TOWARD MAURITIUS 2005
ISLAND BELLWETHER:
CLIMATE CHANGE AND ENERGY POLICY STRATEGY
FOR SMALL ISLAND DEVELOPING STATES
Paper Series No. 2005-2
Sponsored by: UNEP/GPA and the Global
Forum on Oceans, Coasts, and Islands

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ISLAND BELLWETHER:
CLIMATE CHANGE AND ENERGY POLICY STRATEGY
FOR SMALL ISLAND DEVELOPING STATES
Prepared by
John Byrne, Leigh Glover, Vernese Inniss, and Gerard Alleng
Center for Energy and Environmental Policy
University of Delaware, USA
Series Editor: Dr. Biliana Cicin-Sain
Co-Chair, Global Forum on Oceans, Coasts, and Islands
Toward Mauritius 2005 Series
This paper series aims to contribute to the deliberations leading up to the 2005 Mauritius
International Meeting to Review Implementation of the 1994 Barbados Programme of Action
for the Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States.
Work on the series has been sponsored by the UNEP/GPA with the financial support of the
Government of the Netherlands and has been carried out through the Global Forum on Oceans,
Coasts, and Islands. Many thanks are due to Dr. Veerle Vandeweerd, Co-chair, Global Forum
on Oceans, Coasts, and Islands, for organizing this initiative.
Many thanks are due to all the authors of this paper for their work, on a volunteer basis, on this
project. The support and contributions of the University of Delaware Center for Environment
and Energy Policy is kindly acknowledged.
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Editor's Note: Any errors or omissions in this report are
the responsibility of the authors in their individual capacities.
Layout: Jorge Gutierrez
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Foreword
Agenda 21, the Barbados Programme of Action for the Sustainable Development of Small Island Develop-
ing States (BPoA), the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) and more recently the Mauritius
Strategy have each underscored the complexities and challenges facing small island states as they seek to
achieve sustainable development. As Agenda 21 recognized:
Small island developing States and islands supporting small communities are a
special case both for environment and development. They are ecologically fragile
and vulnerable. Their small size, limited resources, geographic dispersion and
isolation from markets, place them at a disadvantage and prevent economies of
scale.
As underscored in the BPoA, while small island developing States (SIDS) contribute the least towards
global climate change and sea level rise, they are known to suffer the most from the adverse effects of this
phenomena. Due to the fact that population, agriculture and industry in SIDS countries are generally located
along the coastal zone, any rise in sea level can have a profound impact on the fragile economies of these
islands. Global climate change can also impact on coral reef fisheries, alter the distribution of upwelling
zones and affect both subsistence and commercial fisheries, one of the most important sectors in SIDS. As
a result of this high vulnerability regarding impact climate change and sea level rise and the limited resources
available, SIDS require the assistance of the international community as indicated in the Kyoto Protocol of
the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change to address adaptation and mitigation mea-
sures. The BPoA also addresses the link between climate change and energy by acknowledging that the
development and use of new energy technologies should be used by SIDS to mitigate the adverse effects of
climate change.
The WSSD addressed the special issues of SIDS in the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation by setting
forth a number of targets and timetables related to SIDS, and called for a review of the implementation of
the 1994 Barbados Programme of Action for the Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing
States leading to the international meeting in Mauritius in January 2005.
The Global Forum on Oceans, Coasts and Islands, with funding from the UNEP/GPA, has prepared a series
of papers towards the Mauritius meeting to review the Barbados Programme of Action for the Sustainable
Development of Small Island Developing States ten years later. In this paper, the authors assess the progress
that SIDS have made in implementing the climate change and energy components of the BPoA, more
specifically the efforts of SIDS, in the last ten years, to implement sustainable energy systems through the
utilization of renewable energy sources. The paper puts forward recommendations regarding the significant
trends and emerging opportunities that are now available to better allow SIDS to implement the BPoA, as
well as, innovative means by which SIDS can build on the BPoA to address new and emerging issues.
The efforts of the authors in preparing this paper, all on a volunteer basis, are sincerely appreciated, as is the
administrative support of the University of Delaware's Center for Environmental and Energy Policy.
We hope that this analysis will be useful to SIDS in evaluating the BPoA ten years later.
Co-Chairs, Global Forum on Oceans, Coasts and Islands
Dr. Biliana Cicin-Sain
Dr. Patricio Bernal
Dr. Veerle Vanderweerd
Director
Executive Secretary
Coordinator
Gerard J. Mangone Center for
Intergovernmental Oceanographic
UNEP/GPA (Global Programme
Marine Policy
Commission,
of Action
University of Delaware
UNESCO
for the Protection of the Marine
Environment
from Land-Based Activities)
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iv

