development strategies. It is not possible to present a comprehensive overview of activities but
rather some specific examples are provided.
These strategies, which form part of an integrated approach to water resources management,
include:
?? Effective, long-term planning of water resources development.
?? Drought management strategies.
?? Conjunctive use of water sources.
?? Protection of water sources and supplies.
?? Water demand management and conservation.
Related topics dealing with appropriate water supply and sanitation technologies, primarily for rural
water supplies are considered in sections 5.5 and 5.
Pacific Regional Consultation on Water in Small Island Countries Theme 1, Water Resources Management
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5.3.1 Planning of water resources development
Effective, long-term planning of water resources development needs to take account of many
factors including the nature and extent of naturally occurring water resources, climatic and other
impacts on these resources, economic conditions, type and location of water demand centres, and
community attitudes and practices through consultation. Crucial to effective planning is the
assessment of water resources potential and water demands. Initially, surface water, groundwater
and rainwater resources need to be adequately assessed and sustainable yields estimated. `Non-
conventional' options, including desalination and importation and use of other water (e.g.
seawater) should only be considered in special circumstances (e.g. where freshwater resources
are very limited under normal conditions or during drought) but not before other simpler and less
expensive options have been thoroughly investigated.
Planning for water resources development has, in general, occurred to a satisfactory degree for
larger urban centres in PICs. Planning for water supplies in outer or rural islands receives
generally less attention. In some cases, solutions that are adopted are non-sustainable leading to
shortages in droughts or salinisation or pollution of water supplies. Water planning is generally
undertaken on an intermittent rather than continuous basis, often with external technical
assistance from consultants and funding from bilateral or multi-lateral development aid projects. In
many cases, there is limited local staff with sufficient training and often limited water resources
data on which to base the long-term plans, and hence the decisions, which are made may require
review in the future.
An example of current water resources planning for the long-term future is the current Sanitation,
Public Health, and Environment (SAPHE) project in Tarawa, Kiribati. The ADB loan funded project
aims to improve the development potential of Kiribati and the health and well-being of the people
through a improvements in water supply, sanitation, solid waste disposal and environmental
awareness and conservation. The water supply component involves a planning element to look at
long term water supply options for South (urban) Tarawa. Options include increased groundwater
extraction from the current water sources (Bonriki and Buota freshwater lenses) and other islands
in north (rural) Tarawa, additional rainwater collection and desalination. Key planning components
of this project have been a review of the sustainable yields of the Bonriki and Buota freshwater
lenses including additional water resources assessments, trials of constant flow systems to
households to control water demands and economic appraisals of the available water development
options. Additional assessments of groundwater resources potential in north Tarawa are planned.
Further details of this project and other water planning and management issues in Kiribati are
presented in the Kiribati Case Study (Metutera, 2002).
The water resources development for South Tarawa is an interesting example of water resources
management in a small island context where naturally occurring freshwater resources are very
scarce. For many years, it has been recognised that the freshwater resources need to be
conserved as much as possible. For this reason, water supply planning has been based on
relatively low per capita consumption rates (40 litres per person per day) and reticulation sewerage
systems in the main centres, built 20 years ago, have used seawater as the flushing water.
Currently, other sanitation options including dry composting toilets are being trialled for less
densely populated parts of South Tarawa. Further discussions of this technology, is presented in
section 5.6.1.
5.3.2 Drought management strategies
Drought management strategies should be part of the long term planning for water supplies.
While this is primarily an issue for the smaller islands with limited water resources, particularly
those susceptible to long droughts, it is also important for islands with larger landmasses or where
rainfall has a high variability. Examples of drought management strategies have included:
?? Water restrictions. Such measures were taken in the 1997-1998 El Niño drought in several
countries including PNG, Solomon Islands and Fiji (SOPAC, 1999a). Radio programs have
been used as a means of raising public awareness to reduce water consumption in some
countries (e.g. Marshall islands, Kiribati, Tonga and Samoa).
Pacific Regional Consultation on Water in Small Island Countries Theme 1, Water Resources Management
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?? Leakage control measures. On the main island of Rarotonga in the Cook Islands, where
surface water flows were less than half of normal flows at water intakes, the water supply
agency used leakage control measures to reduce the loss of water (SOPAC, 2000b).
?? Groundwater pumping strategies. To ensure sustainability of groundwater for public water
supply during droughts, some island water supply agencies have adopted the philosophy
that pumping rates should be set at a minimum constant rate, which has been designed to
cope with worst historical drought periods. This approach is used for groundwater pumping
from the islands of Bonriki and Buota in Tarawa. Another strategy is to pump at low rates
once water salinity levels reach a threshold level but allow higher pumping rates when
condition are favourable. This involves a detailed knowledge of the impacts of climate and
pumping on freshwater lenses that can be done only after sufficient monitoring data has
been collected and assessed. An example of an island where such a strategy is in place is
Home Island, Cocos (Keeling) Islands in the Indian Ocean (Falkland, 1999c).
?? Water conservation. An important part of the drought management process is to recognise
the effectiveness of rainwater catchments in supplying basic needs throughout droughts. In
the Ha'apai group of Tonga, where significant droughts can occur, many households
recognise that rainwater should be conserved for only potable purposes when regular rainfall
ceases. In other islands where the impacts of droughts are very severe (e.g. Kiritimati,
Kiribati), normal rainwater catchment systems cannot supply sufficient freshwater for even
basic demands.
?? Larger domestic rainwater storages. In the northern atolls of the Cook Islands, the main
current water supply source is rainwater although groundwater is used as a supplementary
source during drought, especially for `second class' water requirements. Following major
destruction of houses and community facilities on Manihiki atoll, northern Cook Islands, by
over-washing waves due to Cyclone Martin in 1997, rainwater tank improvements were
implemented. These included the installation of large in-ground rainwater storage tanks as
integral parts of new household cyclone shelters, as part of a move to more effective drought
management.
?? Rainwater tanks for communal use. In Tuvalu, rainwater collection is the primary source of
water as rainfall is generally high and drought periods tend to be of relatively short duration
compared with other parts of the Pacific. When water shortages occur, communal tank
water, is used to supplement private rainwater catchment systems. This water is rationed.
As a further step towards improving the overall capacity of rainwater storage for the urban
area on Funafuti atoll, public housing designs have incorporated separate underground
cisterns for private household use and for communal use in times of drought (refer Tuvalu
Case Study: Taulima, 2002).
?? Importation. Some small islands with limited or no fresh surface and groundwater, and
limited rainwater capacity are reliant on freshwater imported from larger islands. This can
involve local people canoeing to other nearby islands or, in larger emergencies, government
funded boats or barges supplying water to the islands (e.g. in some outer islands of Tonga
and Fiji).
?? Desalination: In some islands, desalination systems have been provided and installed as a
response to severe droughts, and stored for emergency purposes when rainfall conditions
have improved (e.g. Marshall Islands, Tuvalu). In the case of Kiribati, a desalination unit was
installed during the long and severe drought in the late 1990's and was kept operational
following the drought. The use of desalination systems to supplement potable water
supplies in droughts is an appropriate response, provided that it is not a substitute for more
effective and economical long- term water supply strategies.
?? Other sources. Communities on small islands have long known methods appropriate for
dealing with droughts. These have included collection of water from sustainable springs,
digging shallow wells on beaches to extract groundwater and travelling by boats to nearby
islands to collect water from more permanent sources. Other measures include the use of
coconuts as a substitute for drinking water and using brackish or seawater for non-potable
uses. It is probably true to say that very few communities will be totally devoid of freshwater
or substitutes (e.g. coconuts). Potential exceptions are islands reliant solely on rainwater or
Pacific Regional Consultation on Water in Small Island Countries Theme 1, Water Resources Management
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where population pressure is extremely high and available water resources are scare (e.g.
Ebeye, Marshall Islands).
5.3.3 Conjunctive use of water sources
The conjunctive use of water from different sources for different purposes can provide an effective
means of water resources management at the household and community levels. Conjunctive use
of water from different sources enables consumers to exercise some control over the sustainability
of the water supply and water quality.
Conjunctive use schemes on small low-lying islands typically involve using rainwater for `first class'
needs (e.g. drinking, cooking) and groundwater from wells for `second class' needs (e.g. bathing
and washing). There are many examples of this type of conjunctive use in PICs (e.g. for islands in
the Federated States of Micronesia, examples are provided Winter; 1995a, 1995b; Federated
States of Micronesia, 2002). The conjunctive use of surface water and rainwater is practised in a
number of high islands. Rainwater tanks adjacent to houses provide a convenient means of
supplying drinking water and water for bathing and washing can be obtained from nearby streams
(often used at the site). Sometimes three classes of water are present in urban or peri-urban
areas. For example, many houses in urban Tarawa where some houses have access to local
wells, rainwater and piped, chlorinated water).
Other forms of conjunctive use are evident in islands with limited freshwater resources in order to
maximise the use of these resources for potable purposes. As mentioned, previously seawater or
brackish well water may be used for bathing in some islands where freshwater resources are
limited. Seawater is also used for flushing water in reticulated sewerage systems in densely
populated areas of Tarawa and in Majuro, Marshall Islands.
5.3.4 Protection of water sources and supplies
Measures to more effectively manage and protect water sources from (further) water quality
degradation have been taken in some islands and are planned in others. These measures include
a combination of catchment management measures, application of appropriate technology and
procedures, and administrative arrangements.
?? Measures to control land uses in surface water catchments that cause erosion,
sedimentation and contamination from sanitation and solid waste disposal. For instance,
controls on the cultivation of steep slopes, clearing of forests and construction and use of
tracks and roads in sensitive water supply catchments are necessary.
?? Siting of groundwater supply sources well away from potential pollution sources. This may
include using certain islands on atolls or parts of islands reserved for freshwater extraction
(e.g. Tarawa). Where this is not possible, large open spaces (e.g. playing fields) provide
reasonable areas for the development of groundwater. A project was implemented on
Lifuka, Tonga to install infiltration galleries on sports fields within the urban area (the only
area which has a freshwater lens under it). The galleries were sited as far from human
habitations and pollution sources as possible in order to minimise the threat of biological
contamination.
?? Disinfection of water supplies that are impacted by bacteriological contamination.
Chlorination plants are present in most urban water supply systems in PICs, with some using
powder (calcium hypochlorite) and others using gas chlorination systems. They are rarely
used in rural water supply systems.
?? Filtration systems have been built and maintained to remove suspended solids and hence
clarify the water. Examples are the roughing and slow sand filters used for the Apia water
supply in Samoa. These require maintenance (e.g. replacements of sand) at more frequent
intervals as catchment water quality becomes worse.
?? Improved methods of sanitation to prevent ground and surface water pollution from
wastewater. This could involve waterless (dry composting) toilets (e.g. Kiribati, Tonga). In
the Maldives, other measures to protect groundwater quality on very small islands through
improved sewage treatment and disposal of wastewater are planned (e.g. low gradient
Pacific Regional Consultation on Water in Small Island Countries Theme 1, Water Resources Management
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"small bore" pipe systems to gravel bed hydroponics or constructed wetlands for sewage
treatment: Ibrahim, Bari and Miles, 2002).
?? Controls on areas where animals can be kept and/or methods to deal with animal waste.
?? Adequate bunding around fuel and other storage tanks.
?? Impermeable membranes and effective leachate control and disposal systems at landfill
sites and pollution monitoring boreholes to monitor impacts.
?? Siting and selection of appropriate methods of groundwater pumping systems that do not
cause saline intrusion. Siting of pumping systems in the central parts of coral islands will
ensure more sustainable freshwater supplies than those near the edge.
