TOWARD THE
TOW
2002 WORLD SUMMIT ON
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
SUST
,
AINABLE DEVELOPMENT
JOHANNESBURG
Reports of the
Conference
Working Groups
W
THE GLOBAL CONFERENCE ON
OCEANS AND COASTS
December 37, 2001
UNESCO, Paris
TOWARD THE
2002 WORLD SUMMIT ON
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT,
JOHANNESBURG
Ensuring the Sustainable
Development of Oceans and Coasts
Authored by the Working Group Chairs:
Sian Pullen, World Wildlife Fund, United Kingdom
Ed Miles, University of Washington, USA
Indu Hewawasam, World Bank
Gunnar Kullenberg, International Ocean Institute, Malta
Richard Kenchington, RAC Marine Pty Ltd., Australia
Marea Hatziolos, World Bank
Kees Zwanenburg, Bedford Institute of Oceanography, Canada
Gerald Miles, South Pacific Regional Environment Programme, Samoa
Gayatri Acharya, World Bank
with the assistance of Bernice McLean,
Center for the Study of Marine Policy, USA
Reports of the Conference Working Groups The Global Conference on Ocean and Coasts at Rio+10
Conference Financial Support
Conference Patrons:
Conference in-kind and/or travel support:
Government of Brazil
ACOPS, United Kingdom; American
South Africa; Ministry of Fisheries,
Society of Limnology and Oceanography,
Iceland; Ministry of Foreign Affairs,
Department of Fisheries and Oceans, Canada
USA; Arctic Council, Finland; Asian
Russian Federation; Ministry of Industry,
Government of France
Development Bank, Philippines;
Science and Technology of the Russian
Ministry of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries,
Australian Oceanographic Data Centre,
Federation; National Institute of Ecology,
Republic of Korea
Australia; Bedford Institute of
Mexico; National Oceanographic
The Nippon Foundation, Japan
Oceanography, Canada; Bureau of
Commission, Cuba; Netherlands Institute
Meteorology, Tasmania, Australia;
for Fisheries Research, Netherlands; North
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Caribbean Environment Programme,
America Commission for Environmental
Administration, USA
United Nations Environment Programme,
Cooperation, Canada; Ocean Governance
Canadian International Development Agency
Jamaica; Center for Environmental
Study Group, USA; Oceans Blue
Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission
Science, USA; Center for Maritime Policy,
Foundation, USA; OSPAR Convention,
University of Wollongong, Australia;
United Kingdom; PEMSEA, Philippines;
Center for the Study of Marine Policy,
Centre National de la Récherche
Portuguese Committee,
University of Delaware
Scientifique, France; CSIRO Marine
Intergovernmental Oceanographic
Research, Australia; Deakin University,
Commission, Portugal; RAC-Marine,
Conference Sponsors:
Australia; Department of Environmental
Australia; Research Institute for Ocean
Affairs and Tourism, South Africa;
Economics, Japan; Regional Activity
International Ocean Institute
Department of Natural Resources,
Centre for Priority Actions Programme,
Coastal Resources Center, University of
Canada; El Colegio de Mexico, Mexico;
Croatia; SeaWeb, USA; Texas A&M
Rhode Island/U.S. Agency for International
Environment and Sustainable
University, USA; The Coastal Union,
Development
Development Programme, Commission
Netherlands; The Nippon Foundation,
of European Union, Belgium; EPOMEX,
Japan; The World Conservation Union,
United Nations Environment Programme,
Mexico; Federal Ministry of Environment,
Costa Rica; The World Conservation
GPA Coordination Office
Nigeria; Fisheries Resources and
Union, Switzerland; Transatlantic
World Bank
Environmental Division, Food and
Consortium for Marine Policy; UN Office
South Pacific Regional Environment
Agriculture Organization, Italy; Frozen
of Legal Affairs, Division for Ocean Affairs
Programme
Fish International, Germany; GESAMP,
and the Law of the Sea, USA; University
United Kingdom; Global Coral Reef
of British Columbia, Canada; University
Monitoring Network, Australian Institute
of Cardiff, United Kingdom; University of
Collaborating Organizations
of Marine Science; Global International
East Anglia, United Kingdom; University
Ministry of Environment,
Waters Assessment, Sweden; Global
of Genoa, Italy; University of Milan-
Government of Mozambique
Ocean Ecosystems Dynamic, United
Bicocca, Italy; University of Nantes,
Kingdom; GLOBE International, USA;
France; University of New Hampshire,
Land-Oceans Interactions in the Coastal Zone
Graduate College of Marine Studies,
USA; University of the Philippines,
Department of State, USA
University of Delaware; Green Globe 21,
Philippines; University of Tromsoe,
Ministry of Environment, Energy and
United Kingdom; Greenpeace
Norway; University of Washington, USA;
Natural Resources, Barbados
International, The Netherlands;
Urban Harbors Institute, University of
Greenpeace USA; Horn Point Laboratory,
Massachusetts-Boston, USA; Victorian
Ministry for the Environment and
University of Maryland, USA; IFREMER,
Coastal Council, Australia; Waseda
Heritage, Australia
France; International Geographic Union;
University School of Law, Japan; World
International Collective in Support
International Maritime Organization,
Forum of Fish Harvesters and Fish
of Fish Workers, India
United Kingdom; International Seabed
Workers; World Heritage Centre,
Environment and Development in Coastal
Authority, Jamaica; INTERTANKO,
UNESCO, France; World Maritime
Regions and in Small Islands, UNESCO
Norway; James Cook University,
University, Sweden; World Meteorological
Australia; Lead Program, Mexico; Marine
Organization, Switzerland; World Tourism
Aquarium Council; Marine Research
Organization, Spain; World Wildlife
Institute, Iceland; Ministry of
Fund, Switzerland; World Wildlife Fund,
Environment, Iceland; Ministry of
United Kingdom
Environmental Affairs and Tourism,
ii
Reports of the Conference Working Groups The Global Conference on Ocean and Coasts at Rio+10
Table of Contents
FOREWORD .....................................................................................................................................v
WORKING GROUP 1 GOVERNANCE IMPROVEMENTS AND HARMONIZATION OF
INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS AND EMERGING ISSUES................1
Part 1. Governance Improvements and Harmonization of
International Agreements............................................................................................1
Background .................................................................................................................................1
Progress........................................................................................................................................1
Constraints..................................................................................................................................5
Best Practices ...............................................................................................................................5
Opportunities ..............................................................................................................................6
Course Corrections .....................................................................................................................6
Recommendations ......................................................................................................................7
Part 2. Emerging Issues ...........................................................................................................8
Population-Related and Societal Issues ......................................................................................8
Environment-Related Issues .......................................................................................................8
Trade and Industry-Related Issues ..............................................................................................9
New Uses of the Sea....................................................................................................................9
Science and Technology ...........................................................................................................10
Security......................................................................................................................................10
Recommendation......................................................................................................................10
Annex 1- Regional Conventions and Agreements ..............................................................10
WORKING GROUP 2TARGETING DONOR AID AND PRIVATE SECTOR .............................13
Background ...............................................................................................................................13
Achievements............................................................................................................................13
Constraints................................................................................................................................13
Where do we want to be in 2012? ...........................................................................................14
Donor-Recipient Relationship ..................................................................................................14
Recommendations ....................................................................................................................14
WORKING GROUP 3 ASSESSING AND MANAGING THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT ........17
Background ...............................................................................................................................17
Assessment of the Marine Environment..................................................................................18
Constraints and Challenges .....................................................................................................19
Recommendations ....................................................................................................................20
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Reports of the Conference Working Groups The Global Conference on Ocean and Coasts at Rio+10
WORKING GROUP 4MARINE BIODIVERSITY AND PROTECTED AREAS...........................23
Background ...............................................................................................................................23
Achievements............................................................................................................................23
Constraints................................................................................................................................24
New Challenges ........................................................................................................................25
Recommendations ....................................................................................................................25
WORKING GROUP 5INTEGRATED COASTAL AND OCEAN MANAGEMENT.....................29
Background ...............................................................................................................................29
Achievements............................................................................................................................29
What has been learned in making Agenda 21, Chapter 17 operational? ..............................30
Challenges.................................................................................................................................30
Recommendations ....................................................................................................................31
WORKING GROUP 6SUSTAINABLE FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE................................33
Background ...............................................................................................................................33
Main achievements since 1992 in the implementation of Agenda 21 and
other outcomes from UNCED ..................................................................................................33
Constraints................................................................................................................................34
Recommendations ....................................................................................................................35
WORKING GROUP 7SMALL ISLAND PERSPECTIVES............................................................37
Background ...............................................................................................................................37
The special case for Small Island Developing States ...............................................................37
Ten years after the Earth Summit the situation is worse ........................................................37
Constraints................................................................................................................................38
Course Corrections ...................................................................................................................38
Recommendations ....................................................................................................................39
WORKING GROUP 8HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT AND
CAPACITY BUILDING IN MARINE AND COASTAL MANAGEMENT .....................................43
Background ...............................................................................................................................43
Progress......................................................................................................................................43
Constraints................................................................................................................................43
Vision ........................................................................................................................................43
Recommendations ....................................................................................................................44
iv
Reports of the Conference Working Groups The Global Conference on Ocean and Coasts at Rio+10
Foreword
The Global Conference on Oceans and Coasts at Rio+10: Toward the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development,
Johannesburg took place on December 3-7, 2001 at UNESCO, Paris. The Conference involved over 400 participants from
60 countries, assembling an array of experts from a diverse range of sectors including governments, United Nations agen-
cies and other intergovernmental organizations (IGOs), and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) representing envi-
ronmental, industry, and scientific/technical perspectives.
The Conference occurred nearly ten years after the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
(UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro, with the aim of assessing the present status of oceans and coasts and progress achieved over
the past decade, addressing continuing and new challenges, and laying the groundwork for the inclusion of an oceans,
coasts, and islands perspective at the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD), to be held in
Johannesburg.
The Conference Program was divided into seventeen panels which, for strategic purposes, were combined into nine the-
matic areas. A Working Group supported each of the nine thematic areas. The Working Groups were conceived of in
order to stimulate meaningful dialogue among conference delegates before and during the conference and to present a
synthesis of current issues facing ocean and coasts and management options for future action. Each Working Group was
composed of representatives from NGOs, IGOs and governments and was supported by a core team of individuals
including a Chairperson, Facilitator Rapporteur, and Secretariat Contact. The task of the team was to oversee the draft-
ing of a consensus statement of approximately two pages per thematic area and a summary for submission to the
Conference Executive Committee.
Conference delegates were encouraged to participate in online Working Group discussions prior to the conference, to
identify key issues, and to prepare for in-depth discussions at the conference. Working Groups met on a number of occa-
sions during the conference to formulate and agree upon the reports presented within this volume. Delegates commit-
ted a great deal of time and energy to the Working Group reports, the results of which contributed significantly to the
Co-Chairs' Report which was presented at PrepCom 2 as a contribution to the WSSD process.
We are sincerely grateful to the many Governmental, Non-Governmental, and Inter- Governmental organizations that
have provided support for the conference and which are listed in the beginning of this volume. We especially appreci-
ate their encouragement and faith that an unusual "hybrid" meeting like this one--which brought together
Governments, NGOs, and IGOs together in the same venue-- could produce significant results for consideration by the
international community.
We would also like to extend our gratitude to all of the participants at the conference, both for their thorough panel pre-
sentations and their enduring devotion to the working groups before, during, and after the conference.
Finally, we would like to offer our heartfelt thanks to the Conference Executive Committee, the Conference Organizing
Committee, and the Secretariat Staff, for all of their work on the conference.
Sincerely,
Dr. Patricio Bernal,
Dr. Biliana Cicin-Sain
Intergovernmental
Center for the Study
Oceanographic
of Marine Policy,
Commission, UNESCO
University of Delaware
v
Reports of the Conference Working Groups The Global Conference on Ocean and Coasts at Rio+10
vi
Reports of the Conference Working Groups The Global Conference on Ocean and Coasts at Rio+10
Working Group 1
GOVERNANCE IMPROVEMENTS AND HARMONIZATION OF
INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS AND EMERGING ISSUES
This Working Group Report 1 is presented in 2 main parts:
i) Governance Improvements and Harmonization of International Agreements;
and ii) Emerging Issues.
PART I. GOVERNANCE IMPROVEMENTS
a) Regional economic integration and political organizations, such
AND HARMONIZATION OF INTERNATIONAL
as the European Union (EU), the Association of Southeast
AGREEMENTS
Asian Nations (ASEAN), the South Pacific Forum (SPF), the
Caribbean Community (CARICOM);
BACKGROUND
b) Regional environmental institutions, in particular the action
The Law of the Sea Convention (LOSC) and Chapter 17 of
plans and conventions developed within UNEP's Regional
Agenda 21 provide the overall framework for the pursuit of sus-
Seas Programme as well as those developed in the Northeast
tainable ocean governance at global, regional, and national
Atlantic, the Baltic, the Antarctic, and the Arctic;
levels. Chapter 17 of Agenda 21 (17.1) stresses both the impor-
c) Regional fishery organizations, such as the regional fishery
tance of oceans and coastal areas in the global life support
bodies of FAO (e.g., the General Fishery Council for the
system and the positive opportunity for sustainable develop-
Mediterranean--GFCM, or the Fishery Committee for the
ment that ocean and coastal areas represent. Ocean and coastal
Eastern Central Atlantic--CECAF) and other regional fishery
areas often present excellent opportunities for development,
organizations in the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Ocean; and
particularly for developing countries--opportunities that, if
conducted in a sustainable development mode, can yield sig-
d) Regional scientific organizations and programs, such as the
nificant social and economic benefits for coastal communities
International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES),
while protecting environmental integrity.
IOC's regional subsidiary bodies (IOCARIBE, WESTPAC, etc.),
the regional programs of the Global Ocean Observing System
Agenda 21, Chapter 17 emphasized the importance of the
(GOOS) (EuroGOOS, MedGOOS, Black Sea GOOS, etc.), and
regional scale for sustainable ocean governance, with particular
the Global International Waters Assessment of the Global
reference to institutional cooperation and coordination. The
Environment Facility (GEF).
Law of the Sea Convention also identified the regional
approach as the appropriate means to better address issues relat-
Regional sustainable development can only be realized if the
ing to: a) management of marine living resources; b) protection
different objectives of these different types of organization are
of the marine environment and ecosystems; and c) cooperation
pursued in a coordinated manner. Regional diversity and varia-
in marine scientific and technological research. The LOSC also
tions do not allow elaborating a "formula," but leaders from the
emphasized the need for cooperation among nations, especial-
political, entrepreneurial, and scientific realms must work
ly in the case of enclosed or semi-enclosed seas.
together to achieve the critical mass needed to operate accord-
ing to the sustainable development paradigm. Regional
The regional approach is also indicated as one of the opera-
economic integration organizations and regional policy making
tional frameworks to pursue the objectives of other legal and
forums with strong links to national political leaders should be
programmatic arrangements that form the core ocean "pack-
aware of the regional oceans-related bodies. Meaningful deci-
age," namely, the Convention on Biological Diversity (CDB),
sion-making connections are needed to advance sustainable
the Fish Stocks Agreement, the Code of Conduct for
ocean development.
Responsible Fisheries, the Global Program of Action for the
Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-based
PROGRESS
Activities (GPA), and the Barbados Program of Action for the
Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States.
Since UNCED 1992, important progress has been made towards
sustainable ocean governance: (1) A number of international
The regional rather than the global scale appears the most
agreements, voluntary instruments, and programs of action on
appropriate level to reconcile environmental and developmen-
oceans and coastal areas have been negotiated and/or come into
tal needs and promote sustainable development. At the regional
force; (2) there have been evolving new approaches to ecosys-
level, one can distinguish four main types of regional organiza-
tem management; (3) regional instruments and programs
tions:
1
Reports of the Conference Working Groups The Global Conference on Ocean and Coasts at Rio+10
Table 1--Development of International Oceans Agreements post-UNCED
Theme
Agreement
Law of the Sea
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)
1994
(entry into force)
International Seabed Authority (ISBA)
1996
(operational)
International Tribunal on the Law of the Sea (ITLOS)
1997 (operational)
Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS)
1997 (operational)
Marine environment
Code for the Safe Carriage of Packaged Irradiated Nuclear Fuel,
1993
Plutonium and High-Level Radioactive Wastes on Board Ships
Convention on the Protection of the Black Sea against Pollution
1994
Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment
1995
from Land-based Activities (GPA)
Agreement establishing the South Pacific Environment Programme (SPREP)
1995 (into force)
International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness and Response
1995 (into force)
Protocol to the London Convention
1996
Convention for the Protection, Management and Development
1996 (into force)
of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the Eastern African Region
Declaration on the Establishment of the Arctic Council
1996
Annex VI to MARPOL 73/78 on Regulations for the
1997
Prevention on Air Pollution from Ships
Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the
1998 (into force)
North East Atlantic
OSPAR and Helsinki Convention
1998 (into force)
Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty
1998 (into force)
The Protocol Concerning Pollution from Land-based Sources and Activities to the
1999
Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of
the Wider Caribbean Region
New timetable for Annex I to MARPOL 73/78 (Oil Discharges)
2001
for phasing out single hull oil tankers
International Convention on the Control of Harmful Antifouling
2001
Systems on Ships
Stockholm Convention on POPS
2001
Marine safety
International Convention on Liability and
1996
and liability
Compensation for Damage in connection with the Carriage of Hazardous
and Noxious Substances by Sea
Liability Protocol to the Basel Convention
1999
International Convention on Civil Liability for Bunker Oil Pollution Damage
2001
Sustainable use and
Agreement to Promote Compliance with International Conservation and
1993
conservation of
Management Measures by Vessels Fishing in the High Seas
marine living resources ("Compliance Agreement")
New regional fisheries management organizations established or in preparation
After 1993
(Commission for the Conservation of the Southern Blue
Tuna--CCSBT, South East Atlantic Fisheries Organization--SEAFO, West and
Central Pacific Organization, Convention for the Conservation and Management
of Pollock Resources in the Central Bering Sea)
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Reports of the Conference Working Groups The Global Conference on Ocean and Coasts at Rio+10
Theme
Agreement
Code of Conduct for Responsible Fishing and four related
1995
International Plans of Action (IPOAs)
Agreement for the implementation of the Provisions of the United Nations
2001
Convention on the Law of the Sea Relating to the Conservation and
2001
Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory
(entry into force)
Fish Stocks ("Fish Stocks Agreement")
Marine biodiversity
Jakarta Mandate on the "Conservation and Sustainable Use of Marine and
1995
Coastal Biological Diversity"
International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI)
1995
Annex VI to OSPAR Convention
1996
Protocol on Specially Protected Areas and Biological Diversity
1996
in the Mediterranean
Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety
2000
Sustainable
Barbados Programme of Action for the Sustainable Development
1994
development of
of Small Island Developing States
small islands
Deep seabed mining
Agreement Relating to the Implementation of Part XI of the
1994
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982
Regulations on prospecting and exploration for polymetallic nodules in the
2000
international seabed area
Underwater cultural
Convention for the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage (UNESCO)
2001
heritage
River basins
ECE Convention on Transboundary Lakes and Rivers
1992
UN Convention on the Non-navigational Uses of International Watercourses
1997
Rio Principles
The precautionary principle, part of the Rio Principles on Environment and
Development, is increasingly being incorporated into agreements.
continue to develop; (4) new actions have been undertaken by
process is framed in a philosophy of adaptive management with
national authorities; and (5) considerable discussion on inter-
monitoring and evaluation indicators. Over one-half billion dol-
national mechanisms for cooperation on oceans issues has
lars from the North and South are invested in eight LME-related
taken place.
projects with $240 million in GEF grant finance. Sixty countries
are engaged in these initiatives, with 7 more LMEs in preparation
1. International Agreements
involving another 76 nations, many being LDCs.
See the table on these pages.
3. Regional Developments
2. Evolving New Approaches to Ecosystem Management
During the last decade, there have been a number of develop-
Ecosystem
ments at the regional level related to ocean governance. These
The Global Environment Facility (GEF) is supporting new
include:
methodologies for the management of large marine ecosystems
· Growing regional economic integration, in particular in
(LMEs) in Africa, Asia, Latin America, and Eastern Europe. As rec-
Europe (European Union--EU), North America (North
ommended by the GEF Operational Strategy, the countries
American Free Trade Agreement--NAFTA), and South
involved utilize variants of a 5-module assessment and manage-
America (MERCOSUR).
ment methodology intended to move them toward adopting
practical joint governance institutions. The institutions engage
· Growing ocean management strengths in regional indige-
at three levels: i) multi-country, ii) national inter-ministerial, and
nous organizations (Association of Southeast Asian
iii) local and involve also local communities and institutions.