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Contents
Foreword by the Global Forum Co-Chairs
ii
List of Tables
vi
List of Figures
vi
1. BACKGROUND
1
1.1 Island Uniqueness, Vulnerability and Sustainable Development
3
1.2 The Pursuit of Sustainability ­ a Problem for SIDS
4
1.3 SIDS Vulnerability to Climate Change
6
2. BPOA: CLIMATE CHANGE AND ENERGY
7
3. BPOA IMPLEMENTATION STATUS: CLIMATE CHANGE
AND ENERGY RESOURCES
7
3.1. Climate Change and Sea Level Rise
7
3.2. Energy Resources
13
4. SIGNIFICANT TRENDS AND EMERGING OPPORTUNITIES FOR SIDS
14
4.1 Opportunity for Island Impact Assessments
15
4.2 AOSIS Support for a Global Dematerialization Strategy
16
4.3 Opportunity for a Regional CDM Project Approach
16
4.4 Opportunity for a Regional Renewable Portfolio Standard Approach
16
5. CONCLUSIONS
17
ACNKOWLEDGEMENTS
18
REFERENCES
18
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List of Tables
Table 1.
Socio-economic Characteristics of Small Island Developing States
Impinging on Sustainable Development
3
Table 2.
The Cost of Hurricane Ivan to Grenada in 2004: Summary of Direct
and Indirect Damages (Millions of US Dollars)
5
Table 3.
Elements of the BPOA Related to Climate Change and Sea Level
Rise Program
8
Table 4.
Elements of the BPOA Related to the Energy Resources Program
9
Table 5.
Caribbean Planning for Adaptation to Climate Change Project Components
10
Table 6.
Status of PICCAP Implementation
12
Table 7.
Power Generation by Fossil Fuel for Selected SIDS
13
List of Figures
Figure 1.
Impacts of Climate Change-Induced Sea Level Rise on Selected Coasts
and Islands Worldwide
6
Figure 2.
Linkage between the Caribbean Planning for Adaptation to Climate Change
(CPACC) and Mainstreaming Adaptation to Climate Change (MACC) Projects
10
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Island Bellwether: Climate Change and Energy Policy
Strategy for Small Island Developing States
1. BACKGROUND
UNDP, 2002),1 and these produce a distinct set of issues
that impinge on the sustainable development of SIDS, many
There could have been no more tragic demonstration of the
of which were earlier identified by the BPOA (United Na-
vulnerability of small islands and coastal areas in develop-
tions, 1994). On-going research and experiential learning
ing nations than the Southeast Asian tsunami of 26 Decem-
has further strengthened and extended these earlier find-
ber 2004. The event overshadowed the international meet-
ings, as noted by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
ing in January 2005 in Mauritius to review the decade-old
Change (IPCC, 2001a and b), the World Energy Assess-
Barbados Plan of Action for the Sustainable Development
ment (UNDP, 2002) and other studies (e.g., Farinelli, 1999;
of Small Island Developing States (BPOA+10). The vul-
Ghina, 2003; Headly, 1997; Jensen, 2000; OECD/IEA,
nerability of small island developing states (SIDS) was rec-
2002; Weisser, 2004 and Yu et al 1997). A summary of
ognized in the original Barbados Plan of Action (BPOA) as
these factors includes:
providing a major rationale for promoting sustainable de-
velopment, including addressing the threats of future cli-
· Industrial nations and industrial activities are the
mate change impacts and the role of energy in sustainable
primary sources of greenhouse gas (GHG) emis-
development (United Nations, 1994).
sions, whose increasing atmospheric concentra-
tion is directly responsible for current and fore-
Much has transpired since the BPOA in the fields of cli-
cast global warming
mate change and energy, providing the BPOA+10 meeting
with an opportunity to consider these developments and to
· Fossil fuel energy systems are the primary cause
formulate responses to further promote sustainable devel-
of GHG emissions, predominantly the combus-
opment to reduce the vulnerability of SIDS to both natural
tion of coal, oil and natural gas
disasters and the consequences of unsustainable develop-
ment. In the draft Mauritius Strategy (United Nations, 2005)
· Rising temperatures and other climatic changes
produced by the BPOA+10 meeting, the international com-
will produce profound ecological and environmen-
munity affirmed its commitment to addressing climate
tal changes that will impact SIDS in a wide vari-
change through the UN Framework Convention on Climate
ety of ways
Change, and specifically called for greater promotion of
renewable energy, more support for SIDS to develop re-
· Sea level rise is associated with global warming
newable energy sources, development and transfer of tech-
and will continue for the next several hundred
nologies to SIDS to assist in addressing climate change,
years at least
sought SIDS sustainable development planning to incorpo-
rate adaptation to climate change, sought greater scientific
· SIDS are vulnerable to highly vulnerable to cli-
monitoring of climate and promoted greater SIDS coordi-
mate change impacts and to rising sea levels
nation on climate change (in Section I of the Strategy).
Section VII of the Mauritius Strategy addresses energy re-
· Energy service needs are an important aspect of
sources, indicative of the meeting's greater awareness of
sustainable development, influencing education,
the potential for renewable energy sources and calling for
health, communication, drinking water, produc-
SIDS energy strategies based on renewable energy sources
tive enterprise development and other opportuni-
and it urges greater progress in implementation (in Section
ties
VII of the Strategy).
· Most SIDS have poor access to modern energy
There are strong links between the world's energy sys-
services
tem and the problem of climate change (IPCC, 2001a;
1 Human activities are causing the release of `greenhouse gases' (GHGs) into the atmosphere, primarily through the combustion of fossil fuels
(coal, oil and gas) and, to a lesser extent through vegetation clearance, agriculture, land use change and industrial activities. Global climate is being
altered by the increasing concentrations of these anthropocentric GHG emissions (particularly carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and selected
hydrofluorocarbons). Future global warming will continue for at least several hundred years but cutting global GHG emissions is essential for
reducing the extent of future climate change impacts. Reducing these emissions requires substantial changes to the conventional industrial energy
systems through measures that reduce fossil fuel use by conserving energy, increasing energy efficiency, and greatly increasing the use of renew-
able energy sources.
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· Many SIDS rely on imported fossil fuels
· International Energy Agency's Solar Heating and
Cooling Programme
· Renewable energy technologies have continued
to develop, have become cheaper, and more ef-
· OECD Development and Climate Change Project
fective policies for support and implementation
have been devised, and
· Pacific Islands Energy Policy and Plan and
Rarotonga Declaration in 2002
· Many SIDS have renewable energy resources, but
these are largely undeveloped.
· South Pacific Regional Environment Program's cli-
mate change and sustainable development projects,
National governments, international agencies, non-gov-
and
ernmental organizations, research centers and other groups
have contributed to a growing body of policy and research
· Caribbean Renewable Energy Development Pro-
that addresses the issues of climate change and energy, and
gram.
on which the continuing development of the BPOA pro-
cess can draw. Our understanding of the role of energy in
The BPOA specifically addresses energy and climate
promoting social, economic and environmental objectives
change issues in two sections, in Section I: Climate Change
in developing countries has also continued to advance
and Sea Level Rise and in Section VII: Energy Resources
through specific programs, research findings and experi-
(United Nations, 1994). These sections focus on the links
ence. Significant international developments since the 1994
between energy and climate change policy, and we exam-
BPOA meeting, and prominent on-going activities (See, e.g.,
ine both issues in terms of these links.2 Below we inven-
Cicin-Sain et al 2004a; CROP, 2002; Deda, 1999; Forum
tory these developments and discuss policy strategies that
for Energy and Development, 1999; IEA, 2002; Jensen,
can build upon the BPOA.
2000 and United Nations, 2002), include:
Some of the developments since the BPOA are of par-
· World Summit on Sustainable Development in 2002
ticular importance. For the energy sector, there are grounds
and the subsequent Johannesburg Plan of Action
for considerable optimism regarding the use of renewable
energy options. Although the BPOA found only a modest
· Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's re-
role for renewables in the short and medium term, there are
lease of its third assessment report series in 2001
many reasons to suggest that the leading renewable energy
technologies are sufficiently mature and economical to
· Ratification of the UN Framework Convention on
warrant serious attention.3 Further, the BPOA gave little
Climate Change's (UN FCCC) Kyoto Protocol (in
attention to the role of energy efficiency and energy con-
February 2005) that sets binding targets for GHG
servation in creating sustainable energy systems, but there
emission reductions from developed nations
is now considerably more experience on which
policymakers can draw, and a stronger case can be made
· UN Commission on Sustainable Development will
for incorporating these elements into national and regional
focus on energy/ climate change/ atmosphere/ air
energy planning. Thus, major changes in SIDS energy
pollution in its 14th and 15th sessions in 2006 and
policy since BPOA appear to be warranted with many of
2007
the energy service needs of SIDS to be met through greater
energy efficiency, energy conservation, and the develop-
· Release of the UN Millennium Development Goals
ment of renewable energy systems.
that relate to energy
Key aspects of current SIDS energy systems are vulner-
· World Solar Commission's World Solar Programme
able. SIDS face a number of pressing energy problems,
1996-2005
urgently prompting the case for accelerated reform of the
energy sector and for increased attention by policy makers
· Global Environment Facility's climate change ac-
to this crucial component of social and economic develop-
tivities as a funding source for renewable energy,
ment. Inefficient and expensive conventional energy sys-
energy conservation and climate change projects
tems increase the economic vulnerability of SIDS and im-
2 See Cicin-Sain et al (2004b), a companion paper to this article, for a treatment of climate change as related to coastal and marine impacts.
3 As used here, renewable energy includes wind, solar thermal, solar electric (commonly relying on photovoltaic (PV) or solar cell technology),
bioenergy (mostly energy crops and crop residues), microhydroelectricty and, in limited instances, geothermal energy.
2

