4TH GLOBAL CONFERENCE ON
OCEANS, COASTS, AND ISLANDS
Working Group on
Fisheries and Aquaculture:
Sustainability and Governance
POLICY BRIEF ON FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE
Global Oceans Conference
GOC 2008
Vietnam
R O Korea
Indonesia
Organized by the
Global Forum on Oceans,
Coasts, and Islands and
Hosted by the Government of
CANADA
Vietnam, Ministry of
Flemish Government,
Belgium
Agriculture and Rural
Development
with principal funding
from the Global
Environment Facility
Pre-conference version, March 30, 2008
Global Forum on Oceans, Coasts, and Islands--Strategic Oceans Planning to 2016
The Global forum on Oceans, Coasts, and Islands has undertaken a strategic planning effort for the period 2006-2016
to develop policy recommendations for specific next steps needed to advance the global oceans agenda aimed at
governments, UN agencies, NGOs, industry, and scientific groups. To this effect, Working Groups have been
organized around 12 major topic areas related to the global oceans commitments made at the 2002 World Summit on
Sustainable Development and to emerging issues facing the global oceans community.
The Working Groups have been organized and coordinated by the Global Forum Secretariat, under the direction of
Dr. Biliana Cicin-Sain, Co-Chair and Head of Secretariat, Global Forum on Oceans, Coasts, and Islands, and
involving the following staff from the Gerard J. Mangone Center for Marine Policy, University of Delaware: Miriam
Balgos, Kateryna Wowk, Caitlin Snyder, Shelby Hockenberry, and Kathleen McCole.
Working Group on Fisheries and Aquaculture Sustainability and Governance
WORKING GROUP LEADERS:
Matthew Gianni, Deep Sea Conservation
Coalition, The Netherlands
Rebecca Lent, National Marine Fisheries
Service, NOAA
Stephen Hall, WorldFish Center (ICLARM)
Chris Tompkins, Independent Consultant, formerly
Dawn Martin, SeaWeb
DEFRA, UK
Rebecca Metzner, FAO
Ali Mohamed, New Partnership for Africa's
Development (NEPAD)
Magnus Ngoile, Marine and Coastal
Environment Management Project (MACEMP),
Le Thanh Luu, Research Institute for Aquaculture
Tanzania
No. 1, Vietnam
Pietro Parravano, Institute for Fisheries
David Balton, U.S. Department of State
Resources, World Fisheries Forum
Jean-Francois Pulvenis de Seligny, FAO
Daniel Pauly, Fisheries Centre, University of
British Columbia
Kieran Kelleher, World Bank
James R. McGoodwin, Professor of
Mick O'Toole, Benguela Current Large Marine
Anthropology, University of Colorado
Ecosystem Programme
Gorazd Ruseski, Kelly Moore, Steven Purvis and
John Connelly and Stetson Tinkham, National
Anne Frenette, Department of Fisheries and
Fisheries Institute, International Coalition of
Oceans, Canada
Fishing Organizations
Jorge Chocair Santibañez, Undersecretary of
Barbara Hanchard, GEF UNDP Oceanic
State for Fisheries, Chile
Fisheries Management Project
Kenneth Sherman, LME Program
WORKING GROUP MEMBERS:
Robin Mahon, University of West Indies
Arthur Bogason, World Forum of Fish Harvesters
and Fish Workers, Iceland
Sebastian Matthews, International Collective in
Support of Fishworkers
Nguyen Chu Hoi, Institute of Fisheries Economics
and Planning, MARD, Vietnam
Rudolf Dorah, Constitutional Reform
Congress, Solomon Islands
Anthony Cox, Organisation for Economic
Cooperation and Development (OECD)
Joe Terry, NOAA
Simon Cripps, Global Marine Programme, World
Yihang Jiang, GEF Yellow Sea LME Project
Wide Fund For Nature (WWF) International
Juan Luis Suárez de Vivero, Department of
Anamarija Frankic, University of Massachusetts
Human Geography, University of Seville
Boston
Paul Holthus, Independent Consultant
Julius Francis, Western Indian Ocean Marine
Science Association (WIOMSA)
Global Forum on Oceans, Coasts, and Islands
Working Group on Fisheries and Aquaculture Sustainability and Governance
Policy Brief:
Fisheries and Aquaculture Sustainability and Governance
Lead Authors
Rebecca Lent, Elizabethann English, Ryan Wulff
Jean-François Pulvenis de Séligny, Robin Mahon, Anthony Cox, David
Balton, Chris Tompkins, Stetson Tinkham, Rebecca Metzner, Joe Terry,
James R. McGoodwin, Grace Mellano, Angela Bexten, and Kelly Moore
Draft March 30, 2008
Table of Contents
Foreword by Biliana Cicin-Sain, Global Forum
iii
Policy Brief
1. Climate Change and Fisheries
1
2. IUU Fishing
19
3. Regional Fisheries Management Organization
25
(RFMO) Reform
4. Overcapacity
31
5. Aquaculture
49
6. Tuna: A Global Sustainability and Governance
61
Challenge
References
ii
Foreword
Working Group on Fisheries and Aquaculture
Sustainability and Governance
About three quarters of the world's marine fisheries cannot withstand increased pressure. In 2005, 76%
of marine fish stocks were classified by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
(FAO) as fully exploited, overexploited, or depleted, meaning the stocks are being fished at or beyond
their maximum biological productivity. Only 23% were under or moderately exploited and 1% were
recovering. According to the FAO, there has been a steady increase in the proportion of marine fish
stocks that are classified as overexploited or depleted. Sustainability in fisheries and aquaculture is
essential as the world's population continues to grow and fish consumption increases. Employment in
fisheries is growing faster than other agriculture sectors and many communities in developing countries
rely on fishing for their livelihood.
An important shift from species-by-species management of fisheries towards ecosystem-based
management is occurring at various levels. In particular, regional fisheries management organizations
and Large Marine Ecosystem Projects are trying to operationalize ecosystem-based management,
strengthen cooperation, and improve compliance and enforcement mechanisms, so that highly
migratory, straddling, and shared stocks are adequately managed. Much further action, however, is
needed to address such issues as: 1) overcapacity of the world's fishing fleet; 2) illegal, unreported, and
unregulated (IUU) fishing, including by vessels flying "flags of convenience;" 3) subsidies which
contribute to overcapacity and IUU fishing; 4) the use of fishing techniques and technologies that have
adverse effects on the physical habitats and on non-targeted species; 5) allocation of fishing rights; 6)
sustainable development of aquaculture; and 7) international fish trade and the impacts of market based
standards.