?? National guidelines or site-specific guidelines, with similar measures have been prepared in
some PICs in relation to groundwater protection, sometimes as part of draft or enacted
national water resources (or water supply) legislation. These have been implemented to
various degrees depending on local circumstances. In Tonga, for instance, legislation
enables the Tonga Water Board to establish groundwater protection zones over freshwater
lens areas used for water supply.
?? To maximise groundwater availability, it may be prudent to selectively clear vegetation,
particularly coconut trees, in designated areas, to reduce transpiration. Coconut trees on
low coral islands act as phreatophytes (i.e. draw water directly from the water table) and may
cause a reduction in available groundwater resources, especially during relatively dry
periods. However, this suggestion should be treated very cautiously, as coconut trees are
often a source of food and drink, shade and materials for building and other purposes. In
some islands, areas that have been already cleared for other land uses, such as airfields,
offer good opportunities for groundwater development, especially on low lying coral islands
(e.g. Tarawa in Kiribati, Aitutaki in the Cook Islands, Kwajalein in the Marshall islands).
?? Develop contingency plans for occasions when surface or ground water does not meet the
required quality (e.g. use rainwater for potable water). This is a sound measure whereby
water is used conjunctively and is typical of approaches on some atolls where other options
are not available.
Examples and further details are provided in other parts of section 5 and in the Case Studies for
Kiribati, Tonga and Maldives. In addition, community-based measures to cope with water supply
quality degradation in islands of Chuuk in the Federated States of Micronesia are outlined in the
Micronesian Source Water Protection Coalition (2001).
5.3.5 Water demand management and conservation
Water utilities in urban and some rural centres in PICs utilise a range of demand management
measures including metering and charging for water on user pays basis, leakage control, water
saving devices and education and awareness about water conservation.
Metering and charging on the basis of water usage is an effective demand management tool and
has been implemented in a number of PIC urban areas (e.g. PNG, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu,
Marshall Islands, Tonga, Samoa and parts of the Federated States of Micronesia). In some PICs,
metering and charging has been previously implemented but temporarily stopped due to
operational problems (e.g. Kiribati) or has not yet been implemented (e.g. Cook Islands). Water
usage reductions have been noted following the introduction of these measures. An example is
Apia, Samoa, where the consumption fell from an estimated 825 litres/person/day to
325 litres/person/day following the introduction of metering (Samoan Government, 2000).
In rural areas where water charging is applied, it is normally done on a flat fee basis and collected
by the village water committees (e.g. Tonga).
Where pipe networks are used to distribute water, active leakage control can greatly assist in
reducing losses. In recent years, a number of urban water authorities have instituted leakage
control programs (e.g. Fiji, Tonga and Samoa). The Pacific Water Association (PWA) is also
involved in leakage detection promotion, as it is recognised as one of the main issues facing its
members. SOPAC has been instrumental at raising awareness and dialogue on this topic through
a regional workshop (SOPAC, 1999b) and has conducted in-country investigations and associated
Pacific Regional Consultation on Water in Small Island Countries Theme 1, Water Resources Management
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pipe network modelling and training of local personnel, for example, Cook Islands, Fiji, Kiribati,
Niue, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga and Vanuatu (various SOPAC reports).
Measures to improve leakage in plumbing systems in houses and other buildings (e.g. offices,
schools) can have a beneficial impact on operational costs for pumped systems. In Niue, it was
estimated that a 55% reduction of water usage was achieved by conducting a survey of every
house in each village and repairing leaks in taps, showers and toilet cisterns. This measure nearly
halved operational costs for groundwater pumping (SOPAC, 2000a).
Water saving devices, such as spring loaded taps for standpipes and improved household
plumbing fixtures (low and dual flush toilet cisterns, low flow taps and shower heads) can assist in
water conservation and have been installed in some islands. In recent water supply designs in
Kiribati for villages on Kiritimati (AusAID funded water and sanitation project) and urban areas of
Tarawa (ADB SAPHE Project), constant flow systems have been included for each household so
as to restrict the total daily flow to a selected volume.
Education and awareness about water conservation is a most important part of overall demand
management and is presented in Theme 3.
5.4 Participatory catchment management
Catchments management issues were briefly outlined in section 4.7. While government agencies
are generally aware of the measures required to achieve effective catchment management, the
problem in the past in many countries, including PICs, has been insufficient attention to the
`human activity system' or social dimension of catchments. In PICs, this means the recognition of
traditional systems and values including land tenure systems and social structures (Falkland,
2002).
`Integrated catchment management' (ICM) has been introduced over the past decade to recognise
the importance of the social dimension and to integrate it with the physical dimension in the
process of catchment management. ICM has been defined as the `process of formulating and
implementing a course of action involving natural and human resources in a catchment, taking
account of the social, political, economic and institutional factors operating within the catchment to
achieve specific objectives' (Hufschmidt and Tejwani, 1993). ICM is effectively a component of
integrated water resources management (IWRM) applies at the catchment, watershed or basin
scale. IWRM is further discussed in the small island context in section 5.11.1.
`Participatory watershed management' (PCM) emphasises people's participation and action as the
central element of ICM. PCM has often been recognised as a more effective means of achieving
sustainable resource management, including protection of water resources, than the more
commonly applied `top down' approach (Hinchcliff et al, 1999).
PCM is not well developed in PICs. Worthwhile results have been achieved where it has applied
(e.g. Pohnpei and Tarawa, as outlined below). In other PICs, steps have and are being taken to
enable the participation of communities in catchment management and the rational use and
protection of water resources (e.g. "Water for All" national water policy in Samoa: Samoa
Government, 2000). Another example is provided in the Tonga Case Study of the island of `Eua
(Fielea, 2002).
5.4.1 Surface water catchment management in Pohnpei
Early failed attempts at catchment management in the 1980s were introduced in section 5.7.
Starting in the late 1980s, a number of measures were taken to rectify water quality degradation
problems through participatory watershed management. This management process evolved over
several years in Pohnpei with support from various agencies including US Forest Service, ADB,
SPREP and The Nature Conservancy (TNC). A multi-agency Watershed Steering Committee
(WSC) was established in 1989, with government and NGO representatives. Which conducted an
island-wide watershed education and consultation program, visiting all local communities. An
Integrated Watershed Management Strategy (WMS) was developed by TNC with assistance from
SPREP and ADB, and approved in 1996 (Raynor and Kostka, 2001). The WMS was based on
participation of community members, traditional and civil leaders and the private sector. It
recognised the authority of local villagers to manage their own forest and marine resources. One
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of the main objectives of the WMS was to develop a practical cost-effective monitoring program to
measure the status and trends of Pohnpei's watershed resources and to be used as a guide to
community-based resource management. A monitoring program was developed in 1997 (Crocker
et al, 1997). TNC has assisted its local partner, the Conservation Society of Pohnpei (CSP), and
others in community-based conservation monitoring and enforcement throughout Pohnpei. They
have also assisted farmers to plant kava (sakau) in the lowlands, under the shade of commercial
fruit trees ("Grow Low" campaign).
During this period, the Pohnpei Watershed Conservation Area Project under the South Pacific
Biodiversity Conservation Programme (SPBCP) was also established. Its main objective was to
protect and conserve the ecological functions and processes of the upland forest within the
Pohnpei Island Watershed Forest Reserve area and the mangrove forests (SPREP, 2001). Over
time, this project has evolved from a defined watershed area to the island-wide conservation effort
involving nearly 200 villages in the five municipalities, relying mainly on the work of the TNC and
CSP. The project has been generally successful in raising awareness on the need for
conservation of the upland watershed. Numerous posters in the local language have been printed
and distributed, and project staff have worked very closely with local communities. While not all
aspects of this initiative have been successful (refer SPREP, 2001), the overall process of
developing the participatory approach to catchment management has been successful.
5.4.2 Groundwater catchment management in Tarawa
White et al (1999) presented a list of recommendations aimed at both the institutional and the
community level, which could assist in longer-term resolution of potentially ongoing issues. One
concept advanced to the government, was to establish village-based committees for the continued
protection and management of activities on the freshwater lenses (P. Jones, pers. comm., 2001),
representing a step towards participatory catchment management.
Recent attempts to achieve better management of the Bonriki and nearby Buota freshwater
reserves, Tarawa (refer section 5.7) have included the establishment of a Water Resources
Protection Committee to enable the local community and landowners in participate in measures to
protect the groundwater resource (Metutera, 2002). Landowners and others who are living in the
freshwater reserve are being encouraged to move voluntarily. A compromise solution was found
where most could be resettled along a 50m wide strip on the ocean side of Bonriki island, and
effectively on the edge of the freshwater lens. After a series of land boundary adjustments, some
of the people have moved. This solution was reached after consultation between the Bonriki
landowners and government, recognising that the water reserve was a necessary long- term water
supply for urban Tarawa.
5.5 Appropriate technology for water supply
5.5.1 Overview
Appropriate technologies for application in small island developing states to achieve sustainable
development and management of water resources has been the focus of a major initiative in the
past few years. UNEP and the International Environmental Technology Centre (IETC) sponsored
a series of surveys, workshops and publications to evaluate and present a number of appropriate
or alternative technologies for `freshwater augmentation' in small island developing states. In the
Pacific region, this work was undertaken largely by SOPAC with inputs from individuals in the
Pacific, Indian Ocean and South China Sea regions. A workshop was held at SOPAC in February
1996 (SOPAC, 1996), which was followed by preparation and publication of a Source Book on
Alternative Technologies for Freshwater Augmentation in Small Island Developing States (IETC,
1998). The purpose of the book is to provide information to water and environmental managers
and planners about available methods for sustainable development of freshwater resources on
small islands.
There have been other projects and reports aimed at providing useful methods, approaches and
designs for sustainable water resources development and management. SOPAC has been a key
agency in many of these initiatives, particularly in its role as a regional co-ordinator of workshops
on relevant topics (e.g. hand pumps, solar pumps, demand management and appropriate
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sanitation for the management, conservation and protection of freshwater resources). A number
of bilateral agencies including NZODA and AusAID have funded projects with a focus on providing
sustainable solutions to water management.
As mentioned previously, the focus in this report on rural water supply systems and hence
consideration of appropriate technologies applying to these systems are considered. Urban water
supply technology and approaches are considered in Theme 4.
5.5.2 Rainwater harvesting
In general, household rainwater tanks are one of the most appropriate solutions to improving
potable water supplies and they also increase the level of community involvement and self-reliance
in rural water supply schemes.
The vital importance of rainwater is evident in many islands and may in fact be the primary, and in
some cases only, source of freshwater (e.g. many atolls in Tuvalu, and some very small islands in
Cook Islands, Fiji, PNG and Tonga). In other islands, where average rainfall is moderate and
where droughts can last for many months, rainwater can be considered only as a useful
supplementary water source. The cost of building sufficiently large catchments areas and storage
tanks to supply rainwater as a main source of supply in such islands would be prohibitive.
Household rainwater harvesting systems involving rainfall collection from all or part of the roof and
storing it in a small to medium sized tank are common. There are many examples of such
systems on small islands in the Pacific and other regions. Such schemes are and should continue
to be implemented. There have been many examples of communal projects to build ferrocement
rainwater tanks throughout PICs. A variety of aid donors, NGOs and other groups have been
involved in this work. In some cases, the projects aim at individual household tanks while others
have built communal tanks near public buildings. Examples are provided in Annex B (Water
resources management in the 14 participating countries) of a recent report under the International
Waters Programme of SPREP (Falkland, 2002).