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pose high social and environmental costs for their commu-
1.1 Island Uniqueness, Vulnerability and
nities. SIDS have responded to these challenges and many
Sustainable Development
valuable lessons have been learned since the BPOA through
programs of energy conservation, energy efficiency im-
SIDS face unique challenges on the pathway to sustainable
provements and selective applications of mature renewable
development, over and above those of other developing
energy technologies.
nations. Of particular concern is each island's vulnerabil-
ity to outside influences and natural disasters and its lim-
Increasing atmospheric concentrations of GHGs, which
ited options and response mechanisms compared to conti-
have been largely the result of the combustion of fossil fu-
nental states. Bloomestein et al (1996) have reviewed the
els, have produced changes in the global climate system
issue of island developmental uniqueness and concluded
that are capable of having deleterious effects on SIDS. Is-
that SIDS development problems tend to be more intrac-
lands have a vital interest in the global community curtail-
table in small, and particularly very small, island countries
ing the use of fossil fuels in order to best protect island
(these are summarized in Table 1; see also Byrne and Inniss,
societies and ecosystems. The threat of inundation from
2002).
rising sea levels and the risks of climate change impacts on
temperatures, winds, waves, and water temperatures put
Barnett and Adger (2003), Pelling and Uitto (2001) and
islands at greater risk than their continental counterparts.
others identify a range of factors that make SIDS intrinsi-
Of course, SIDS also have a local responsibility to assess
cally vulnerable to natural disaster and global change: small
their vulnerability, reduce their levels of risk and undertake
size, insularity and remoteness, that many have seasonally-
programs of adaptation to climate change impacts. In par-
based economies especially vulnerable to international eco-
ticular, these concerns are being pursued through interna-
nomic circumstances, disaster mitigation capabilities are
tional climate change programmes, which have developed
often modest and special environmental factors (including
since the BPOA, both in terms of research activities and
greater exposure to high-intensity storms and high waves).
international planning, together with regional and national
Most SIDS are small with dispersed land areas (several are
initiatives by SIDS. With the Kyoto Protocol having come
archipelagic states) and it follows that their natural resource
in to force in early 2005, a number of conceptual issues and
base will be relatively limited and the likelihood of resource
policy questions regarding SIDS and climate change can
abundance, less than for larger territories. Land uses tend
be identified that deserve attention of island policymakers,
to be used more intensively and infrastructure, development
businesses and communities.
and other physical assets are usually concentrated especially
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3

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along narrow coastal zones. Resource use, land and ma-
and a few specialized industries. SIDS are also generally
rine management activities and other productive relation-
dependent on foreign sources of finance. Most SIDS have
ships with the natural environment are close and immedi-
some familiarity with global markets reaching back to the
ate in SIDS societies.
colonial era of international trade, and in this sense are ex-
perienced with the influences of external markets. In terms
Often SIDS lack conventional energy resources and are
of trade, SIDS are highly dependent on imports, face un-
highly dependent on imports of fossil fuels for their energy
certainties in transport and have little influence over the
needs. As a result they are vulnerable to the vagaries in oil,
prices of imports. For SIDS closely tied to the global mar-
coal and natural gas prices with resultant energy costs be-
ket, there are a number of economic and other vulnerabili-
ing high for electricity generation, transportation and do-
ties. While some SIDS may prosper from the global
mestic consumption. Subsidies are usually implemented
economy, it is a relationship dependent on the preferences
to alleviate the impact of high energy costs, particularly on
of the global market and the continued viability of select
low income consumers and rural communities, but these
local economic activities, such as agricultural production,
tend to have limited success as energy planning tradition-
fisheries and tourism. As the BPOA expounds, sustainable
ally focuses on the provision of technology and not on en-
development offers a means to address the particular prob-
ergy services. Cheaper, but inefficient and environmen-
lems of SIDS vulnerability through strategies, policies, plans
tally harmful, energy sources predominate. There have been
and projects that address climate change and energy issues.
efforts to address these problems including the increased
exploitation of indigenous energy sources (e.g., solar, hy-
1.2 The Pursuit of Sustainability ­ a Problem for
dro and wind) (e.g., Forum for Energy and Development,
SIDS
1999; Island Solar Summit, 1999 and Jensen, 2000; ) but
these also encounter significant barriers, which curtail their
Achieving sustainability by any nation state, developed or
progress (see, e.g., Yu et al, 1996). Decision makers have
developing, is a daunting task (Byrne and Glover, 2002).
recognized that these barriers are mainly related to policy,
The problem is exacerbated for SIDS because of their unique
finance, institutional and public awareness factors and have
socio-economic, geographical and ecological settings
sought to address them.
(Byrne and Inniss, 2002). Insular natural resources such as
water, vegetation, soil, air, near-shore systems and wild-
As with natural resources, SIDS typical small popula-
life, ultimately dictate the capacity of islands to accept and
tions have a smaller human resource base in comparison
sustain development. Marine pollution, degradation of lo-
with larger states, limiting the capacity to undertake a range
cal fisheries, salinization or other contamination of water
of activities. Also, as with the infrastructure on SIDS, popu-
resources and loss of agricultural productivity can be so-
lation tends to be concentrated, usually along the coastal
cially, environmentally and economically devastating to
zone, often with a single, dominant urban center. In addi-
SIDS. Primary production and downstream processing in-
tion, the purchasing power of SIDS populations tends to be
dustries are not the only sectors vulnerable to such effects,
limited as the majority are categorized as lesser developed
as other industries, including tourism, can be highly depen-
countries (with some notable higher income exceptions).
dent on the condition of natural resources and ecological
Consequently, providing services and infrastructure on SIDS
systems. When these conditions are affected by extreme
can be expensive, as SIDS are unable to take advantage of
climatic events and natural disasters, devastating impacts
the economies of scale available to larger states.
can result, as was experienced by many Caribbean islands
during the 2004 hurricane season and across the Indian
These social factors are tied to many economic aspects
Ocean in the wake of the 2004 Southeast Asian tsunami.
of SIDS vulnerability, which simultaneously reflect both
the internal dynamics of their economies and the influence
SIDS susceptibility to natural disasters is generally higher
of the global economy and the forces of globalization. Small
than their continental counterparts. As states, SIDS are typi-
economies have modest internal markets, few opportuni-
cally smaller in size and economic capacity, so that the costs
ties for economic diversification and tend to be based on a
of natural disasters are greater per unit area and per capita
few key economic activities; in the case of SIDS, their
than for continental states (Briguglio, 1995).1 Severe natural
economies are highly dependent on local natural resources
disasters can impede social and economic development for
4 In developing an index of economic vulnerability, Briguglio (1995) used disaster proneness as a key variable. Using data from the UN Disaster
Relief Office for the period 1970-1989, an index of disaster damage as a percentage of Gross National Product (GNP) was developed for sixty-five
countries. Disasters included droughts, floods, earthquakes, hurricanes, cyclones, storms, typhoons, fire, volcanic eruptions, famine, landslides,
accident, power shortages, epidemics and civil strife. The study revealed the proportion of the costs of disasters as a proportion of GNP was 52%
for island developing countries and 67% for SIDS. Findings for other groups of countries were: all countries with disaster incidence (28%); non-
island developing countries (21%); developing countries (30%) and developed countries (5%).
4