With regard to Fisheries and Aquaculture, the 2002 WSSD established the goals of:
·
Implement the FAO International Plan of Action to Prevent, Deter and Eliminate Illegal,
Unreported, and Unregulated Fishing (IUU) by 2004
·
Implement the FAO International Plan of Action for the Management of Fishing Capacity by 2005
·
Eliminate subsidies that contribute to illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishing and to
overcapacity
·
Maintain or restore depleted fish stocks to levels that can produce their maximum sustainable yield
on an urgent basis and where possible no later than 2015
·
Assist developing countries in coordinating policies and programmes at the regional and sub-
regional levels aimed at conservation and sustainable management of fishery resources and
implement integrated coastal area management plans, including through the development of
infrastructure.
·
Develop and facilitate the use of diverse approaches and tools, including the ecosystem approach,
the elimination of destructive fishing practices, and the establishment of marine protected areas
consistent with international law and based on scientific information, including representative
networks by 2012.
In the Global Forum's 2006 report on How Well Are We Doing in Implementing Global Commitments
on Oceans, Coasts, and Islands, we reported that in the period 2002-2006, only very modest tangible
progress had been made in the fisheries area. For example, with regards to IUU fishing, only about 10%
of nations had prepared or are preparing national action plans to address IUU fishing. Nevertheless, the
2006 report concluded that regarding the long-term goal of maintaining or restoring depleted fish stocks
and the broad goal of achieving ecosystem management of fisheries, a growing acceptance of the
ecosystem approach to fisheries appears to be taking place among national governments and
international organizations. Indeed, a paradigm shift may be taking place--fisheries matters have
traditionally been considered in a highly sectoral and separate manner, but now key fishery practitioners
are moving toward a broader ecosystem concept which also takes into account other uses and resources
of ocean and coastal areas. There are encouraging signs that the groundwork is being laid for attaining
the enabling conditions which will lead to sustainable fisheries development in 2015.
iii
This Policy Brief incorporates a number of papers which have been prepared by the Working Group on
Fisheries and Aquaculture: Sustainability and Governance, under the very effective leadership of Dr.
Rebecca Lent, Director of International Fisheries, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
and her team. The following major issues are addressed:
The Effects of Climate on Fisheries. This brief, prepared by Professor James R. McGoodwin, calls
attention to the effects of global warming on fisheries which will prompt unprecedented, extraordinary
and lasting change in various fisheries to which fishing people will have great difficulty in adapting (or
may not even be able to do so). Fish species that have never been seen before may suddenly become
more abundant while other species fishers have long relied on may disappear, deeply affecting coastal
communities, shore-side fisheries facilities, and supporting infrastructure.
Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated (IUU) Fishing. This brief calls attention to specific next steps
which should taken by the international community to strengthen global monitoring control and
surveillance efforts to prevent, deter, and eliminate illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing.
Regional Fisheries Management Organization (RFMO) Reform. This brief considers measures to
improve the performance of the key fishery management organizations around the world to become the
stewards of sustainable fishing as well as to evolve toward broader understanding of the whole
ecosystem of which fisheries form part.
Addressing Overcapacity in Fisheries--This brief details specific measures that can be taken to address
the major problem of overcapacity in fisheries--too many boats going after too few fish.
Aquaculture: Fish for Food--A Shift in Reliance from Wild Stocks and Capture Fisheries to
Aquaculture? This brief addresses the global expansion of aquaculture asking the question of how to do
aquaculture right? Unless there is proper planning and adequate legal and regulatory structures are in
place to avert potential environmental harm, there could be unregulated, uncontrolled aquaculture
development in many parts of the world which could in turn lead to the industry's self-destruction.
Tuna: A Global Sustainability and Governance Challenge
Through the lens of this highly valuable fishery, this brief examines the challenges facing the
management of tuna fisheries including fleet overcapacity, institutional overfishing, IUU fishing,
maintaining and restoring depleted stocks, and reducing bycatch of non-target tuna species and other
species (such as sharks, seabirds, turtles, and mammals). Mechanisms to address these challenges
include implementation of flag State, port State and market State responsibilities, as well as better data
collection and information sharing regarding catches and vessels.
Major Discussion Goals on Fisheries and Aquaculture at the Global Conference
1. What will be the range of climate effects of fisheries and what policies can be put in place to help
fishers adapt to these changes and to address such changes?
2. What specific next steps need to be taken by the international community to accelerate progress in
controlling illegal, unregulated and unreported fishing?
3. What specific next steps need to be taken by the international community to accelerate progress in
addressing the problem of fishing overcapacity--too many boats going after too few fish?
4. What specific next steps need to be taken by the international community to accelerate progress in
enhancing the performance of the Regional Fishery Management Organizations to achieve sustainable
fisheries management as well as to move toward ecosystem-based management of ocean areas?
5. How to do aquaculture right? Is additional and more detailed global guidance as well as global
targets (akin to the WSSD targets on fisheries) needed to properly steer this important food-generating
activity?
iv
The Global Forum Secretariat expresses its gratitude to the Leaders and Members of the Working Group
on Fisheries and Aquaculture for their expert perspectives and hard work in delineating key issues in
fisheries and aquaculture for the consideration of Global Conference Participants, with special
recognition of the pivotal roles played by Rebecca Lent, Elizabethann English, Ryan Wulff and Joe
Terry, U.S. NOAA, David Balton, U.S. Department of State, Jean-Francois Pulvenis and Rebecca
Metzner, FAO, Chris Tompkins, DEFRA UK, Stetson Tinkham, International Coalition of Fishing
Organizations, Lori Ridgeway, Steve Purvis, Grace Mellano, Angela Bexten, and Kelly Moore.
Department of Fisheries and Oceans, Canada, James McGoodwin, University of Colorado, Robin
Mahon, University of the West Indies, Barbados, and Anthony Cox, OECD.