Methods for the design of rainwater catchment systems are the focus of a number of reports in
proceedings of a series of international conferences on this subject and other specific references
(e.g. Gould, 1991; Nissen-Peterson and Gould, 1999). Specific design guidelines for particular
countries have been developed including Tuvalu (Chapman, 1986; SOPAC, 2001c) and Federated
States of Micronesia (Heitz and Winter, 1996).
Rainwater catchment construction programmes in rural areas have been the focus of many aid
projects in PICs. These programmes have been implemented with funding from a large number of
international and bilateral donors and NGOs. Many involve the construction of ferrocement tanks
which can be implemented in community based construction schemes. In some cases, this may
involve local contractors (e.g. Tonga) while in others, whole villages have been involved in the
process. Various guidelines have been written, often in the local language, to assist in the training
of persons to carry out construction work, examples of which are presented in IETC (1998). In
some island countries (e.g. Cook Islands, Tuvalu, Maldives), plastic tanks are becoming more
popular than previous ferrocement, or fibreglass tanks.
In Tarawa, Kiribati, recent building regulations require that new buildings include gutters and
minimum rainwater storage of 5,000 L. This measure will assist in the longer term in relieving the
water demand on the public groundwater supply system (Kiribati Case Study: Metutera, 2002).
Similar measures have been previously taken in other islands. In Tuvalu, regulations regarding
rainwater harvesting have been in place since 1990. Revision to the regulations based on recent
analysis of rainfall data have been suggested (SOPAC, 2001c).
One issue that is not commonly considered in the planning process for rainwater harvesting
systems is a means of preventing or minimising runoff of leaf matter, animal and bird faeces and
other debris from roofs and gutters into storage tanks. This is an important consideration as often
the levels of bacteria in rainwater tanks can become quite high if no action is taken to prevent
entry of potential pollutants. Most important is some means of "first flush" device as most of the
pollutants wash off roofs and gutters debris shortly after the first heavy rainfall for some time.
Simple "first flush" measures are adopted by householders in some islands by removing the
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downpipe from gutters to tanks during long periods of no rain (e.g. rural areas of Tonga). This is
very effective although more convenient approaches using a bypass pipe, T-junction and two
valves are used for rainwater collection in some islands (e.g. Maldives). The main pipe to the tank
can be closed while the bypass pipe diverts dirty water to waste during the `first flush'. Under
normal condition the valve to the tank is opened while the bypass valve is closed. Materials are
quite inexpensive.
Recognising the scarcity and vulnerability of water resources on atolls islands, a project proposal
has been developed by UNEP and SOPAC to promote rainwater harvesting in atolls
(UNEP/SOPAC, 2001; SOPAC Water Resources Unit website). The proposed project, entitled
Empowering Women in Rainwater Harvesting in Pacific Atoll Islands, has the goals of (a)
increasing the quantity and quality of water available on vulnerable atoll islands, and (b) increase
women's participation in the implementation of rainwater harvesting systems.
Proposed outputs from the project are:
?? Rainwater harvesting scheme installed in one urban community and one rural community
?? Draft policy for promoting water harvesting in the project area
?? Committees on water management established at the local level
?? Training manuals and guidelines for rainwater harvesting projects
?? Report on water harvesting technologies and pilot study results
?? Video entitled "Empowering Women in Water Resources Management focussing on Rain
Water Harvesting" and distribution of materials produced to other countries.
The island of Vava'u in Tonga had been selected for the project Tonga and Tuvalu. Funding will
be provided by UNEP and the project will be managed by SOPAC in association with a local NGO,
the Tonga Community Development Trust.
A community-based rainwater harvesting project was also rated as a possible project to be funded
under the International Waters Programme of SPREP (Falkland, 2002).
5.5.3 Surface water development
Surface water resources development methods on small islands are generally stream intake
structures, dams and other storages, or spring cappings. Examples of the application of these
methods are provided in UNESCO (1991) and IETC (1998).
Stream intake structures generally consist of in-stream weirs or buried collector pipe systems laid
in or near the stream bed. In-stream weirs are often used in high islands with volcanic rock
channels. There are many local designs which generally consist of a small concrete weir to
impound streamflow from the base of which a pipe diverts water to a village. Screens are often
used to remove medium to large floating objects. The largest issue is the entry of dirty (turbid)
water following heavy rain and high flows. Water treatment systems are required to remove the
small particulate matter and turbidity, but are not used except in some of the larger water supply
systems. A simpler method is to lay a network of PVC pipes in a sand filter bed behind the weir
(AusAID, 2000). This method can remove fine particulate matter and turbidity but has the
disadvantage of being subject to damage during floods or becoming clogged requiring regular
maintenance. In practice, water supplies affected by high turbidity require a day or more for the
water quality to return to normal. During these times, it is very useful to use supplementary
rainwater.
Buried porous concrete collector pipes within streams have also been used on some islands (e.g.
the Cook islands: Waterhouse & Petty, 1986).
Water retaining structures can be constructed as dams within the stream or as off-channel
storages. Neither is very common on small islands due to unsuitable topography or geology and
high costs. Sometimes dams have been constructed in unsuitable geological conditions leading to
leakage problems (e.g. dam constructed for hydropower project on Upolo, Samoa).
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Spring cappings, common in many small high islands, typically consist of an open or covered
containment structure, generally constructed from concrete or masonry. Spring flows are
contained by the structure and diverted to an intake pipe.
5.5.4 Groundwater extraction using infiltration galleries
Groundwater abstraction methods on small islands are generally bailing or pumping from dug
wells or pumping from boreholes (or drilled wells). Dug wells are common in villages and towns in
low-lying islands and the coastal areas of high islands. Where extraction rates are small, this
method of groundwater withdrawal is highly appropriate. Pumping from boreholes is also a
common method on high islands and moderately high limestone islands. This method is used for
supplying water to many villages in volcanic and limestone islands in Samoa and Tonga, and to a
number of urban centres (e.g. Port Vial in Vanuatu and Tongatapu in Tonga).
For freshwater lenses on small low-lying coral islands, moderate to high pumping from wells and
boreholes using can lead, and has led, to upconing of brackish water causing the pumped water to
become saline. The reason for this is that the impact of the pumping is localised near the point of
extraction.
A much more appropriate method of pumping from small coral islands is to from infiltration
galleries (also called "horizontal wells" or "skimming wells"). Infiltration galleries avoid the
problems of saline intrusion because they spread the impact of pumping over a wider area of the
freshwater lens than wells or boreholes
Infiltration galleries generally consist of buried horizontal conduit systems which are permeable to
water (e.g. PVC slotted pipes), laid in trenches dug at or close to mean sea level thus allowing
water to be drawn towards a central pump. The trenches are dug by hand or with the aid of
mechanical digger. Once the gallery pipes are laid, the area is backfilled and the only structure
seen above ground level is a pump well and pumping system.
Infiltration galleries are successfully operating in a number of PICs including Tarawa, Kiribati
(Falkland & Woodroffe, 1997), Kwajalein in the Marshall Islands (Hunt, 1996) and Lifuka, Tonga
(TWB, 2000). On the island of Bonriki, Tarawa, a yield of about 1 million litres/day is obtained
from 17 galleries, each 300 m long (White et al, 1999). There are other examples in PICs in the
Marshall Islands (Majuro and Kwajalein) and the Cook Islands (Aitutaki). Open trenches, as
previously used on Kiritimati atoll in Kiribati, prior to recent construction of new galleries, are not
recommended as these are subject to surface pollution.
On the island of Lifuka in Tonga, where groundwater pumped to the residents of the village of
Pangai-Hihifo had traditionally been quite saline, improvements using infiltration galleries have
significantly lowered the level of salinity of the water supply (TWB, 2000). The community has
been acutely aware of previous attempts to improve the water supply by using wells and
boreholes. They were also made aware of the infiltration gallery project, partly through public
information sessions but also through involvement of local workers in constructing the galleries,
fitting the solar and electric pumps, building a new tankstand and tank and finally experiencing the
results of the improvements in reduced water salinity from the day the new system was
commissioned.
Further consideration of infiltration galleries on Tarawa are provided in the Kiribati Case Study
(Metutera, 2002).
5.5.5 Energy for pumping
Most groundwater pumping systems use fossil fuel, predominantly diesel fuel, for energy sources.
However, the use of alternatives is being considered more often for rural pumping systems,
particularly solar pumping systems.
Solar pumping for groundwater supplies has been found very useful in rural villages where the
pumping heads are not too high. Solar pumping is used for many village water supplies in the
rural islands of Kiribati, and in Tonga solar pumps have been used in tandem with electric pumps
at galleries on the island of Lifuka.. A recent water supply and sanitation project in Kiritimati
island, Kiribati has installed infiltration galleries with a solar and a wind pump at each gallery.
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In general, the use of solar pumping systems has been more successful than wind pumping
systems. This is due to the lower maintenance requirements (less moving parts).
5.5.6 Desalination appropriate or not?
Desalination can be an appropriate solution for small island countries where options for further use
of naturally occurring freshwater resources are exhausted due to over use or major contamination,
or as an emergency measure during droughts. However, desalination should only be considered
when more conventional water sources are non-existent, fully utilised or more expensive to
develop
In all cases, however, it is necessary to analyse the options based on a good knowledge of the
other water resources options and the economics of supplying water from each source. In the
case of Nauru, for instance, there is potential for use of groundwater instead of desalinated water
for some uses. Despite some previous groundwater investigations, there is a need for a more
comprehensive assessment of groundwater potential on the island (e.g. WHO, 2001).
It could be argued that desalination is the only option for Malé' in the Maldives and for Ebeye in the
Marshall Islands, owing to the high population densities and the limited and polluted groundwater.
Even in these islands, other options are available for supplementary water (e.g. rainwater and use
of brackish groundwater for some uses). In the case of Malé', all three sources are used.
It is worth noting that the only operational desalination units for regular water supply in Pacific
Islands are in limited urban areas (e.g. Nauru, Ebeye and part of Tarawa), tourist resorts or
military facilities. In these cases, funding and technical expertise to operate and maintain such
units is generally available. Even then, major problems can and do occur (e.g. blockages of intake
in Nauru in 2002).
In addition to desalination systems requiring the use of energy from diesel powered pumps or
power stations, solar stills offer a "low technology" solution in certain applications. They systems,
using solar energy, have been used, generally on a temporary or research basis, for the
production of small quantities of freshwater from seawater. With typical daily solar radiation
values in the humid tropics, freshwater yields of about 3 L/ m2/day can be produced. While solar
stills have major advantages in that they use readily available energy and produce high quality
water, there are some significant problems for large-scale production of freshwater by this method.
They can, however, be employed for emergency purposes. This technology has not been utilised
in small islands, except at the experimental level. There is, however, scope for greater use of this
technology at the community level. It can for instance be used to supply small quantities of
drinking water in droughts.
5.6 Appropriate technology for sanitation and wastewater
Improvements in sanitation systems are important from a water resources management
perspective for two major reasons. Firstly, the type of sanitation system may impact on availability
of water resources for other needs. In particular, flush toilets require water as the flushing medium
and if freshwater is used, this may lead to shortages for other, including potable water needs.
Secondly, sanitation systems can be a major source of biological and chemical pollution of water
resources, as outlined in sections 4.3.
This section is primarily concerned with rural water supply systems but some reference is made to
sanitation options which are relevant to urban systems.
5.6.1 Compost (waterless) toilets
Recognising the need for sanitation improvements in small island countries, there have been many
bilateral and regional projects attempting to redress the situation. Some of these are aimed at
improvements to centralised sewerage systems while others are aimed at appropriate on-site
sanitation systems. It is the latter that is the subject of this theme.