---

many years, and cause great cultural and social losses.
Even more routine natural disasters have taken a great
Economic impacts include devastation of agricultural sec-
toll on SIDS. Estimates of the impact of 2004's Hurricane
tors, setbacks in tourism industries due to extensive dam-
Ivan on the island of Grenada in the Caribbean are $900m
age to beaches and coastal ecosystems and disruption of
in damages, more than twice the current value of its GDP
communications services which impact all sectors, but es-
(OECS, 2004). Housing represented the bulk of the cost,
pecially the tourism and international and off-shore busi-
as 89% of the country's dwellings were damaged, with about
ness sectors -- staples of many island economies.
30% beyond repair. For the main economic sectors of the
island (agriculture and tourism), total direct and indirect
Although the full toll of the Southeast Asian tsunami has
damages were at $130m and $54m, respectively, while
yet to be reckoned, it is clear that it is one of the great natu-
infrastructural damages (electricity, telecommunications and
ral disasters of the modern era and was unusually widely
water) accounted for $82m and $31m in total and indirect
dispersed. Some 13 nations were afflicted, with 170,000
damages, respectively. These are losses that will take many
lives lost, 130,000 persons missing and over one million
years for a small economy to recoup (a summary of these
directly displaced (USAID, 2005); several million more are
costs is shown in Table 2).
without immediate access to food and water. A nation-by-
nation assessment of the economic costs stated: Indonesia
The prospect of climate change with a possible increase
$4b for reconstruction at Aceh; Sri Lanka $1.5b for recon-
in the frequency and intensity of storms (IPCC, 1996), com-
struction; about 1 million jobs have been lost in Indonesia
bined with continuing sea level rise, means that island vul-
and Sri Lanka; Southeast India $1.2b; India's Andaman and
nerability is likely to grow. The implications of the new
Nicobar Islands $600m (with 70% of their jetties destroyed,
climate regime are that the ecology and economies of SIDS
the fishing industry that provides two-thirds of local em-
will become more vulnerable and achieving sustainability
ployment will be strongly affected); Maldives $304m for
will become more difficult.
reconstruction; Malaysia $25m and Seychelles $30m dam-
ages (BBC, 2005).2
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2 Monetary values in US dollars throughout; `billion' refers to 1000 million.
5

---

1.3 SIDS Vulnerability to Climate Change
Modeling of the effects of climate change on coastal ar-
eas can provide an indication of the magnitude of these fu-
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
ture impacts. Using the IPCC IS92 scenarios for projected
has concluded that global average surface temperature has
sea level rise, resulting from stabilization of CO concen-
2
increased by about 0.6 ± 0.2oC since the late 19th century
trations at 450 parts per million (ppm), projections indicate
and that global average sea level rose between 10 and 20
severe and damaging effects (see Figure 1). For a 20 cm
cm during the 20th century (IPCC, 2001a). Additional
rise, 18 million additional people worldwide will experi-
changes have occurred in precipitation but are dependent
ence yearly storm surges and at an 80 cm rise in sea level,
on geographical zone (e.g., increases in high latitudes of
65% of the Marshall Islands and Kiribati will be inundated.
the Northern Hemisphere in contrast to decreases in sub-
It is estimated that a 100 cm rise in sea level could inundate
tropical Northern Hemispheric areas). Projections suggest
70% of the landmass of the Seychelles (UN/DPI, 1999).
that these trends will continue, with severity dependent on
The implications for coastal land loss under these scenarios
the measures implemented to mitigate changes taking place
are severe and more so for island states, where the majority
within the global atmosphere. Global mean sea level is
of their populations are concentrated along coastal zones
projected to rise between 9 and 88 cm between 1990 and
and their tourism industries are typically coastally based;
2100, with a corresponding rise in global average surface
likewise most of the tourism infrastructure is concentrated
temperature of 1.4 to 5.8oC (IPCC 2001a).
in the coastal zone. For example, the majority of Carib-
bean tourism facilities are concentrated within 800 meters
SIDS are highly vulnerable to climate change impacts.
of the high water mark of each island (Bloomestein et al,
IPCC (2001b) reports that, in addition to sea level rise, small
1996). In Jamaica, 60% of tourist accommodation units
island states are likely to be affected by changes to rainfall
are less than 15 meters from the high water mark. The vul-
regimes, soil moisture budgets, prevailing winds and wave
nerability of these tourism units within the islands was
patterns. These climatic changes will influence a range of
clearly demonstrated with the passage of the Hurricane Ivan
social and environmental factors impinging on important
across Grenada. Direct damage estimates for buildings and
aspects small island development and sustainability, includ-
infrastructure from the accommodations sector of Grenada's
ing beach and coastal changes, biological systems (includ-
tourism industry is about $62m (OECS, 2004).
ing coral reefs, mangroves and sea grasses), biodiversity,
water resources, agriculture, and fisheries, human health,
At least some of these harmful effects due to sea level
settlement and infrastructure and tourism (IPCC, 2001b)).
rise and climatic change are already underway. The South
Higher sea levels will make storm surges and high waves
Pacific Regional Environmental Programme (now known
greatly more destructive, given the extent to which SIDS
as the Pacific Regional Environment Programme), for ex-
infrastructure, settlements and economic activities are con-
ample, reports that rising sea levels and coastal erosion have
centrated in coastal zones. Losses to marine resources due
already swamped several small islets in Kiribati and Tuvalu,
to climate change impacts on marine characteristics, coral
destroyed coastal roads and bridges, and caused traditional
reefs, mangroves and coastal wetlands could produce great
burial places to collapse into the ocean.
impacts on economic capacities,
human nutrition and indigenous cul-
tures. Saline intrusion into freshwa-
ter supplies due to elevated sea level
and other impacts will reduce agri-
cultural productivity, threaten nutri-
tional security, degrade drinking
water quality and threaten water sup-
ply. A wide array of ecological and
biodiversity values will also be
eroded by climate change impacts.
Importantly, and perhaps
underappreciated to date, is that
these climate change impacts will
strain and invariably harm indig-
enous cultures, practices and tradi-
tional ways of life on SIDS.
Figure 1. Impacts of Climate Change-Induced Sea Level Rise
on Selected Coasts and Islands Worldwide
6