The Working Group and the Global Forum Secretariat wishes to express its sadness at the untimely
passing away of Ralph Rayburn, a key leader in fisheries management in the United States, a wonderful
friend and colleague, and a strong supporter of the work of the Global Forum.
______________________________________________________________________
Possible future directions:
The Global Forum kindly invites Global Conference participants to consider mobilizing, in the next
phase, a Group to focus on Enhancing Ocean Use Agreements in the Exclusive Economic Zones of
Developing Countries (agreements for fisheries, oil and gas development, etc.) to improve their design
and implementation in order to enhance local benefits, social equity, resource conservation, and public
transparency. The need to mobilize on this issue was emphasized by high-level leaders at the 2006
global oceans conference.
Biliana Cicin-Sain
Co-Chair
and
Head
of
Secretariat,
Global
Forum
on
Oceans,
Coasts,
and
Islands
v
Policy Brief:
Climate Change and Fisheries
1. Introduction
humanity will not be able to do much
to stem the tide of global warming, at
The Intergovernmental Panel on
least not over the coming century or
Climate Change reports in 2001, as
so.
well as those recently released in 2007,
conclude that the global climate system
Today's global population is also
is warming (IPCC 2001 a., b., and c.,
confronted with a paradox that will be
and IPCC 2007 a., b., and c.). Since
very difficult to resolve. On the one
the mid 20th century most of this
hand there is now widespread
increase has been due to anthropogenic
acceptance of the reality and
causes--specifically, humanity's use of
inevitability of the foregoing
fossil fuels which releases carbon-
phenomena; but on the other hand the
dioxide and other "greenhouse gases"
global human population continues to
into the atmosphere. A global increase
grow, and likewise clamor for the very
in temperature, as well as sea level rise
fossil fuels that are so implicated in
prompted by melting ice in high
this problem in order to sustain and
latitudes, is anticipated. And even if
develop its social and economic
greenhouse gas concentrations are
systems.
stabilized, the warming trend will
continue for centuries to come, with
Various futuristic scenarios have been
the extent of its future increase
put forward. Some describe gradual,
depending mainly on the relative
incremental changes that humanity will
intensity of human fossil fuel use in the
have a high likelihood of adapting to.
future.
Others foresee catastrophic and even
"doomsday" changes that would be
The IPCC reports project world
disastrous for much of the world's
temperature will rise by 1.1 to 6.4 °C
future human population.
(2.0 to 11.5 °F) during the 21st
century, while sea levels will rise by
Yet while future global warming is
18 to 59 cm (7.08 to 23.22 in). There
now conceded to be a virtual certainty,
will be more frequent heat waves and
its specific impacts and how these can
heavy rainfalls, continuing
be accommodated pose questions that
disappearance of glaciers, and an
are currently marked with high degrees
overall increase in droughts, extreme
of uncertainty. Hence, while most
high tides, tropical cyclones, and
scientists agree that a long-term global
significant changes in the earth's living
warming trend is already underway,
ecosystems.
there is little agreement among them
regarding its specific impacts and
The IPCC reports further suggest there
consequences for humanity.
is a good likelihood that past, present,
and future anthropogenic greenhouse
Perhaps the only future that can be
emissions will contribute to climate
projected for sure is that there will be
warming and sea level rise for more
unprecedented environmental changes,
than a millennium to come. In other
and equally unprecedented levels of
words, the IPCC reports suggest that
uncertainty regarding them.
1
1.1 Global Warming's Impact on the
present there is not enough information
World's Fisheries
to forecast these changes with very
much certainty.
With regard for global warming's
impact on the world's fisheries, a
Even slight changes in ocean
variety of future climate change
temperatures may prompt significant
scenarios have been proposed, ranging
shifts in the distribution of various fish
from the mildly beneficial to the truly
species--for example, from one
catastrophic.
nation's EEZ to that of a nearby
nation, while changes in stock
At the most benign end of the spectrum
distributions within a nation's EEZ
a few scientists have suggested that a
may be disruptive to various
general global warming of ocean
components of the fish chain,
waters will increase global ocean
including producers, processors,
productivity. However, even these still
marketers, ancillary fisheries
concede that this will be accompanied
enterprises, and ultimate consumers.
by significant changes in species
Such disruptions may therefore be
distributions and ecosystem
especially disruptive in developing
biodiversities. Some have also
countries, whose coastal inhabitants
suggested that the general warming
often have few other economic
trend will especially increase the
opportunities available to them.
productivity of certain species in high-
latitude regions.
Water temperature is a fundamental
variable underlying the ability of
1.2 Mainstream projections
marine ecosystems to support various
organisms, and temperature is likewise
Most mainstream scenarios, however,
fundamental to determining a species'
describe more disruptive changes in
geographic range. And because most
marine-species distribution and
fish species have a fairly narrow range
ecosystem biodiversity. Some also add
of temperatures they can tolerate and
that there will be outright extinctions at
thrive within, the area they occupy
the margins of various species' current
may expand, contract, or be relocated
distributional ranges. And in any event
with changes in ocean temperature.
most also think that the impact of
ocean warming on various marine
Although global warming will prompt
species will be most pronounced at the
a general increase in ocean water
northern and southern margins of their
temperature worldwide, many regions
customary ranges. Moreover, because
may actually become cooler. Thus,
these margins or transitional regions
new climatic and ocean-current
are usually characterized by greater
patterns will prompt the development
degrees of biodiversity, changes in
of temperature regimes in many
them will impact biodiversity to a
regions that are currently difficult to
greater degree than will be seen in
foresee. And whether these changes
ocean regions that are well away from
will be sufficiently gradual to allow
them.
species and ecosystems to adapt to
them also remains to be seen.