As outlined in section 4, major pollution can occur from septic tanks and pit toilets especially in
islands with permeable soils and shallow water tables. These types of sanitation systems are
therefore considered inappropriate in many island situations.
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One sanitation alternative that has great potential for use in rural and in fact urban areas in PICs is
the dry composting or `waterless' toilet. There are significant advantages of waterless toilets as
follows (Crennan and Berry, 2002):
?? They do not use water and hence conserve water resources.
?? They prevent pollution of groundwater and surface water resources.
?? They can provide more effective destruction of disease causing organisms than common
waterborne sewage treatment.
?? They can be constructed cheaply from local materials.
?? They can produce a useful soil improver.
Trials of dry composting toilets have been conducted under AusAID projects in Tonga (on the
island of Lifuka) and in Kiribati (on Kiritimati) and more recently as part of an ADB project in
Tarawa. The trial in Tonga, involved 15 units at 13 households and two schools. Overall, the trial,
which was completed in 1999 (Crennan, 1999), was successful and the Government of Tonga has
indicated that they wish to see a greater use of this form of sanitation. A large component of the
trial project was community education, awareness raising and training. The largest impediments
to the introduction of this technology are social rather than technical (e.g. initial scepticism about
the viability of this sanitation approach, fears of bad odours and important issues related to
handling human waste, even after decomposition). However, these issues can be resolved with
appropriate community education delivered before and throughout the course of a properly
designed and conducted trial.
A composting toilet pilot project is included as one of the potential community-based project
activities under the waste management theme for the International Waters Programme of SPREP
(Crennan and Berry, 2002).
There is an urgent need for greater use of technologies such as water less toilets in small islands
to assist in the process of managing water demand and reducing the degradation of water quality.
Further consideration of this technology is considered in section 6.6.
5.6.2 Regional meetings and publications
In recent years, at the regional level there have been a number of important meetings and
workshops to raise awareness and examine alternative approaches to sanitation. These include:
?? Workshop on Appropriate and Affordable Sanitation for Small Islands, Tarawa, Kiribati,
September 1996. Further work based on the workshop findings led to the publication
"Sanitation for small islands. Guidelines for selection and development" published by
SOPAC in conjunction with UNDP and WHO (Depledge, 1997).
?? Regional Meeting of Stakeholders in Wastewater Management. Majuro, Marshall Islands,
10-15 October 2001, SOPAC (2001). This was an initiative under the Global Programme of
Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-based Activities (GPA) and
followed two planning meetings held in February and March 2001. The objective of the
Majuro meeting was to discuss a draft policy statement on `waste' water and to develop a
regional framework for action. The program included presentations covering a range of
public health and conservation issues related to waste water management. The major
outcomes of the meeting were the Pacific Wastewater, Policy Statement and Pacific
Wastewater, Framework for Action (SOPAC/SPREP/PWA/UNEP; 2001a; 2001b).
?? Workshop on `Environmentally Sound Technologies (EST) for Integrated Waste
Management in Pacific SIDS' which followed the above-mentioned meeting in Majuro,
Marshall Islands. The participants discussed suggested technologies and practices (IETC,
1999) for management of liquid, solid, and hazardous `wastes' for a regional EST Directory.
SOPAC in collaboration with other agencies have published a number of guidelines and other
reports on aspects of sanitation in the PICs. These include:
?? SOPAC. (1997). Sanitation for Small Islands: Guidelines for Selection and Development,
Compiled by Derrick Depledge, SOPAC Miscellaneous Report 250.
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?? SOPAC. (1999). Small Scale Wastewater Treatment Plant Project; Report on Project
Inception. Bower, R. and Scholzel, H., SOPAC Preliminary Report 113.
?? SOPAC. (1999). Small Scale Wastewater Treatment Plant Project; Report on Project
Criteria, Guidelines and Technologies. R Bower and H Scholzel, SOPAC Technical Report
288.
?? SOPAC. (2000). Environmentally Sound Technologies for Wastewater and Stormwater
Management in Small Developing States in the Pacific, Compiled by Ed Burke, SOPAC
Technical Report 321.
5.6.3 Regional wastewater management policy
The Pacific Wastewater, Policy Statement (SOPAC/SPREP/PWA/UNEP, 2001a) and the
accompanying Pacific Wastewater, Framework for Action are significant as they present a regional
policy and strategy for wastewater management in PICs. This policy is relevant to the water
resources management theme through impacts the impacts that sanitation and wastewater
systems has on water quality and water use.
Within the wastewater management policy, there are five guiding principles which incorporate an
overall objective leading to policies and actions. These guiding principles are:
?? National wastewater management policies and regulations will be appropriate and
acceptable to the people and cultures of the Pacific Islands.
?? Appropriate national institutions, infrastructure and Information will support sustainable
wastewater management.
?? Better access to funding will improve service delivery and develop the private sector.
?? Community participation in wastewater management and sanitation will ensure equitable
benefit with recognition of socio-cultural sensitivities.
?? Viable and sustainable levels of skilled and knowledgeable people within the wastewater
sector and communities will improve wastewater management.
Much of the content of the wastewater policy/framework for action are relevant to the wider water
sector and there is scope for it to be widened so as to incorporate other elements including those
pertaining to Theme 1, water resources management.
5.6.4 Bacteriological testing
Bacteriological testing of water supplies (to test for faecal contamination) is generally difficult in
PICs and often to the extent that it is not done regularly if at all. Current testing methods generally
involve collection of samples in sterile bottles and sending to a central laboratory on the main
islands, generally at the main hospital. The procedures required for sampling and transporting
samples are not easily undertaken, especially in remote islands where flights are either irregular or
not available.
Alternative, simpler methods for bacteriological testing are now available. Rather than using the
more common membrane filtration test, a colour change indicator method has been developed
(several types) which can indicate the presence or absence of bacteria (total and faecal coliforms).
This test is good for rural and even urban water supplies as it is simple to use, does not require a
laboratory or expensive equipment and provides sufficient information to show if water supplies
are fit or unfit for potable use (according to WHO guidelines for drinking water: WHO, 1993). A
cheaper presence/absence method is the use of hydrogen sulphide report strip tests to detect
hydrogen sulphide producers that inhabit the intestinal tracts of warm-blooded animals, rather than
direct evidence of total or faecal coliforms. Correlations with more conventional tests have shown
good results (D. Sharp, pers. comm., 2001).
5.7 Applied research projects
This section provides a summary of recent and current applied research projects. Future research
needs are presented in section 6.8.
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5.7.1 `UNESCO-SOPAC' projects
Three priority applied research projects were recommended at the Pacific Water Sector Planning,
Research and Training Workshop in Honiara, 1994 (UNESCO/SOPAC/UNDDSMS, 1994). These
were:
?? A groundwater recharge project with the aim of quantifying the key hydrological processes
affecting the amount of water which recharges groundwater (freshwater lenses) on small
coral islands. The island of Bonriki, Tarawa atoll, Kiribati was the selected project site.
?? A groundwater pollution study with the aim of analysing the linkage between sanitation
systems and groundwater pollution in nearby wells. The island of Lifuka in the Kingdom of
Tonga was the selected project site.
?? A 'catchment and communities' project on a small `high' island, aiming to study the impacts
of upstream activities (e.g., deforestation, mining) on downstream communities. An island in
Melanesia was the preferred target area but no site was selected.
In each case, it was recognised that community consultation, participation, education and
awareness are as important as the scientific and technical issues. Other key elements to be
addressed were the training of water professional and technical staff, and the discussion of test
results with the local communities during and following monitoring projects.
UNESCO provided a pivotal role and the initial funding to support the first two projects with
additional funding and logistical support provided by SOPAC, the Commonwealth Science Council
and a number of institutions in Australia. Literature surveys were completed in the early stages of
both projects (White, 1996; Dillon, 1997). Reports with the findings of the research have been
completed for both projects. Findings from the recharge project in Tarawa are presented in White
et al (1999, 2002) with additional aspects, covering the integration of social and technical science
components, in Crennan (2001). For the groundwater pollution project in Tonga, findings are
presented on Crennan et al (1998) and Crennan (2001).
The third mentioned `Catchment and Communities" project has not yet been implemented. The
project scope and location has been revised on a number of occasions, since it was originally
suggested in 1994. An updated project proposal is provided in White et al (2000). The project is
now proposed for Vanuatu where sites are being selected and a project document is being
prepared jointly by the Department of Geology, Mines and Water Resources and NIWA, New
Zealand for consideration by UNESCO for funding.
5.7.2 Groundwater and agriculture research project
Recently, another major research project entitled "Equitable Groundwater Management for the
Development of Atolls and Small Islands" has commenced (ACIAR, 2002). This project, funded by
the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR), will study the impacts of
cropping on groundwater and of groundwater management on cropping and groundwater
resources in Tonga and Kiribati. The project concentrates on groundwater as it is the major
source of fresh water in many atolls and small islands and its availability, quality, management and
allocation are central to their sustainable development. The main research organisation is the
Centre for Resource and Environmental Studies of the Australian National University.
Collaborating institutions are SOPAC and government agencies and the water authorities in Tonga
and Kiribati. The project team aim to integrate hydrogeological, agronomic, social, economic and
cultural information, to assist in setting broadly accepted, long-term goals for groundwater
management and allocation and to reduce conflict.
5.7.3 Other selected research projects and publications
Research into the impacts of droughts on different water resources (e.g. groundwater and
rainwater) on small coral islands has led to the development of a broadly applicable `drought index'
(White, Falkland and Scott, 1999). This drought index approach, developed for Tarawa, but
applicable to other drought-prone island countries, uses a relatively simple analysis of monthly
rainfall data to identify the severity of various drought periods. Using this information, critical
drought indices can be used to trigger various water conservation or relief strategies, as
appropriate.
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At the ENSO Impact on Water Resources in the Pacific Region Workshop in Nadi, Fiji, in
September 1999 (SOPAC, 1999a) an additional priority project of drought assessment in small
island nations was proposed. A project proposal is also provided in White et al (2000).
Further discussion of this topic of drought assessment is presented in the Theme 2 report.
In addition to the research mentioned above, which has involved largely `South Pacific' countries,
applied research has been conducted in the former US Trust Territory islands (i.e. Federated
States of Micronesia, Marshall Islands and Palau) by US agencies including the US Geological
Survey, the Water Resources Research Centre of the University of Hawaii and the Water and
Energy Research Institute of the University of Guam. This has led to a wide range of water
resources studies on many of the islands in these countries. Examples include Mink (1986), Miller
et al (1991) Spengler et al (1992), Hunt (1996), Peterson (1997) and Buddemeier and Oberdorfer
(1997).
Other publications which have extensive summaries of past research into island hydrology,
hydrogeology and water resources in the Pacific and other regions are contained in a number of
specific publications including UNESCO (1991) and Vacher and Quinn (1997).
5.8 Knowledge and information transfer
5.8.1 Previous meetings and workshops
A number of important regional meetings and workshops, specifically concerned with freshwater
resources, water supply and related issues on islands have been held in the Pacific Region over
the past 20 years. These were organised in response to the water resource management
concerns and needs of PICs. Major events since 1983 are listed below and citations to
proceedings of these meetings and workshops are shown in brackets:
?? Meeting on Water Resources Development in the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji, 1983 (ESCAP,
1983).
?? Regional Workshop on Water Resources of Small Islands, Suva, Fiji, 1984. (CSC, 1984).
?? Interregional Seminar on Water Resources Management Techniques for Small Islands,
Suva, Fiji, 1989 (UNDTCD, 1989).