Nations--ASEAN, South Pacific Forum--SPF, and Caribbean
They address blue-water and coastal issues and apply ICM
Community--CARICOM).
methodologies in habitat restoration and conservation and
· The discussion of the interaction between globalization
addressing land-based sources of marine pollution. The whole
processes, on the one hand, and local systems, on the other,
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Reports of the Conference Working Groups The Global Conference on Ocean and Coasts at Rio+10
has led to: i) increased importance to the human dimensions
cance, iii) UNEP Governing Council decision 21/13 on global
of sustainable development, and ii) a wider concept of diver-
assessment of the state of the marine environment, to explore
sity that explores the interplay between biological diversity, as
the feasibility of establishing a regular process for assessing the
defined by the 1992 CBD Convention, and cultural diversity
state of the marine environment with active involvement by
including rural coastal communities, their cultural heritage
governments and regional agreements, building on ongoing
and their way of life. Hence greater emphasis is being given
assessments. The evolution of the Mediterranean Regional Seas
to the concept of regional seas as those spaces where sustain-
Programme is summarized in Appendix I. Other examples of
able development has to be pursued by contextually
successful regional marine environmental cooperation are
safeguarding both biological and cultural diversity, and by
reported in Appendix 1 (North East Atlantic, Pacific, and Arctic).
adopting management patterns that optimize the integration
Improvements are being made in incorporating and opera-
between local systems and globalization processes.
tionalizing ecosystem-based approaches, the precautionary
· Growing incorporation within the regional conventions and
approach, and new mechanisms to promote compliance and
action plans associated with UNEP's Regional Seas
enforcement in regional fishery management organizations
Programme and other regional conventions to protect the
(e.g., CCAMLR, ICCAT). The global meetings of regional fishery
marine environment of sustainable development considera-
management organizations (RFMOs), convened by FAO, are
tions. In addition, the emphasis on regional implementation
marking positive contributions to these developments and pro-
of the GPA is beginning to breathe new life into many of
mote exchange of information and experience among the
these regional arrangements.
RFMOs.
The UNEP Regional Seas Programme, initiated in 1974, provides
4. National Actions
a major legal, administrative, substantive and financial frame-
work for the implementation of chapter 17 of Agenda 21. It
There has been growing awareness among governments of the
consists of periodically revised action plans and in most cases
importance of oceans and coastal areas for the well-being and
legally binding regional conventions and protocols. These have
welfare of human societies. In particular, the acknowledgement
evolved from pollution control agreements into multifunction-
of linkages between terrestrial and marine environments has led
al agreements addressing airborne pollution; land-based sources
to the proliferation of national and sub national efforts in inte-
of pollution; protected species, areas and biodiversity; the
grated coastal management (ICM) including watershed
impacts of offshore exploration and exploitation of oil and gas;
management. It is estimated that in the year 2000 approxi-
dumping; contingency planning; and transboundary move-
mately 100 countries had developed national and sub-national
ment and disposal of hazardous wastes. In addition, they
initiatives based on an agreed set of core principles, often with
address integrated coastal area management, including in sev-
the support of international donors. They often face serious dif-
eral cases links to the management of contiguous freshwater
ficulties in actually putting into operation the extensive coastal
basins and conservation and sustainable use of living marine
planning efforts they have carried out. (see Working Group 5
resources and marine biodiversity. They are systematically
report).
linked to global conventions and agreements. For example, pro-
5. Discussion of International Mechanisms for Cooperation
tocols on pollution from oil and harmful substances and
on Oceans
dumping from ships and aircraft are operationally linked to the
IMO conventions and the London Convention; those on land-
Ocean governance issues and processes have been discussed
based sources of pollution are operationally linked to the GPA;
within and outside the UN system in a series of consultative
those on protected areas and species are linked to the CBD; and
processes and forums. These include:
those on transboundary wastes movement are linked to the
· The periodic meetings of the Advisory Committee on
Basel Convention. These programs have the potential to sup-
Coordination, Subcommittee on Oceans and Coastal Areas
port the implementation of global agreements at a scale where
(ACC/SOCA) which brings together all the UN-related oceans
both national and stakeholder participation is stronger. The
agencies;
global meetings of regional programs convened by UNEP pro-
· The United Nations Informal Consultative Process on Oceans
mote sharing of information and experience among the
Affairs and Law of the Sea (2000 and 2001);
regions.
· Independent World Commission on the Oceans (1998);
Promising signs for revitalization of the Programme include: i)
a marked rise in the signing of memoranda of understanding
· Second London Oceans Workshop (1998); and
(MOUs) between regional seas conventions and other MEA's
· GPA/IGR Review (November 2001).
during the last two years; ii) the adoption of twinning arrange-
These initiatives have emphasized that improvement of ocean
ments--a form of horizontal cooperation--between regional
governance can be achieved through better communication,
seas program; recognition of the need to reinforce critical part-
collaboration, and coordination of existing institutions and
nerships between UNEP and its major partner organizations in
programs at the global, regional, and national levels rather than
the field of oceans and coastal areas; and, of particular signifi-
through the creation of new institutions.
4
Reports of the Conference Working Groups The Global Conference on Ocean and Coasts at Rio+10
CONSTRAINTS
· The need to streamline national reporting, which represents
Despite political recognition of transboundary and common
a burden on many countries, especially small developing
problems and potential efficiencies and savings generated by
countries. Work is in early formative stages, and improve-
pooling of financial resources (by international donors, nation-
ments could be achieved by reorganizing national reporting
al governments, the private sector, civil society), persistent
around a `package' of oceans-related arguments;
challenges remain.
· The need to improve performance indicators to measure the
effectiveness of the agreements;
BEST PRACTICES
· Financial constraints, which are an important limiting factor
1. Harmonization of International Agreements
in the implementation of MEAs and also affect the function-
ings of MEA secretariats.
The oceans cluster of MEAs
According to one analysis, overlaps among conventions, agree-
2. Insuring Transparency, Participation, and Accountability
ments, and programs related to oceans and coastal areas are
in Decision-making on Oceans and Coasts
apparent in several areas. Examples of overlap include the pro-
Since ocean resources and areas, in most cases, are managed by
tection of marine biodiversity in international waters, including
government on behalf of the public, it is important to ensure
the deep seabed area; the potential development of methane
transparency, opportunities for participation, and accountabili-
hydrates of the deep seabed area as an energy source and their
ty in decision-making on oceans and coastal areas. Agenda 21
impacts as greenhouse gases; and shallow marine and coastal
emphasized these values throughout its various chapters.
ecosystems, such as mangroves, sea grasses, salt marshes, and
In the oceans and coasts area, there has been improvement in
shallow coral reefs where two or more international instru-
the transparency, participation, and accountability of decision
ments apply (e.g., Ramsar Convention, World Heritage
making. For example, the ACC/SOCA has brought together and
Convention, Man and the Biosphere Programme, regional
coordinated the work of the various United Nations agencies
instruments). The latter may lead to duplication of effort in rela-
dealing with oceans. An important new development has been
tion to preparing and implementing management plans and
the recent establishment of a website and publication which
reporting. Of the more than 500 multilateral environmental
insure that decisions made in this forum are made public. A
agreements (MEAs), 64% of these are of regional scope, and
drawback of ACC/SOCA, however, is that there are few oppor-
marine-related agreements represent the largest cluster (about
tunities for expression of the perspectives of governmental and
200 agreements).
non-governmental organizations.
The coordination and integration of international agreements is
The UNICPOLOS (now ICP) process has begun important new
made difficult by a series of factors. These include:
processes of deliberation among governments on specific glob-
· The reluctance of some agreement secretariats to cooperate
al ocean issues. It is specially charged with coordination and
with others for fear of losing part of their mandate.
cooperation of international bodies and programs. Some NGO's
Consultations at the intergovernmental level through exist-
would like to see better opportunities to participate. In addition,
ing fora could help overcome this problem;
important global ocean actors, such as the multilateral funding
· Inadequate baseline data and monitoring to develop inte-
agencies, have been notably absent in these proceedings.
grated assessments;
Each of the major ocean-related agreements has its own spe-
· Lack of awareness of inter-linkages;
cialized decision making process which allows for some level of
participation by inter-governmental and non-governmental
· Inadequate involvement of non-state actors;
organizations. To a large extent, however, these are specialized
· Insufficient implementation and coordination of efforts at
forums concerned with one or another ocean issue. There is a
the national level. The greatest problem is the lack of nation-
need to develop a mechanism where the inter-relationships
al integrated legal and institutional frameworks with
among ocean and coastal issues can be addressed and better
consequent effects on implementation of international rules.
accessed by the full range of actors from governments, inter-
The integrated approach to ocean affairs requires a great deal
governmental organizations, non-governmental organizations,
of cooperation at the national level which certainly starts
local and indigenous communities, and the private sector.
with the enactment of coherent national policy, allowing
politicians, administrators and other officials and the public
3. Regional Issues
to have a clear view of the direction countries should take in
UNEP's Regional Seas Program is commonly called upon to pro-
dealing with oceans affairs. Marine agreements could be con-
vide an institutional framework or focus for UN system-wide
sidered as a cluster through national ocean councils or
responses to marine-related problems. Each Regional Seas
national legislative bodies;
Program has its strengths and weaknesses but few have achieved
· Inadequate and inconsistent compliance and enforcement at
a high level of involvement and commitment by states in the
the national level;
region as in the Mediterranean and in the South Pacific. The
regional conventions have the potential to strengthen regional
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Reports of the Conference Working Groups The Global Conference on Ocean and Coasts at Rio+10
governance if used as a platform for integrated action.
3. Avoiding Duplication of Effort
The regional fisheries agreements appear to have achieved a
· coordinated initiatives on common agendas such as meth-
higher level of involvement and commitment by the relevant
ods of approach to MPAs or indicators.
states. The overall effectiveness of other regional oceans-related
MEA's is not readily evident. This may be due in large part to the
COURSE CORRECTIONS
lack of specific arrangements for funding or the existence of
Several course corrections and recommendations related to
other mechanisms for the delivery of similar outputs.
ocean governance can be provided as an input to the World
Monitoring and reporting obligations under some of these con-
Summit on Sustainable Development:
ventions could be streamlined and designed to complement or
· There is an important need to integrate the approach of
avoid duplication of reporting, including under other global
Agenda 21's Chapter 17 with that of Chapter 18 (freshwa-
agreements.
ter management).
4. National Issues
· Particular attention should be paid by the WSSD to the
Nationally, it is often difficult to identify the specific outputs of
cost and resource burdens of small nations and particular-
regional action. Regional needs are not always seen as adding
ly islands trying to meet their commitments as parties to
value to national efforts to effectively manage ocean resources.
conventions.
Transboundary problems are often ill-defined. There is also a
In addition, the unsatisfactory results achieved by MEAs and
growing sense of competition for resources where funds or pro-
the emergence of new ocean uses calls for better means to
grams delivered regionally are seen as funds or programs that
address a series of such issues as:
could have been nationally executed. Support for developing
· Commercial fishing from an environmental perspective;
the national legislation necessary to underpin regional arrange-
ments has been insufficient. It is important to move from
· The impact of high seas fisheries on marine species such as
regional to national action.
mammals and birdlife;
· Lack of sites on the World Heritage list nominated for their
OPPORTUNITIES
marine values;
Overlaps among major international instruments also present
· Coastal zone management and information;
various specific opportunities for synergism at both global and
regional levels.
· Impact of population, poverty and urbanization on coastal
resources;
1. Global/ Regional Linkages
· The role of poverty and corruption in relation to environ-
· Integrated coastal management at the local national
mental management practices;
regional and global levels;
· The failure to identify and make available alternatives to
· Mutually supportive institutional arrangements, particu-
bad environmental practices;
larly for implementation of the GPA.
· The failure to quantify and publicize the economic bene-
2. Implementation Synergies
fits of good environmental practices;
· Monitoring, surveillance, control, and enforcement;
· Economic instruments and incentives;
· Co-ordinated approaches to developing national and
· Practical indicators for measuring performance under the
regional networks of MPA's and habitat;
agreements; and
· Technology cooperation and transfer;
· Compliance and enforcement.
· Development of human resources and capacity building;
At all levels there is a need:
· Innovative methods for generating additional financial
· to ensure full ratification, implementation, and enforce-
resources;
ment, as well as harmonization of multilateral agreements
on oceans and coasts;
· Environmental Impact Assessment;
· for greater communication, collaboration and coordina-
· Contingency planning and disaster management;
tion of international institutions and frameworks;
· Liability instruments;
· to recognize that the complexity and scope of agreements
· Integrated approaches to managing pollution and wastes;
has often meant that developing states have been preju-
· Integrated approaches to conserving fisheries and protect-
diced in their implementation due to a general lack of
ing their critical habitat from pollution and physical
capacity or through excessive duplication of function;
impacts.
· to achieve greater transparency, participation, and
accountability in decision making; and
· to address the lack of attention to the integration of eco-
nomic, social and environmental issues and new
6
objectives in governance frameworks.
Reports of the Conference Working Groups The Global Conference on Ocean and Coasts at Rio+10
At the regional and national levels, there is a need:
achieve those targets (e.g., partnerships with the private sector,
· to develop integrated frameworks for the planning and
possible international taxes).
management of coastal, watershed and marine areas;
Several recommendations related to ocean governance can be
· to develop legal and institutional frameworks that inte-
provided as an input to the World Summit on Sustainable
grate multi-sectional concerns;
Development.
· to promote integrated implementation of global and
RECOMMENDATIONS
regional oceans-related legal instruments, including those
addressing trade and investment;
General Issues
· to promote private and community involvement in the
1. Implementation and coordination of International
delivery of integrated policies;
Agreements
· to ensure that national administrations demonstrate
strong political will and engage fully in addressing their
1.1 Develop a common Global Vision for Oceans, Seas and
international responsibilities, for example, through
Coasts which provides goals and objectives for gover-
national legal frameworks, managing their nationals in
nance, to which the multitude of international
foreign and international waters, enforcement, and ensur-
instruments and organizations contribute.
ing strong internal coordination;
1.2 Undertake a broad diplomatic process for wider ratifica-
· to address lack of attention to or poor drafting of enforce-
tion and implementation of multilateral agreements
ment provisions in legislation leading to difficulties in
related to oceans and coastal areas.
enforcing agreements;
1.3 Encourage the joint implementation of clusters of interna-
· to recognize the difficulty citizens have in understanding
tional legal instruments and programs addressing oceans
governance mechanisms and taking appropriate action;
and coastal areas at global, regional and national levels,
and
through for example:
· To promote regionally designed and driven multi-stake-
holder fora to encourage and facilitate these actions.
· Memorandums of understanding approved by
governing bodies;
For more effective implementation of the Regional Seas
Program, several course corrections are needed:
· Joint work of scientific bodies;
· to channel UNEP programmatic support more effectively
· Joint consideration of related agreements; and
to the regional programs;
· to promote horizontal ties among regional seas conven-
· Joint work programs.
tions and action plans;
1.4 Pursue horizontal cooperation among regions.
· to strengthen the linkages between the regional seas con-
ventions and action plans and the Global Programme of
1.5 Establish and operate of effective monitoring, compliance
Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from
and enforcement regimes to reinforce MEA implementa-
Land-based Activities (GPA);
tion, including granting civil society the right to
participate in and initiate enforcement actions.
· to strengthen linkages between the regional seas conven-
tions and action plans and global conventions and
1.6 Streamline national reporting around clusters of interna-
agreements, specifically the Convention on Biological
tional legal instruments and programs addressing oceans
Diversity (CBD), the Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES),
2. Regional/National Issues
RAMSAR, the Global Plan of Action for Marine Mammals,
2.1 Promote regional level ocean governance as an essential
the Basel Convention for the Control of the
approach to pursue the sustainable development of
Transboundary Movement of Hazardous Wastes and Their
oceans and coastal areas, to integrate global and local
Disposal, the IMO conventions and the Rotterdam and
scales of governance, and to make progress toward
Stockholm Conventions on chemicals; and
ecosystem-based approaches.
· to review and ensure follow-up to the recommendations of
the previous global meetings of regional seas conventions
2.2 Promote regional and national multi-stakeholder frame-
and action plans.
works or fora to address sustainable management of oceans
and coastal areas in an ecosystem context, including:
It would also be useful to identify and promote long-term
(2015) international development targets applicable to oceans
· Develop integrated approaches to watershed, coastal and
and coasts at national and regional levels, in particular for fish-
marine management;
eries, land-based activities, and institutional capacity, and
consider means to generate additional financial resources to
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Reports of the Conference Working Groups The Global Conference on Ocean and Coasts at Rio+10
· Promote integrated implementation of relevant regional
resolved. Integrated coastal management (ICM), including sus-
and global legal instruments, including those addressing
tainable urban and coastal systems, should be recognized as the
trade and investment; and
appropriate tool to effectively address the management and
planning of coastal urban areas, and both the natural and social
· Promote private and community involvement in the
sciences should inform this process from start to the end.
delivery of integrated approaches.
2. Gender
2.3 Encourage at national and sub-national levels the creation
of legal and institutional frameworks for the formulation
Chapter 5 of Agenda 21 highlights the need to increase aware-
and delivery of integrated policy on sustainable manage-
ness of the fundamental linkages between demographic
ment of oceans and coastal areas, in order to focus the
dynamics and improving the status of women, particularly
attention of decision-makers.
through women's access to education, primary and reproduc-
tive health care programs, economic independence and their
3. Transparency, Participation and Accountability in
effective and equitable participation in all levels of decision-
Decision-making on Oceans and Coasts:
making. By paying more attention to ICM-Gender-Population
linkages and partnering with gender and population organiza-
3.1 Promote informed decision-making at global, regional and
tions, coastal managers could benefit in many ways.
national levels, including:
3. Indigenous People
· Through transparent participatory processes;
The UN declared 1995-2004 as the International Decade of the
· Based on scientific data, technical and local knowledge; and
World's Indigenous People, with a view to promote and protect
their rights and their empowerment to make choices which
· Respecting cultures, customary law and current
enable them to retain their cultural identity while participating
capacities.
in political, economic and social life, with full respect for their
cultural values, languages, traditions and forms of social organ-
PART II. EMERGING ISSUES
ization. While progress is evident in many countries, there
remains significant unresolved conflict regarding indigenous
In addition to the persistent challenges posed by global ocean
people's rights and interests throughout the world. Indigenous
governance, new issues are emerging and need to be addressed
peoples' rights and interests with respect to coastal and ocean
within a coherent framework for ocean and coastal governance.
spaces and resources is an increasingly critical issue.
Emerging issues can be identified in six main clusters: i)
Population-related and societal issues; ii) Environment-related
ENVIRONMENT-RELATED ISSUES
issues; iii) Trade- and industry-related issues; iv) Issues linked to
emerging uses of the sea; v) Science- and technology-related
1. Invasive Species and Emergent Diseases
issues; and vi) Security-related issues.
With the increasing volume and variety of marine transport,
the number of non-native species being shipped around the
POPULATION-RELATED AND SOCIETAL ISSUES
world's oceans continues to increase; today, 10,000 species are
1. Population
estimated to be in transit around the world in the ballast water
of modern vessels alone. Other marine species are being trans-
By the year 2005, half of the world's population is expected to
ported on the hulls of recreational yachts, on oilrigs, or
live in urban areas. As developed nations tend to be highly
associated with frozen fish products; yet others are being inten-
urbanized already, most of the increased urbanization is occur-
tionally released as part of aquaculture projects or as a
ring in developing countries. Today, 9 of the 17 mega
byproduct of the aquarium industry. Severe constraints related
cities--cities with a population of more than 8 million--are
to both technology and costs limit action on this problem and
located in Asia. These are Beijing, Bombay, Calcutta, Jakarta,
certain changes can be made in the approach to regulation. To
Osaka, Seoul, Shanghai, Tianjin, and Tokyo. Cities such as
date the issue has been treated as a "single- issue" problem but it
Bangkok, Dhaka, Karachi, and Manila are also on the verge of
has much wider implications. It is also linked to the land-based
becoming mega cities. By the year 2000, 13 of the world's largest
pollution problem via non-point sources and its effects are dou-
cities will be located on or near the coast, most of them along
ble-edged, affecting both marine species and human health. In
the Asia-Pacific rim. The development of coastal cities in the
addition, recent evidence shows that other anthropogenic activ-
Asia and Pacific region has strongly impacted marine and
ities have resulted in increased outbreaks of emergent diseases
coastal environments, degrading their health and altering or
in many marine species.
destroying marine and coastal ecosystems. In this regard, the
implementation of the Global Program of Action for the
2. Adapting to Global Climate Change
Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-based
The IPCC has demonstrated that the earth has warmed about
Activities (GPA) in a regional context is essential if the problems
0.6 °C over the last century and will warm further as a result of
of coastal and marine pollution in coastal mega cities are to be
anthropogenically emitted CO2 and other greenhouse gasses. A
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Reports of the Conference Working Groups The Global Conference on Ocean and Coasts at Rio+10
warmer world will affect the temperature structure of the sur-
4. Ports
face and sub-surface ocean with many important results for
Today, fully 90 percent of international trade is carried by sea.
both humans and marine ecosystems. Successful adaptation
This trend has had its effect upon ship size. Around 7,700 TEUs
strategies will require far more detailed results about impacts
are carried on today's mega-carrier, which is about 347 meters
than we have now and considerable amounts of international
in length and has a beam of 43 meters. Shipbuilders and ship
cooperation concerning lessons learned and to be learned. In
owners are considering plans for the design of mega-ships of
addition there is a need to proactively adopt policies that pro-
15,000 TEUs. As both the magnitude of trade and the size and
mote the use of non-fossil renewable energy sources and
capacity of ships increase, large changes are implied in the loca-
sustainable growth strategies for coastal populations.
tion and in the operation of ports. These changes may generate
TRADE AND INDUSTRY- RELATED ISSUES
significant shore-based and marine environmental effects,
including exacerbating the invasive species problem.