Clearly global warming will prompt
widespread, and in some regions even
While changes in water temperature
radical changes in biodiversity, stock
certainly have profound effects on fish
sizes and distribution, and other
populations, the production of fish
changes in natural ecosystems. But at
biomass is also importantly influenced
2
by complex interactions among other
The global warming trend, however,
physical, biological, and chemical
will prompt unprecedented,
processes. Thus, global climate
extraordinary, and lasting change in
change may prompt fisheries in some
various fisheries, which may be much
regions to display unanticipated,
more difficult, and in some cases
anomalous, and even counter-intuitive
impossible, for fishing people to adapt
effects.
to. Fish species they have heretofore
never seen may suddenly become
Regarding regional changes in the
abundant, while other species they
abundance of various fish species,
have long relied upon may disappear.
there will definitely be "winners" and
In some regions climatic and ocean-
"losers," but not necessarily in a zero-
ecosystem changes may be the sole
sum sense. This is because the pace of
reason, but these changes may also be
change will also be an important
hastened, or prevented, by the
determinant of how various marine
combined effects of ocean-ecosystem
species fare as a result of warming.
change and fishing effort.
Warming may therefore prompt rapid
collapses of species and marine
In sum, as global warming proceeds
ecosystems that are unable to adapt as
the management regimes that fishing
fast as the environmental changes that
people work within will likely present
are taking place.
them with higher degrees of
uncertainty than they have been
1.3 Impacts on Fishing People
confronted with before. This will
heighten tensions between fishing
Even the more conservative
people and fisheries managers, and
projections of future sea level rise and
likewise heighten fishing peoples'
increased frequency and intensity of
uncertainties regarding their future
storms will place great strains on many
investments in the fisheries.
coastal people. Rising sea levels
accompanied by persistent coastal
1.4 Climate change and fisheries
flooding in some regions, and
effects
permanent inundations in others, may
prompt not only radical marine-
Climate change and fishing effort will
ecological change, but will also require
together prompt new and sometimes
costly re-location of shore-side
unprecedented ocean-ecosystem
facilities, housing, and supporting
changes, but in ways that are currently
infrastructure.
difficult to forecast. Indeed, these two
components influence ocean
Most of the world's fishing people
ecosystems in rather different ways.
understand that climatic and
Climatic and environmental changes
environmental variation prompts
are generally more pervasive, whereas
variations in ocean-ecological
fishing activity is generally more
conditions, which in turn prompts
selective, for example, by more often
variations in fish-stock sizes and
targeting larger individual fish or
availability. Most also understand that
larger fish species.
excess fishing can lead to stock
depletions or collapses. Thus, many
Furthermore, fisheries scientists may
fishing people have developed means
be increasingly less able to provide
for adapting to the ordinary variations
credible assessment advice for
that are seen in fisheries without
preventing major fishery collapses as
experiencing serious problems.
the climate moves farther from its
3
historic baseline. Heretofore,
warming has been extreme--as much as
estimates of the abundance of fish
3.9 to 5.6 C (roughly 7 to 10 degrees
species have been derived mainly from
F). Projecting this trend two to three
records of fish landings. But landings
decades into the future, such warming
are usually as much influenced by
may prompt rapid disruption,
economic factors, fishing methods, and
alteration, or even collapse of various
fishing effort, as they are by climatic
marine-ecological systems as they are
and ecosystem conditions. Therefore,
unable to adapt as fast as the rate of
fisheries managers who are poorly
change that is taking place.
informed about changing ocean-
ecological conditions, and who
1.6 Some Catastrophic Projections
continue to rely on outdated data on
landings, may unwittingly accelerate
Some especially catastrophic
stock collapses and the disappearance
projections have also been proposed.
of fish species where they have long
These include extreme changes in
been plentiful.
climate regimes and ocean currents,
extraordinary sea-level rise, and
1.5 High Latitude Regions Will be
acidification of the ocean.
Especially Vulnerable
Regarding the first of these
A multitude of scientific reports have
catastrophic possibilities, some
also suggested that the impacts of
scientists have proposed that the Gulf
global warming will be especially
Stream may be significantly slowed, or
severe in high-latitude regions--the
even shut down, by an influx of cold
recent report of the Arctic Council and
fresh water from melting ice caps.
the International Arctic Science
Were this to happen a new ice age
Committee (ACIA 2004), for example.
might ensue in Europe in less than 10
As the planet warms melting sea ice
years.
will infuse greater quantities of fresh
water into ocean ecosystems. But
Regarding the second catastrophic
more problematic, because sea ice
possibility, extraordinary sea-level rise,
reflects much of the sun's heat back
it has been suggested that widespread
into space, as it melts away ocean
melting of ice in Arctic and Antarctic
waters will be able to absorb more of
regions could prompt a 6 meter rise in
the sun's heat. This feedback loop will
sea level during the coming century,
accelerate the warming phenomenon
displacing roughly 50-70% of the
and correspondingly accelerate the rate
world's human population which now
of sea-level rise. Clearly then, the pace
lives in coastal zones. And even more
and intensity of ocean ecosystem
modest rises in sea level would still be
change in high-latitude regions will be
catastrophic for people living in many
especially pronounced.
developing countries. For instance, the
World Bank estimates that a one meter
The recent ACIA report, for example,
rise in sea level would turn at least 56
concluded that the Arctic climate is
million people in the developing world
changing almost twice as fast as the
into environmental refugees.
rate of climatic change at lower
latitudes. And according to the 2001
Regarding the third possibility,
IPCC reports, the greatest temperature
acidification of the ocean, depending
increases over the last 35 years
on its degree this could also be
occurred in Arctic and sub-Arctic
catastrophic for many ocean
regions. In parts of these regions the
ecosystems. Acidification of ocean
4
water is caused by increased CO2 in the
management organizations, should
atmosphere, which produces increased
respond to the challenges posed by
carbonic acid in ocean waters. Thus,
global warming.
while temperature changes will vary
considerably in different regions of the
1.8 Case Studies
ocean, increased acidification and CO2
in ocean water will likely be spread
In recent years a number of case
more evenly and pervasively
studies have emerged suggesting
throughout the oceans worldwide.
linkages between fishing effort,
environmental changes, and fishery
Especially at risk from acidification
collapses. Among these are studies
will be corals and mollusks, the so-
documenting the collapse of the long-
called "marine calcifiers," whose
abundant herring stocks around Iceland
skeletons and shells are constructed
in the 1960's. Initially this collapse
from calcium carbonate. Significant
was thought to have resulted from
acidification may therefore lead to a
over-fishing, but recent advances in the
widespread decimation of tropical
environmental sciences now support
reefs around the world, as well as
conclusions that the collapse was
decimation of the many fish and other
actually the result of excessive fishing
marine species that live around them.
combined with changed environmental
At the same time ocean acidification
conditions (Arnason 1995, Belkin et al.
may reduce the general health and
1998, Dickson et al. 1988,
productivity of marine species found in
Durrenberger and Pálsson 1989, and
temperate and high-latitude regions.