?? Workshop on Water Sector Planning, Research and Training, Honiara, Solomon Islands,
1994 (UNESCO/SOPAC/UNDDSMS, 1994).
?? Workshop on Technologies for Maximising and Augmenting Freshwater Resources in Small
Islands, Suva, Fiji, 1996 (SOPAC, 1996 and IETC, 1998).
?? Small Islands Developing States Working Group Meeting on Water, Suva, Fiji, 1997
(SOPAC, 1997b).
?? Small Islands Water Information Network (SIWIN) Workshop, Suva, Fiji, 1997 (SOPAC,
1997c).
?? UNESCO Water Resources Workshop, Suva, Fiji, 1997 (Sankey et al, 1997).
?? Workshop on Water Demand Management Workshop, 1999 (SOPAC, 1999b).
?? Meeting of Experts on Hydrological Needs of Small Islands, Nadi, Fiji, 1999 (WMO, 1999).
?? Workshop ENSO Impact on Water Resources in the Pacific Region, 1999 (SOPAC, 1999a).
?? Meeting of Pacific Focal Group for Water Resources, Priority Issues in Water Resources,
Christchurch, New Zealand, November 2000 (White et al, 2000).
Annual meetings of the Science, Technology and Resources (STAR) network are held at SOPAC
Annual Sessions which often review water resources issues. In addition, annual meetings of the
Pacific Water Association (PWA) have a strong focus on water supply in the urban sector and also
consider wider water management issues.
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5.8.2 Relevant publications
Publications which cover aspects of island hydrology and water resources management in the
Pacific and other regions include:
?? Pacific Island water resources (Dale, 1981).
?? Groundwater in the Pacific Region (UNDTCD, 1983).
?? Coral island hydrology: a training guide for field practice (Dale et al, 1986).
?? Hydrology and water resources of small islands, a practical guide (UNESCO, 1991).
?? Small Tropical Islands, water resources of paradises lost (UNESCO, 1992).
?? Geology and hydrogeology of carbonate Islands (Vacher & Quinn, 1997).
?? Source book of alternative technologies for freshwater augmentation in small island
developing states (IETC, 1998).
?? Tropical island hydrology and water resources: current knowledge and future needs
(Falkland, 1999b).
?? Synopsis of information on freshwater and watershed management issues in the Pacific
Region (SPREP-IWP, 2002).
While some of the above references are somewhat dated, they contain useful background
information about the water resources of PICs.
In addition, there are numerous reports on Pacific regional water activities, which also refer to
specific PICs. These include reports by, or prepared for:
?? Regional organisations (e.g. SOPAC, SPREP).
?? International organisations (e.g. UNESCO, WHO).
?? Donor and loan agencies (ADB, EC and various bilateral donors).
?? NGOs and individuals about community-based water related projects in PICs.
?? Educational and research organisations within the Pacific Region. These are too numerous
to be listed but many are contained in the reference list.
5.8.3 PIC water working groups
In recent years, from PICs involved in the water sector have met at various workshops and formed
ad-hoc working groups on water resources. These have generally only lasted for the duration of
the meeting and shortly thereafter. They have provided opportunities for useful dialogue between
individuals about shared issues and potential solutions. Depending on availability, funding and
other reasons, individuals from PICs and other agencies and individuals within the Pacific region
may attend. A summary of these water working and `focus' groups is provided below.
At Science, Technology and Resources (STAR) Network meetings, which are held in conjunction
with SOPAC Annual Sessions, an ad-hoc group called the STAR Water Working Group (or
Technical Advisory Group on Water is convened from delegates attending with an interest in water
issues. This group normally review the recommendations of the previous year's group, reviews
the work program of SOPAC's Water Resources Unit (WRU) and other initiatives, and makes
recommendations to the STAR chairman to take to the SOPAC Council.
For instance, at the October 2001 STAR/SOPAC meeting in Majuro, the Water Working Group
reviewed the Water Working Group recommendations from the 2000 meeting, and the Pacific
Wastewater Policy Statement and the Pacific Wastewater Framework for Action from the Regional
Wastewater Meeting (also held in Majuro in October 2001). Amongst the recommendations, the
2001 Water Working Group, endorsed the following recommendations emanating from the
Regional Wastewater Meeting:
?? a Pacific Wastewater Focal Group be established to continue the dialogue on wastewater in
the region; and
?? Pacific Island Countries develop National Frameworks for Action and establish National
Wastewater Focal Groups.
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The 2001 Water Working Group also recommended that SOPAC:
?? take a lead in collaboration with SPREP and the Pacific Wastewater Focal Group to mobilise
funds that through the Global Programme for Action (GPA) to implement demonstration
projects on wastewater in the region.
?? initiate further activities in the Pacific region on Environmentally Sound Technologies,
including research and dissemination of information (emanating from a UNEP-funded
workshop on Environmentally Sound Technologies for the Integrated Management of Solid,
Liquid and Hazardous Waste for Small Island Developing States in the Pacific, also held in
Majuro in October 2001).
A "UNESCO-IHP Working Group on Water Resources" was convened at the UNESCO Water
Resources Workshop in 1997. This group reviewed the progress on two applied research projects
in PICs and developed a revised list of research activities and priorities (refer Sankey et al, 1997
and section 5.7.1)
Another focal group for water resources was inaugurated at a meeting held in Christchurch, New
Zealand in November 2000 (White et al, 2000). This meeting was held in conjunction with a wider
Regional Steering Committee (RSC) Meeting of the UNESCO International Hydrological
Programme (IHP) in the Asia-Pacific Region. It was attended by PIC delegates from Cook
Islands, Kiribati, Niue, PNG, Tonga and Vanuatu, as well as Australia, New Zealand, UNESCO
and SOPAC. The delegates recognised that many small island nations, although members of
UNESCO, do not have their own national International Hydrological Programme (IHP) committees
and therefore are not formally part of the RSC network. It was proposed that an alternative group
called the `Pacific Focal Group for Water Resources' be established. This could meet as part of or
in conjunction with STAR Water Working Group meetings, possibly every 2 years. The main
purpose would be to review water resources activities including applied research, develop priorities
and make recommendations for action. Recommendations could be taken to RSC meetings by a
UNESCO or SOPAC representative. Details of the workings of the Pacific Focal Group for Water
Resources have not been finalised.
At the Christchurch meeting, the applied research projects were again reviewed (refer White et al,
2000 and section 5.7.1).
For the 9 member countries of the World Meteorological Organisation, there is also the WMO
Regional Association 5 (RA V) Working Group on Hydrology. This group with membership
predominantly from the national Meteorological Services meets at regular intervals. One of the
most relevant meetings from the viewpoint of this theme was the Meeting of Experts on
Hydrological Needs of Small Islands in 1999 which identified deficiencies in current water
resources assessment and monitoring programs in PICs.
In addition to the above groups, there are many other avenues for networking and information
dissemination/gathering available to water personnel in PICs. One of these is through the Pacific
Water Association (PWA). Another avenue is the Small Islands Water Information Network
(SIWIN) which has a website.
From the above discussion, it is evident that there are many current mechanisms and proposals
for interaction and networking between delegates from PICs on water resources and wider
aspects of water and wastewater. The main issue is the effective use of such groups for
discussion of issues and priorities and for the development of recommendations for action. There
is scope for some rationalisation of the various groups to provide and effective, coherent voice, as
discussed in section 6.11.
5.9 Education, training and capacity building
This section briefly considers current education, training and capacity building for personnel and
institutions in involved water resources assessment and monitoring. These current opportunities
partially satisfy the needs as expressed in section 4.5.
Possible future actions to more adequately address these needs are presented in section 6.4 and
6.9.
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5.9.1 Regional level
SOPAC's Water Resources Unit has provided and continues to provide technical support and
training through a number of channels, including:
?? Training workshops on specific water resources management topics (e.g. hand pumps, solar
pumps, demand management and appropriate sanitation for the management, conservation
and protection of freshwater resources). These are normally held at SOPAC headquarters
but have been held elsewhere.
?? Direct technical support to technical and professional staff from PICs both at SOPAC
headquarters and in-country.
?? Assistance through provision of lecturers at the Hydrogeology course at the University of
South Pacific to water technicians within PICs. This course forms part of the 3-year
Certificate Course in Earth Science and Geology which has been undertaken by significant
numbers of geoscience and water resources personnel from PICs.
The extent of the current training is limited by the resources within the WRU of SOPAC.
In addition, training programmes to water supply technicians and professional staff have been co-
ordinated by the Pacific Water Association. Further detail of water supply training for utilities is the
subject of Theme 4.
5.9.2 National level
Training in water resources assessment and monitoring have been given to national agencies
involved in water supply or water resource management. This tends to be project based and may
involve only limited staff. The most successful projects in this regard are those that have had long
duration to enable training to occur over longer time periods and for a number of staff to be
involved in the training. An example of such a project was an AusAID funded institutional
strengthening project of the Tonga Water Board from 1995 to 1999 in which one major component
was the implementation of a technical training program in groundwater resources monitoring and
associated data processing. Other examples include training of surface water resources
technicians in Vanuatu, the Solomon Islands, Samoa and the Cook Islands by NIWA staff under
NZODA funded projects.
Educational opportunities at university level for water professionals are provided through
scholarships provided by donors. For instance, AusAID has funded university education
placements for engineers and hydrogeologists at universities in Australia. More recently, distance
learning schemes for master's level courses in water and other related disciplines have become
available.
5.10 Inputs by regional and international agencies and NGOs
There are a number of regional and international agencies involved in the water sector within the
Pacific region. The main agencies are as follows:
?? Regional agencies:
o South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission (SOPAC)
o South Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP)
o Secretariat for the Pacific Community (formerly South Pacific Commission) (SPC)
o Asian Development Bank (ADB)
?? International agencies:
o United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO)
o United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
o United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)
o United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF)
o World Health Organisation (WHO)
o World Meteorological Organisation (WMO)
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o Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO)
o Commonwealth Science Council (CSC)
o Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council (WSSCC)
The Pacific Water Association (PWA) is a regional association of Pacific Island water supply
organisations, mainly in urban areas, operating in Pacific Island countries
In the addition to the agencies above, there are many NGOs who have considerable input at
community level into predominantly rural water supply schemes (e.g. household rainwater
harvesting schemes), sanitation systems and associated education and community awareness
programs. Some of the relevant NGOs and their activities are presented in the Theme 3 report
and also in Crennan and Berry (2002) and Falkland (2002).
It is beyond the scope of this report to present an overview of the involvement of all these
agencies in the water sector. Rather, Annex B presents a summary of major contributors in recent
years within the scope of Theme 1 as defined for the Regional Consultation process.
5.11 Other relevant initiatives
There are a number of water resources management initiatives that have occurred outside the
Pacific region which are of relevant to Theme 1. These are briefly discussed below.
5.11.1 IWRM and the Global Water Partnership
Much has been written about integrated water resources management (IWRM) in recent years.
IWRM views water resources management from a holistic perspective to ensure that social,
technical, economic and environmental factors are taken into account with the aim of sustainably
developing and managing the water resources. IWRM has been defined by the Global Water
Partnership (GWP) as a process which promotes the coordinated development and management
of water, land and related resources in order to maximise the resultant economic and social
welfare in an equitable manner without compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems
(GWPTAC, 2000).
Typically, IWRM is undertaken at the level of a river basin (watershed or surface water catchment)
or groundwater basin (groundwater catchment) as these are natural units for managing water
resources. In the island context, IWRM can be applied at whole island scale especially for low-
lying islands or for those high islands with multiple small surface water catchments.