1. Trade
5. Recycling of Ships
While trade should be a means to create wealth that can then
be invested in support of sustainable development, it can also
The lifespan of ships is on the order of 25+ years, with oil tankers
have devastating impacts on coastal communities, coastal
having a maximum lifespan of 25 years. Upon termination of
resources, and environmental conditions. New approaches such
service, ships are recycled in facilities located predominantly in
as eco-labeling and attention to processes of sustainable pro-
India, Bangladesh, China and Pakistan. The global structure of
duction in sectors such as aquaculture should be pursued to
the world fleet makes this activity a common responsibility.
better balance trade and environmental needs. More problem-
Three aspects are particularly important: the condition of the
atic are the subsidies and other incentives to support ocean
ship delivered for recycling, the waste produced during the recy-
industries and activities that stimulate export trade but affect
cling and human health/ workers safety aspects in the recycling
the oceans, for example through river and coastal pollution.
facilities. The IMO, ILO and UNEP are looking into these three
aspects, aiming at developing specific guidelines.
2. Tourism
NEW USES OF THE SEA
As one of the major uses of oceans and coasts, coastal and
marine tourism, can be a further source of stress on the marine
1. Exploring and Exploiting Deep Sea Resources
environment, but it also has the potential to be a major instru-
As coastal resources are depleted, coastal states and distant water
ment for the economic and social development as well as for
fishing fleets tend to expand their operations beyond national
the natural conservation of coastal/marine areas. A develop-
jurisdiction. Where regional agreements do not exist, or fishing
ment that has turned out to be a severe problem for many
states are not party to them, it is the responsibility of the flag
coastal areas in the last decade is the increase in cruise ship
state to insure that fishing is carried out in keeping with the UN
tourism. The cruise ship business is the segment that has grown
Convention on the Law of the Sea and, if applicable, the 1995
most rapidly during the last decade. The challenge, therefore,
Fish Stocks Agreement. Flag states should ensure that the pre-
lies in a sustainable development and management of tourism
cautionary approach is applied to such activities.
that generates benefits for the local population and contributes
to the sustainable development of coastal and marine areas.
Concerning prospecting, exploration, and exploitation of
deep-sea hydrocarbons beyond national jurisdiction, a similar
3. Decommissioning of Offshore Oil and Gas Installations
responsibility lies on both the "flag-state" and the International
An important issue relating to sea-based pollution and maritime
Seabed Authority to enact measures to protect marine ecosys-
safety concerns the decommissioning of offshore oil and gas
tems.
installations (there are about 7,000 around the world and many
2. Genetic Resources of the Deep Seabed
are expected to be decommissioned in the near future).
Decommissioning involves issues of cost, technology, health,
In both areas under national jurisdiction (EEZs) and in the high
safety, and environment. Rules and standards for the decom-
seas hydrothermal vents and their biological communities are
missioning and disposal of offshore installations have been
potentially threatened by seabed mining, marine scientific
adopted under the London Convention, 1982. UNCLOS
research, biological sampling, and bioprospecting. Like poly-
requires state parties to adopt national legislation no less effec-
metallic nodules, polymetallic sulphide deposits are not
tive than those global rules. However, some issues, such as
currently economically exploitable and the most immediate
disposal of marine debris and the removal of pipelines have still
threat to hydrothermal vent systems and their associated bio-
not been addressed. Also not addressed yet at the global level is
logical communities is marine scientific research. In this
the question of control of pollution from exploration and
context, voluntary approaches, such as self-policing, initiated
exploitation.
by researchers may be the most expeditious way to minimize
the conflicts and environmental impacts marine scientific
research activities may pose.
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Reports of the Conference Working Groups The Global Conference on Ocean and Coasts at Rio+10
3. Underwater Cultural Heritage
RECOMMENDATION
In addition to protecting underwater cultural heritage from
International, regional and national governance frameworks
activities directed at it, such as looting, states are also required
should develop as appropriate, existing or new legal instru-
to protect it from marine activities that might adversely affect
ments and measures to address emerging issues including those
it, such as fishing, oil and gas exploration and exploitation, and
beyond national jurisdiction. The use of codes of conduct, pro-
the laying of cables and pipelines.
tocols and charters should be considered.
4. The Implications of Expansions in Marine Aquaculture.
The very rapid expansion of marine aquaculture in estuaries
ANNEX ONEREGIONAL CONVENTIONS AND
and coastal zones raises questions about sustainability and the
AGREEMENTS
need for regulation. Concerns include the potential dissemina-
tion of non-native species and genetically modified species.
Mediterranean
5. Marine Eco-Tourism
In the Mediterranean, the Barcelona Convention (1976), the
oldest of the Regional Seas Programme agreements, was revised
Recent years have seen the expansion of tourism which has as
in 1995 to broaden its geographical area of application to the
its focus "experiencing" marine organisms or habitats. These
coastal region and include sustainable development and inte-
activities raise issues of management for sustainability. Codes
grated coastal management among its goals and objectives. The
of conduct are being developed, e.g., for whale watching
Barcelona Convention system has also given birth to the
(www.wcds.org), but greater international co-operation is
Mediterranean Commission on Sustainable Development
called for.
(MCSD), which includes official representation from ministries
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
of development and economic affairs, environmental adminis-
trations, sub national and local authorities, as well as coastal
Good policy is based on good science. Good science requires
economic interests and NGOs. In the Mediterranean, ICM has
greater international cooperation than currently exists.
been actively promoted by UNEP as the appropriate framework
Producing scientifically credible quantitative assessments of the
to address issues related to coastal protection and development
status, condition or health of coastal marine and estuarine
in an integrated way. The Mediterranean Action Plan (MAP) has
ecosystems on regional and global scales is a challenging and
also engaged in the promotion of transfer of environmentally
difficult task. To this end, the Global Ocean Observing System
sound technologies through a regional activity center.
(GOOS) is an important component of the total required inter-
national effort and greater support is required. Extended
North East Atlantic
sponsorships and partnerships are required as well as through
In the North East Atlantic, the OSPAR Convention has been
capacity building programs such as the System for Analysis,
able to catalyze government and public opinion around the
Research and Training (START).
importance of the common interests that they share in the
SECURITY
marine environment, the elements that are needed for cooper-
ation at the regional level, the ingredients that are needed to
1. Piracy and Armed Robbery at Sea
bring these various elements together, and the problems that
Incidents of piracy and armed robbery at sea continue to
have to be overcome. Events such as the accidents of the Torrey
grow--more than 2000 accidents since 1984--causing harm to
Canyon, Stella Maris, and Brent Spar have played an instru-
seafarers and posing threats to the safety of shipping and, con-
mental role in this. The emergence of the OSPAR long-term
sequently, to marine and coastal environments and to the trade
Strategies and the broadening of the OSPAR Convention to
carried by sea. Most accidents have occurred in territorial waters
cover all human activities have enabled this regional regime to
while the ships were at anchor or berthed. This makes it essen-
deepen its scope and become more effective.
tial to give higher national and international priority to efforts
The Pacific
to eradicate these crimes, which are often the result of transna-
tional crime. Effective responses to incidents of piracy and
The Pacific Islands community is committed to protecting the
armed robbery at sea must be based on measures for prevention,
quality of life of its people and the integrity of the environment
for reporting incidents and for enforcement, including the
with which island life is inextricably intertwined. There has
training of enforcement personnel and the provision of enforce-
been significant progress among Pacific Island Countries (PICs)
ment vessels and equipment.
in addressing the challenges relating to sustainable use of coasts
and oceans, much of it due to effective regional coordination. It
2. Peace and Security
would be impossible for PICs to cope individually with the com-
The promotion and regulations of peace and security in the
mon regional issues and the increased impact of global climate
oceans still require efforts from the international community.
and economic problems. The support of the regional organiza-
Peace and security would be advanced by widespread imple-
tions is critical as island countries struggle to achieve economic
mentation of the provisions of the Law of the Sea Convention.
development while maintaining the integrity of the natural
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Reports of the Conference Working Groups The Global Conference on Ocean and Coasts at Rio+10
environment on which they so heavily rely and protecting their
Jeremy Firestone
University of Delaware
quality of life. Since UNCED, PICs have responded by strength-
David Freestone
World Bank
ening this regional framework by the establishment of the
BA Hamzah
Maritime Consultancy Enterprise
Council of Regional Organizations of the Pacific (CROP). Under
(Mariconsult), Malaysia
the CROP umbrella a series of cross-agency sectoral working
Arthur Hanson
Department of Fisheries and Oceans,
groups ensure collaboration on regional issues and activities.
Canada
Ocean and Coastal matters are addressed through the CROP
Jens Koefoed
International Maritime Organization
Marine Sector Working Group established in 1997. Other rele-
Barbara Kwiatowska
Netherlands Institute of Law of the Sea
vant WGs include Trade & Economic Development and Human
Resource Development.
Carl Lundin
The World Conservation Union (IUCN)
Thomas C Malone
University of Maryland
The Arctic
Elizabeth McLanahan
National Oceanographic and
The Arctic Council, an intergovernmental forum for Arctic
Atmospheric Association, USA
states, represents a unique regional regime for cooperation
Ashley Naidoo
South Africa Department of Environmental
among governments and indigenous peoples. The Arctic
Affairs and Tourism
Council has a very light administration and no obligatory fund-
Satya Nandan
International Seabed Authority
ing. In 1998 The Arctic Monitoring and Assessment
Mary Power
South Pacific Regional Environment
Programmed delivered a science-based Assessment Report on
Program
Arctic Pollution Issues. This report has strongly influenced the
Lorena Aguilar Revelo
The World Conservation Union (IUCN)
global negotiations on POPs and heavy metals. The Stockholm
Joe Schittone
UNEP/GPA Office
Convention on POPs 2001 is a significant step forward for the
Mark Simmonds
The Whale and Dolphin Conservation
protection of the Arctic environment and for people living in
Society
the Arctic, who are dependent on harvesting as a central source
Sunil Shastri
University of Hull, UK
of livelihood. The Arctic Council has adopted a Regional Plan of
Action, which follows the UNEP methodology on the
Dean Swanson
U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service
Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-based
John van Dyke
University of Hawaii at Manoa
Activities. In June 2001 a report on the status and conservation
Marjo Vierros
Secretariat of the Convention on
of Flora and Fauna was prepared. The most important current
Biological Diversity
project for the time being is the Arctic Climate Impact
Kelly Vodden
Simon Fraser University, Canada
Assessment (ACIA). Based on scientific advice and knowledge
provided by indigenous peoples, the Council contributes to a
better knowledge base for decision-making. Political recom-
mendations are agreed upon unanimously. Much of the
implementation is done by the Member States themselves and
appropriate international organizations. The ambition is to
integrate sustainable development principles into all activities
and projects under the auspices of the Arctic Council.
Working Group 1 Participants
Sian Pullen
World Wildlife Fund (Chair) Part 1
Edward Miles
University of Washington (Chair) Part 2
Lee Kimball
Independent Consultant (Rapporteur)
Charlotte de Fontaubert Greenpeace USA (Facilitator)
Milen Dyoulgerov
Consultant (Facilitator)
Anahita Marker
University of Delaware
(Secretariat Contact)
Patricia Birnie
London School for Economics and
Political Science
Byron Blake
The Caribbean Community
Sally Brandel
U.S. State Department
Simon Cripps
WWF International
Louise de La Fayette
The World Conservation Union, UK
Chiara Della Mea
Central Institute for Marine Applied
Research
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Reports of the Conference Working Groups The Global Conference on Ocean and Coasts at Rio+10
Working Group 2
TARGETING DONOR AID AND PRIVATE SECTOR
BACKGROUND
mate change or addressing coastal erosion. Typically there will
Since 1992 there has been increased donor assistance for inter-
be many such "single issue" projects funded by multiple donors
ventions in coastal and marine resource management; whether
in the same national context, with few connections among the
in the formulation or improvement of policy and institutions or
projects. The challenge is to create synergy among such projects
in the design and implementation of targeted investments.
so that they are woven into a comprehensive integrated coastal
There are currently 100 coastal nations that have developed
and ocean management effort.
some type of integrated ocean or coastal management (IOCM)
Some of the donor funding over the last decade was channeled
initiative either at the national or local level. This indicates a
through the Global Environmental Facility (GEF), whose man-
doubling of effort in IOCM, when compared to initiatives in
date is to focus on global issues, e.g., biodiversity, pollution of
1993, when only 57 coastal states had launched such initiatives
international waters and climate change. These priorities how-
at the national or sub-national levels. It is significant to note
ever, are not necessarily the priorities of developing countries
that most IOCM initiatives in less developed nations have been
who often find the processes and procedures are cumbersome
supported by the donor community, often as a means of
and excessively bureaucratic. In such situations the lack of polit-
addressing serious poverty problems in coastal areas.
ical buy-in leads to unsustainability of the intervention after the
external support is terminated.
ACHIEVEMENTS
Many donors have opted for funding small-scale pilot projects
Donor and private sector support for IOCM increased signifi-
in coastal management covering only a small geographical area,
cantly over the last decade, with some regions such as Latin
in the hope that such projects will provide a demonstration of
America, totaling approximately $1.3 billion. The type and
Integrated Coastal Management (ICM) approaches and
scope of donor and private support for IOCM initiatives around
methodologies which will ultimately be "scaled up" to include
the world vary. At times, donor support has been targeted
other parts of the nations coastal zone. Unfortunately there is
directly to the national government of the recipient country or
considerable evidence that scaling up is difficult. Hence, in
their regional organizations, while at other times, the funding
many settings much attention may be devoted to the manage-
has been directed to local coastal communities, often to avoid
ment of a particular bay while the rest of the nation's coastal
perceived inefficiencies at the central government level. Certain
zone is subject to unguided development in the absence of a
other funding has been targeted through a coordinating body,
coastal policy framework. Donors and others should consider
whether national or regional. While some donor funding sup-
the results of these pilot approaches and consider supporting a
ported the development of policy and institutional frameworks
coastal management strategies that address issues at all levels,
on a national or regional level, other funding was directed
regional, national and local.
towards related sectoral initiatives, including coastal erosion
control, fisheries, biodiversity management and ports rehabili-
Lack of institutional capacity for planning and management of
tation. Some support was directed at fostering awareness and
IOCM is a challenge in most parts of the developing world.
information on coastal issues management, while other fund-
Donor-funded efforts in capacity building have supported
ing promoted partnerships for participatory planning and
many short term training courses in ICM organized by various
investments for coastal development.
entities in different locations. While these courses have served
to build the information base of local participants, they have
CONSTRAINTS
often not resulted in developing a new cadre of professional
There is, in theory, no shortage of funds for economically viable
ocean and coastal managers. Instead, local universities must be
projects. However, donor funding is constrained by 1) lack of
assisted in building up their capacity for creating and adminis-
awareness, which translates into lack of political will; 2) ocean
tering education programs as centers of excellence in IOCM.
and coastal related agencies being at an early stage of develop-
Networks of universities might be tied together in regional con-
ment do not receive adequate financial or other resources; and
sortia to achieve cost-effectiveness.
3) lack of ability to conceptualize and develop viable projects.
Finally, issues of governance including inefficiency and lack of
While international support for IOCM initiatives around the
accountability at different levels of government pose challenges
world increased significantly, challenges persisted at many dif-
to implementing IOCM initiatives. Even where a sound policy
ferent levels, posing obstacles to implementation. These
and regulatory framework for IOCM exists, and sound programs
challenges included problems of governance, single issue orien-
are designed with support from public and private sources, prob-
tation and limitations in scope and financing.
lems of governance pose significant obstacles to achieving
desired outcomes. Waste of time and resources, exclusion of the
While UNCED emphasized the interconnection of environ-
powerless and uncontrolled unsustainable practices in resource
ment and development issues, the focus of donor aid is often
management are often the outcomes in such situations. Broad
tied to a single issue, whether biodiversity, vulnerability to cli-
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Reports of the Conference Working Groups The Global Conference on Ocean and Coasts at Rio+10
public participation in the planning and implementation of
RECOMMENDATIONS
ocean and coastal initiatives, modalities for ensuring transparen-
cy and accountability in the decision-making processes are some
1
Capacity Building in Integrated Ocean and Coastal
measures that may make a difference in such situations.
Management (IOCM)
WHERE DO WE WANT TO BE IN 2012?
1.1 Donors need to assist in building capacity across the criti-
RIO + 10 should ensure that OCM proceed towards a climate
cal disciplines of social and natural sciences, including the
where external financial support can be better balanced with
critical areas that influence decision makers economics,
local-national, public and private sector incentives and initia-
law, policy and politics. The role of women is critical for
tives and implementing capacity, supported by equitable
sound decision making for marine and coastal manage-
governance structures. There should be a structured phasing in
ment. Awareness has to be developed from primary
of the domestic public sector and private capital (both domestic
schools level to tertiary educational institutions and socie-
and international). A pre-requisite for this, is a better greater
ty at large. Such training should be shared within and
understanding of coastal-marine ecological processes, institu-
between regions.
tional, societal and equity issues, and their interactions.
1.2 The operational tools for IOCM are also lacking in devel-
The coastal areas of the developing world are often the source
oping countries as they continue to lag behind the rest of
of livelihoods of the last resort and disproportionately support
the world in access to the Internet and provision of ade-
the world's poorest citizens. A global vision and ethic of OCM
quate computing power to gather and process information
must focus on the common property nature of many coastal
and data. This is hindering the efficient exchange of
and oceanic resources and hold governments primarily respon-
knowledge on successful (and unsuccessful) lessons and
sible for improved IOCM.
mechanisms for IOCM.
DONOR-RECIPIENT RELATIONSHIP
2 Moving from Pilot Projects to Comprehensive National
Programs
The principal role of donor assistance is to partner with nation-
al governments and their citizens to establish and build the
2.1 There is a need for cooperation amongst donors and gov-
`enabling environment' for an emergent public-private partner-
ernments to ensure that IOCM activities are conducted or
ship for IOCM. The enabling environment comprises effective
integrated across more appropriate temporal and spatial
and transparent institutions, and appropriate management
scales for enhanced efficiency. While many small pilot
tools that will sustain political will, government commitment,
projects are very successful within their sphere of opera-
public demand, and private sector response for improved pro-
tions, they need to be more integrated into national
tection and sustainable use of coastal and ocean areas.
processes in order to capture and expand the lessons of
In order to better target donor support, such support should be
success. The scales of operation need to reflect the critical
directed in support of national plans and strategies of the recip-
nature of marine and coastal ecosystems, in order to high-
ient country. If the recipient country is willing to provide the
light the interconnectivity between these ecosystems.
framework and continuity, the donor agencies can furnish the
3 Multilateral, Bilateral and Other Sources of Financing
facilitation, support and improvement of key elements of such
frameworks, strategies and action plans. Relevant technical and
3.1 Funding mechanisms for ocean and coastal management
financial international organizations should cooperate in pro-
need to be more accessible and adapted to local condi-
viding the developing countries with access to technical advice
tions. Hence phased financing involving a greater role for
and information about effective management regimes and
government as well as the private sector to ensure the sus-
about the experience from such arrangements.
tainability of programs. Market-based incentives should be
If donor support for sustainable coastal and marine resource
identified, to cover the full range of ocean and coastal
management is to actually meet its goals, it must be Sustained,
issues.