---

2. BPOA: CLIMATE CHANGE AND
renewable energy sources such as wind, hydroelectric power
ENERGY
and biomass are highly variable among island states, while
research into geothermal, ocean thermal and wave energy
Under the BPOA (United Nations, 1994), Climate Change
are still continuing.
and Sea Level Rise is the first in a list of 15 priority issues
While it is generally recognized that a renewable energy
considered to affect the sustainability of small island states.
system offers greater prospects of sustainability than con-
Energy Resources, also one of the 15 priority issues is set
tinuation of the existing fossil fuel system, island countries
out as a separate concern. The BPOA recognizes the vary-
are confronted with a number of constraints in making the
ing endowments of renewable energy resources in small
switch to a renewable energy economy. These include lim-
island states and the need to develop them. It also identi-
ited access to technology, high investment costs and inad-
fies the connection between climate change and energy in
equate indigenous skills and management capabilities.
the sustainable development of SIDS.
Consequently, the BPOA spells out a set of actions needed
In addressing the issue of climate change, the BPOA fo-
at the national, regional and international levels to set SIDS
cuses mainly on potential physical impacts and associated
on a course to a sustainable energy system (Table 4). Over
socio-economic effects of climate change on island societ-
the last decade, attempts have been made by SIDS to imple-
ies, and the actions that need to be taken at national, re-
ment programs that focus on these priority areas and an
gional and international levels to adapt to, and/or mitigate
assessment of these programs is provided in the following
these impacts. Articulated in the action plan is the need for
section.
early action in such areas as research on sea level rise, de-
velopment of adaptation and mitigation policies, assessment
3. BPOA IMPLEMENTATION STATUS:
of socio-economic impacts, promotion of public education
CLIMATE CHANGE AND ENERGY
and political understanding of the issue, and the need for
RESOURCES
assistance from the international community, among others
(These are shown in Table 3).
3.1. Climate Change and Sea Level Rise
The 1994 Action Plan clearly connects climate change
and energy, stating that: "The development and use of re-
A variety of activity at the regional, national, and interna-
newable sources of energy and the dissemination of sound
tional scales has occurred since the BPOA and areas of sig-
and efficient energy technologies are seen as having a cen-
nificant progress in response to its recommendations for
tral role in mitigating the adverse impacts of climate
national action on climate change and energy resources,
change." In this regard, it calls for national action in as-
but at the broader scale the responses have been highly un-
sessing the effects and the socio-economic impacts of cli-
even.
mate change, climate variability and sea level rise on SIDS,
and at the same time calls on the international community
Noteworthy have been developments in the Caribbean
to provide access to energy efficient and environmentally
arising out of the BPOA, such as the Caribbean Planning
sound technologies that would assist small islands states in
for Adaptation to Climate Change (CPACC) project (Table
conserving energy.
5). Funded by the Global Environment Facility (GEF), with
additional support from the Canadian, French, and Dutch
With specific reference to energy resources, the BPOA
governments, this regional plan included installation of sea
recognizes the heavy dependence of small island states on
level and coral reef monitoring stations (18 stations in 12
petroleum products and, to a lesser extent, on biomass
countries), coastal vulnerability and risk assessment, and
largely for transport and electricity generation. It also notes
inventory and economic valuation of coastal resources.6
that on average more than 12% of these resources are im-
Implementation occurred through the Caribbean Commu-
ported. In contrast, all small island states have substantial
nity and Common Market countries (CARICOM) who sup-
solar resources due to the characteristics of their geographi-
ported the participating countries in preparing to cope with
cal location. These, however, are still to be developed to
the adverse effects of global climate change.7
their full potential. The availability and potential of other
6 A overview of GEF activities in the SIDS is available from GEF (2005).
7Caribbean Planning for Adaptation to Global Climate Change Project. Information about this project is available
from the website: http://www.cpacc.org.
7

---

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---

a
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The project consisted of nine components, which focused
When the CPACC concluded in 2001, it was followed
on adaptation planning, including regional sea/climate data
by a second phase project in 2003, Mainstreaming Adapta-
collection and management, impact and vulnerability stud-
tion to Climate Change (MACC), the primary objective of
ies, and the assessment of policy options through a series
which is to continue the work of CPACC, by integrating
of regional activities and pilot studies within selected coun-
climate change and variability into the tourism, agriculture,
tries of CARICOM (These are shown in Table 5). These
fisheries and infrastructure sectors of Caribbean islands
enabling activities were complemented by selective capac-
(OAS, 2002), (see Figure 2). In addition to integrating cli-
ity-building initiatives, aimed at creating or strengthening
mate change planning into development planning and sec-
endogenous skills and institutions necessary to operate a
tor strategies, the project will continue promoting technical
long-term adaptation program.
and institutional responses for adaptation, and monitoring
and modeling regional climate change (OAS, 2002).
9

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Figure 2. Linkage between the Caribbean Planning for Adaptation to Climate Change (CPACC)
and Mainstreaming Adaptation to Climate Change (MACC) Projects.
Source: OAS, 2002.
10

---

The main elements of the new phase include: expanding
Caribbean counterpart, CPACC, as it too seeks to conduct
and strengthening the technical capacity to assess vulner-
SIDS assessments and support capacity building for adap-
ability and the risks associated with the global climate
tation planning for climate change impacts (The status of
change; strengthening the supporting information infrastruc-
the PICCAP activities are shown in Table 6).
ture; building the capacity to formulate adaptation policy
options to reduce vulnerability; supporting specific adap-
At the political level, islands are facing an even larger
tation measures or (demonstration projects); and encour-
challenge. At the outset, small island states recognized the
aging a regional approach to mainstreaming adaptation to
potential danger to their sustainability, if not survival, posed
climate change in island development planning. This re-
by global climate change. They recognized that the prob-
gional strategy will also be extended to public and private
lem would require international response, that much of their
sector development planning.
efforts would therefore have to be directed at persuading
the international community to take the necessary steps to
Other developments in the Caribbean and Pacific since
significantly reduce the level of CO and other GHG emis-
2
BPOA include the initiative to establish a permanent re-
sions to the atmosphere, and that, since all islands faced a
gional mechanism to address climate change in the form of
common plight in the case of global warming, their best
the Caribbean Community Climate Change Centre; the es-
strategy would be to adopt a coordinated approach to the
tablishment of the South Pacific Sea Level and Climate
negotiation of the proposed Climate Change Convention.
Monitoring Project (funded by AusAID which set up high
This was the purpose for the formation of the Alliance of
resolution monitoring stations in eleven island countries to
Small Island States (AOSIS), which has had the specific
measure the relative motions of land and sea at each sta-
aim of presenting a strong, united position in the pending
tion); strengthening regional capacity and institutional
negotiations. Over the last decade AOSIS has attempted to
frameworks for the management of natural disasters, and
raise the awareness of the international community to the
strengthening national capacity for the management of
particular vulnerability of small island states to sea level
coastal zones.
rise and to take effective measures to control, limit or re-
duce the emission of GHGs, and recommended that all
In their efforts to respond to the BPOA's requirements
coastal and island states take appropriate measures to pro-
for climate change and sea level rise, island countries face
tect the coastal environment against the adverse impacts of
economic and political barriers. Climate change impacts
climate change.
threaten economic costs that may exceed the capacities of
SIDS to meet, yet the costs of adaptation measures may
However, in spite of the success of AOSIS in having the
also be beyond the economic capacities of SIDS. Since the
vulnerability issue of SIDS recognized in climate change
relocation of physical structures and activities away from
treaty negotiations as is reflected in the UN FCCC (see Arts.
the coastal zone or into areas less vulnerable to climate and
4.8a; 4.1e and 4.4), these concessions fall significantly short
related changes is often not an option,8 islands will be re-
of meeting the central criterion for assuring the sustainability
quired to invest heavily in the construction of coastal de-
of islands in the face of global warming. Immediate and
fense infrastructure. The IPCC has estimated that, for de-
significant cuts in the emission by industrialized countries
veloping countries in general, such costs could amount to
of carbon dioxide and other GHGs are needed if island
less than 0.5% of their GDP. But for island countries --
sustainability is to be a realistic goal. The IPCC (1991 and
the Caribbean island countries in particular -- some $1.1b
1996) has cautioned that a 60% reduction in world CO2
will have to be spent on new construction to protect against
emissions is necessary in order to avoid adverse conse-
sea level rise (UN/ECOSOC, 1999).
quences of global climate change, a target that provided a
clear benchmark for the climate change negotiations. The
Caribbean SIDS could not undertake such investments
lack of political clout in the international arena has worked
without major economic disruption, which represents ap-
heavily against SIDS, who have not been able to withstand
proximately seven per cent of their collective GDP.9 Simi-
the strong tide of resistance mounted by wealthy continen-
lar amounts for coastal protection will be required for Pa-
tal nations, to an environmentally significant climate re-
cific Ocean SIDS. The GEF has provided $12m to 14 South
gime. A critical fact is that island countries themselves can
Pacific States to assist in their climate change assistance
make little impact in a global program of CO emissions
2
programme. The Pacific Islands Climate Change Assis-
reduction, since their per capita emissions of CO are small
2
tance Programme (PICCAP) has similar objectives to its
compared to other countries. The average 1996 per capita
8 Continental nations can consider the relocation of farm belts and other climate-sensitive economic activities, but small islands cannot entertain
such a strategy.
9 The collective GDP for 14 AOSIS member countries in 1995 at constant prices (using 1987 as base year), was $16.02b.
11