Hamilton et al. 2004).
1.7 Conclusion
Heretofore, because of the general
deficit of information regarding the
For the world's fishing communities--
impact of ocean conditions on fisheries
from the smallest scale subsistence-
resources, as compared with the often
oriented ones to the largest-scale
more abundant data regarding fishing
industrialized ones--being able to adapt
effort, the influence of ocean
to future climatic and marine-
conditions on fisheries resources was
ecological variability and change will
little understood, and sometimes even
be essential for sustaining their
overlooked as an important contributor
economies, societies, and general well
to fishery collapses.
being. It will also be essential for
sustaining the world's food supplies
1.9 Case Studies from Iceland and
that are derived from the sea.
Alaska
The IPCC working group on fisheries
In 2001 through 2004, research was
recently acknowledged that its
undertaken to explore how climatic
forecasts regarding global warming's
variability impacts three fishing
impacts on fisheries were mainly
communities in high-latitude regions in
informed by case studies that had
Iceland and Alaska. This research
focused on how ocean-environmental
entailed on-location field work as well
changes may have influenced fish
as studies of meteorological data and
stocks. And for now scientists will
various other archival sources. The
have to rely to a great degree on
research was supported by the U.S.
generalizations derived from case
National Science Foundation and the
studies like these to help them propose
University of Colorado, and some of
how fishing people, and fisheries-
the results were recently discussed in
5
an article appearing in the journal,
o A fully modern, industrialized,
Marine Policy (McGoodwin 2007).
small-boat fishing community in
Southwest Alaska that produces
It was hypothesized that a better
salmon in inshore bays and turns
understanding of how fishing people in
over virtually all of its catches to a
these high-latitude regions are
local processing plant for export
impacted by and respond to climatic
abroad. Fishing activity is
variability might provide clues as to
regulated by a limited-entry
how they might be impacted by and
licensing system in combination
respond to climatic change. In turn, it
with periodic open and closed days
was hoped this might help to propose
in the local fishery, which is
fisheries-management policies that
managed by Alaska fisheries
would give them better chances of
officials.
making sustainable adaptations to the
sorts of changes that climatic change
o Four small isolated native
will prompt in the future. More
communities in the same region of
broadly, it was also hoped that what
Southwest Alaska, which produce
was learned might help to inform
salmon migrating up rivers--their
fisheries policies for high-latitude
traditional and main dietary staple-
regions, which undoubtedly will
-entirely for meeting local
experience significant environmental
subsistence needs. Fishers in these
changes that are prompted by global
communities are required to apply
warming.
annually to Alaska fisheries
officials for cost-free subsistence
Excellent meteorological data tracking
fishing licenses, report their
climatic variability over many past
catches to help inform stock
years was available for both of the
assessments, and are prohibited
regions that were studied. On the other
from selling their catches.
hand, definitive data regarding climatic
Otherwise their subsistence fishing
change was virtually non-existent--
activities are essentially
which, unfortunately, is the situation
unregulated.
regarding most of the world's fishing
regions these days.
What was looked for in all of the
foregoing communities was how
The three fishing communities studied
climatic variability influences fishing
were the following:
production. But the researchers were
soon reminded that even a seemingly
o A fully modern, industrialized,
simple and presumably empirical
small, island fishing community in
concept such as "fish production" is
South Central Iceland, which
actually the result of many interrelated
targets a diversity of marine
factors, including fish supplies, fishing
species. Both large-vessel and
conditions, market demand, market
small-boat fishers are based in this
dynamics, distribution structures,
community, and turn over virtually
linkages with larger economies,
all of their catches to a local market
shifting political and economic forces,
for export abroad. Fishing
emerging legal and regulatory regimes,
activities are regulated by an ITQ
rapid technological change, changes in
system that is managed by
human values about life and work--
Icelandic fisheries officials.
and variations in climatic and marine-
ecosystem conditions.
6
Attempting to conceptualize the links
and increased local unemployment
between climatic variability and
levels.
human fishing activity therefore posed
a daunting problem, because there
o Even if the ITQ regimes had so far
were so many intervening variables.
prevented over-harvesting, most
But however complex these
fish stocks were being harvested to
relationships were, it still seemed
near their theoretical limits. This
reasonable to assume that climatic and
left all fishers vulnerable to severe
marine-ecoystem variability must
economic risks should ocean-
influence human fishing activity in
ecosystem conditions bring about
some way, and the researchers wanted
stock declines. Indeed, the current
to discover how.
ITQ regime posed ongoing harvest
pressures that would be difficult to
1.10 Findings regarding the fishing
reduce should changes in climatic
community in Iceland
and ocean-ecosystem conditions
require it.
o Fishers who worked in both large
and small vessels stressed that the
o In this semi-isolated island
current ITQ regime afforded them
community, which is inordinately
little flexibility in being able to
dependent on fishing industry, a
respond to variations in fish-stock
lack of other local economic
availability. In essence, owners of
opportunities placed its inhabitants
quotas for certain stocks could not
at great economic risk should
switch to fishing other stocks when
ocean-ecosystem changes bring
the stock they "owned" was
about declines in essential fish
unavailable--not even when other
stocks.
stocks were available that nobody
had any claim to.
o The local fishing community's
economic security was also
o The fishing activities of small-boat
threatened by its high degree of
fishers were greatly constrained by
dependency on global fish markets,
severe weather and sea conditions,
including markets which are
whereas the large-scale vessels
greatly influenced by climatic
could fish in practically any
variability in other distant parts of
conditions. Thus, the large-scale
the world. Thus, when the El Niño
operators enjoyed a sizeable
Southern Oscillation drastically
competitive edge over their
curtails Peruvian fish-meal
smaller-scale counterparts by virtue
production, Iceland's local fishers
of their being able to spend more
who own quotas for species that
time fishing, especially during
are targeted for reduction will have
Iceland's severe winter months.