Effective, and Accountable. Funding for projects and programs
3.2 In recognition of the complexity of processes and proce-
must be sustained over long periods of time, beyond the 3-5
dures for accessing funds from financing institutions such
years project cycles common to donors and government agen-
as the Global Environmental Facility (GEF) for addressing
cies. Towards this end, further development of endowments
coastal and marine issues, it is recommended that trans-
and trust funds should be pursued and market based mecha-
parent operational guidelines and eligibility criteria be
nisms. Donor support will depend on demonstrated objective,
developed for mobilizing such funds. For example:
quantitative, and independently verifiable measures of success,
as well as all elements of good governance.
· With regard to resources from the GEF, clear guidelines
should be developed for integrated ocean and coastal
management (e.g. Operational Programs: OP2 on
Biodiversity; OP 8, OP9 and OP10 on International
Waters; and OP12 on Integrated Ecosystem
Management).
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Reports of the Conference Working Groups The Global Conference on Ocean and Coasts at Rio+10
· Eligibility for grant funding for ocean and coastal man-
4.1 Donors should proceed from simple knowledge sharing,
agement should be based on a certification system
whereby there are informal mechanisms to facilitate more
verifying the economic viability, environmental sound-
effective inter-donor coordination in OCM towards true
ness, social acceptance, political commitment and
knowledge management, that ensures that the informa-
transparency in decision-making processes.
tion and technologies are made readily available and
useful. Such a system should permit donors to gather and
3.3 Special financing mechanisms should be set up for
share information on donor and national projects with all
addressing ocean and coastal issues. Such funds should be
major issues, themes, locations (regions and countries),
at the regional level and regional entities could administer
duration and scales emphasized.
"Small grants" of usually less than $25,000 per project to:
(a) build capacity, particularly at the provincial or local
5. Private Sector
level and in nongovernmental organizations to implement
ocean/coastal interventions in support of national/region-
5.1 Economic incentives, market forces and informed con-
al ocean/coastal policy; (b) disseminate good practice; (c)
sumer demand are essential to sustainable development
prepare larger project/program proposals in ocean/coastal
of oceans and coasts.
management.
5.2 The response of the private sector to its responsibility to
3.4 There is wide recognition that the regional scale of ocean
provide environmentally and social sustainable goods,
management is an essential approach to pursue sustain-
services and practices in oceans and coastal areas will be
able development of the oceans and to integrate the
facilitated by:
global approaches with local issues, to achieve ecological
· Public/private partnerships;
integrity, economic efficiency and social equity. The GEF
supports regional ecosystem approaches to recover deplet-
· Appropriate regulations, policy and programs;
ed fish stocks and degraded habitats, so as to improve
socioeconomic benefits from the shared resources of large
· Catalytic seed funding for industry transformations;
marine ecosystems. These programs aim to foster priority
· Public commitment by companies and industry associa-
transboundary issues responsive to the objectives of the
tions;
CBD, GPA and the UNFCCC. The Third Replenishment of
the GEF should support the wider adoption and imple-
· Third party certification of ocean and coastal efforts, e.g.
mentation of such ecosystem approaches in the coastal
UNCED, UNCLOS, CBD; and
and marine realm.
· Private sector participation in intergovernmental
4. Improved Knowledge Management in Oceans and
negotiations on oceans and coasts, e.g., UNCED,
Coastal Management
UNCLOS, CBD.
Working Group 2 Participants
Indu Hewawasam
World Bank (Chair)
Lennox Hinds
Canadian International Development
Agency (CIDA)
Peter King
Asian Development Bank (Facilitator)
Paul Holthus
Marine Aquarium Council, USA
Olof Linden
Global International Waters Assessment
(Rapporteur)
Geoffrey Lipman
Green Globe 21, UK
Evelia Rivera-Arriaga
Universidad Autonoma de Campeche,
Philip Reynolds
United Nations Development Programme
Mexico (Secretariat Contact)
(UNDP)
Christos Fragakis
Commission of European Union
Hiroshi Terashima
The Nippon Foundation, Japan
David Freestone
World Bank
Richard Volk
U.S. Agency for International Development
Peter Greim
Frozen Fish International, Germany
Clive Wilkinson
Australian Insitute of Marine Science
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Reports of the Conference Working Groups The Global Conference on Ocean and Coasts at Rio+10
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Reports of the Conference Working Groups The Global Conference on Ocean and Coasts at Rio+10
Working Group 3
ASSESSING AND MANAGING THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT
BACKGROUND
· E.C. Water Framework - introduced by the European Union
(Nov. 2000).
1. The Coastal Marine Environment at Risk
3. Scientific Programs
Human resources are concentrated near coastal marine and
estuarine systems and the number of people living in coastal
There are several programs that have been launched on a glob-
drainage basins is rapidly increasing. Human demands on the
al scale to study the interaction of the biological, chemical, and
coastal system to provide commerce, recreation, and living
physical process, viz.
space will continue to exert an intense pressure on the coastal
· International Geosphere Biosphere Program (IGBP);
system.
· Joint Global Ocean Flux Study (JGOFS);
There is universal concern about the rapid and serious deterio-
· Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment (GEWEX);
rations of coastal environments. Fisheries are declining with 60
percent fully exploited or over-fished. Coastal pollution is a
· Global Ocean Ecosystem Dynamics (GLOBEC);
growing issue worldwide. Nitrogen from land-based sources is a
· Land Ocean Interactions in the Coastal Zone (LOICZ); and
growing threat despite attempts to mitigate point source dis-
· World Ocean Circulation Experiment (WOCE).
charge. Serious gaps exist in the collection and interpretation of
scientific data related to ocean and is generally inadequate for
The last decade has seen the completion of the WOCE, which
the assessment of coastal impacts and environmental changes
has provided the first near-complete picture of the dynamics of
over all scales.
the whole world ocean, and defined its role in the global cli-
mate system. The data assembled under WOCE has enabled the
Natural hazards as well as food safety associated with aquacul-
initialization and validation of ever-improving numerical mod-
ture, sanitation, sewage disposal, and freshwater contamination
els of the ocean in the coupled ocean-atmosphere system with
are becoming critical issues in many countries. Rapid global
the prime objective of climate forecasting.
climate change is also generating increasing risks and reducing
margins of environmental safety for the survival of marine
4. The Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS)
species, for many coastal areas, small islands and low-lying
countries.
Effective management and sustainable use depends on the abil-
ity to continuously detect and anticipate changes in
Although coastal management continues to be mainly sectoral-
environmental status on national to global scales. GOOS is
ly focused, important progress towards an integrated approach
intended to provide an international framework for integrating,
has emerged at the global level through the United Nations
coordinating, and enhancing ocean monitoring activities
Open-ended Informal Consultative Process on Oceans and the
worldwide on a planned, timely, quality-controlled, sustained
Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). The Global Programme of Action on
and operational basis. As such, it embraces the economic and
Land-Based Activities (GPA-LBA) is also moving in this direction
environmental applications of marine data and enables these
and the work of the ACC sub-committee on Oceans and Coastal
applications to be better linked with scientific research, so
Areas involves all relevant United Nations bodies, serving as the
becoming an essential underpinning for managed sustainable
Task manager for Ch.17. of Agenda 21.
development in coasts and oceans. GOOS is also a part of an
2. Intergovernmental Initiatives (1992-2001)
integrated strategy for global observation and the common
implementation tasks relevant to ocean and climate that have
A number of initiatives have been taken by the intergovern-
led to the creation of a joint IOC/WMO Commission for
mental agencies, which will provide a framework for the global
Oceanography and Marine Meteorology (JCOMM).
application of scientifically based and coordinated action. These
Importantly, GOOS is mainly to be built on existing observing
include:
activities and organizational entities.
· Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS) - introduced by the
GOOS has been divided into two thematic areas, each devel-
IOC in 1991 and co-sponsored by WMO and UNEP;
oped by their own expert panel:
· Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network (GCRMN);
· An Ocean and Climate Theme focused upon physical obser-
· UNEP Regional Seas Program;
vations, especially relating to oceanic influences on weather
and climate. This theme is already partly developed and crit-
· Large Marine Ecosystems (LME) - introduced through the
ical pilot activities are underway to test its operational
Global Environmental;
feasibility. However, further national commitment will be
Facility in the UNEP framework;
needed for its full implementation;
· Global International Water Assessment (GIWA) - led by
UNEP; and
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Reports of the Conference Working Groups The Global Conference on Ocean and Coasts at Rio+10
· A Coastal Theme focused on the rapid detection and timely
results and research, a new generation of observational plat-
prediction of environmental phenomena affecting public
forms and sensors and the advent of realistic modeling on
safety, well being, and the health of marine ecosystems, and
multiple scales provide the basis for powerful four-dimensional
the sustainability of living marine resources. Due to the com-
(space and time) field estimations in regions of the global ocean.
plexity, the variety of variables to be included and the lack of
pre-existing observing systems on which to build, the devel-
3. Developments
opment of this theme is proceeding more slowly and with less
A first generation of Coastal Ocean Observing and Prediction
national commitment.
Systems (COOPS) are just now being established in several
The mechanisms for national and regional development are
regions off the coasts of scientifically advanced nations, and a
emerging in the form of national GOOS programmes and
symbiosis with the global ocean observing system (GOOS) as it
regional GOOS alliances that allow systems to be tailored syn-
becomes implemented in the coastal zone is likely. COOPS will
ergistically to regional concerns and capability while benefiting
provide an entirely new level of quantitative support for the
from the global framework.
management of multi-use coastal regions and exclusive eco-
nomic zones.
ASSESSMENT OF THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT
4. Climate and Global Climate Change
1. The Need for Coastal Assessment
Climate variability and global climate change have an impact on
Coastal oceans are dynamic and complex. Many of their con-
human activity and the marine environment. The world ocean
trolling mechanisms are understood in principle only. Others,
plays a fundamental role in determining the climate pattern by
such as cross-shelf transport and water formation mechanisms,
redistributing heat and freshwater around the planet. It also has
are poorly understood or even remain to be identified. The
an influence on coastal seas through such events as sea level rise,
coasts of the most developed nations are relatively well
carbon sequestration, the food web structure, biodiversity.
explored. While, most coasts off developing countries or locat-
During the past decade, research on global ocean circulation
ed in remote and hostile environments await exploration.
and its interactions with the atmosphere and marine ecosystem
Why should we focus on the coastal ocean? Because a large
dynamics have resulted in a new level of understanding of the
number of the human population is concentrated along the
mechanisms underlying global processes. This next decade of
coast and this population is increasing rapidly. As the popula-
research should produce a synthesis of the interactions of these
tion increases, the demands on the coastal ecosystem increase
processes, enhance the predictability of climate dynamics and
to provide more commerce, recreation, and living space from a
global change and provide the basis for the management of the
limited resource. Thus, we must better understand the coastal
interdisciplinary global ocean, especially with respect to the reg-
ecosystem in order to make better decisions that ensure the
ulation of anthropogenic activities.
coastal resource is managed using best management practices.
5. Pressures and Changes in the Marine Environment
International conventions and initiatives have been convened
Coastal waters have continued to decline in environmental
in order to enable improvements in environmental protection,
quality due to pollution and contaminant from predominantly
resource management, and conservation on a global scale.
land-based sources (See Section 2.6). This reflects the continued
Protecting the coastal ocean is not just the responsibility and
growth of coastal cities and townships, increases in coastal
effort of one nation alone. The protection of the ocean requires
tourism, industrialization, expansion of fish farming and aqua-
the attention and effort of all nations together because the
culture, and port developments. Constructing dams and
ocean is fluid and does not respect political boundaries. With
altering river drainage systems and extracting water for agricul-
this in mind, we should unite to achieve the goal of assessing
ture have drastically changed flow of water to the ocean and
our individual nation's coastal oceans in a systematic, quantita-
associated suspended loads. In some regions with decreased
tive, accurate, and periodic method in order to use this
flows, this is leading to coastal erosion with impacts on social
information in making coastal management decisions.
and economic conditions; in other regions, ineffective manage-
2. Research in the 21st Century
ment of agricultural, deforestation and land use changes in river
catchments is yielding excessive loads of sediments and nutri-
Biogeochemical cycles, sediment fluxes, and ecosystem dynam-
ents (especially nitrogen and sewage) impacting on coastal
ics will set the scene for a new realism in research on both
marine ecosystems and habitats.
interdisciplinary processes and regional dynamics in the next
decade. Priority areas of application include eutrophication,
5.1 There are two major pollution issues in the coastal zone:
functionality and stability of ecosystems, harmful algal blooms,
(A) Nitrogen Management in Food and Energy Production
habitat modification, and regime shifts. New observational
techniques, both remote and in situ, and coastal interdiscipli-
Humans have dramatically altered the Earth's nitrogen cycle,
nary numerical modeling with data assimilation are rapidly
doubling the amount of newly fixed nitrogen entering terrestri-
evolving. Emerging novel concepts, contemporary scientific
al and coastal marine ecosystems. This increase relates to the
18
Reports of the Conference Working Groups The Global Conference on Ocean and Coasts at Rio+10
large amount of nitrogen fertilizer used to grow food for the
marine environments, and living marine resources. Such
increasing world population and to the combustion of fossil
approaches can only develop through sustained observations of
fuels supplying energy for an increasingly industrialized society.
the marine environment and scientific advances in the under-
While increased production of food with high nutritional qual-
standing of the structure and function of marine and estuarine
ity and the production of energy are highly beneficial to
ecosystems with particular emphasis on the interdependence of
humans, increased nitrogen has numerous negative effects on:
physical processes and the dynamics of species populations,
i) Human Health
predator-prey interactions, and nutrient cycling.
· cancer risk from nitrate contaminated drinking water;
An integration of scientific knowledge into ocean and coastal
governance processes is an adaptive and multi-layered process.
· increased cardiac disease and stroke risk from diets that are
It requires all stakeholders to be actively involved in the man-
increasingly rich in meat (whose production depends
agement and decision making process including, governmental
upon the greater use of N fertilizer);
organizations, non-governmental organizations, and the pri-
ii) Environment
vate sector. The use of integrated assessment allows complex
· depletion of stratospheric ozone by N2O emissions;
issues and their interrelationships to be considered out at dif-
ferent spatial scales (local to global), time scales (short to
· tropospheric ozone-induced injury to crops and forests;
long-term) and different domains (socio-cultural, economic,
· biodiversity losses in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems;
environmental, institutional) in order to present multiple sce-
· acidification in freshwater ecosystems; and
narios from different perspectives. These multiple scenarios can
be used by decision-makers in choosing the most desirable
· eutrophication and hypoxia in estuaries and coastal
management option.
ecosystems.
Nitrogen is now considered the biggest pollution problem
CONSTRAINTS AND CHALLENGES
in coastal waters.
New observations and discoveries are expected in the coastal
(B) Sewage and Health Hazards
ocean. Recently, it was established that coral reefs occupy only
one tenth of one percent of the oceans, a figure much smaller
Sewage contamination of the coastal marine environment is
than previously estimated. Similar discoveries will be made that
leading to significant increases in the incidence of human dis-
will change many long held facts. The discoveries will be met by
ease. These include:
many challenges including, fisheries management, developing
· Infectious diseases related to bathing and swimming in
sustainable use without peace and security, and organizing
coastal waters contaminated with wastewater discharge;
international agreements.
· Infectious diseases involving the consumption of seafood
The fisheries challenge is how to manage the sector to ensure
harvested from these coastal waters; and
sustainable utilization, i.e., prevent over-exploitations (FAO
· Diseases associated with the contamination of shellfish
Code of Conduct) and ensure sustainable options for aquacul-
and other seafood and toxins from toxic algal blooms.
ture. Similarly, the human pressures exerted on the coastal
domain require advent of effective management processes cou-
The impact of sewage in economic terms is large, reaching
pled with assessment programs such as COOP.
billions of USD annually.
However, can sustainable uses and developments be achieved
6. Management
without peace and security? Security now has economic and
Since UNCED, there has been increasing recognition that
environmental dimensions and therefore an integrated
changes in living marine resources, water quality, the character
response is necessary. Regional co-operation is a possible option.
and extent of habitats, and biodiversity are related and that the
Joint regional surveillance and enforcement programs are
effects of human activities on them can be most effectively man-
already in operation and more are in their development stages.
aged in an ecosystem context. For example, overfishing of
The shift of population towards the coast, the urbanization, the
primary consumers (e.g., filter feeding bivalves and fish that con-
change of economic paradigm to a service economy and the
sume phytoplankton) can exacerbate the effects of
concern for global change, all have led to a current focus on the
anthropogenic nutrient inputs on water quality (e.g., oxygen
land-sea interface, the coast and the ocean, the ocean services
depletion of bottom waters) and habitat loss (e.g., coral mortali-
and economics, the need for a related education and appropriate
ty) just as the loss or modification of essential fish habitat can
mechanism to achieve that, including the necessary enhance-
reduce the carrying capacity of ecosystems for fish populations
ment of awareness and participation. While the ocean is a last
and increase the susceptibility of coastal ecosystems to eutroph-
resource to help address poverty and inequality, poverty and
ication. Thus, ecosystem-based approaches are needed for the
ignorance are also main obstacles to solving the problems.
formulation and implementation of environmental policies that
encompass and integrate the management of land-use practices
(control of land-based sources of pollutants), utilization of
19
Reports of the Conference Working Groups The Global Conference on Ocean and Coasts at Rio+10
RECOMMENDATIONS
Action 1:
Considering the need to detect and predict changes in the
1. Issues
coastal ocean in a more timely fashion and with greater skill to
Coastal ecosystems (from estuaries to the seaward limits of the
meet the needs of integrated management and other applica-
EEZ) are increasingly and inadvertently being altered by human
tions, high priority should be placed on continued
activities. The production of food and energy and the pressures
development and expansion of the Global Ocean Observing
of human population are directly linked to these alterations and
System with particular effort applied to the implementation of
some attempts at direct manipulation of the coastal environ-
the coastal components of that system from estuaries to the lim-
ment are now underway without adequate management and
its of the EEZ.
regulation.
This system is essential to provide the data and information
The world ocean plays a fundamental role in controlling atmos-
required to (i) routinely produce quantitative assessments and
pheric climate. In turn, climate variability and global climate
predictions of changes in the status of marine ecosystems, pub-
change affect human activities and the marine environment.
lic health risks, and the sustainability of exploitable living
The effective management of coastal and oceanic ecosystems in
marine resources, (ii) improve operational marine services and
this changing environment will require the causes and effects of
forecasts and (iii) predict the effects of global and basin scale cli-
these changes to be fully understood.
mate events (e.g., ENSO) on coastal ecosystems and society. It
must enable all nations to contribute to and benefit from the
2. Status
observing system, and it must be designed to adapt over time to
Over the past decade ocean science and technology have
accommodate the evolving needs of user communities (the
advanced very rapidly. New concepts and methods for observ-
environmental and resource management community, NGOs,
ing and predicting the ocean now provide a technical basis for
private enterprise, the science community, and educators) and
effective assessment and management of the coastal environ-
to incorporate new technologies and knowledge.
ment. Furthermore, the growing capacity to acquire,
Marine and estuarine environmental issues of common region-
disseminate and analyze environmental data in near real-time
al concern can be aided through the formation of regional
should enable the scientific community to provide timely and
alliances (for example, GOOS Regional Alliances enable the
quantitative advice to aid in decision making and rapid
address of specific observational needs among groups in the
response.
service of regional conventions and agreements) as a means to
(i) build a global federation of regional observing systems, (ii)
3. Vision
stimulate capacity building enabling all nations to contribute to
A major challenge for the next decade is formulation and imple-
and benefit from the system, and (iii) support pilot projects that
mentation of comprehensive environmental policies for
contribute to this process. Particular emphasis should be placed
integrated management of the marine environment and its nat-
on projects that provide integrated assessments and scenario-
ural resources. Meeting this challenge requires: (i) significant
based options for management actions.
advances in the acquisition, analysis, and synthesis of interdis-
ciplinary environmental data; and (ii) the establishment of
Action 2:
mechanisms to enhance the exchange of data and information
Advance the scientific understanding of interactions among
between the science and management communities. A central
marine, terrestrial and atmospheric systems and of how human
element is the implementation of an operational observing sys-
activities influence these interactions through synthesis and
tem that is adequate for the detection of changes occurring in
improved understanding of (i) the ocean-climate system and of
the marine environment from estuaries to the deep sea and the
(ii) coastal systems that are affected by the ocean-climate system
development and application of modeling and forecasting tech-
and land-based human activities as follows:
niques to achieve operational capabilities analogous to weather
· Enhance the predictability of climate variability and change
prediction.
to provide the basis for decision-making for adaptation to and
4. Actions
mitigation of global change, based on data and information
provided by a global ocean observing system that is integrat-
The recommendations below are made to enable nations and
ed, interdisciplinary, and operational. The system must
regions to more effectively meet the mandates of multi-lateral
include sustained satellite missions, in addition to both broad
conventions and agreements today and in the future by
scale and long time series of in situ observations; and
strengthening, promoting and improving joint science-man-
agement actions. They will also provide the information needed
· Achieve and advance the comprehensive, interdisciplinary
to "cluster" these agreements regionally for more effective
understanding of the dynamics of coastal systems with the
implementation. In this regard, it is noted that enhancement of
goal of developing a robust classification scheme that will
national and regional capacities for implementation is crucial
enable more effective detection and prediction of changes in
and urgently needed.
coastal systems on local, regional and global scales. Such a
scheme must be based on an understanding of the dynamics
20
Reports of the Conference Working Groups The Global Conference on Ocean and Coasts at Rio+10
of coastal systems and the forces impinging on them from the
Working Group 3 Participants
ocean basins, coastal drainage basins and the atmosphere.