---

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12

---

emissions for 32 island states and territories that are mem-
bers of the AOSIS was 0.9 metric tons of CO equivalent
a
T
e
l
b
7. Po
r
e
w
o
i
t
a
r
e
n
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G
n by Fo
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s
F l
e
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f r S
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(ORNL, 1999). By contrast, most developed countries ex-
o
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i
ceed 6 tons of CO per capita, with the US in excess of 19
2
e
u
F
l
tons per capita (see Byrne et al, 1998).
Cook
d
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s
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s
0
1 0
3.2. Energy Resources
K b
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l
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1 0
access to energy or the provision of energy services of poor
N
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1 0
quality (Farinelli, 1999; UNDP, 2002 and WCED, 1987).
By definition, SIDS are lesser developed nations where rela-
N e
u
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0
1 0
tively modest levels of energy are consumed, both in abso-
lute and per capita terms (See, e.g., EIA 2004; United Na-
P
u
a
l
a
0
1 0
tions, 2003) and many are without adequate energy ser-
vices, especially in rural communities. Few SIDS have fossil
P p
a
a
u N w
e
a
e
n
i
u
G
40
fuel reserves or extensive fossil fuel development; Trinidad
and Tobago is exceptional as an energy-exporting SID.
S
o
m
a
a
49
Energy efficiency is also generally low in comparison to
So o
l
o
m n
d
n
a
l
s
I
s
0
1 0
industrialized nations and there is a high dependence on
imported fossil fuels. Imported fuel is often used to supply
o
T
a
g
n
0
1 0
electricity generation and basic energy services as lighting,
u
l
a
v
u
T
0
1 0
cooking, heating, water and sewage pumping for the do-
mestic sector, primary industry processing and manufac-
So
:
e
c
r
u
,
r
e
s
s
i
e
W
2004
turing, and service sector activity, including government
services and tourism (Island Solar Summit, 1999).
Environmentally, petroleum is an undesirable fuel source
for electricity generation as it creates emissions problems
This heavy dependence on fossil fuels brings with it high
when combusted, and there are risks in its handling and
economic, environmental, and social costs. Most of the
storage. Socially, fossil fuel energy systems on SIDS are a
imported fuel is used for transport and electricity genera-
relatively expensive source of energy, there is often com-
tion, both of which are essential for routine economic ac-
petition for electricity between commercial and household
tivity. A particular aspect of vulnerability is that many SIDS
customers, and energy agencies and corporations often have
are totally reliant on fossil fuels for power generation (see
great influence in political decisions.
Table 7). Economically, the costs of importing petroleum
are a significant proportion of many SIDS total import ac-
The BPOA recognized this energy problem and sought
counts and often contribute to negative terms of trade (es-
to redress the situation through the implementation of the
pecially given the steady increases in world oil prices since
Energy Resources program. In order to improve SIDS'
1999 and because many SIDS have no significant export
energy services, an emphasis on renewable energy systems,
industries (see, United Nations, 2003)). High fuel trans-
energy conservation, and energy efficiency was proposed.
port costs are passed onto consumers. Electricity prices,
A significant energy initiative in the Caribbean has been
for example, can be four to 20 times that of adjacent conti-
the Caribbean Renewable Energy Development Program
nental nations (Island Solar Summit, 1999). Small domes-
(CREDP) in 1998. CARICOM, in collaboration with the
tic markets in most SIDS mean that diseconomies of small
German Technical Cooperation GmbH, (Deutsche
scale are often evident in conventional energy systems.
Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit - GTZ) are
SIDS reliance on imported fuel sources creates economic
managing the project on behalf of the United Nations De-
dependency and vulnerability to external economic and
velopment Program (UNDP) and the GEF.10 The program's
political impacts. As the price volatility and increases of
main objective is to advance the implementation of renew-
the international spot market for oil in 2004 and 2005 have
able energy technologies in the Caribbean by removing
demonstrated, economic activity can be depressed by such
barriers that hinder their use. The main barriers identified
a circumstance.
in the Caribbean are related to policy, finance, human and
10 Those SIDS involved are Antigua and Barbuda, the Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, British Virgin Islands, Cuba, Dominica, Grenada, Guyana,
Jamaica, St Kitts and Nevis, St Lucia, St Vincent and the Grenadines, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, and Turks and Caicos
13