a very profitable year. But
oppositely, high-production
o The larger vessels could catch far
seasons in the Peruvian fishery can
more fish per crewman employed
render the Icelanders' quotas for
than the smaller vessels could,
reduction species virtually
again giving them a significant
worthless--no matter how
competitive advantage over the
abundant they may be. Thus, the
small-vessel operators. For several
local fishing community in Iceland
past years this had progressively
is economically vulnerable to the
marginalized small-boat operators
effects of distant climatic events
over which it exerts no control, and
7
which are also often difficult to
storms, unless changes are made in
forecast.
the management system this
problem may get worse in the
1.11 Findings regarding the
future.
commercial fishery in Southwest
Alaska
1.12 Findings regarding the native
subsistence fishing communities in
o Despite a strictly enforced limited-
Southwest Alaska
entry licensing scheme, as well as a
steady increase in recent years in
o Although salmon stocks have been
the number of closed days to
steadily declining in recent years
permit salmon escapement, salmon
there is little concern about this
stocks in this region have been
among the native subsistence
steadily declining over the past
fishers. Even at currently
decade, confronting these fishers
depressed stock levels more fish
with declining yields. At the same
still ascend the rivers and streams
time, due in part to the steady
than are needed to satisfy their
increase of inexpensive farm-raised
annual subsistence needs. In
salmon in various global fish
essence their collective demand for
markets, prices for their catches
the salmon resource continues to be
have also been depressed.
small relative to its availability--a
situation having few parallels in
o Excessive fishing may be part of
most commercial fisheries
the reason for the steady decline of
nowadays.
salmon stocks in this region in
recent years, but changing ocean
o Climatic variability did not seem to
conditions can also be suspected,
have much influence on these
although definitive information
people's subsistence fishing
about the latter remains elusive
production. Despite a decade of
given the salmon's vast migratory
steady stock declines and great
range.
variability in climatic conditions
over past years, they went about
o The main means for combating the
their subsistence fishing activities
steady decline in salmon stocks has
in essentially the same way year
been to increase the number of
after year, producing
closed days to permit salmon
approximately the same amount of
escapement. This has exposed
salmon each year. This was a
these fishers to higher levels of
surprising finding, inasmuch as the
risk, especially when the open days
researcher had assumed that
coincide with dangerous weather
climatic variations would influence
conditions. Faced with increasing
subsistence fishing production
economic pressures, many fishers
levels.
feel compelled to go out when
open days coincide with bad
o Regression analyses were run
weather conditions, and several
comparing the four communities'
recent fatalities have been
subsistence fishing production with
attributed to this increased pressure
cardinal climatic variables such as
on local fishers. Moreover,
precipitation, temperature, and
inasmuch as global warming
snowfall over a nearly 20-year
portends an increase in the
period for which there was
frequency and intensity of coastal
excellent meteorological data. The
8
analyses suggested that subsistence
and environmental change
fishing production was only
decimate these other food
weakly influenced by variations in
resources as well.
the foregoing cardinal climatic
variables, with the linear
o In any event, catastrophic
regressions yielding r2 values
societal and economic
generally less than 0.2.
disruptions would result
from inundation of this
o Certainly climatic
low-lying region that is
variations over the salmon's
prompted by sea-level rise,
vast range must have
forcing villagers to relocate
influenced stock sizes. But
to less familiar, and perhaps
local climatic variations
less naturally provident,
little influenced these
new territories.
subsistence fishers'
subsistence fishing
1.13 Fisheries policy
production. This
recommendations based on the
reaffirmed various
foregoing case studies
ethnographer's observations
regarding the long-standing
In the Icelandic community
persistence and resiliency
of these people's
o The ITQ system should build in a
subsistence economies.
margin of safety by backing away
from its current practice of fishing
o For now these native people
various species to near their
have excellent food
theoretical limits. At the same time
security. But otherwise
the government should sponsor
their overall standard of
more extensive monitoring of
living is low by most
ocean conditions to try to anticipate
conventional measures.
emerging trends that seem to be
And their situation may
prompted by global warming and
change drastically, and
ocean-ecosystem change. The ITQ
quickly, should salmon
system should also be made more
stock levels fall below what
flexible so as to permit quota
they need to produce this
owners to switch among species
key dietary staple.
that are more or less abundant in
o At present it is difficult to
various seasons.
suggest how these native
people would respond
o Clearly, large-vessel enterprises
should salmon stocks fall
will be the most adaptable to the
below levels that are
sorts of changes that global
adequate to meet their
warming may prompt, by virtue of
subsistence needs. This is
their ability to range over larger
because they have many
areas in practically all weather
other and abundant wild
conditions, as well as their ability
food resources available to
to mobilize capital to retrofit gear
them in this region--a form
and take advantage of changing
of economic pluralism, at
opportunities. Small-vessel
least in a dietary sense. But
operators, therefore, should be
that too could change, and
afforded extra fishing opportunities
drastically, should climatic
9
to offset the limitations placed on
In the native subsistence-fishing
them by bad weather conditions.
communities in Southwest Alaska
o A more diversified local economy
o At current stock levels the fishery
should be developed to provide
is adequately managed and meets
alternative opportunities for local
local subsistence needs, providing
fishers who experience reversals in
excellent food security.
the fisheries.
o The native subsistence-fishing
o Although the local community's
people in southwest Alaska
participation in an aggregated
manifest high capacities for
global marketing system somewhat
adapting to their region's ordinary
reduces its vulnerability to wide
climatic and ecosystem variability.
market swings, new means should
This adaptability and resiliency is a
be explored for reducing the
result of considerable cumulative
economic risk of operators who
experience from living in this
target species whose market prices
climatically harsh region.
can be significantly influenced by
climatic events taking place in
o Otherwise, the local economy does
distant other parts of the world.
not provide an adequate standard of
living in modern-contemporary
In the commercial fishing community
terms, and in recent years as these
in Southwest Alaska
people have become more aware of
the world beyond their region this
o More research is needed to
has been a source of increasing
determine the causes of stock
dissatisfaction and strain. Thus,
declines in recent years, and this
greater efforts should be made to
may require extensive and
develop a more modern and
expensive monitoring over large
diversified economy.
trans-boundary ocean regions.