Gunnar Kullenberg
International Ocean Institute (Chair)
Action 3:
Chris Crossland
Land-Ocean Interactions in the
Coastal Zone, The Netherlands
Improve the linkage between science and management through
(Rapporteur)
partnerships that enable more effective use and exchange of
Amy Diedrich
Intergovernmental Oceanographic
data and information to the benefit of communities and socie-
Commission (Secretariat Contact)
ty as a whole.
This action should include collaboration between the manage-
Zanial Arifin
Indonesian Institute of Sciences
ment community and other user groups jointly with the
Manuel Barange
Global Ocean Ecosystems Dynamics, UK
scientific community to:
Roberta Boscolo
International CLIVAR Program Office, UK
· specify, prioritize and develop new applications;
Leo Brewster
Coastal Zone Management Unit, Barbados
· establish a framework for the timely, routine and periodic
Niamh Connolly
University of Cork, UK
reporting of quantitative assessments of marine ecosystems;
Alessandro Crise
National Institute of Oceanography and
Experimental Geophysics, Italy
· enable the transfer of new knowledge, technologies and the
John Cullen
Dalhousie University, Canada
capabilities for their use to all nations for the benefit of society.
Valerie Cummins
University of Cork, UK
It is recognized that societal and economic measures and values
Peter Dexter
World Meteorological Organization
must be applied in order to identify and report on trends and
Switzerland
scenario-analysis to define options and specify possible out-
M. Gerges
Intergovernmental Oceanographic
comes.
Commission
Action 4:
Tom Malone
University of Maryland, USA
Maintain and broaden scientific studies of the effects of human
Teruko Manabe
World Meteorological Organization
alterations of major global biogeochemical cycles, including C,
Angus McEwan
Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial
N and P.
Research Organisation, Australia
Matti Perttila
Finnish Institute of Marine Research
Attention has been directed to alterations to the global carbon
cycle and their economic and ecological effects. That should
Kimberly Puglise
Sea Grant Fellow, U.S. Congress
continue. In addition, fully interdisciplinary studies are needed
Allan Robinson
Harvard University, USA
to assess the societal, economic, policy and environmental
Inger Rosvik
Norwegian Ministry of Fisheries
implications of changes in other biogeochemical cycles. In par-
Sybil Seitzinger
Intergovernmental Oceanographic
ticular, a focus is a needed on Nitrogen, the increasing use of
Commission
which is related to food security, energy security, industrial
Jan Stel
International Centre for Integrative
development and systemic environmental degradation. This
Studies, the Netherlands
warrants an interdisciplinary and international approach.
Colin Summerhayes
Intergovernmental Oceanographic
Commission
Umit Unluata
Intergovernmental Oceanographic
Commission
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Reports of the Conference Working Groups The Global Conference on Ocean and Coasts at Rio+10
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Reports of the Conference Working Groups The Global Conference on Ocean and Coasts at Rio+10
Working Group 4
MARINE BIODIVERSITY AND PROTECTED AREAS
BACKGROUND
the 1995 Jakarta Mandate on Marine and Coastal Biodiversity,
identifies five priority areas:
The legal and programmatic basis established at UNCED in the
area of conservation and protection of marine and coastal bio-
· Promoting integrated marine and coastal area management
logical diversity can be found in the 1992 Convention on
(IMCAM, also ICZAM or ICM) as the framework for address-
Biological Diversity (CBD) and Agenda 21 (Ch.17) as applied
ing the human impact on marine and coastal biological
within the framework established by UNCLOS. The 1971
diversity;
Convention on Wetlands of International Importance, 1972
· Establishing and maintaining marine and coastal protected
World Heritage Convention Especially as Waterfowl Habitat
areas (MCPA, also MPA);
(RAMSAR), the 1973 Convention on International Trade in
· Using fisheries and other marine and coastal living resources
Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), the 1979
sustainably;
Bonn Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of
Wild Animals, and the 1995 International coral Reef Initiative
· Ensuring that mariculture practices are environmentally
represent other global multilateral agreements aimed at pro-
sustainable; and
moting biodiversity conservation on a global scale.
· Preventing the introduction of, and controlling or eradicating,
The CBD entered into force on 29 December 1993 and has been
alien species that threaten ecosystems, habitats, or species.
ratified by 182 states to date. Its three stated objectives are to
After a slow start, work on the priority areas is slowly gaining
promote:
momentum. The promise for integrated approaches, however,
"the conservation of biological diversity,
has failed to materialize so far, with implementation progress-
ing largely on issue-by-issue basis: first on coral reefs, and more
the sustainable use of its components, and
recently on marine protected areas and on alien species.
the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the uti-
The Biodiversity Convention specifically calls for countries to
lization of genetic resources."
establish a systematic approach for the establishment of marine
One of UNCED's main achievements, the CBD underscores the
protected areas; develop special measures to conserve biological
interdependence among environmental protection, food securi-
diversity; and to manage these areas. Substantive work on
ty, property rights, trade, and technological innovation, and
MCPAs under the CBD is now getting momentum through the
exemplifies UNCED's perspective on the nexus between envi-
work of the MCPA Ad Hoc Technical Expert Group, which is to
ronment, poverty, economic development, and the forces of
assess how the ecosystem approach can be applied to MCPAs at
globalization as evident in the cross-boundary commercial flow
the global, regional, and national levels. Beyond the CBD's
of knowledge, goods and services.
immediate programmatic work, the last ten years ushered in a
In the last decade, CBD has established itself as the recognized
new era of marine protected area management. Recognizing
forum for the development of policy measures in the biodiver-
that the new paradigm shift toward ecosystem management
sity subject area, including marine and coastal biodiversity.
requires new tools to implement comprehensive, representative
However, its implementation has been fragmented, hampered
marine protected areas at national, regional and global levels,
in part by the vast complexity of the issues within its scope and
we believe that the MCPA subject merits separate consideration
the need for additional dedicated resources. Notably, the work
in the discussions leading U.S. to Johannesburg.
under the Convention has generally fallen short of meeting the
expectations for integration of the environmental and econom-
ACHIEVEMENTS
ic and trade streams of globalization -- this despite, or, perhaps,
1. Marine and Coastal Biodiversity
precisely because of the fact that biodiversity provides a potent
indicator of whether or not our consumption and production
To appreciate the full scope of CBD's progress since Rio in the
patterns, natural resource utilization practices, and other types
realm of marine and coastal biodiversity, one needs to consider
of interaction with the environment are sustainable.
first a number of broader developments under the Convention
that also bear direct relevance to its blue component. Leading
Reflecting the change brought by UNCED toward a holistic
among those is the adoption of the Cartagena Protocol on
approach in international environmental law, CBD moves away
Biosafety in January 2000. Other achievements include compil-
from specific single-sector instruments and toward framework
ing rosters of experts and the establishment of an information
agreements with increasing reliance on "soft law" instruments
clearinghouse mechanism, the 1995 Global Biodiversity
for their operationalization. Emphasizing the need for integrat-
Assessment, the 2001 Ecosystem Assessment, as well as a num-
ed approaches for achieving biodiversity protection, the
ber of decisions by the CBD conference of parties (COP) on
Convention's global programme of action in the marine area,
biodiversity and climate change, the ecosystem approach,
23
Reports of the Conference Working Groups The Global Conference on Ocean and Coasts at Rio+10
access to genetic resources, sustainable use, biodiversity and
already in place. We also have ample examples of industry-gov-
tourism, incentive measures, identification, monitoring, assess-
ernment partnerships in terrestrial bioprospecting that are
ment and indicators, environmental impact assessment, etc.
waiting to be transferred to the marine area.
Perhaps the single most important broad development, howev-
Marine invasive species are one of the greatest threats to threat-
er, is the continuous donor commitment to enable
ened and endangered species on land given that they are often
biodiversity-related work either in direct investments or via sup-
habitat modifiers, and they undoubtedly have as important a
port for the operation of the Global Environmental Facility
role in the marine environment. While voluntary international
(GEF). The GEF alone has expended $244 million under its bio-
guidelines are in place for one vector (ballast water on commer-
diversity initiative for the period ending in 2000. This comes in
cial trading vessels) there are no guidelines for other vectors that
addition to the funds expended for ICM-cum-biodiversity proj-
have been as important in spreading alien species (aquarium
ects under the GEF international waters initiative (a total of
trade, recreational vessels, oil and gas platforms, hull fowling,
$438 million over the same period).
and fish processing). This issue is confounded by the fact that
Regarding integrated coastal and marine management, CBD has
there is no efficient technological solution to effective treat-
joined the many global agreements to recognize and adopt
ment of ballast water. As more ports become infected with
IMCAM as the appropriate and most effective instrument for
invasive species, the risk of their spread to other ports increases.
implementation. It has fallen short so far, however, in turning
2. Marine and Coastal Protected Areas
this commitment into practice despite the fact that on a global
level IMCAM's conceptual foundation has already been estab-
The emergence of biogeographic priority setting for conserva-
lished and the attention is now focused on implementation.
tion over the past 15 years has set new challenges for
science-based MPA management and underscores the need to
With the resolution of the impediments to the wide acceptance
address connectivity of marine ecosystems.
of UNCLOS in the mid-1990s, the global legal regime for sus-
tainable use of marine and coastal living resources was finally
Increased use of highly protected areas for biodiversity conser-
put firmly in place and it is now up to the individual states to
vation and fisheries management is to be lauded, but it remains
build on this framework. A selected number of states have
inadequately applied at the ecosystem level. Increasingly, MPAs
already adopted coherent national policies that span across
are being created as exemplary systems of coastal management
their various marine jurisdictions and include their exclusive
a key tenet of national ocean policy planning moving
economic zones (EEZs). In general, however, progress on sus-
beyond MPAs as isolated islands of conservation to work at the
tainable use of marine and coastal living resources has remained
watershed scale.
largely issue-driven. Among the issues, coral reefs have emerged
Diverse forms of participatory management appear to be wide-
as one of the major focal points of action since the adoption of
ly accepted and applied, such as co-management and
the Jakarta Mandate. Notably, the position adopted by the COP
community management, though it is now recognized that nei-
on coral bleaching extends beyond species and habitat consid-
ther top-down or bottom up management models work well in
erations to incorporate a strong social and economic
isolation. Multiple management regimes are being used to
component. In addition to coral bleaching, COP has also taken
address the various political and social realities of marine pro-
positions on over-capitalization of fishing fleets and, in consul-
tected areas from a sustainable development context.
tation with UNDOALOS, on the conservation and sustainable
Traditional and non-traditional, broad-based alliances with
use of genetic resources of the sea floor in areas beyond nation-
stakeholders is required. Marine no-take reserves are increasing-
al jurisdiction.
ly being recognized as a critical component of MPAs. These
Progress can also be identified in the protection of critical habi-
areas have demonstrated benefits to fisheries, ecosystem struc-
tats and species at risk. Thus, consumptive pressure on marine
ture and function and enhance non-extractive activities such as
mammals continues to decline. The need to base marine living
diving.
resource management on the ecosystem approach is now wide-
CONSTRAINTS
ly recognized and accepted (at least in theory), with related
major regional initiatives having already entered their imple-
1. Marine and Coastal Biodiversity
mentation phases (e.g., the marine component of the
Our many achievements of the past decade notwithstanding,
Mesoamerican biological corridor, Gulf of Maine initiative).
the reality on the ground is that the rate of biodiversity loss is
Importantly, environmental impact assessments and valuation
still accelerating as a result of habitat deterioration on biodiver-
studies are increasingly becoming an integral part of develop-
sity. According to the 1998 Status of the World's Coral Reefs
mental planning and decision-making.
Report, approximately 26% of the world's coral reefs have been
Both mariculture and marine biotechnology have experienced
lost because of over-fishing, destructive fishing practices, inva-
rapid growth in the post-UNCED period. The access, property
sive alien species and the effects of global climate change.
rights, and liability issues related to these activities have been
Additionally, biodiversity loss can be witnessed on a species
charted at the international level (with the exception of genet-
basis: of the 126 species of marine mammals, 88 are still on the
ic resources on the sea floor in areas beyond national
IUCN red book.
jurisdiction) and the first access regimes at the national level are
24
Reports of the Conference Working Groups The Global Conference on Ocean and Coasts at Rio+10
The first area-specific program of work adopted under CBD, the
resources offer no legal recourse for their collective manage-
Jakarta Mandate, charted the way for the subsequent develop-
ment. Initiatives directed at creating new regimes or adapting
ment of the Convention's terrestrial programs of work. The
UNCLOS and/or the CBD to manage these resources need to be
price of learning, however, has been a slow and sector-driven
formulated.
implementation and CBD's continuing inability to fulfill the
integrating role that was expected from it. Respectively, one can
2. Marine and Coastal Protected Areas
identify a remarkably similar set of constrains that cuts across
The verdict is still out among many sectors on the value and
the Jakarta Mandate priority areas as well as the issues of critical
contribution that marine protected areas make in marine con-
habitat preservation and the protection of species at risk. A non-
servation. Clearly, continued evidence of habitat degradation
exhaustive list follows:
and declines in commercial fishing are not very marketable
· Information and scientific knowledge constrains: Perhaps the
signs of improvement. A systems based approach is required.
single biggest concentration of efforts and resources post-Rio
Quantifiable evidence of benefits must be measured to obtain
has been in data acquisition, analysis, and management,
both political and economic support. MCPAs should not be
monitoring, assessment, and integrating information tech-
developed and managed as stand alone measures but incorpo-
nology in management decisonmaking. Yet, if there is a
rated into ICM programs.
consensus emerging across all five priority areas, it is focused
on the lack of sufficient information and scientific knowl-
RECOMMENDATIONS
edge.
1
Issue
· Socioeconomic constrains: Consumption patterns and
anthropogenic pressure continue to grow with little promise
In the past 10 years, scientific research has developed a better
for reversing the trend. And, while the consumptive pressure
understanding of marine biodiversity and ecological processes.
on living marine organisms has marked a decrease outside of
There has been as disturbing loss of marine habitats, disruption
the fishing sector, other anthropogenic pressures on habitats
of ecosystem function and a general failure to conserve marine
are mounting--pressures that require an integrated ecosystem
biodiversity. These are directly linked to declining fisheries pro-
approach to management.
ductivity, uncertainty in food security, adverse impacts on
human health and loss of economic development opportuni-
· Poverty constrains: Poor people are the social class most
ties.
reliant on biodiversity. This relationship creates a negative
feedback loop that harms both communities and the richness
2
Vision
of species. It was not until late in the 1990s that institutions
Accountable management achieving healthy, diverse marine
such as the World Bank finally made poverty eradication their
and coastal ecosystems ensuring food security and sustainable
leading priority and that poverty alleviation started to figure
economic development.
more prominently in the GEF-financed initiatives, including
those on biodiversity.
3
Conserving Marine biodiversity, threatened species and
· Socio-economic considerations, which usually determine the
habitats
success or failure of MPAs are inadequately addressed in proj-
3.1 Recognizing that the conservation of marine biodiversity
ect design and management constraining community
and maintenance of functioning and viable marine ecosys-
compliance and aspirations for community development.
tems requires approaches ranging from sustainable resource
Failure to assess the management effectiveness of MPAs at the
management to highly protected reference sites, we call on
site and national level not only undermines adaptive manage-
the global community to:
ment, but also the community and political confidence that
· establish, develop and apply policies and management
MPAs provide both local and national benefits not just to bio-
practices embodying the ecosystem and precautionary
diversity but also to economic development.
approaches; and
Most national/regional systems of MPAs have yet to address the
· establish and implement the goal of demonstrable sus-
role of existing or future MPAs in maintaining ecosystem func-
tainability for all human activities that impact upon
tion, including the central role that highly protected areas must
coastal and marine ecosystems, trans-boundary regions,
play in building a representative system of marine protected
the high seas and migratory routes and threaten biodiver-
areas.
sity including:
NEW CHALLENGES
- loss of coastal habitats;
- land and sea based sources of pollution;
1. Conservation and sustainable use of genetic resources of
- overexploitation;
the sea floor in areas beyond national jurisdiction
- by-catch;
The current regimes that exist to control the exploration, equi-
table distribution of benefits and conservation of these
- destructive fishing practices;
25
Reports of the Conference Working Groups The Global Conference on Ocean and Coasts at Rio+10
- global change;
4 Marine Protected Areas
- alien species and genotypes;
4.1 Recognizing that:
- the quantity and quality of freshwater inflow into
· marine protected areas can be effective, spatially-based
coastal ecosystems; and
tools for managing human activities in coastal and ocean-
- inappropriate and environmentally unsound
ic environments and that marine protected areas may
aquaculture.
range from areas that are managed for different sustainable
uses to highly protected reference sites;
3.2 Recognizing the fundamental importance of involving all
parties with an interest in planning and implementing
· recent scientific research shows that highly protected ref-
resource management and that approaches drawing on
erence sites and other no-take zones (IUCN Category I/II
rights based management can be useful tools in reducing
Marine Protected Areas) increase marine resources of areas
pressure to overexploit resources and, provided they clearly
beyond their boundaries;
define the responsibilities that should accompany the
· marine protected areas can contribute to sustainable eco-
rights, can create an incentive for users to think in the long-
nomic development and food security by:
term, we call on the global community to:
- conserving marine biodiversity (including threatened
· implement approaches based on public participation
and migratory species);
including empowering indigenous and local communities;
- maintaining healthy ecosystems;
and
- maintaining sustainable fisheries; and
· develop and use effective tools to conserve marine biodi-
versity and achieve demonstrable sustainability.
- providing for economic opportunities including
tourism;
3.3 Recognizing that to achieve sustainability there must be
systems of accountability and performance reporting, we
· a high proportion of the existing marine protected areas
call on the global community to:
are `paper parks' which fail to achieve their objectives; and
· support research to develop such systems with particular
· the biogeographic coverage of marine protected areas is
regard to individual, incidental and cumulative impacts
inadequate,
on biodiversity.
We strongly recommend that:
3.4 Recognizing that existing international instruments on the
· states, regional organizations and international agencies,
marine environment are generally inadequately imple-
and the global community co-operate to design, imple-
mented and difficult to enforce, and that actions are often
ment and adequately resource the effective management
limited in providing guidelines on national conservation
of marine protected areas.
efforts, we call on the global community to:
· such areas should be established:
· commit to an urgent and substantial effort to effective
- in all major bio-regions including open ocean as well as
implementation and enforcement of international instru-
coastal environments;
ments and to strengthen integration of management,
inventorying, monitoring, performance evaluation,
- at the scale of ecosystem functions;
enforcement and liability.
- with the legislative authority required for effective
3.5 Recognizing that the existing global governance of oceans
management;
has largely failed to achieve co-ordination and co-operation
- with extensive input from indigenous and local
in conservation and management of marine biodiversity
communities, so that they reflect culture, local knowl
and that there are no effective measures in place to address
edge and need (no one size fits all);
this important need, we call on the global community to:
- using the best available scientific, socio-economic and
· assign the highest priority to rectifying this problem as
cultural information (however imperfect information
soon as possible;
should not be used as a delaying tactic);
· develop mutually supportive environmental and trade
- with the capacity to measure how well they are
measures that increase protection for species threatened by
achieving their stated objectives;
trade; and
- with the capacity to adapt to both anthropogenic and
· urge the world trade organization to incorporate and
environmental change; and
strengthen environmental safeguards.