At present, there is a large amount of knowledge and a wealth of experience worldwide in the field
of integrated water resources management but less so in developing countries including the PICs.
The Global Water Partnership (GWP) has integrated much of this knowledge and experience into
an "IWRM Toolbox" to enable water policy makers, water agencies, and other groups and
individuals in the water sector benefit from experience elsewhere and assist in implementation of
IWRM principles and practices. The aim of the IWRM Toolbox is to offer easy access to practical,
non-prescriptive advice, information and guidance on how to establish IWRM in real situations.
GWP consider that the IWRM Toolbox (available on the web at www.gwpforum.org/iwrmtoolbox)
will become a vital aid to the successful implementation of sustainable water resources
management world-wide.
It is noted that other agencies have an active interest in IWRM including the ADB, WMO and
UNESCO-IHP.
This concept is further considered in section 6.3.
5.11.2 Bonn Conference on Freshwater
In December 2002, an International Conference on Freshwater was held in Bonn, Germany. This
was a preparatory meeting on freshwater issues for the World Summit on Sustainable
Development (Johannesburg, South Africa, September 2002) and the Third World Water Forum
(Kyoto, Japan, March 2003). Outcomes of the conference included a Ministerial Declaration
(endorsed by Ministers for water, environment and development from 46 countries),
Recommendations for Action and `The Bonn Keys' (a synopsis of the main findings). These
documents form useful background information for consideration at the Regional Consultation.
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6. Actions towards sustainable water resources management
6.1 Overview
This section presents an overview of actions that could be taken to move towards a more
sustainable water resources management in the small islands countries of the Pacific region.
These are based on the issues, concerns and constraints raised in section 4 and the activities
already undertaken, as presented in section 5.
At this stage it is worth reiterating the aim of the Regional Consultation on Water in Small Island
Countries (Information Note to participants, May 2002 is to "to help international, regional and
country practitioners strengthen their policies, institutional arrangements and projects through:
enhancing public awareness of the need for better water and wastewater management;
exchanging views and experiences, and developing a shared understanding about policies,
institutional frameworks and approaches to sustainable sector development".
It is also recognised that further necessary input is required from other sources including the
Country Briefing Papers to be presented at the Regional Consultation and the discussion that will
take place at the Consultation. Thus, the list of possible actions presented in this section should
be viewed as a preliminary list and is open for discussion and amendment.
There is no single action that will improve the sustainability of water resources management in
small island countries. Rather, an integrated approach to improving a range of factors is required
at all levels in order for this to occur. Commitment and encouragement from national governments
is required. This needs to be backed by technical and financial support from bilateral, regional and
international donor agencies, and others including NGOs and consultants. The capacity of
national water agencies need to be strengthened in many areas including water resources
assessment and monitoring capabilities, water planning, appropriate technology in water,
sanitation and wastewater. Regional agencies with interests and responsibilities in water
resources management should also be strengthened so that they can provide technical support to
water personnel from national agencies. Additional applied research is required in order to better
understand some of the fundamental hydrological and water quality processes in small island
environments. Communities should be encouraged and enabled to take a greater role in the
management of water resources at the local level. This should include participation in the
management of their own surface water and groundwater catchments to redress the water quality
degradation that has occurred and will continue to occur unless appropriate steps are taken. This
will require concerted efforts in the area of community awareness and education and greater
recognition of the importance of both genders in the water sector.
The information presented in this section within the defined scope of Theme 1, is organised under
the following headings:
?? Commitment and support from national governments.
?? Integrated water resources management.
?? Water resources assessment and monitoring, and associated training and capacity building.
?? Appropriate water supply and sanitation.
?? Participatory catchment management.
?? Applied research projects.
?? Education and professional training.
?? Knowledge and information dissemination.
?? Networking and partnerships.
It is noted that some aspects of water resources management will be considered in more depth
within the scopes of the other five themes for the Regional Consultation process.
6.2 Commitment and support from national governments
There is a need for greater and ongoing commitment and support from national governments in
the area of water resources management and, indeed, in the wider water sector. As sustainable
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and effective water resources management is fundamental to the health and social well being of
the people, the economic development and environmental protection, it should be afforded a high
priority in national policies, strategies.
Many of the requirements for more sustainable and effective water resources management such
as water resources assessment, appropriate technology, effective institutions arrangements,
committed and well trained personnel, effective community participation (and others) will not be
achieved unless there is the political will and support for these to occur.
This is a priority issue and impacts on all themes within the scope of the Regional Consultation
and it is suggested that this topic be given due consideration.
6.3 Integrated water resources management
From the issues and concerns raised in section 4, there is a need in PICs for greater integration of
effort within the water sector and a wider view taken on sustainable management of water
resources. As mentioned in section 5, this requires that water resources management be viewed
from a wide (or holistic) perspective to ensure that social, technical, economic and environmental
factors are taken into account. In other words, there is a need for greater emphasis on integrated
water resources management (IWRM) principle and practices
To assist in the implementation of IWRM principles and practices, one method is the IWRM
`Toolbox' developed by the Global Water Partnership (GWP). The Toolbox is based on the large
amount of knowledge and a wealth of experience worldwide. It has been developed, and
continues to be developed, to assist water policy makers, water agencies, and other groups and
individuals in the water sector to assist in implementation of IWRM principles and practices. The
Toolbox is divided in three categories in a similar fashion as our regional meeting and include:
?? Enabling Environment (policy, legislation, finance)
?? Institutional Roles (organizational framework, institutional capacity building)
?? Management Instruments (water resources assessment, IWRM plans, demand
management, social change, conflict resolution, regulatory instruments, economic
instruments, information management and exchange)
All aspects of the IWRM Toolbox have application within the various themes for the Regional
Consultation. Specific to the defined scope of Theme 1 are a number of items including water
resources assessment and IWRM plans under the `Managing Instruments' category.
To assist in implementation of IWRM principles and practices in PICs, one proposal is to establish
a Pacific Water Partnership (PWP) Technical Advisory Committee. Membership would be open
to all organisations with a common interest in the Pacific water sector for the promotion of IWRM.
At the Regional Consultation, it is intended that the IWRM Toolbox, the Pacific Water Partnership
Technical Advisory Committee and wider concept of the PWP will be further explained by GWP,
SOPAC and others.
In addition to the IWM Toolbox, recent information provided by SOPAC has indicated that a year-
long (250 hour) training curriculum on IWRM is to be developed under a new United Nations
project. One of the first components will be established in the Pacific, and a coordinator will work
with the University of South Pacific (USP) in establishing the IWRM Curriculum in the Pacific..
This will be an internet-based "Virtual Learning Center for Water" providing distance learning
opportunities and information for practicing professionals in the water sector wishing to upgrade
their knowledge of modern water management concepts and practices. It is intended that the
curriculum will be disseminated through a global electronic network of regional and national
training institutions.
It is suggested that the implementation of IWRM principles and practices in PICs with appropriate
support from relevant agencies and using relevant methods be considered as a priority matter
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6.4 Water resources assessment and monitoring
There is a need for a much greater emphasis on water resources assessment and monitoring in
small island countries in the Pacific region. A detailed list of concerns and issues, and areas
which require training and capacity building in these areas, are outlined in sections 4.4 and 4.5.
This can only occur through a commitment at national government level, supported by appropriate
training, education and capacity building efforts at national and regional level.
This section outlines a number of suggested actions for consideration at the Regional
Consultation. In order to review these suggested actions, it is proposed that a Water Resources
Assessment and Monitoring Working Group be formed to consider these and other
suggestions and make recommendations for possible endorsement by delegates. It is noted that
some of these topics overlap with other Themes, so that the Working Group would not only be
relevant to Theme 1.
6.4.1 Pacific HYCOS project proposal for capacity building
Recently, two major reports which highlight the inadequate capacity in PICs to collect good quality
hydrological data and undertake water resources assessments have been prepared:
?? Hydrological Cycle Observing System for the Pacific Island Countries (Pacific-HYCOS),
Project document, prepared by a WMO consultant (Mosley, 2000)
?? A Programme to meet Hydrological Training Needs of Small Island Countries in the Pacific;
jointly prepared by SOPAC, WMO and UNESCO (SOPAC/WMO/UNESCO, 2001).
Mosley (2000) emphasised the need for long-term water resources monitoring information in all
PICs. Mosley (2000) recommends a project called Pacific HYCOS (Hydrological Cycle Observing
System) which emphasises capacity building and training through a regionally co-ordinated
approach. The stated goal of the project is that participating PICs will:
?? Attain a common capacity to assess and monitor the status and trend of their water
resources, and to provide the water-related information and hazard warnings needed to
support national social and economic development and environmental management.
?? Have established databases and information archives, maintained to acceptable standards,
that form the basis for sustained future data capture and information processing and
dissemination.
To achieve the goal, the project has 3 stated purposes:
?? To assist the participating countries to establish the human and institutional capacity to
assess the status and trend of national water resources and to provide adequate warnings of
water-related hazards.
?? To establish basic hydrological monitoring and data capture systems, using technology that
balances modernity, economy, robustness, and suitability for Pacific Island circumstances.
?? To establish hydrological databases and information systems that provide users with the
information they require, to the standards (including accuracy, timeliness, usability, etc.) they
need, and that provide a secure repository of information for the indefinite future.
The project proposes to deliver six distinct `technical' components and a project management
component designed to meet the needs of PICs, as follows:
?? Flood forecasting capability,
?? Water resources assessment in major rivers,
?? Water resources databases,
?? Drought forecasting,
?? Groundwater monitoring and assessment, and
?? Water quality monitoring and assessment.
The project proposes investment in data acquisition systems, field equipment, communication
systems, spare parts, databases, development of procedures and training.
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It is noted that this project proposal was strongly supported by members of the Working Group on
Hydrology of the WMO Regional Association V (South-West Pacific) at their meeting in Wellington
in January 2002 (WMO, 2002). PIC members of the working group, represented at the meeting,
were Cook Islands, Fiji, Niue, PNG, Solomon Islands, Samoa and Vanuatu.
Many of these components are directly linked to Theme 1 of this Regional Consultation while
others link to Theme 2.
6.4.2 Hydrological training needs at regional level
A proposal to meet the hydrological (water resources) training needs of PICs
(SOPAC/WMO/UNESCO, 2001) outlines a training programme implemented through a regional
body. The stated goal of the proposed training programme is:
?? To provide, through a targeted course of training, a corps of technical staff in the National
Hydrological Services of participating PICs who are competent to assemble, maintain and
apply data and information on national water resources, and are able to pass on their
knowledge and skills to others.
The stated objectives of the programme are:
?? To have available a body of training material that is suitable for use by technical staff in the
National Hydrological Services of PICs.
?? To encourage representation from all small island countries to enable the development of
staff competent in the essentials of operational hydrology, and able to pass on their
competencies to other staff.
?? To ensure the long term sustainability of the programme through implementation by an
existing regional body (SOPAC) with an existing training framework.
It is noted in SOPAC/WMO/UNESCO (2001) that the `National Hydrological Services' (NHSs) are
at various levels of development, with different requirements, and training needs. In many PICs,
NHSs do not exist at present and water monitoring if done at all is normally carries out by various
agencies, normally water supply utilities or agencies. The proposal recognises that training will
need to be tailored to the individual situations and requirements for each PIC.
The training programme proposes a series of courses initially over 3 years and these would be
held at the University of South Pacific facilities. The first and second year courses would be held
over 4 week periods and involve classroom instruction, laboratory exercises and fieldwork. Further
details on the requirements for participants, possible venues and costs are identified in the
proposal. SOPAC/WMO/UNESCO (2001) proposes that the training would eventually be
incorporated into the Pacific HYCOS programme.