This low-lying region is highly
o The Alaska state government
vulnerable to catastrophic disruption
should pursue license buy-out
caused by sea-level rise, underscoring
schemes to reduce the number of
an urgent need for projects that will
limited-entry licenses. At the same
plan for, and assist, in relocation and
time it should redouble its efforts
developing economic alternatives
to publicize the superiority of wild-
should that become necessary.
caught salmon over farmed salmon,
to justify higher prices for these
2. Relationship to the broader
fish in various export markets.
global ocean WSSD
goals/targets
o The current system of prescribing
open and closed days for fishing
The WSSD goals regarding the oceans
should continue to be predicated on
urge developing strategies for
what is needed to conserve salmon
improving oceans governance while
stocks. But this system should also
promoting sustainable fisheries,
be modified to ensure that open
conservation, and promotion of marine
days do not coincide with
biodiversity with regard for climate
dangerous weather conditions that
change.
might imperil local fishers.
10
The following are also offered as
For attaining WSSD goals regional
desirable goals:
fisheries management organizations
(RFMOs) are seen as key vehicles.
o implementation of the FAO
Thus, many of the responses to the
International Plan of Action for the
impacts of climate change on fisheries
Management of Fishing Capacity
should be jointly coordinated by
(FAO 1999) to better manage
various cooperating RFMOs.
fishing capacity by reducing it
However, because of the global scope
where desirable to meet
of this problem coordinated efforts by
sustainability goals, as well as
international organizations such as the
reduction of illegal, unreported,
Food and Agriculture Organization
and unregulated (IUU) fishing;
(FAO), as well as other international
fora, will be required as well.
o restoration of fish stocks to levels
that can produce their maximum
Regarding WSSD goals and capacity
sustainable yields;
issues, climate change may transform
some fisheries that are currently
o assistance to developing countries
identified as suffering from
to coordinate polices and programs
overcapacity to a condition of
at regional and sub-regional levels
undercapacity, while transforming
aimed at conservation and
other fisheries that are currently
sustainable management of fishery
identified as candidates for capacity
resources;
development to a condition of
overcapacity. Thus, while the concept
o developing diverse fisheries-
of sustainable capacity in a fishery will
management approaches and tools,
remain important, it must be
including ecosystem approaches,
understood that with climate change
eliminating destructive fishing
this must be perceived as a more
practices, and establishing marine
dynamic and fluid concept, which is
protected areas consistent with
subject to continuing revision based on
international law based on
new information.
scientific information.
Because changes in fisheries
Problematically, virtually all of the
ecosystems that are prompted by
foregoing goals can be substantially
climate change may cause fish stocks
confounded or even completely
to depart considerably from their
undermined by the climate-change
historic baselines, addenda will likely
scenarios that mainstream scientists
be required to various international
have forecast.
measures and agreements such as the
United Nations Fish Stocks Agreement
Moreover, the high degree of
(United Nations 1995), the
uncertainty regarding various impacts
International Plan of Action for the
on coastal people and ocean fisheries
Management of Fishing Capacity
underscores the need for aggressive
(FAO 1999), the Johannesburg Plan of
and heightened efforts in ocean-
Implementation of the World Summit
ecosystem monitoring, new basic
on Sustainable Development (United
research across a broad spectrum, and
Nations 2002), and the FAO Code of
new structures for local, regional, and
Conduct for Responsible Fisheries
international cooperation.
(FAO 1995) --among others. Thus,
while the foregoing measures and
agreements will still serve as
11
fundamental frameworks for
changes in marine ecosystems and
addressing fisheries issues, they must
fisheries resources; (ii) building
also be augmented by taking into
capacities for fishing industries and
account the dynamics and impacts of
communities to adapt to the foregoing
climate change in marine ecosystems.
changes; and (iii) building capacities
at both national and international levels
As in the past, governments will still
to help vulnerable coastal communities
be required to provide financial
anticipate and respond to increased
support for fishing industries and
storms and flooding, as well as sea-
communities to help ease their burden
level rise that necessitates relocation to
of adjustment and restructuring during
less hazardous areas. Developing
times of change. But in the near future
alternative sources of livelihood and
climate change may also pose
food security will also often be
heightened and even unprecedented
important for these environmentally
changes in fisheries that will
displaced communities.
necessitate even higher levels of
government support for adjustment and
restructuring.
4. Suggested goals, targets, and
objectives for improvement.
Moreover, climate change may cause
harvest rights in certain fisheries to
Coastal States will still have the final
become less secure--indeed, even
authority concerning how they will
worthless should the species they
monitor and adapt to the impacts of
confer rights to disappear or relocate to
climate change in maritime waters
other regions. Harvest rights-based
under their sovereignty. But in marine
regimes work best in relatively stable
waters beyond national jurisdiction all
ecosystems where the species that are
users will be required to work together
targeted are available in fairly
more closely than heretofore to
predictable and stable quantities over
monitor and adapt to changes produced
long time series. But climate change
by climate change.
may seriously erode the predictability
An important first step towards
and stability of many fisheries. Thus,
achieving these policy objectives will
many harvest rights-based regimes, if
be the building of political awareness
they are to be sustainable in the future,
regarding the reality of climate change
will be required to increase their levels
and its consequences in marine
of flexibility, not only to anticipate
environments. In turn, this must
unprecedented stock fluctuations, but
translate into developing the political
also to adapt to the disappearance of
will to help impacted human
some valuable species and the
communities and economies to adapt.
appearance of others that had
heretofore been exotic.
4.1 New Roles for RFMOs
Because RFMOs are the primary
3. Top priority policy issues
means for managing global fish stocks,
RFMOs must be strengthened so they
Top priority policy issues for the
can help monitor and address various
world's fisheries which will be
problems prompted by climate change.
impacted by climate change include:
Addressing the consequences of global
(i) the development of a global marine-
warming in the fisheries will therefore
ecosystem monitoring system to track
require strengthening of RFMOs
12
having global purview, increased
these may be influenced by climate
communications and cooperation
change.
among RFMOs, as well as establishing
new global-level organizations.