- as an integral part of larger frameworks for national
development and integrated coastal and ocean
management.
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Reports of the Conference Working Groups The Global Conference on Ocean and Coasts at Rio+10
· the global community work urgently to complete the task
Working Group 4 Participants
of establishing and expanding a comprehensive global rep-
Richard Kenchington
RAC Marine Pty Ltd. Australia (Chair)
resentative network of marine protected areas that
Lyle Glowka
Biodiversity Strategies International
includes regional and national systems of highly protect-
Germany (Facilitator)
ed/no take areas for the maintenance of connectivity and
David Souter
International Coral Reef Initiative
corridors within an overall integrated coastal and ocean
(Rapporteur)
management system achieving healthy and diverse coastal
Seth Race
University of Delaware
and marine ecosystems ensuring food security and sus-
(Secretariat Contact)
tainable economic development for the world's peoples;
Slavatore Arico
MAB Programme, UNESCO
· accord high priority to creating marine protected areas or
Barbara Best
U.S. Agency for International
special management areas for high seas biodiversity and
Development
recently recognized ecosystems including sea mounts,
Peter Bridgewater
United Nations Educational, Scientific and
hydro-thermal vents, ocean trenches and abyssal plains
Cultural Organization
and implement a moratorium on fishery and other
Harm Dotinga
Netherlands Institute for the Law of
resource use in such areas until appropriate and effective
the Sea
management regimes are in place; and
Giselle Firme
U.S. National Oceanic & Atmospheric
· support systematic research to underpin the design, imple-
Administration
mentation and evaluation of the effectiveness of marine
Miguel Fortes
University of the Philippines
protected areas against their stated objectives.
Nelia Forest
University of California-Berkeley
Kristina Gjerde
Environmental Investment Partners,
Poland
Claudia Hamacher
Rio de Janeiro Catholic University
Hans Herman
North America Commisssion for
Environmental Cooperation
Helene Marsh
School of Tropical Environment Studies
and Geography, Australia
Lisa Max
U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration
Stefan Olaffson
Ministry of Fisheries, Iceland
Nicolas Pilcher
Universiti Malaysia Sarawak
Mario Luiz Soares
University of the State of Rio de Janeiro
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Reports of the Conference Working Groups The Global Conference on Ocean and Coasts at Rio+10
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Reports of the Conference Working Groups The Global Conference on Ocean and Coasts at Rio+10
Working Group 5
INTEGRATED COASTAL AND OCEAN MANAGEMENT
BACKGROUND
The concept and features of ICM have become increasingly well
The management of coastal zones and exclusive economic
defined through extensive field practice and a proliferation of
zones is dealt with specifically in Chapter 17 (A) of Agenda 21,
books and manuals, professional journals, conferences, research
"Integrated management and sustainable development of
centers, workshops, newsletters, web pages, and academic pro-
coastal and marine areas, including exclusive economic zones."
grams. International guidelines based on an agreed core of
Coastal zones are characterized by conflicting pressures between
principles have been formulated and disseminated by intergov-
economic and social activity and the maintenance of environ-
ernmental organizations and international non-governmental
mental quality. The coasts are home to more than half of the
organizations.
world's population, with two-thirds of the world's largest cities
ACHIEVEMENTS
located on coasts. Coasts are highly valued as sites for major
economic activities, such as port and harbor facilities, power
There has been an impressive growth of ICM efforts since the
generation plants, fishing operations and processing facilities,
1992 Earth Summit. In 1993, 59 nations were engaged in some
aquaculture, recreation, and tourism. But these values can be
ICM initiative at national or local levels, while in 2000, more
diminished or even lost; pollution of coastal waters has greatly
than 40% of coastal nations have initiated a coastal manage-
reduced the production of fish, and a large proportion of
ment process. A precise accounting of these efforts is difficult
coastal nursery grounds and other valuable habitats have been
since the objectives and the outcomes of ocean and coastal
degraded or eliminated. The storm protection afforded by fring-
management initiatives are not reported in a consistent man-
ing coral reefs and mangrove forests is lost when corals die or
ner. It is proving useful to segregate such outcomes into four
mangroves are removed. Inappropriate development and
orders:
accompanying despoilment reduces the attractiveness of the
· First Order outcomes call for the institutional capacity to
coastal environment, greatly affecting tourism potential.
undertake integrated coastal planning and decision making
To address the complex task of managing coastal zones and
as well as the authority, funding and other resources that
exclusive economic zones, the concept of integrated coastal and
make it feasible to implement ICM policies and actions;
ocean management (ICM) has gained support as the most
· Second Order outcomes are evidence of successful imple-
appropriate organizing framework for achieving long-term
mentation of ICM efforts. They include implementation of
goals for both conservation and development. Chapter 17 of
collaborative decision making procedures, actions taken on
Agenda 21 called upon all coastal nations to formulate and
issues of management priority, and behaviors of coastal users
implement coastal management programs by the end of the
modified to reduce or eliminate destructive impacts;
decade.
· Third Order outcomes are improvements in environmental
Since Rio, a variety of global and regional international treaties
quality and resource condition and socio-economic benefits
have embraced the concept of ICM, including the Framework
that mark physical evidence of progress towards sustainable
Convention on Climate Change (FCCC), the Convention on
forms of coastal development; and
Biological Diversity (CBD), the Global Programme of Action for
· Fourth Order outcomes fully achieve desired end conditions
the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-based
of sustainable development.
Activities (GPA), the Barbados Programme of Action for the
Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States,
Some initiatives have not proceeded into a phase of implemen-
and the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI). These con-
tation (Second Order Outcomes) and others have not been
ventions assign a central role to ICM in carrying out
sustained after a promising beginning. In a number of regions
commitments to the conservation and sustainable develop-
where national enabling conditions are not yet present, much
ment of coastal areas.
of the donor funding has gone to fund local pilot projects in
ICM to build capacity, form constituencies for coastal integrat-
The goal of ICM is to achieve sustainable development of
ed coastal management, and demonstrate the effectiveness of
coastal/marine areas while improving the economic and social
integrated management. However, ten years after Rio there are
well-being of their inhabitants. ICM analyzes implications of
as yet relatively few examples of functioning management pro-
development, conflicting uses, and interrelationships between
grams that are successfully producing Second and Third Order
physical processes and human activities. It promotes linkages
outcomes at a national scale or within coastal ecosystems that
and harmonization between sectoral coastal and ocean activi-
that transcend national boundaries.
ties. A key aspect of ICM is the design of institutional processes
of integration/ harmonization that overcomes the fragmenta-
Not withstanding these limitations, much substantive progress
tion inherent in the sectoral management approach and in the
has been made that establishes the essential preconditions to
splits in jurisdiction between levels of government at the land-
achieving effective and sustained coastal and ocean manage-
water interface.
ment at large scales:
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Reports of the Conference Working Groups The Global Conference on Ocean and Coasts at Rio+10
· ICM efforts have produced a wealth of management plans,
The principles and practices of ICM must be tailored to local
enabling legislation, policy, and institutions to instigate
conditions, governance, customary use and access rights, capac-
action on coastal management issues;
ity and needs, including environmental, demographic, and
· There are many examples of coastal users having modified
economic conditions. The focus of ICM efforts at any given
their activities to reduce or eliminate behaviors that are
time requires balancing the capacity of institutions involved
destructive to coastal qualities;
against the scale/complexity of the issues to be addressed.
· Institutions within government and civil society are com-
CHALLENGES
ing together to form the collaborative partnerships that
Along most coasts the trends remain negative. Human activities
ICM requires;
have and continue to significantly reduce the capacity of coastal
· Some ICM initiatives at various geographic scales are suc-
ecosystems to produce the goods and services that together are
ceeding to restore environmental conditions and social
the life support system for increasing populations and intensities
benefits lost through the misuse and over-use of coastal
of coastal use. Ecosystems such as coral reefs are being degraded
resources;
on a massive scale and sixty percent of the world's fishery
· Good-practice guidelines have been developed and adopt-
resources, for which there is information, are now fully fished or
ed by private and public organizations for a wide range of
over fished. While there are a few regional successes in arresting
coastal activities including the siting and operation of
or reducing eutrophication, habitat destruction and overfishing,
tourism facilities, shrimp farms and transportation facili-
the dominant global trends are in the wrong direction. Not only
ties; and
are the qualities of the natural environment under assault, but so
are the health and well-being of millions of people who depend
· The integrated management of coastal and marine ecosys-
on coastal resources as their primary source of food and income.
tems is building capacity for ICM and attracting dedicated
constituencies at the local, national and international levels.
In many regions, the combination of these ecosystem changes
and the intensifying human pressures are overwhelming the
WHAT HAS BEEN LEARNED IN MAKING AGENDA 21,
gains produced by improved coastal planning and decision mak-
CHAPTER 17 OPERATIONAL?
ing. Restoration of lost or degraded ecosystems is far more costly
We have learned that ICM at the local scale will not flourish
than preventive action.
unless national government has provided national enabling
In addition to human impacts, ocean related natural disasters,
conditions, including policy, legislation, and coordinating
which include the effects of extreme El Nino events, long-term
mechanisms. Success in scaling up ICM and successful sustained
sea level rise, tropical cyclones and their associated waves, storm
local efforts require governance systems that can produce
surges and flooding, and tsunamis, have their maximum
mutually reinforcing and integrated planning and decision-
impacts in coastal areas and small islands. These impacts result
making that ranges from individual communities to provinces,
in massive loss of human life and property as well as the destruc-
nations and to collaborative regional efforts.
tion of coastlines and natural habitats, and restoration measures
ICM provides the tools, processes, and management frame-
cost billions of dollars annually to developing and developed
works to build and strengthen the linkages between
countries alike. The Conference recognized that impacts and
environmental quality and sustainable development, including
associated costs could be substantially mitigated through ade-
protection from coastal hazards, equity, poverty alleviation,
quate warnings and preparedness measures, within the context
food security, population and health. These linkages can be fur-
of integrated coastal management.
ther advanced by more explicitly and strategically incorporating
There is no escaping the fact that coastal development is among
goals of sustainable development in ICM initiatives and by
the highest priority environmental issues on Earth today. The
assessing performance against these goals.
rationale for ICM as a practice for sustainable coastal develop-
ICM efforts are most effective when they incorporate the man-
ment is stronger today than ever before. The result is the need
agement principles of science and adaptive management. This
for effective ICM being in higher demand now than ever before.
requires defining in specific terms the outcomes they seek to
The establishment of EEZs also creates new opportunities and
achieve in terms of both improved coastal ecosystems quality
poses challenges for ICM. The ultimate geographic scope of ICM
and human well-being, articulation of assumptions, establish-
must encompass coastal watersheds, in light of the hydrological
ment of indicators and robust monitoring, and the feedback of
cycle and land-based sources of marine pollution, and the EEZ,
results to adapt and learn.
in which ecosystem processes and resources are increasingly
Regional networks are proving to be particularly effective in
impacted by human activity. National capacity for EEZ manage-
advancing ICM learning when they promote information
ment is generally limited, and only a few nations have been
exchange on ICM efforts, issues, approaches and techniques. At
experimenting with the establishment of institutions and
the regional scale, interests of countries coalesce around a com-
processes for EEZ management. In Australia, for example, impor-
mon agenda, and can attract external support for coordinated
tant innovations are being introduced to ensure more strategic
action.
planning of the EEZ using an ecosystem-based regional
approach.
30
Reports of the Conference Working Groups The Global Conference on Ocean and Coasts at Rio+10
RECOMMENDATIONS
Working Group 5 Participants
Understanding that:
Marea Hatziolos
World Bank (Chair)
· ICM has been shown to be an effective mechanism for the
Yves Henocque
French Research Institute for
Exploitation of the Sea (IFREMER)
implementation of Agenda 21, the Convention on
(Facilitator)
Biodiversity, the Convention on Climate Change, the GPA
Stephen Olsen
University of Rhode Island (Rapporteur)
and many other international conventions that address the
governance of oceans and coasts;
Miriam Balgos
University of Delaware (Secretariat contact)
· ICM provides an effective policy and management frame-
Robert Koami Akpabli
Carl Duisberg Gesellschaft, Germany
work that facilitates good governance, especially increasing
Fatima Alves
Universidade de Aveiro, Portugal
accountability, transparency in decision making, and the alle-
viation of poverty through ensuring livelihoods, food
Francisco Arias-Isaza
Marine and Coastal Research Institute of
Colombia (INVEMAR)
security, and public health, and reducing vulnerability to nat-
ural hazards--thereby advancing towards sustainable
Stefan Asmundsson
Ministry of Fisheries, Iceland
development; and that
Milton Asmus
Fundação Universidade do Rio Grande
· ICM creates the enabling conditions for investment opportu-
Sapna Batish
U.S. National Oceanic & Atmospheric
Administration
nities within the context of sustainable development.
Kathy Belpaeme
European Programme, Belgium
We call on governments to:
Raphael Bille
École Nationale du Genie Rural des Eaux
1. Develop national coastal/marine policies and other enabling
et Forets (ENGREF)
conditions to implement ICM as a nested system of planning
Thia-Eng Chua
International Maritime Organization
and decision-making that operates at a range of spatial scales;
Jeremiah Daffa
Tanzania Coastal Management Partnership
this will require increasing the capacity of local governments
(TCMP)
and community based groups to manage coastal and marine
Dieng Ousseynou
Ministry of Tourism, Senegal
areas within a large system-wide context, drawing on appro-
Caroline Dublin-Green
Nigerian Inst. for Oceanography & Marine
priate scientific inputs and participatory processes.
Research
2. Enhance the necessary environmental monitoring, model-
Sten Engdahl
Intergovernmental Oceanographic
ing and prediction capability to enable more accurate
Commission
forecasting of ocean related natural disasters, with longer
Anamarija Frankic
Virginia Institute of Marine Science
lead times, to facilitate preparedness and mitigation meas-
Bernhard Glaeser
Social Science Research Center Berlin
ures.
(WZB)
3. Create policy environments, including appropriate laws, reg-
Nicole Glineur
World Bank
ulations, and incentives that enable the mobilization of
Cécile Grignon-Logerot
Ministère de l'Equipement, des Transports
domestic and international financial resources for appropri-
et du Logement, France
ate investments in development consistent with the
S.M. Haq
Independent
management frameworks of ICM programs.
Nakahara Hiroyuki
Research Institute for Ocean Economics,
4. Take decisive actions to ensure effective management meas-
Japan
ures for the coastal areas of each nation by committing to the
Antonio Hoguane
Eduardo Mondlane University,
following targets:
Mozambique
· 20% of national coastlines under management by 2012;
Diane James
Victorian Coastal Council, Australia
Hartwig Kremer
Land-Ocean Interactions in the
· 60% of national coastlines under management by 2022; and
Coastal Zone, The Netherlands
· 100% of national coastlines under management by 2032
Maurice Knight
University of Rhode Island
Anthony MacDonald
Coastal States Organization, USA
Bin Mao
People's Republic of China to the
International Seabed Authority
Yuriy Mikhaylichenko
Ministry of Industry, Science &
Technology, Russian Federation
Francisco Montoya
Ministry of the Environment, Spain
Nicole Morcom
Adelaide University, Australia
Jacques Morelli
Centre National de la Recherche
Scientifique (CNRS), France
Magdalena Muir
University of Calgary
Armann Olafsson
Ministry of Fisheries, Iceland
31
Reports of the Conference Working Groups The Global Conference on Ocean and Coasts at Rio+10
Hermes Pacule
Ministry for Coordination of
Chandrika Sharma
International Collective in Support of
Environmental Affairs, Mozambique
Fishworkers, India
Edward Patterson
Suganthi Devadason Marine Research
Paula Sierra-Correa
Marine and Coastal Research Institute of
Institute, India
Colombia
Jonathan Phinney
American Society of Limnology and
Jens Sorensen
University of Massachusetts
Oceanography
Keisuke Taira
University of Tokyo
Veronica Sakell
National Oceans Office, Australia
James Tobey
University of Rhode Island
Christel Schipmann
Carl Duisberg Gesellschaft, Germany
Ivica Trumic
United Nations Environment Programme,
Joe Schittone
United Nations Environment
UNEP/PAP/RAC/Mediterranean, Croatia
Programme/GPA
Andre Share
South Africa Department of Environmental
Affairs and Tourism
32
Reports of the Conference Working Groups The Global Conference on Ocean and Coasts at Rio+10
Working Group 6
SUSTAINABLE FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE
BACKGROUND
expansion in the farming of high-value species that require 2-5
Chapter 17 of Agenda 21 is concerned with the protection of
kg of wild-caught fish processed into fish feed to produce 1 kg
the oceans, all kinds of seas and coastal areas, and the protec-
of these farmed species. Also intensive coastal aquaculture prac-
tion, rational use and development of their living resources. The
tices degrade the marine environment and diminish its
objectives of Chapter 17 that are relevant to sustainable fisheries
ecological life support services. There is, moreover, a need to cre-
and aquaculture in areas under national jurisdiction and in the
ate national frameworks for marine aquaculture development
high seas focus on the protection and restoration of species and
consistent with national ocean and coastal management plans.
ecosystems to ensure sustainable fisheries production that can
Despite escalating stresses on and degradation of coastal marine
meet human nutritional and development needs. The strategies
ecosystems, the small-scale fisheries that they support will
identified to achieve such objectives included: the improve-
remain critically important as coastal populations continue to
ment of the governance framework; development of
increase. Over 99% of the fishers in the world are small-scale
environmentally sound technologies; reduction of waste; devel-
fishers, and 95% are from developing countries, producing 58%
opment and use of scientific results; protection of biodiversity;
of the 98 million metric tons of annual marine fish catch.
development of management capacity; adoption of multi-
The importance of small-scale fisheries in providing food,
species and ecosystem-based management; development of
income and livelihood cannot be overemphasized, especially in
sustainability indicators; wide application of the precautionary
developing countries. Yet, small-scale fisheries have been sys-
approach; use of traditional knowledge; and recognition of tra-
tematically ignored and marginalized over the past decade. The
ditional rights.
majority of small-scale fisheries have not been well managed.
Since the 1992 Earth Summit, the situation has improved for
Existing fisheries management arrangements have failed to suc-
some fisheries and worsened for many more. The annual rate of
cessfully coordinate and restrain fishing capacity and effort in
increase of marine catches decreased to almost zero in the 1990s
small-scale fisheries or to manage conflict. Conventional fish-
indicating that the world oceans have reached their maximal
eries science and management have not served well for fisheries
production under the present fishing regime. In 1999, among
that are small-scale and based on small stocks. Stock assessment-
the 441 fish stocks for which status information was available at
based fishery research and management has been too
FAO, 4% appeared under-exploited, 21% moderately exploited,
expensive, too incomplete, too uncertain and too impractical to
47% fully exploited, 18% over fished, 9% depleted, and 1%
address the needs of small-scale fisheries, and especially tropical
recovering. The overall capacity of the world's fishing fleet is
fisheries exploiting multi-species stocks.
presently far in excess of the carrying capacity of the ecosystems
The above realities indicate the need for urgent shifts in the
which fisheries exploit. In addition, high levels of non-compli-
fishing and aquaculture regimes in order to sustain current pro-
ance by vessels reflagging to flags of convenience undermine
duction.
regulations established for coastal and high seas fisheries there-
by seriously undermining conservation potentials. In response
MAIN ACHIEVEMENTS SINCE 1992 IN THE IMPLE-
to over-fishing there have been important changes in the
MENTATION OF AGENDA 21 AND OTHER OUTCOMES
species composition of world fisheries catches as fisheries
FROM UNCED
expanded across the whole array of available species resulting in
Progress has been made in the area of responsible fisheries devel-
the proportion of low value species increasing substantially
opment and management as a result of the coming into force of
since the 1970s while the proportion of traditional target
the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (in 1994)
species and average sizes has decreased. This situation has been
and the adoption of a number of complementary international
recently coined as "fishing down food webs" and may be aggra-
instruments and voluntary agreements, including:
vated by the demand for fishmeal for terrestrial animal
production and aquaculture feed. Overall it is apparent that we
· The UN Fish Stock Agreement, coming into force in
have exceeded the limits of these natural systems to support the
December 2001, has strengthened management in the high
levels of exploitation to which they are being subjected.
seas;
The world population may be facing a food supply gap in the
· The FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries,
next decades, that aquaculture is expected to help fill. Global
adopted in 1995, has influenced the modification of
production of farmed fish, shrimp, clams, and oysters more
national fisheries laws;
than doubled in weight and value in the 1990s. However,
· Through FAO, three International Plans of Action (IPOAs)
increasing amounts of wild-caught fish to feed carnivorous
were adopted in 1999 and are being implemented to
species worsen the pressure on low economic value but poten-
improve shark management, reduce by-catch of seabirds
tially high ecological value forage species. There is a rapid
in long-line fisheries, and control and reduce fishing
33
Reports of the Conference Working Groups The Global Conference on Ocean and Coasts at Rio+10
capacity. Another IPOA was adopted in early 2001 to pre-
trol laws. The precautionary approach is not being used only as
vent, deter and eliminate illegal, unregulated and
an exceptional measure to be applied in case of "risk of irreversible
unreported (IUU) fishing; and
damage" but is increasingly being applied in the elaboration of
· The 1993 Compliance Agreement has potential to further
scientific advice and is becoming an accepted part of "best prac-
improve fisheries management but still require further
tices". In addition, a process of collaboration between FAO and
accession by States to become effective.