6.4.3 Capacity building and training through bilateral projects
It is recognised that bilateral donors have been and are likely to continue involvement in capacity
building or "institutional strengthening" projects for water agencies, normally those responsible for
urban water supplies but also involving rural water supplies. This contribution to the water
management in PICs is valuable through the supply of equipment, installation of monitoring
stations, database development and the training of staff.
It is important that water resources training components of such projects are co-ordinated with any
future regional efforts to avoid duplication of effort and funding. At the same time, specific training
and professional development components that go beyond regional training are encouraged (refer
section 6.9). Examples would be scholarships to universities for water engineers, hydrogeologists
and other water related disciplines, on-site training in specific areas (e.g. groundwater modelling
for sustainable yield and climate vulnerability assessments, design of water supply systems, etc).
In addition, it is suggested that donor funded projects in water resources development and water
supply and sanitation projects increase their level of finding for water resources assessment
programs for water resources assessment components. This can be achieved through supply of
monitoring equipment, installation of monitoring facilities and training
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6.4.4 Special needs of very small islands
There is a need for special attention to monitoring needs of `outer islands' where there is often no
water related staff other than selected village people who may operate groundwater pumps,
maintain surface intakes and use rainwater tanks.
In these often remote islands, there remains a need to monitor water resources used for water
supply purposes, in order to assess their sustainability during droughts. Simple measuring
equipment (e.g. salinity meters to text groundwater condition, flow measuring weirs (or pipes) in
streams and simple bacteriological test kits) can be used with effectiveness. However, training
and support are vital for sustainability of such operations. The support and funding from national
governments for such operations to outer island councils is a necessity.
6.4.5 Guidelines for water assessment and monitoring
The WMO has published operational guidelines for water resources assessment/monitoring in
many different environments (e.g. WMO: 1987, 1994). Much of these are relevant to continental
and larger island conditions, where large rives and aquifers prevail. In addition, there have been
some specific guidelines prepared for water resources assessments in small islands (e.g.
Hydrology and water resources of small islands, a practical guide: UNESCO, 1991) and very small
coral islands (e.g. Coral island hydrology: a training guide for field practice: Dale et al, 1986).
There is scope for developing updated practical guidelines for surface and groundwater resources
and assessment in very small islands by synthesising and updating previous guidelines.
Experiences with different methods in different environments (including lessons learned) in the
form of case studies would be useful for small island water resources personnel.
6.4.6 Community based monitoring
Initiatives to involve communities, particularly schools, in water resources monitoring programs
were outlined in section 5.2.3. Such programs serve a very useful community awareness role.
There is further scope for cooperation between local communities and supporting NGOs with
water agencies and national hydrological or meteorological services in this regard. It is important,
however, that such programs are not seen as a substitute for, rather the complementary to,
regular water resources monitoring by trained technicians.
6.4.7 Bacteriological testing
The testing of water supplies for indicator bacteria to assess the quality of water for potable
purposes was considered in section 5.6.4. Current methods are often difficult to implement and
often not done regularly if at all. Simpler methods are available and it is suggested that such
methods be considered for use in small islands, particularly in remote outer islands where access
to main islands with laboratory facilities is difficult.
6.5 Appropriate water supply and sanitation
This section considers appropriate water resources development, particularly in relation to rural
water supplies, while Theme 4 focuses on urban water supply systems. This section also
considers appropriate sanitation systems for rural and some urban applications. A number of
suggestions and recommendations are made, for consideration by the Regional Consultation. It
may be useful to form an Appropriate Technology Working Group to consider these and other
suggestions and make recommendations for possible endorsement by delegates. Depending on
the level of interest, it may be useful to have two sub-groups one to review water technology
issues and the other to review sanitation technology issues.
6.5.1 Water supply strategies
?? Water resources development should utilise naturally occurring freshwater resources before
other options such as desalination and importation.
?? Water resources development options should take account of all factors: technical,
economic, social and cultural, environmental, before decisions are made.
?? The conjunctive use of water from different sources (e.g. rainwater and groundwater) is
recognised as a most appropriate approach to water resources management in islands with
scare water resources or where water quality has degraded.
Pacific Regional Consultation on Water in Small Island Countries Theme 1, Water Resources Management
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?? Strategies for water supply operations need to take account of `normal' and drought periods.
These procedures should be developed as part of long-term plans.
6.5.2 Rainwater harvesting
?? Rainwater harvesting, particularly at the household level should be seen as a high priority.
Although in most islands, rainwater harvesting could not be viewed as a main or sole source
of water, it is an excellent supplementary source for `first class' water for potable purposes.
The efforts of NGOs and some donors to support such programs within community
development projects is a valuable contribution to sustainable water resources management.
Such systems enable households to take responsibility and have control over water
availability and water quality. There is considerable scope for a greater support for rainwater
harvesting programs in PICs and for encouragement of households to maintain their own
gutters, roofs and tanks.
?? Rainwater systems should be designed according to the prevailing rainfall patterns. Analysis
methods used in previous studies of rainwater harvesting systems (considering roof area,
tank volume, demand and risk of tank becoming dry) should be used to develop guidelines
for each PIC. Assistance should be made available from agencies with expertise in this type
of analysis where required.
?? Building regulations should be considered for introduction requiring new houses and
buildings to be equipped with rainwater collection and storage facilities with required volume
based on roof area.
?? Financial support through subsidised materials (e.g. tanks, gutters, roofing) should be
considered as incentive. Community education and awareness programs should also be
commenced, continued or enhanced.
?? To improve water quality in tanks, simple `first flush' systems have been found effective and
should be implemented. A technical guideline for the design and implementation of such
systems would be useful for households with rainwater tanks.
?? Consideration should be given to additional projects for community-based rainwater
harvesting.
6.5.3 Groundwater
?? Groundwater pumping systems in small low-lying islands and the coastal zones of high
islands should be designed carefully to avoid saline intrusion. Pumping from vertical
boreholes is not be an appropriate measure in small islands with thin freshwater lenses and
alternative methods such as infiltration galleries should be considered.
?? The use of alternative energy sources such as solar and wind have been found as to be
useful in a number of islands. This type of technology is useful for rural villages and should
be encouraged where possible
?? Groundwater monitoring systems to monitor the impacts of climate variability and pumping
effects should be installed, especially where groundwater development is extensive on small
islands. Appropriate systems should be installed for different applications. For instance,
open boreholes should not be used for monitoring in small low lying islands as they tend to
induce saline intrusion and yield incorrect results.
?? There is scope for the development of guidelines for the appropriate use of pumping
systems, energy sources and monitoring systems in different islands environments. These
should be based on existing information and updated according to recent trends. Such
guidelines would be enhanced with the addition of case studies, showing appropriate and
poor application of pumping technology.
6.5.4 Surface water
?? The design and implementation of simple, inexpensive filtration systems to improve the
water quality of small streams affected by high turbidity and suspended solids after heavy
rain is a high priority item for water supplies in many small volcanic islands. It is suggested
that a review of technology that could be utilised in such applications be undertaken and
guidelines developed.
Pacific Regional Consultation on Water in Small Island Countries Theme 1, Water Resources Management
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?? Careful development and management of perennial springs should be encouraged for use in
droughts when other streams have ceased to flow. Adequate spring cappings should be
designed, built and maintained for such applications.
6.5.5 Desalination
?? With the current focus on desalination as a technology to resolve water supply issues in
small islands, there needs to be careful appraisal of all factors before investing in this
technology. Such factors include costs (primarily pumping costs), ability of community to
pay, operation and maintenance requirements, design of intakes to prevent fouling,
availability of spare parts and chemicals, remoteness of island and transport routes,
availability of skilled operators and training opportunities. It needs to be emphasised that
there have been a number of `classic' failures of desalination technology because some of
these factors have not been taken into account.
?? The lessons of the past where desalination systems have been installed in PICs and have
failed should be documented together with the examples of sustainable systems. This would
be a useful guide for governments considering the introduction of such technology wither for
regular use or for emergency use in droughts.
?? There is scope for the use of simple `solar still' technology for emergency use in rural
communities particularly in remote outer islands. Such systems are not difficult nor
expensive to construct and could be used for basic potable water needs of households
during droughts. Such systems have been used before, and it is suggested that efforts
should be made to examine available current systems and consider these for use.
6.5.6 Demand management and conservation
?? There is an ongoing need for demand management programs to ensure that the water from
existing water sources is used wisely.
?? Water supply flow and leakage monitoring is an essential tool even in simple rural water
supply distribution systems. Local personnel should be provided with basic training in
monitoring methods.
?? Community education and awareness about water conservation and wise use of water is an
essential part of sustainable water resources management (refer Theme 3).
6.5.7 Sanitation and wastewater
The introduction in PICs of non-polluting sanitation systems particularly in highly vulnerable coral
island environments, is considered to be one of the highest priority issues for achieving
sustainable water resources management. Major problems and issues associated with current
predominantly poor sanitation systems are highlighted in sections 4.3.3 and 4.6.3. As mentioned
previously, current sanitation approaches using pit latrines, septic tanks are definitely not
appropriate in coral islands and many coastal areas of high islands.
It is recommended that steps be taken towards a "zero water pollution" policy especially in the
smaller islands where water resources are limited and highly susceptible to contamination. In
order to achieve this, possible solutions include low-technology and low-cost compost (waterless)
toilets and relatively high-technology and high-cost reticulated sewerage systems with treatment
and ocean outfalls. For rural and many urban communities in PICs, properly constructed
sewerage systems that pump sewage (either raw or preferably treated) to sea, are not a realistic
option, due to the financial and operational needs. This means that simpler yet non-polluting, on
site systems are the most appropriate solution.
The following actions are presented for consideration:
?? Ongoing support for projects that are currently implementing appropriate solutions (e.g.
compost toilets in Kiribati and Tonga and the proposed trial under the International Water
Programme of SPREP: Crennan and Berry, 2002).
?? Further carefully designed and monitored trials of compost toilets in PICs where such
systems have not been trialled or where previous attempt have been unsuccessful.
Consideration of local cultural values are especially important and adequate community
Pacific Regional Consultation on Water in Small Island Countries Theme 1, Water Resources Management
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education, awareness and training must accompany trial and implementation projects
(Crennan and Berry, 2002).
?? Dissemination of information from past compost toilets trials (reports, videos).
?? Community education and awareness programs regarding this type of sanitation.
?? Development and periodic development of guidelines for this type of technology.
?? Consideration and possible and other alternatives that may be appropriate in certain
situations (e.g. low gradient "small bore" pipe systems to gravel bed hydroponics or
constructed wetlands for sewage treatment as planned in Maldives).
?? Implementation and possible extension of relevant components of the Pacific Wastewater,
Framework for Action (refer section 5.6.3).
It is noted that part of the above recommended approaches overlap with the scope of Theme 3,
Awareness.
6.6 Participatory catchment management
The principles of participatory catchment (watershed) management were introduced in section 5.4.
The advantages of these approaches involving local communities in the management of surface
and groundwater catchments are evident from a number of case studies. In some PICs, steps
have and are being taken to enable the participation of communities in catchment management
and the rational use and protection of water resources within the catchments.
It is suggested that:
?? The participatory water catchment management approach be endorsed for use in PICs.
?? Steps be taken to establish catchment management committees (alternatively called
watershed management committees or water resources protection committees) with
representatives from key stakeholders including local owners, local communities, water
supply agencies, government regulatory agencies, farmers (if present) and others as
appropriate.