---

institutional capacities, awareness and information.11 It is
There is still capacity building to be undertaken by the
estimated that the share of renewable energy in the region
project particularly in the area of renewable energy policy
will reach at least five percent by 2015 as a result of the
and training, but it is expected that this and other activities
program (currently, it is at about two percent) (CREDP, n.d.).
will be achieved by the completion of the program in 2007.
Achievements of the program include:
There are several regional energy policy initiatives un-
derway in the Pacific, including the Committee of Regional
· Assessments of renewable energy resources of 16
Organisations of the Pacific's Energy Working Group's
Caribbean countries, fourteen of which are SIDS
Pacific Islands Energy Policy and Plan (CROP, 2002). This
plan contained the Rarotonga Declaration from the 2002
· Development of financial mechanisms for the fi-
regional meeting, which among other things, calls for greater
nancing of renewable energy projects in the Car-
use and access to renewable energy and energy efficiency,
ibbean, both on-grid and off-grid connected
and for affordable, reliable and environmentally sound en-
ergy for sustainable development. This effort links with
· Establishment of criteria and mechanisms for the
the Pacific Islands Energy Policy and Strategic Action Plan
selection of renewable energy projects
being implemented by the South Pacific Applied Geoscience
Commission and funded by the Danish government (Govt.
· Establishment of a pipeline of renewable energy
of the Cook Islands et al, n.d.). Participating nations estab-
projects in the region
lish their own priorities, and these have included develop-
ing national energy plans, developing renewable energy
· Letters of government support for renewable en-
plans, energy legislation reform, assistance in acquiring en-
ergy projects within individual countries, and
ergy project funding, preparatory work for renewable en-
ergy projects and rural and urban electrification. A GEF-
· Feasibility studies of the renewable projects
funded renewable energy program, the Pacific Island Re-
(Clarke, 2003).
newable Energy Project, is also being undertaken for four-
teen Pacific Islands12 (GEF, 2005). This project began in
Other key regional energy initiatives that have been un-
2003 and aims to remove barriers to the development and
dertaken over the past decade include:
commercialization of renewable energy.
· The establishment of the Caribbean Energy In-
formation System, which disseminates information
4. SIGNIFICANT TRENDS AND
across the Caribbean and some Latin American coun-
EMERGING OPPORTUNITIES FOR SIDS
tries
The critical question for island states at this juncture is what
· Development of sustainable energy/ renewable
can be done to advance the implementation of the BPOA
energy plans (e.g., St. Lucia, Dominica and
for energy and climate change issues? There are strategies
Grenada) under the Global Sustainable Energy
SIDS can employ to address energy needs in a climate-sen-
Islands Initiative, which is a consortium of inter-
sitive manner. Often, the economics and effectiveness of
national non-governmental organizations (Climate
these strategies depend upon the availability of regional
Institute, Counterpart International, Winrock In-
implementation mechanisms. These options (described
ternational, Energy and Security Group and In-
below) have merit in their own right for SIDS, but the need
ternational Network for Sustainable Energy) and
for significant emission reductions by industrialized coun-
multi-lateral institutions (Organization of Ameri-
tries cannot be ignored. Without large reductions, the SIDS
can States), and
community cannot realize long-term sustainability goals.
· Pre-feasibility study for a possible new project on
The Kyoto Protocol is applauded (e.g., Kerr, 1997) and
energy efficiency in the Caribbean on behalf of
criticized (e.g., Byrne and Yun, 1999, Byrne and Glover,
GTZ (an earlier project initiated by the Latin
2000, and Byrne et al, 2001) for its creation of so-called
American Energy Organization and supported by
"flexibility mechanisms" for meeting CO reduction targets
2
UNDP and GEF seems to have stalled).
-- emissions trading, joint implementation and the clean
11 Further information available from Projekt-Consult GMBH (2000). Caribbean Renewable Energy Development Project. Final Report ­ Volume
II: Country Reports. March 23, 2000.
12 Cook Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Fiji, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Nauru, Niue, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Island,
Tonga, Tuvalu and Vanuatu.
14

---

development mechanism (CDM). These policies are be-
precisely because their emissions are small, will be unat-
lieved by their advocates to provide least-cost means for
tractive candidates for trading (Byrne and Inniss, 2002).
meeting the goals set out in the Protocol and are expected
With regard to the latter, a synthesis report on Activities
to convince the largest emitters to agree to reduce their
Implemented Jointly (AIJ) already has signaled the exist-
emissions. Critics argue that the mechanisms will enable
ence of a project distribution problem. The report reveals
countries to avoid making serious efforts to lower their GHG
that of 122 projects funded by 11 investor Parties in 33 host
releases by paying other countries to do so instead (e.g.,
countries (including 22 non-Annex I Parties), two-thirds of
Byrne et al, 1998, 2001 and 2004). The first registered
the projects are conducted between wealthy OECD coun-
trade under the CDM has already been approved and it is
tries and Economies in Transition (EITs); 54 projects took
anticipated that the frequency of trades will increase with
place in just three EITs, five in Africa and only four AOSIS
the Treaty coming into force in early 2005.
countries are involved in AIJ activities (Foundation for In-
ternational Environmental Law and Development, 1999).
The position of SIDS within this emerging global car-
Thus, in taking the decision to continue the AIJ pilot phase,
bon-trading regime is particularly important. First, the re-
the Fifth FCCC Conference of the Parties requested that
gime is based on the principle of economic efficiency, which
"... such continuation should address the issue of geographic
encourages global actions that are focused on countries or
imbalance, in particular the lack of projects in Africa and
sectors with the greatest potential to reduce emissions at
small island states" (Decision 13/CP.5, United Nations,
least cost. This global least-cost strategy, determined by
2000).
the use of cost-benefit analysis of policy options among
countries, will direct actions on emission trades that are
An additional concern are carbon `sinks' and their use to
cheap to buyers (principally the wealthy OECD countries)
offset GHG emissions.13 From the island countries' per-
and easily managed in national portfolios. Participation in
spective, innovative mitigation projects to reduce emissions,
the Kyoto flexibility mechanisms depends largely on the
such as renewable energy technologies and energy effi-
comparative advantage of states to trade emissions or, in
ciency, are ultimately preferable to sequestration. By defi-
the case of joint implementation and the CDM, to attract
nition, small islands have little ability to expand sink ca-
foreign investments for environmentally benign projects.
pacity and technological and economic commitments in this
This almost certainly will favor trades with large, conti-
direction can delay much needed investment in renewable
nental nations who have infrastructure and bioresources that
energy and energy efficiency technologies, both of which
are well suited to embrace the technological and economic
offer far greater benefits to SIDS and to the global effort to
strategies of the OECD (as is the case with the first regis-
reach a climate-stable future.14
tered CDM project, Brazil's landfill gas to energy facility).
By contrast, small island states offer very small-scale emis-
What are the strategies that SIDS can employ to ensure
sions reduction projects, often with special technical and
that they are not either bypassed in global climate change
economic needs. The transaction costs of implementing
negotiations or they attain sustainability in their energy re-
and monitoring these projects may eclipse the benefits of
gimes?
their GHG reduction credits. It is highly probable that the
issue of small size will disadvantage island states under the
4.1 Opportunity for Island Impact Assessments
Kyoto mechanisms (Byrne and Inniss, 2002).
Clearly, the first priority for SIDS is to prevent or reduce
Island countries will have to jostle with the rest of the
the current and potential harmful impacts of climate change
world if they expect not merely to participate, but to nego-
and sea level rise. In this vein, a new strategy for AOSIS to
tiate terms of participation that are to their advantage. Be-
consider that is consistent with these overarching goals,
yond the Global Environmental Facility, the Kyoto mecha-
might be to advocate an international policy of penalty as-
nisms may constitute the best pathway to accessing much-
sessments on OECD countries until they reach an agreed
needed funds for adaptation to climate change. This is dou-
upon sustainability condition (such as the 3.3 tons of CO2
bly ironic. First, SIDS will be forced to hustle for the op-
equivalent found in Byrne et al (1998)). Islands states are
portunity to reduce their emissions cheaply, even though
the proverbial canaries in the mine when it comes to cli-
their releases did not cause the problem. Second, SIDS,
13 Carbon sinks' refer to that portion of the carbon cycle where carbon is sequestered in soils, vegetation, the deep ocean and similar sites. Such
terrestrial carbon stores are counted in the national inventories of GHGs conducted by national parties to the UN FCCC, where they have the effect
of `offsetting' GHG emissions. Sequestration typically provides a temporary `store' in the carbon cycle and does not offer the permanent effect on
atmospheric concentrations as do reductions in GHG emissions.
14 Yet, sequestration projects have attracted significant interest among industrialized countries and potentially represent a major diversion from
reduction strategies that can actually lower climate risks for SIDS and other communities (Byrne et al, 2004).
15