CITES has been established to improve the process of scientifical-
ly evaluating the risk of extinction of fishery species subject to
A number of regional fishery management organizations
trade-related risk. Attempts have been made to develop eco-label-
(RFMOs) have undertaken a systematic review of their mandate
ing systems for fisheries and aquaculture. The process is on-going
and functioning with the view to improving their performance
and meeting with a number of concerns from governments par-
in management. In addition, new RFMOs and institutional
ticularly in developing countries .
arrangements have been established inter alia for: (a) conserva-
tion of southern blue fin tuna; (b) conservation and
Biodiversity-related considerations have increased in fisheries
management of Pollock resources in the central Bering Sea; (c)
and aquaculture management, e.g. in relation to genetic
Iceland-Norway-Russian Federation Agreement on cooperation
impacts of capture fisheries, by-catch and discards, habitat pro-
in fisheries; (d) conservation of fisheries resources in the high
tection, introduction of alien species, etc. One of the solutions
seas of the Southeastern Pacific; (e) conservation and manage-
to these problems may be the increased use of polyculture and
ment of highly migratory fish stocks in the Western and central
integrated aquaculture. These aquaculture techniques were
Pacific Ocean; (f) conservation and management of high seas
adopted 4000 years ago in China and Hawaii and mix fed and
fishery resources in the Southeast Atlantic Ocean; and the CARI-
extractive species with aquaculture in a more balanced ecosys-
COM Caribbean Regional Fisheries Mechanism.
tem approach towards sustainable development.
Cooperation among governments, non-governmental organiza-
A number of promising new and revised management
tions and industry has led to the elaboration of a series of
approaches have emerged in recent years and are available for
Guidelines in support of the Code of Conduct in the areas of
use by managers of small-scale fisheries, and by the fishers
sustainable aquaculture, fisheries operations, fishery manage-
themselves. These include broader emphasis on fishery and
ment, fish processing and trade, precautionary approach, and
ecosystem management objectives and participatory decision
indicators of sustainable development in fisheries, including
processes; new governance regimes such as community-based
species introductions. Guidelines are also under preparation for
management and co-management; interdisciplinary and social
ecosystem-based fisheries management. Significant progress
science methodologies that use fishers' local ecological knowl-
toward such guidelines has been made at some national levels.
edge, and participatory rural appraisal. The management
process itself has become more adaptive. A reconsidered
Overall, these international agreements and instruments reflect
approach to small-scale fisheries management will involve
a move towards a global fisheries paradigm that increasingly
change on the part of all the stakeholders in the process of man-
recognizes the reality of overfishing and environmental degra-
agement to become responsible and precautionary the fishers,
dation and the need for restricted rights of access. These
their families, resource managers, elected officials, NGOs.
international agreements embody the precautionary approach,
notably the FAO Code of Conduct with its concepts of precau-
CONSTRAINTS
tionary reference points that were implemented in a number of
Due to the plethora of international environmental rules that
regional fishery bodies and countries. There is increasing adop-
are not necessarily coherent and integrated, and to their cost
tion of participative approaches to fisheries management
and capacity implications there have been difficulties on the
involving local communities. Marine protected areas are
part of nations to implement them. The proliferation of
increasingly being implemented within broader ocean and
autonomous institutional arrangements established by environ-
coastal management programs that are integrated and partici-
mental treaties constrains efforts at effectiveness, efficiency and
patory. However, the testing and implementation of these
coordination in implementation at the national level. Thus,
initiatives at a larger scale would require more scientific, finan-
there is a lack of focus and prioritization in the application of
cial and political support.
scarce resources (e.g., funds, skilled human resources, time) to
The scientific sector, through various initiatives, has provided the
the implementation of identified solutions which leads to a
basis for the transition from, inter alia: (1) using Maximum
number of problems, including, among others:
Sustainable Yield (MSY) as a target, to using it as a limit to be
· Incomplete global inventory of fisheries stocks, manage-
avoided; (2) output-oriented fisheries management based on
ment systems and approaches by countries;
Total Allowable Catches (TAC) to rights-based fisheries; (3) single-
species management to multi-species and ecosystem-based
· inadequate policy development and enforcement and
management; (4) risk-prone to risk-adverse, precautionary man-
compliance with existing management measures at
agement; (5) top-down, control-and-command to bottom-up
regional, national, and local levels;
participatory management; (6) static quota strategies to dynamic
· unplanned expansion of aquaculture fish production in
forward looking (rebuilding) strategies, based on operational
some areas and lack of needed expansion in some others;
management procedures (OMPs) as well as harvest rules and con-
34
Reports of the Conference Working Groups The Global Conference on Ocean and Coasts at Rio+10
· insufficient development of viable alternative livelihood
fishing practices destructive to marine ecosystems (e.g. explo-
options for developing coastal fishing communities in
sives, toxic substances, pelagic drift netting on the high seas
over-fished areas (see the United Nations System-Wide
which was banned by two unanimous resolutions of the United
Web Site on National Implementation of the Rio
Nations General Assembly, or trawling on sea-mounts or other
Commitments);
sensitive habitat) albeit prohibited may continue due to lack of
· insufficient assistance to developing countries to help
enforcement or viable alternative livelihood options. The dis-
them to implement the best practices being recommended
covery of deep seabed marine life and the rich resources found
and lack of adequate approaches for situations with scarce
in those areas such as those in hydrothermal vents, for instance,
data and human and financial resources;
are raising new scientific and biodiversity management chal-
lenges.
· there is generally an insufficient information on the struc-
ture and functioning of marine ecosystems, inadequate
There are still gaps in international and national fishing
monitoring of resources and fisheries, lack of evaluation of
regimes, and aquaculture practices e.g. in relation to trade-relat-
management performance (including data collection, sci-
ed measures and environment, enforcement of management
entific analyses and enforcement), and poor
regulations in regional fishery bodies (e.g. to control IUU fish-
documentation on best practices; and
ing), eco-labeling frameworks and minimum international
standards, resources allocation in the high seas, rights-based
· Marginalization of developing countries resulting from
fisheries, integration of fisheries in coastal zone management,
lack of resources required to participate in international
genetic resources in the deep seabed beyond the limits of
policy processes.
national jurisdiction, etc.
Over-fishing and over-capacity exacerbated by technological
progress -- remain a problem worsened by illegal, unregulated
RECOMMENDATIONS
and unreported (IUU) fishing, poor gear selectivity, and dis-
In all we do the vision that should sustain us is that of rich,
carding both on the high seas and within EEZs. The problem is
beautiful, and productive marine ecosystems supporting liveli-
sometimes compounded by the low capacity of some develop-
hoods in coastal communities and producing a large variety of
ing countries to effectively control the fishing operations of
healthy fish and other sea food at an affordable price for all.
long-range fleets operating under access agreements, and by the
lack of measures to prevent the reflagging of vessels to avoid
1.
Considering the contribution of sustainable fisheries and
rules of RFMOs. In this regard the WTO should support efforts
aquaculture to economic and social well being and the pro-
by the RFMOs to prevent deter and eliminate IUU fishing. These
tection and preservation of the marine environment we:
factors not only jeopardize the natural recovery of such fish
1.1 urge countries, regional fisheries organizations and rel-
stocks, but also threaten the cultural heritage and cause extreme
evant aquaculture organizations to implement urgently
social and economic hardships on small fishing families, coastal
and vigorously the agreed international instruments
people, and indigenous peoples in particular.
and plans of action with the view to, inter alia: gener-
A focus on new management directions is needed for small-
alizing the application of the precautionary approach;
scale fisheries and aquaculture. The management of such
adjusting fishing and aquaculture capacity to ecosys-
fisheries requires greater attention to the social and cultural
tems carrying capacity, restoring ecosystems; using
context of science; a very different kind of economics which
more economic incentives for sound management;
emphasizes the benefits and costs of not just individual fishing
reducing harmful subsidies; minimizing environmental
boats and fishing fleets and aquaculture facilities, but also fish-
impacts, by-catch, discards, alien species and pathogen
ing households and communities, an understanding of human
introductions; improving protection of endangered
behaviour and how people use and misuse marine resources,
species; improving enforcement and compliance and
and a different kind of management regime, one that goes
deterring IUU.
beyond command-and-control measures.
It is becoming increasingly clear that governments, with finite
2.
Recognizing that strong and pro-active actions are neces-
resources, cannot solve all the problems faced by small-scale
sary to ensure sustainable change in fisheries and
fisheries. Communities will need to take more responsibility for
aquaculture, we urge countries and regional fisheries organ-
solving local problems. In order to do this, however, they must
izations to:
be given the power and resources to make decisions locally and
2.1 improve understanding of ecosystem structure and
to take actions to meet local opportunities and problems. They
function, consider ecosystem impacts of and on fish-
will still need the assistance and support of national govern-
eries and aquaculture in management; and develop
ment and scientific institutions to achieve results.
technical guidelines for ecosystem-based fisheries and
The deterioration of marine ecosystems caused by marine and
aquaculture management;
land-based activities has been alleviated in only a few areas
2.2 focus on innovative approaches to small-scale fisheries
where management initiatives have begun to put in place sus-
and aquaculture, empowering the sector, establishing
tainable practices, but continue unabated elsewhere. The use of
fishing rights including access to necessary infrastruc-
35
Reports of the Conference Working Groups The Global Conference on Ocean and Coasts at Rio+10
ture to support livelihoods and tenure systems, inte-
Working Group 6 Participants
grating them into fisheries in coastal management, and
Kees Zwanenburg
Bedford Institute of Oceanography (Chair)
taking account of the interactions and compatibilities
Serge Garcia
Food and Agriculture Organization
between aquaculture and harvest fisheries;
(Rapporteur)
2.3 strengthen fisheries and aquaculture monitoring
Dean Swanson
U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric
including the development of ecosystem- based indica-
Administration (Facilitator)
tor of site suitability and sustainability to measure
implementation and management performance;
Tim Adams
Secretariat of the Pacific Community
2.4 take into account the important relationships between
Rolf Akesson
Ministry for Agriculture and Fisheries,
market, trade, management of resources and environ-
Sweden
ment, intensify the use of appropriate social and
Franco Andaloro
Central Institute for Marine Applied
economic instruments, and call on WTO to support the
Research, Italy
effort of FAO and regional management organizations
Leah Bendell-Young
Simon Fraser University
to deter IUU; and
Sally Cochran
U.S. Department Of State
2.5 develop polyculture techniques and integrated prac-
Antonio Diaz-de-Léon-C El Colegio de México
tices in support of sustainable aquaculture.
Betsy Dribben
Humane Society, USA
Semisi Fakahau
Commonwealth Secretariat, UK
3. Recognizing that despite the substantial institutional
Roderick Forbes
Department of Fisheries and Oceans,
progress achieved significant problems will occur in the
Canada
future which society should be ready to foresee and tackle,
Patricia Gallaugher
Simon Fraser University, Canada
we urge countries and regional fisheries organizations to:
Mathew Gianni
Greenpeace International
3.1 apply the precautionary approach particularly when
Jens Grabo
Lighthouse Foundation, Germany
introducing new technologies or spreading exploita-
Michael Hirshfield
OCEANA, USA
tion to poorly known areas, habitats or species (e.g.
introduction of GMOs and developing fisheries on sea-
Indrani Lutchman
SCALES Inc., Barbados
mounts);
Robin Mahon
Caribbean Conservation Association
3.2 recognize that sustainable aquaculture and responsible
Monde Mayekiso
Department of Environmental Affairs and
Tourism, South Africa
fisheries are parallel and essential elements of a strategy
to ensure global seafood security and fill the supply gap
Christina Mormorunni
Asia Pacific Environmental Exchange
forecast for the next decade;
Bob O'Boyle
Bedford Institute of Oceanogrpahy
3.3 increase collaboration between international organiza-
Mac Rawson
University of Georgia
tions (between fishery bodies, between them and
Chersdak Virapat
IOI-Thailand
environmental organizations, between development
Marguerita Zaitsev
Astrakhan Technical State University,
banks and UN agencies; and
Russian Federation
3.4 improve the diffusion of fisheries and aquaculture
information to society at large and develop capacity for
decentralized decision-making and strengthening the
incorporation of local and traditional knowledge into
information systems.
36
Reports of the Conference Working Groups The Global Conference on Ocean and Coasts at Rio+10
Working Group 7
SMALL ISLAND PERSPECTIVES
BACKGROUND
SIDS continue to play an active role in developing global solu-
The political commitment and direction provided by Agenda 21
tions to the challenges of sustainable development and seek the
and the Barbados Programme of Action, and their subsequent
support of the international community to address their "spe-
reviews, have been used as the benchmark for measuring
cial case".
progress and the achievements of the last ten years. The sum-
TEN YEARS AFTER THE EARTH SUMMIT THE
mary recognizes the special case of small islands that are
SITUATION IS WORSE
custodians for vast ocean resources. The trends are reviewed and
it appears that the approach to date has not been working to the
The political commitment demonstrated by island countries
scale necessary to achieve sustainable development.
during the Earth Summit and Barbados Conference has been
Achievements have been fragmented and have not been multi-
translated into specific activities at national, regional and inter-
plied/sustained or, perhaps, not focused in areas of greatest
national levels as each country works to define its path towards
need. As Rio+10 is to focus, as far as possible, on actions and
sustainable development. In the context of the Barbados
specific initiatives, this summary attempts to focus on "what
Programme of Action, significant progress is being made in the
next"- on the "new" initiatives.
areas of climate change (enabling activities under the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, initial vul-
THE SPECIAL CASE FOR SMALL ISLAND
nerability assessments and public awareness), waste
DEVELOPING STATES
management (marine pollution protocols/programmes and
Both Agenda 21 and the Barbados Programme of Action high-
POPs inventories), energy resources (where significant econom-
light the fact that islands are faced with the greatest
ic and environmental gains can be made), biodiversity
complexities and challenges of sustainable development. One
conservation (endangered species conservation, conservation
of the most useful definitions of the challenge is found in
area development and protective measures against alien and
Agenda 21 that recognized "Small Island Developing States, and
invasive species), national institutions and administrative
islands supporting small communities are a special case both for
arrangements (strengthened environment units and examples
environment and development. They are ecologically fragile
of high level sustainable development councils), and regional
and vulnerable. Their small size, limited resources, geographic
cooperation (strengthened human capacity at the regional
dispersion and isolation from markets, place them at a disad-
level, coordination mechanisms and strengthened legal frame-
vantage economically and prevent economies of scale. For
works). The international community is now looking at the
Small Island Developing States the ocean and coastal environ-
problems of small island developing states. The different prob-
ment is of strategic importance and constitutes a valuable
lems facing the many oceanic islands that are part of countries
development resource" (Chapter 17:para 17.124). The Global
from which they are geographically far removed also need to be
Conference on the Sustainable Development of Small Island
examined. In these cases, national policy is usually based on the
Developing States (1994), agreed upon specific policies, actions
environmental and socio-economic situation of the larger coun-
and measures to be taken at the national, regional and interna-
try. The international community needs to see that islands that
tional level across 15 priority areas. This was further refined at
are part of developing nations can fall between the cracks: help-
the Special Session of the United Nations General Assembly in
ing remote islands cannot be a priority in poor or troubled
New York in 1999 (Barbados + 5), when six problem areas were
countries, but neither are island dependencies eligible for inter-
identified as priorities for the next five years:
national projects and aid programs that target island nations.
· climate change adapting to climate change and rising
For trends and the state of SIDS environments, refer to the
sea levels;
recent UNEP/EU publications (i.e., the GEO Outlook Reports)
for the Caribbean, Indian and Pacific Oceans. In essence, the
· natural and environmental disasters and climate
common environmental problems these SIDS face remain large-
variability improving preparedness for and recovery
ly unchanged. These are:
from natural and environmental disasters;
· loss of biological diversity - continuing in both marine and
· freshwater resources preventing worsening shortages of
terrestrial environments;
freshwater as demand grows;
· threats to freshwater resources - further complicated by the
· coastal and marine resources protecting coastal ecosys-
potential of climate change and increasing pressure from
tems and coral reefs from pollution and over-fishing;
growing populations and tourism development;
· energy developing solar and renewable energy to lessen
· degradation of coastal environments - in particular coral reefs
dependence on expensive imported oil; and,
and inshore fisheries from land clearance, sedimentation
· tourism managing tourism growth to protect the envi-
and destructive fishing practices, and climate change
ronment and cultural integrity.
effects;
37
Reports of the Conference Working Groups The Global Conference on Ocean and Coasts at Rio+10
· climate change and sea level rise - expected to require adap-
· Lack of appropriate carrying capacities based on sound
tive responses even if the Kyoto Protocol targets are met;
natural and social science to define population limits;
· land and sea-based pollution - continuing from a wide range
· Fragmented institutional arrangements with a lack of ver-
of sources; and
tical and horizontal integration across marine sectors;
· excessive human population density - on small oceanic
· Inconsistent short and long-term goals that do not safe-
islands ultimately compromises environmental frailty.
guard the rights of future generations;
From the review of current policy, it is clear that there have been
· Sustainable development strategies in the framework of
some successful approaches to addressing these pressing envi-
climate change and globalization;
ronmental and sustainable development concerns of the region.
· Aid dependency;
They include: community-centered environmental initiatives;
improved coordination at national and, in particular, regional
· The smaller an island, the more limited the resource base
levels; increased capacity in the public sector to deal with envi-
and the less space there is for human settlements, agricul-
ronmental issues; increased awareness within communities and
ture, and public service infrastructure;
increasing participation; and a strengthened regional legal
· Donor motivation donor-driven relationship between
framework to deal with common environmental concerns.
official development assistance (ODA) which is declining
Participants have identified a number of important gaps in this
and direct foreign investment which is growing, and the
effort. These include: coral reef monitoring; guidelines for bio-
inequitable distribution of benefits; and
prospecting; strengthening stakeholder involvement, essential
· Connection between poverty reduction and sustainable
data collection and research, broader application of ICM, food
development poverty reduction should not simply be a
security, education and training across the board (and specifi-
shift from subsistence to cash economies increase in
cally in marine issues). A number of emerging issues have also
power to consume has no connection with sustainable
been identified such as economic reform and globalization,
development.
adaptation to climate change and the protection of intellectual
property/traditional knowledge.
COURSE CORRECTIONS
In relation to economic reform and globalisation, international
To address these constraints and make progress to reverse the
trade and investment are becoming increasingly important
trends, participants have identified the need to:
drivers of growth in both developed and developing countries,
· Replace the conventional concept of economic growth
promoting a shift from subsistence to cash-based economies
with that of human development;
and accompanying social dislocation. SIDS are finding it diffi-
· Accept that there are limits to the resident and visitor pop-
cult to secure the necessary benefits of international trade due
ulations that are sustainable by oceanic islands, both
to their isolation, remoteness from metropolitan markets, lack
environmentally and socio-economically. Tools like carry-
of skilled labour, underdeveloped economic infrastructure and
ing capacities and limits of acceptable change are useful
subsistence affluence. The newly emerging global trade and
but often are not accepted by policy-makers and planners,
investment regime discourages protectionism in the interest of
who do not understand the implications of being far from
more competitive trade that will result in rapid economic
large landmass;
growth and sustained economic development. Developing
export industries and inviting direct foreign investment are gen-
· Establish an effective limit on the amount of human pop-
erally considered the natural and possibly only options for most
ulation deriving their livelihood or recreation from the
countries bent on increasing their economic growth. Despite
island ecosystems. Technology and good resource man-
considerable effort, we find globalisation is impacting negative-
agement can help mitigate the effects of development, but
ly on Small Island States and their marine coastal areas in
no matter what steps are taken, excessive human popula-
particular.
tion density ultimately compromises environmental
quality. Consequently not only should existing planning
Islands largely depend economically on tourism. If not well
tools be used, but new techniques to define population
planned, the influx of additional workers and tourists can strain
limits need to be developed based on sound natural and
the local resource base and services to the point that the
social science;
resources that initially attracted the tourist industry are
destroyed along with pre-tourism social and cultural systems.