?? Catchment plans be developed to provide for the rational allocation, use and protection of
water resources and downstream environments (e.g. coastal fisheries, reefs and
mangroves).
?? Community education and awareness programs should be implemented to encourage local
communities to be involved in the process.
?? Assistance and support to such committees should be provided in the initial stages by
governments and, if required, donors.
It is noted that part of the above recommended approaches overlap with the scope of Theme 3,
Awareness.
6.7 Applied research projects
While there has been significant commitment to island hydrological research in recent years (refer
section 5.7), there is still a need for further commitment in this area. Such commitment to applied
research and associated training and dissemination of results can provide great benefit to small
islands in offering solutions to some of the fundamental hydrological issues (e.g. sustainability of
water resources, impacts of droughts, pollution, etc.).
At a 1997 UNESCO Water Resources Workshop (Sankey et al, 1997) and again at the Pacific
Focal Group for Water Resources meeting in 2000 (White et al, 2000), progress was noted on the
groundwater recharge and groundwater pollution projects in Kiribati and Tonga, respectively (refer
section 5.7.1). Delegates from Cook Islands, Kiribati, Niue, PNG, Tonga and Vanuatu, as well as
Australia, New Zealand, UNESCO and SOPAC attended the meeting in 2000.
Further work on the first two projects, particularly in other PICs and commencement of work on
other projects was recommended at both meetings. In order of priority, the projects for which
additional funding was recommended were as follows (White et al, 2000):
?? Catchment and communities project on a high volcanic island.
Pacific Regional Consultation on Water in Small Island Countries Theme 1, Water Resources Management
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?? Groundwater recharge and modelling (further work in initial and other sites).
?? Groundwater pollution due to sanitation systems (further work in initial and other sites).
?? Integrated island water resources study.
?? Groundwater and surface water pollution due to chemicals.
?? Rainwater catchment study.
?? Appropriate groundwater extraction systems.
Project proposals for these are provided in White et al (2000). For all projects, the workshop
recommended that:
?? Projects should have a regional application, achievable in terms of publications, training of
locals, etc.
?? Projects should be carried out through close liaison between the organisations: UNESCO,
SOPAC, SPREP, WMO, and others.
As mentioned in section 5.7,
At the ENSO Impact on Water Resources in the Pacific Region Workshop in Nadi, Fiji, in
September 1999 (SOPAC, 1999a) an additional priority project of drought assessment in small
island nations was proposed. A project proposal is also provided in White et al (2000).
This list is recommended as the basis for discussion regarding priority listing and funding for future
applied research projects. Additional potential applied research projects from other delegates
should also be tables and considered.
It is suggested that an Applied Research Working Group be formed to consider these and other
suggestions and make recommendations for possible endorsement by delegates.
6.8 Education and professional training
Training needs in relation to water resources assessment and monitoring are outlined in section
6.4.3. In addition, specific training and professional development components were mentioned
including scholarships to universities for water engineers, hydrogeologists and other water related
disciplines.
Additional training and professional development opportunities should be encouraged, including
the following:
?? In-country training workshops.
?? Regional or in-country training workshops on specific topics related to water resources
assessment, monitoring and management, and (rural) water supply & sanitation. Agencies
including but not limited to SOPAC, UNESCO and WMO have greatly assisted with
appropriate workshops on island water resources management.
?? Postgraduate courses in specific water resources areas by distance learning.
?? Possible twinning or interchange of professional and technical staff between different
islands.
?? Active involvement of island personnel in appropriate research and implementation projects
undertaken in-country or in similar island environments.
?? Pilot projects of regional significance.
6.9 Knowledge and information dissemination
There is ongoing need for information dissemination in the water sector. It is recognised that there
have been significant advances in this area in recent years with greater access to regional libraries
such as the SOPAC library, email, and the ongoing developments of useful websites. The
establishment of a `virtual library' of technical reports and access to this information through the
Internet is a welcome addition. However, not all personnel have access to electronic mail facilities
and websites, and those that do have access suffer inevitable communications problems.
Pacific Regional Consultation on Water in Small Island Countries Theme 1, Water Resources Management
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Areas where improvements are suggested are:
?? The results of studies and research into water resources issues should be effectively
communicated by the researchers and funding agencies to island governments, relevant
agencies and local communities in order that the potential benefits of research work is
realised. Where research results have a wider regional application, this information should
be disseminated through regional agencies and appropriate institutions. The results of
research which is published only through scientific or technical journals is of limited practical
value and may not reach the wider community.
?? Bilateral and other donors working in water sector should be encouraged to submit relevant
consultant reports on water resources management topics to the regional library (at
SOPAC).
?? Periodic regional and inter-regional workshops/seminars should be convened to
summarise/evaluate progress and continue to seek new solutions (as per past practice).
There should be a balance between being too frequent or too seldom. An interval of about 4
to 5 years is probably appropriate.
?? Specific publications on small island water resource and water supply issues (e.g. Hydrology
and water resources of small islands, a practical guide (UNESCO, 1991) and Source book of
alternative technologies for freshwater augmentation in Small Island Developing States
(IETC, 1998)) have provided valuable information. Where publications are out of print (e.g.
UNESCO, 1991) steps should be taken to make such information available through
alternative channels. Consideration should be given to updating such publications with
updated methods, approaches and technologies.
?? Newsletters on current and forthcoming activities can also be a useful means of transferring
information (e.g. SOPAC WRU and UNESCO-IHP newsletters) and are encouraged .
6.10 Networking and partnerships
6.10.1 Within countries
There is scope for greater co-ordination between agencies involved in the water sector in each
PIC, as identified previously. This issue is part of Theme 5 of the Regional Consultation.
There is also duplication of effort in the water related activities of several regional and international
agencies. In WMO (2002), it was recommended that National Committees should be established
to co-ordinate water related activities of these organisations and to provide guidance in providing
national input to regional programmes. The National Committee concept has been found to work
well in other countries (and stemmed from a need to coordinate UNESCO-IHP and WMO-OHP
activities).
It is noted that such co-ordination is a worthwhile objective and should be considered at the
Regional Consultation. It is noted that in some of the very small islands such a committee may not
be appropriate given the very small number of personnel involved in the sector.
6.10.2 Within the Pacific region
From section 5.8.3, it is evident that there are many current mechanisms and proposals for
interaction and networking between delegates from PICs on water resources and wider aspects of
water and wastewater. In summary these are:
?? UNESCO-IHP Pacific Focal Group on Water Resources (7 PICs)
?? UNEP/GPA/SOPAC Pacific Wastewater Focal Group (7 PICs)
?? WMO RA V Working Group on Hydrology (9 PICs)
?? SOPAC Science, Technology and Research (STAR) Water Working Group (16 PICs)
The number of groups and the membership of each indicates an interest and a need for
information exchange on a variety of water related topics. However there is an obvious duplication
of effort between at least some of these groups. The main issue is the need for effective use of
such groups for discussion of issues and priorities and for the development of recommendations
Pacific Regional Consultation on Water in Small Island Countries Theme 1, Water Resources Management
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for action. There is obviously scope for some rationalisation of the various groups to provide and
effective, coherent voice.
One possibility to achieve greater co-ordination is the concept of a Pacific Water Partnership
(PWP), with the aim of facilitating greater and effective interaction between the various agencies
and groups involved in the water sector. Details of the PWP concept are to be presented in
session at the Regional Consultation. Preliminary objectives for a PWP are as follows
?? Introduce Integrated Water Resources Management concepts in Pacific island countries
through:
?? Strengthen collaboration on international and regional initiatives, through sharing information
between relevant agencies and focal groups (including those mentioned above).
?? Exchange information with and between donor agencies including consultation on water
policies, strategies and development programmes (AusAID, NZAID, ADB, World Bank, EU,
JICA, France, USDOI, etc).
?? Involvement and exchange of information with water utilities and water associations (AWA,
NZWWA, PWA) and the private sector.
6.10.3 Inter-regional
Inter-regional networking between relevant agencies with an interest in small island hydrology and
water resources management such as those mentioned above and others, for instance, in the
Caribbean and Latin America region and in the Indian Ocean can assist with this important
process. A recommendation from the small islands working group at the Second International
Colloquium on Hydrology and Water Management in the Humid Tropics (Panama City, March
1999) was that regional focal points should assist small island nations in the co-ordination of
applied hydrological research, training and information dissemination. In the Pacific Ocean region,
for instance, SOPAC in conjunction with UNESCO and WMO acts in this capacity to a large
degree and provides an archive and clearing house of water resources information for the Pacific
Islands.
Given that delegates from other regions are attending the Regional Consultation it is appropriate
that inter-regional networking opportunities be further explored.
7. Summary of proposed actions
The following summary of proposed actions is based on the suggested and recommendation
actions presented in section 6. It is submitted for consideration by delegates to the Pacific
Regional Consultation on Water in Small Island Countries.
Pacific Regional Consultation on Water in Small Island Countries Theme 1, Water Resources Management
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Summary of Proposed Actions for consideration by delegates at Pacific Regional Consultation
No
Section
Item / Issue
Proposed Actions
Documents/Comment
1
6.2
Commitment and support from national governments
??This is a priority issue and impacts on
?? For Governments to consider and decide
all themes within the scope of the
Regional Consultation
2
6.3
Integrated water resources management
?? Consider implementation of IWRM principles and ?? IWRM Toolbox, Global Water
practices in PICs with appropriate support from
Partnership
relevant agencies and using relevant methods as a ?? Other information presented at the
priority matter
Regional Consultation
?? 3
6.4
Water resources assessment
?? WMO (1999)
?? Water Resources Assessment and Monitoring
?? Pacific HYCOS project proposal for capacity building
?? Mosley (2000)
Working Group be formed to consider these and
?? Hydrological training needs at regional level
?? SOPAC/WMO/UNESCO(2001)
other suggestions for possible endorsement by the
?? Capacity building and training through bilateral
??
delegates
WMO (2002)
projects
?? UNESCO (1991)
?? Special needs of very small islands
?? Dale et al (1986)
?? Guidelines for water assessment and monitoring
?? Other information presented at the
?? Community based monitoring
Regional Consultation
?? Bacteriological testing
?? Overlaps with Theme 2 and 5
4
6.5
Appropriate water supply and sanitation
?? Appropriate Technology Working Group be ?? Theme 1 Case studies for Kiribati,
?? Water supply strategies
formed to consider these and other suggestions and
Tuvalu, and Maldives
?? Rainwater harvesting
make recommendations for possible endorsement ?? Crennan and Berry (2002)
?? Groundwater
by the delegates
?? Other information presented at the
?? Surface water
Regional Consultation
?? Desalination
?? Overlaps with Theme 3 and 4
?? Demand management and conservation
?? Sanitation and wastewater
5
6.6
Participatory catchment management
?? Theme 1 Case studies for Tonga
?? Consider for endorsement the items in section 6.6.
?? Other information presented at the
Regional Consultation
6
6.7
Applied research projects
?? Applied Research Working Group be formed to ?? White et al (2000)
consider these and other suggestions and make ?? Sankey et al (1997)
recommendations for possible endorsement by the ?? Other information presented at the
delegates
Regional Consultation
7
6.8
Education and professional training
?? Consider for endorsement the items in section 6.8.
?? Other information presented at the
Regional Consultation
8
6.9
Knowledge and information dissemination
?? Consider for endorsement the items in section 6.9.
?? Other information presented at the
Regional Consultation
9
6.10
Networking and partnerships
?? Consider for endorsement the items in section 6.10.
?? Other information presented at the
Regional Consultation
Pacific Regional Consultation on Water in Small Island Countries Theme 1, Water Resources Management
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