---

mate change and greater emphasis has to be placed on en-
in urging global actions that would empower island
suring their survival, given the forecast impacts of climate
sustainability (Byrne and Inniss, 2002).
change. As with projects with potential significant envi-
ronmental impacts requiring impact assessments and iden-
4.3 Opportunity for a Regional CDM Project
tification of measures to mitigate these effects, as devel-
Approach
oped under environmental impact statements, the activities
of developed countries with direct environmental implica-
Small size is prejudicial to island states when competing
tions for SIDS could be assessed using a `climate change
on the global market for emissions reduction projects. Ac-
impact statement' scheme. Byrne and Inniss (2002) have
cordingly, it might be in the best interest of SIDS to seek
proposed a climate change impact assessment requirement
CDM projects as a single trading block in which invest-
in implementing the Kyoto Protocol as a means of protect-
ments are negotiated at a regional scale, rather than as indi-
ing island survivability. In the context of this assessment
vidual projects within single nations, as currently occurs.
process, a substantial increase in international commitments
Such a regional approach, possibly using the Caribbean or
would be expected to fund adaptation planning for the most
the Pacific as regional groupings, can negotiate for a CDM
vulnerable in the world community over the coming de-
project encompassing many or all of various small projects
cades, namely, the coastal and small island developing states.
within the island states. Individual states could decide on
their preferred project types, with the regional system op-
4.2 AOSIS Support for a Global
erating according to rules or criteria set under a regional
Dematerialization Strategy
planning regime. This would ensure that preferable op-
tions for GHG emission reductions, such as renewable en-
A second strategy for island countries is to join with others
ergy development or energy efficiency improvements,
in supporting a global strategy to accelerate recent `dema-
would be the first offering under a CDM scheme. An addi-
terialization' trends in technology development. Such a
tional benefit of this approach could be offsetting the high
strategy would encourage a worldwide transition to new
transaction costs associated with separate small projects.
technology platforms that rely on zero/low-polluting and
Were negotiating parties to agree to the conditions set un-
zero/low resource-consuming production and processing.
der a regional format, applicable to all islands within the
Recent advances in computing and communications hold
region, industrialized countries would avoid having to ne-
out promise for a different economy-environment-society
gotiate the conditions for every project within a country.
relationship that uses intelligence, rather than cheap re-
sources, to meet human needs. Island development poli-
4.4 Opportunity for a Regional Renewable
cies should focus on ways to obtain a share of the new mar-
Portfolio Standard Approach
kets and technologies built on `greener' energy systems and
low-materials production and consumption. But the prom-
A regional approach can also be applied to the promotion
ise of such a future will depend greatly on new policy com-
of renewable energy within island states. A key policy in-
mitments that embody core commitments to equity and
strument that has been used to promote renewables around
sustainability (Byrne et al, 1998). Without commitments
the world is the renewable portfolio standard (RPS) for elec-
to these principles, the new economy will look all too fa-
tric utilities. An RPS requires a percentage of generating
miliar.
capacity by a utility to be generated from renewable energy
sources by a certain date. (e.g., 10% of a utility's electric
Energy has a particular role to play in dematerialization
capacity must be from renewable energy by the year 2012).
of industrial economies. There is a global shift of world
RPS policies stimulate minimum investments into RE tech-
and national economies from energy- and materials-inten-
nologies that eventually yield viable markets for this op-
sive development to one where renewable energy and en-
tion.
ergy efficiency are ascendant in the energy sector and where
dematerialization trends in production diminish the demand
Often, an RPS approach can be the most direct and ef-
for natural resources generally. The transition to a global
fective way to bring renewables into widespread use, par-
economic base which favors low-polluting and low-energy
ticularly as broad adoption of renewables will lower tech-
intensive production and consumption, offers all countries
nology prices. It is also relatively easy to administer, since
perhaps their greatest hope for a sustainable future (Byrne
it only requires setting the level of renewables with modest
and Glover, 2002). SIDS can utilize their institutional voice
subsequent oversight and enforcement. An RPS relies on
as AOSIS to press for global agreement on such a strategy.
market forces to bring down the costs of renewable tech-
Indeed, a new Plan of Action that sought island consensus
nologies.
on this goal would be consistent with AOSIS's historic role
16

---

A regional RPS can be developed so that a generation
· Further development of policy settings and inno-
target is set for the region and electric utilities or states can
vative finance plans to promote renewable energy,
then decide the best technology mix given the particular
and
climate and environmental conditions in their individual
territories. Thus, one island state can favor a particular type
· Establishment of regional strategies, policies and
of renewable energy technology (such as wind, solar, bio-
plans and increased capacity-building in energy
mass, micro-hydro or geothermal) and it will be preferable
and climate change.
for that island to pursue a course of action which makes
optimal use of its best resources, while another island state
The BPOA+10 provides an opportunity to build on these
has the flexibility to contribute its share of the regional RPS
developments in order to respond strategically to the prob-
via resources and technologies that are most competitive
lems of climate change and energy demand/supply. This
within its borders.
paper has identified specific opportunities for building on
the BPOA and finding innovative ways to ensure that the
An additional benefit of the regional approach includes
goals of the BPOA can be realized. Four policy options are
potential capital cost reduction in renewable energy projects,
specifically recommended:
as bulk purchases of equipment can be made from suppli-
ers. Project development costs can also be reduced, such
1. Advocate for the use of climate change impact
as lower insurance premiums for certain renewable energy
statements when examining the impacts of activi-
projects (e.g., wind farms) can be negotiated from a scale
ties of developed nations on SIDS.
that warrants more favorable pricing. A regional approach
also reinforces the benefits of a regional CDM strategy, as
2. Adopt, through AOSIS, a proposal to prioritize
it can provide a lower cost, market-based implementation
dematerialization and renewable energy-based de-
vehicle for realizing CDM obligations.
velopment strategies.
There is already a basis for a regional RPS as the Carib-
3. Promote a regional CDM project approach that
bean Electric Utility Service Corporation, an association of
can improve the competitive position of SIDS
Caribbean utilities, has set up a task force to consider es-
within the global marketplace for emissions cred-
tablishing a regional RPS for Caribbean utilities. A similar
its and thereby maximize the benefits to the is-
program can be established for other SIDS regions.
lands community.
4. Extend the regional strategy to develop a RPS
5. CONCLUSIONS
for SIDS that would include using the RPS as a
CDM project.
The BPOA has played a valuable role in providing a policy
and planning foundation to enable SIDS to respond to the
Presently, SIDS are bellwethers of the adverse impacts
challenges of energy and climate change. Since the imple-
of climate change on society and ecology. A more respon-
mentation of the BPOA, there have been important devel-
sible global programme for action is needed that dimin-
opments:
ishes the present, serious threats to islands. Although in
the Mauritius Strategy (United Nations, 2005), the interna-
· Greater realization of the threats posed by climate
tional community affirms its commitment to the UN FCCC
change to SIDS
and seeks implementation of the Kyoto Protocol, stabiliza-
tion of GHGs in the atmosphere will not be achieved suffi-
· The coming into force of the Kyoto Protocol of
ciently quickly under the Kyoto Protocol so as to reduce
the UN FCCC
the extent of economic, social and environmental losses to
SIDS that is likely to occur. Minimizing future climate
· Improvements in renewable energy technologies
change impacts on SIDS requires deeper cuts in GHG emis-
(especially reduced costs)
sions by OECD countries and more rapid development of
renewable energy options. The islands community, with
· Successful demonstration and application of re-
appropriate support from developed nations and interna-
newable energy technologies in SIDS (including
tional agencies, can set an example for international action
the establishment of wind farms)
by embracing energy policy strategies consistent with a
sustainable, climate-sensitive future.
17

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