· Emphasize self sufficiency and domestic and inter-region-
al markets before international;
CONSTRAINTS
· Promote in-country value-adding to products and
The preparations for the Conference have identified the follow-
processes;
ing constraints or impediments to sustainable development:
· Harness investment in coastal and marine areas to provide
· Lack of human and institutional capacity at the national
equitable opportunities to improved livelihoods;
and community levels;
· Review aid practices to ensure full involvement of stake-
38
Reports of the Conference Working Groups The Global Conference on Ocean and Coasts at Rio+10
holders in the conceptualization and design of both large
earthquakes, tsunamis and volcanic events, fragile ecosystems
and small projects;
and geographic isolation. Economic factors include: high exter-
· Increase the amount of, and access to, `small project funds'
nal dependence (aid, imports) and poor insulation to global
as these represent "useful" amounts of money;
economic fluctuations; limited opportunities for economic
diversification; small internal markets; small resource base and
· Improve cross-sectoral integration at the regional level;
high dependence on natural resources; low savings to invest-
· Develop a code of ethics for donors; and
ment ratio and high impact of political instability. Social factors
· Encourage inter-regional exchanges between civil society.
include: high population growth; high urban migration and
emigration; limited human resource capacity; increasing inci-
dence of malnutrition, communicable and non-communicable
RECOMMENDATIONS
diseases and food insecurity; impact of economic modernization
It is important also to acknowledge that almost all the themes
and globalization on societies, cultures and traditional knowl-
concerning ocean and coastal management within this
edge.
Conference are of direct relevance to islands and that of all
The challenge remains to understand what are the critical
groups, SIDS can be expected to champion ocean issues within
aspects of vulnerability and how that undermines efforts
the WSSD. The challenge for the Conference in relation to SIDS
towards sustainable development. A number of indices exist
is to provide some direction that is environmentally responsible
(both environmental and economic) but to date none have been
and clearly delivers on the social goals and economic targets that
accepted as providing the appropriate mix of factors nor are they
exist today. The Conference will scratch the surface of the range
global enough in nature to be applied. Whether a single number
of issues that warrant attention in SIDS. The recommendations
is appropriate or not, there is significant information and oppor-
or new initiatives need to be placed in the context of the WSSD
tunity to build capacity in the process of compiling an index and
agenda and focus on what can be usefully advanced through
in relating the various environmental, economic and social
global consensus. At the first Preparatory Committee for the
aspects of vulnerability, that can assist countries understand and
WSSD, the Chairman of AOSIS outlined the following frame-
respond to the challenges of sustainable development.
work for SIDS:
· overcoming economic and environmental vulnerability;
Action required:
· sustainable permanent and transient population levels
· Financial and political support for the completion of rele-
must be calculated and incorporated into planning;
vant indices by the international community;
· institutional strengthening at the national, sub-regional
· Population carrying capacities and limits of acceptable
and regional levels;
change are useful tools to estimate human population lev-
els;
· capacity building;
· Committee for Development Policy of the United Nations
· enhancing the role of the international financial institu-
to fully consider vulnerability in its broader context includ-
tions, in particular the GEF;
ing environmental vulnerability as part of its assessment of
· strengthening inter-regional and intra-regional coopera-
LDC status;
tion;
· Vulnerability (economic, environmental and social) fac-
· follow-up to the SIDS Conference (Barbados+10); and
tored into country statistics;
· within nations, small oceanic islands need distinct envi-
· Recognition of the environmental vulnerability by national
ronmental policies and guidelines.
governments and international agencies;
These broad headings are used below to cluster the ideas of
· Active use of the environmental vulnerability and other vul-
Participants into specific initiatives for WSSD. There is a focus on
nerability indices in national environmental planning;
change at the scale necessary to secure sustainable development.
· Research and development of tools to address vulnerability
The last ten years have been characterised by discrete projects,
and the impacts of hazards;
sector-by-sector and issue-by-issue. Rapid change from a sectoral
focus, particularly when political, administrative and academic
· Capacity building where necessary to enable data collec-
systems are largely founded upon them, will be difficult but
tion and creation of appropriate environmental vulnerability
essential.
databases; and
· UNEP is needed to take a more active role in the refinement
1. Overcoming vulnerability
of an Environmental Vulnerability Index. UNEP Governing
SIDS are vulnerable to wide variety of environmental, economic
Council has repeatedly requested the Secretariat to assist
and social factors. Environmental factors include: climate vari-
initiatives by SIDS to develop an environmental vulnera-
ability, climate change and sea-level rise; natural hazards such as
bility index (Decisions GC 18/34; 19/18; 20/19D).
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Reports of the Conference Working Groups The Global Conference on Ocean and Coasts at Rio+10
2. Partner Institutions
The effort put into non-formal education training programmes
It is clear that institutional arrangements at national and
and activities has achieved some success, particularly where
regional levels are critical to SIDS- the need for efficient
NG0s and concerned groups have worked with local commu-
arrangements that make the best use of limited human and
nities. Despite this, the fact remains that both formal and
financial resources is essential. At the international level, these
non-formal education and training are seriously inadequate in
institutions can support the stronger voice required by SIDS
most SIDS island countries. In building on effective education
and facilitate the resources required for regional and national
and training programmes, emphasis must be placed on tradi-
action. At the regional level they provide significant technical
tional conservation techniques and encouragement provided
and policy backstopping and the essential coordination. At the
for more culturally compatible and sensitive education materi-
national level they provide the fundamental governance
al, projects and programmes. The techniques to build capacity
arrangements and the infrastructure to promote and deliver
must also be re-examined, as "workshops" often don't "work".
sustainable development.
The use of mentors and coaches, leadership development, peer
learning networks and accessible experts should be encouraged.
The number of institutions increases and so does the competi-
tion between them for mandate and resources. A significant
Action required:
challenge for SIDS is the consistent or mutually supportive gov-
· strengthen existing regional initiatives in curricula design
ernance of regional institutions as well as the coordination and
through the recognition and incorporation of local situa-
resourcing of institutions at the national level. The focus of this
tions and the provision of public information;
initiative for SIDS is closely linked to the recommendations
concerning regional-scale governance.
· develop effective approaches to building national capaci-
ty through regional programmes;
Action required:
· stimulate the development of non-formal education in
· Deliberate and legal links, where necessary, between
island countries including support for the training of
regional and international cooperation in environmental
women in subsistence fisheries;
matters, especially those with trans-boundary or global
· support awareness-raising for decision-makers;
implications, as well as for coordinated, integrated eco-
nomic decision-making processes at the national and
· support tertiary training for students as well as personnel
regional levels;
in management positions in government and private sec-
tors;
· Developed or strengthened domestic enabling environ-
ment including anti-corruption, sound macro-economic
· promote institutional strengthening to enable delivery of
policies, political stability;
appropriate training;
· Increased awareness of links between trade, globalisation,
· support professional development of promising environ-
investment and environment at national and regional lev-
mental managers and conservation bodies should be
els;
encouraged through scholarships and exchange schemes;
· Improved strategies to generate environmentally sensitive
· assist schools and education departments to produce their
responses to global and domestic trade liberalisation and
own primary and secondary curriculum in curriculum
investment initiatives;
education;
· Enhanced capacity to respond to global economic
· assist with the training of teachers in developing strategies
changes (e.g. WTO and APEC developments); and
and resources for teaching environmental education in
schools;
· Development and use of sustainable development indica-
tors and indicators for emerging problems.
· encourage the raising of community environmental
awareness through the arts, theatre, music and the media;
3. Building Capacity at Scale
· encourage and promote culturally compatible and sensi-
Capacity building has been a central element of all SIDS initia-
tive environmental education and information;
tives. To make the difference required to deliver to an
· promote community awareness through production of
increasing number of individuals and organisations in many
visual, print and electronic media including posters, dis-
different countries and locations spread over large distances it
plays, audio-visual kits, radio and video material;
will be essential for future efforts to employ the best practices
and tools, establish the right partners and utilise the best com-
· support inter-regional grassroots exchanges of skills and
munications techniques and technology. The need for a
expertise; and
programmatic approach to capacity building, one that builds
· expansion of the GEF Capacity Development Initiative to
progressively towards a strategic (e.g. 20 year vision) but that
address these fundamental capacity building concerns for
"meets people where they are" allowing individuals to define
SIDS at regional and national levels.
their own needs and shape their learning process.
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Reports of the Conference Working Groups The Global Conference on Ocean and Coasts at Rio+10
4. Leveraging Financial Resources
· recognize the special circumstances of the islands in rela-
The lack of human, technical and financial resources is a funda-
tion to trade in ocean products, including the role trade
mental constraint to the integration of environment and
preferences have played in compensating for our
development in decision making in most SIDS. In the past, with
natural/inherent comparative disadvantage due to small-
the benefit of aid inflows and remittances, the central banks in
ness, isolation and vulnerability;
most island countries have performed credibly to maintain sta-
· support the development in oceans infrastructure (ports
bility in domestic prices and balance of payments. In the last few
and shipping) rioting the high cost per unit of providing
years however the need for fiscal discipline has become evident.
such services in the region;
High inflation rates, mounting balance of payments, deficits,
· recognize the importance of the region as a food source
falling external reserves and public sector deficits pose serious
(fish exporter) and as having good investment potential in
threats to national development and disadvantage SIDS relative
its ocean;
to their competitors. Island countries are also vulnerable to
falling export prices, rising import prices and overseas interest
· encourage greater foreign investment in onshore process-
rates which are beyond their control.
ing to add value to ocean products before export; and
It has not been possible to determine the extent of access to or
· support negotiations that ensure equitable returns from
mobilization of financial resources necessary for the implemen-
access arrangements.
tation of the Barbados Plan of Action. However, some progress
5. International support for SIDS
has been made. At a national level, there are indications that a
greater proportion of national budgets have been mobilized for
International progress to understand and respond to the chal-
environmental management and sustainable development. For
lenges of SIDS and their role as custodians of significant oceanic
example, staffing levels of environment units have been
and coastal resources needs to be significantly strengthened.
increased in most SIDS at a time when government indebtness is
Action required:
high in some countries and when there is pressure to reduce
employment in the public sector. However, most SIDS have
· Call for Barbados +10 to be convened as a full and compre-
small environment and conservation agencies, with generally
hensive review to focus on achievements, constraints and
have few staff, often with limited training and experience.
new initiatives necessary to significantly advance sustain-
able development within SIDS.
Agenda 21 called for approximately USD 130 million to be
invested in the sustainable development of small islands, USD
Working Group 7 Participants
50 million of which was expected from the international com-
munity. While these were very rough estimates it should be
Gerald Miles
South Pacific Regional Environment
Programme (Chair)
asked: was the target achieved? Was the target adequate? Was it
channeled to the right areas? Did it leverage additional resources
Nelson Andrade
UNEP Caribbean Environment Programme
(Rapporteur)
and the desired change?
Graham Robin South
International Ocean Institute-Pacific
Action required:
Islands (Facilitator)
· secure greater and sustainable returns from ocean resources
Danielle Tesch
University of Delaware
(Secretariat Contact)
through (i) improved terms of trade in ocean resources;
and, (ii) higher level of investment (domestic and foreign)
in the sector;
Leo Brewster
Coastal Zone Management Unit, Barbados
· ensure resources are utilised and managed sustainably;
Tegan Hoffman
University of California, Berkeley
June Marie Mow
Coralina, Colombia
· developing countries need more and better international
cooperation more ODA better access to markets and
Johnathan Phinney
American Society of Limnology and
Oceanography
debt relief;
Mary Power
South Pacific Regional Environment
· financial support core budgets for Regional
Program
Organizations;
Ambassador
Alliance for Small Island States
· better Environmental Management Accounting serve
Tuiloma Neroni Slade
public as well as corporate functions incentives for cor-
Tamari'i Tutangata
South Pacific Regional Environment
porate EMA;
Program
· changes (improvements) in domestic policies and legisla-
tion to facilitate trade and foreign investment in the
context of the new global trade environment;
· encouraging local investment and participation in small-
scale fisheries;
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Reports of the Conference Working Groups The Global Conference on Ocean and Coasts at Rio+10
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Reports of the Conference Working Groups The Global Conference on Ocean and Coasts at Rio+10
Working Group 8
HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT AND CAPACITY BUILDING
IN MARINE AND COASTAL MANAGEMENT
BACKGROUND
educational institutions in developing countries need to
The centrality of capacity building to achieving the objectives of
be adequately resourced to expand these new programs;
Agenda 21 was recognized in 1992 in Rio. Agenda 21 gave
· There have been many short-term training programs tar-
importance to promoting an ongoing participatory process to
geted at professionals involved in marine science, and
define a country's needs and priorities and hence strengthen-
ocean and coastal management. Impact evaluations of the
ing the country's human resource and institutional capabilities.
effectiveness of single programs and the overall effect of
Technical cooperation was to be reoriented to support a coun-
multiple programs in turning new knowledge into more
try's own programs of action, while improving coordination
capacity and action are lacking.
among providers of assistance.
The numbers of professionals educated and trained is substan-
In its review of the capacity building chapter 17 of Agenda 21
tial but precise figures are not available.
in 1997-1998, the Commission on Sustainable Development
(CSD) recommended intensification of capacity-building
CONSTRAINTS
efforts, based on participatory approaches, with the aim of hav-
Despite substantive efforts in education and training, insuffi-
ing national sustainable development strategies or their equivalent
cient local capacity remains a major barrier to meaningful
in place by 2002 for implementation. Towards that goal, CSD
implementation of ocean and coastal management programs.
encouraged sharing of experiences and the increasing of South-
Possibly there has been too much emphasis since 1992 on for-
South and sub-regional cooperation focused on common
mal education and training (university degrees, short courses
programmatic themes. In 2001, the CSD acting as the
etc.) and not enough emphasis on building a critical mass of
Preparatory Committee for the WSSD, emphasized the rele-
practitioners and other key stakeholders and providing them
vance of transfer of environmentally sound technologies in building
with the enabling conditions and continued support they need
cooperation and capacity. This position was in line with the
to develop and implement programs.
findings of the two main reports of the World Bank and UNDP
Capacity building programs also seem to have concentrated on
on development, poverty, and technology transfer.
technical and scientific material rather than a broader coverage
Chapter 17 of Agenda 21's approach to capacity building focus-
taking in areas such as policy matters, decision making meth-
es on the need to develop education and training in integrated
ods, institutional capacity building and in the formation of true
coastal and marine management and sustainable development
partnerships between groups. In addition, capacity programs
for all stakeholders, with a view to incorporate environmental
have not specifically targeted under represented groups such as
protection concerns and local planning issues in educational
women and youth.
curricula and public awareness campaigns.
The still high "failure" rate of sustaining coastal and marine
PROGRESS
projects after donor support ends, the apparent "added-on"
nature of many training programs, the heavy reliance on out-
1. Advancement of Ocean and Coastal Management
side expertise in coastal management projects in developing
through Capacity Building
countries and the continued use of non local examples in train-
Enhanced capacity is essential to progress ocean and coastal
ing programs suggests that meaningful capacity-building
management as the scope and complexity of programs that can
remains today as an urgent and essential action item for achiev-
be successfully implemented by a nation is directly proportion-
ing sustainable development in coastal regions.
al to its local capacity. At Rio, the need to manage oceans and
VISION
coasts in an integrated manner was a new paradigm; it required
a new way of thinking for both managers and scientists. To date
Sustainable coastal and ocean management requires societal
capacity building programs for coastal and ocean management
choices on how we use our resources. Those choices depend on
have largely focused on formal education and short-term pro-
our values and culture, what information and knowledge we
fessional training:
can access, and the institutional and policy environment in
which we work. Our vision for 2012 is that all coastal nations
· There are a substantial number of degree programs (pri-
shall have sufficient capacity to develop and implement effec-
marily at the post-graduate level) in marine and coastal
tive, sustainable coastal and ocean programs with competence
policy. Most of these programs have been established in
and confidence; and that there is regional and global capacity
developed countries, although programs are now begin-
to facilitate meaningful exchanges among nations.
ning to emerge in some developing countries. The
43
Reports of the Conference Working Groups The Global Conference on Ocean and Coasts at Rio+10
RECOMMENDATIONS
encourage closer collaboration between networks of prac-
1.
Recognizing the importance of integrated Coastal and Ocean
titioners and academics; and
Management to the fate and future of the World's people,
3.2 Involve the private sector in direct initiation and contin-
and that capacity building, which consists of a) human
uing sponsorship of projects, and adapt standard training
resource development through education and training, b)
materials to local conditions and delivery by local
institutional and infrastructure development, and c) develop-
experts.
ment of a favorable enabling policy environment is essential
4.
Recognizing that sustaining capacity building programs is
for achieving the goals of sustainable development (as also
key to continued forward progress in ICM, such programs
noted in other chapters), there is a need to:
need to:
1.1 Base capacity building programs on needs assessments
4.1 Develop beneficial long-term partnerships at local,
that identify clear objectives; then identify the knowl-
regional and global levels; maintain networks and com-
edge, skills infrastructure and institutional capacity
munities of practice around specific topics; ensure
requirements that must be developed to achieve objec-
continuing transfer of up-to-date technology and best
tives;
practices within and among nations, and develop pro-
1.2 Go beyond the provision of education and training of
grams which link short-term training to degree programs;
professionals and address capacity building needs and
4.2 Ensure future leadership, raise awareness of, and broaden
strategies for a broad range of stakeholders and policy
the constituency for coastal and ocean issues by targeting
makers; programs also need to be periodically assessed so
youth and adopting inclusive approaches which ensure
that continuous feedback, improvement and adaptation
that under-represented groups such as women and the
can occur;
disabled, are included in programs, projects and policies.
1.3 Empower country nationals from policy makers to pro-
fessionals to the local community by building on existing
Working Group 8 Participants
local knowledge then incorporating additional scientific
Gayatri Acharya
World Bank (Chair)
and more broadly based information which contributes
Lynne Hale
University of Rhode Island, USA
to the overall objective of capacity building for sustain-
(Facilitator)
able development; and
Geoffrey Wescott
Deakin University, Australia (Rapporteur)
1.4 Give high priority to providing resources for capacity
Bernice McLean
University of Delaware, USA
building and develop additional mechanisms to facilitate
(Secretariat Contact)
the matching of resources and providers with recognized
coastal and ocean management capacity building needs
Russell L. Chapman
Louisiana State University
world-wide.
Sally Cochran
U.S. Department Of State
2.
Recognizing that the specific substance of capacity building
Kaiser De Souza
International Seabed Authority
efforts for coastal and ocean management must be based on
actual needs as determined in each region and nation. There
Piero de Bonis
National Agency for New Technologies,
Energy and the Environment (ENEA) Italy
are, however, global attributes that could enhance most pro-
grams. Capacity building programs should:
Peter Dexter
World Meteorological Organization
Guillermo García Montero National Oceanographic Committee,
2.1 Extend beyond the traditional scientific disciplines to
Cuba
incorporate local knowledge and build conceptual and
Enir G. Reis
Fundaçao Universidade do Rio Grande
practical linkages with other development-oriented fields
such as policy development, regulatory mechanisms,
Venugopalan Ittekkot
Zentrum Fuer Marine Tropenoekologie
(ZMT-Bremen)
economics, trade, health, population and literacy;
Mervyn Kamoetie
Ministry of Environmental Affairs and
2.2 Incorporate techniques and mechanisms for main-
Tourism, South Africa
streaming scientific, interdisciplinary and inclusive tools
Kazuhiro Kitazawa
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports,
into decision-making processes; and
Science and Technology, Japan
2.3 Ensure access to information technology to enhance
Laure Ledoux
Centre for Social and Economic Research
knowledge sharing for integrated coastal and ocean man-
on the Global Environment, UK
agement.
Cuauhtemoc León
LEAD-Mexico
3.
Recognizing that capacity building programs should be based
Rejoice Mabudafhasi
Ministry of Environmental Affairs and
at local institutions to maximize local ownership and effec-
Tourism, South Africa
tiveness, such programs and their delivery also need to:
Moira McConnell
World Maritime University, Sweden
3.1 Be sufficiently flexible so they can be responsive to local
Jonathan Phinney
American Society of Limnology and
Oceanography
needs whilst still meeting the pre-set overall objectives,
work within local cultural structures, use local languages,
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Reports of the Conference Working Groups The Global Conference on Ocean and Coasts at Rio+10
46