Many fisheries-management policies
may need substantial revision as a
It will also be necessary for RFMOs to
result of distributional changes in
cooperate with other international
fisheries resources that will be
organizations as an integral part of
prompted by climate change, with
such efforts. Moreover, new RFMOs
steady-state models of stock
should be established to deal explicitly
distributions necessarily giving way to
with climate change issues, especially
more fluid-state models that are
in ocean realms having stocks that are
frequently revised and updated.
not presently covered, so that all
Recognition that some regions will
currently unregulated high seas
experience increases of certain stocks,
fisheries are brought into a globally
including heretofore exotic ones, while
coordinated system that can deal with
other regions will experience declines
climate change.
of stocks that have long been relied
upon, will be an important part of this
Various global institutions and fora
process. Thus, heightened levels of
such as the FAO, UNFSA Review,
coordination and cooperation among
International Maritime Organization
neighboring countries regarding their
(IMO), and Convention on
respective EEZs, as well as among
Biodiversity can help to guide and
multilateral FMOs, will also be called
support RFMO capabilities for dealing
for.
with climate change, as can improved
inter-agency co-operation to promote
Moreover, RFMOs at all levels that are
policy integration on shared issues. In
concerned with the small-scale fishing
addition, further ratification and
sector must likewise pay special
implementation of key governance
attention to how climate and ecosystem
mechanisms, such as UNFSA, would
change may impact that sector.
strengthen regional fisheries
Compared with larger-scale fishers,
management in its ability to deal with
small-scale ones are generally less
climate change. In this regard,
mobile geographically, and are
increased pooling of information and
especially vulnerable to ecosystem
better use of information technology
changes as well as the hazards to
will also help.
coastal communities posed by climate
change. At the same time, they also
The need for enhanced cooperation
comprise a decisive majority of the
between RFMOs to deal with climate
world's fishing people.
change arises not only from some fish
species having distributional ranges
It will also be necessary for RFMOs to
that cover the convention areas of
enlist the support of the market, as well
more than one RFMO, but also
as encourage industry-based initiatives
because climate change impacts will
to monitor and develop solutions to
usually impact more than the
problems caused by climate change.
convention areas of a single RFMO.
Efforts to promote sustainable fisheries
RFMOs at all levels should therefore
in the context of climate change can
review current policies regarding
ultimately only succeed if the
pelagic and near-shore stocks, trans-
participants in the fisheries actively
boundary, and other stocks, and how
support such efforts. And that support
is unlikely unless those who bear the
13
costs of the constraints on catch and
5. Recommendations for
fishing capacity, as well as the costs of
addressing priority issues and
monitoring and adapting to climate
for progress toward achieving
change, can expect to receive at least
roughly comparable benefits.
targets/goals
RFMOs should also concede that
For the most part, the impacts of
attempts to restore fish stocks to their
climate change and global warming on
maximum sustainable yields will not
marine ecosystems will be trans-
be advisable where climate and
boundary and global in scope,
ecosystem trends run counter to those
requiring new initiatives at the
efforts. They should also be aware that
international level to monitor, respond,
the currently high degree of
and adapt to the changes it will bring
uncertainty regarding the future
about. This underscores the need for
impacts of climate change on the
good governance and new policy
fisheries may require additional
initiatives at the international level.
reductions of fishing capacity. This
may be required to build in an extra
All coastal States should incorporate
margin of safety to ensure that fish
the possible implications of climate
stocks are not harvested in excess of
change in their coastal, marine,
their abilities to adapt to ecosystem
fisheries, and development policies.
changes that are being driven by
At the same time they should
climate change.
undertake increased monitoring in
order to know what changes are taking
RFMOs should also anticipate that
place in their marine ecosystems. .
uncertain, chaotic, and even
unprecedented ecosystem changes
Unless there is proper monitoring,
prompted by climate change may
planning, and adequate legal and
correspondingly promote increases in
regulatory structures in place at high
illegal, unregulated, and unreported
levels to avoid or minimize damaging
(IUU) fishing activity.
changes that climate change may
prompt in marine ecosystems, such
4.2 With regard for high-latitude
change may prompt unilateral,
fisheries
unregulated, and even chaotic
responses in many parts of the world.
Management policies for high latitude
This further underscores the necessity
fisheries--which may already be
of global monitoring, as well as
experiencing rapid climate and
international oversight, coordination,
ecosystem change--should promote
and control, to ensure more orderly
greater degrees of flexibility,
responses and adaptations to the
adaptability, and economic alternatives
consequences of climate change.
to reliance on traditionally utilized
stocks. Otherwise, the more
The current crises in many of the
specialized the solutions a system
world's fisheries which have been
develops for meeting its problems, the
brought about by biologically and
less flexibility it will have for
economically unsustainable fishing
responding to unprecedented problems
practices, may now be further
that may arise in the future.
influenced by climate change. This
adds a new factor which is mainly
independent of the former
unsustainable practices, which has
14
profound capacities to exacerbate these
monitoring projects: the International
crises in some ocean regions, while
Geophysical Year (1957-1958), for
mitigating or even absolving them in
example.
other regions.
5.2 Regarding coastal-dwelling
5.1 A worldwide observation system
people:
should be developed that provides
continuous time series of various types
Efforts should be made at both national
of environmental data to track climate
and international levels to identify
change and its consequences in marine
coastal areas that are imminently
ecosystems.
vulnerable to sea level rise, increased
inundation, and/or increased storms.
This would be very expensive,
Additionally, national- and
requiring global international
international-level programs should be
cooperation. The technology for doing
developed to help people in these high-
it currently exists, and at present there
risk regions to relocate to more
seems no other way to reliably monitor
sustainable living sites. Furthermore,
and forecast the consequences of
an integral part of these programs
climate change in marine ecosystems.
should be to increase economic
pluralism in coastal communities that
Key variables that should be
will have to be relocated, as well as for
continuously tracked include the
those that are unduly dependent on
following: atmospheric CO2 and
fishing activities.
temperature, ocean water temperature;
ocean salinity and pH; dissolved CO2
5.3 Regarding fisheries research
and oxygen in ocean waters;
chlorophyll, mineral, and nutrient
Increased levels of support should be
loads in ocean waters; wind and ocean
made available for basic research that
current patterns; ocean ecosystem
explores how the consequences of
species compositions, distributions,
climate change may be anticipated and
and biomasses; changes in sea levels
adapted to by fishing communities.
from historic norms; and changes in
Promising research already underway
climatic variables, including frequency
includes studies based on historical
and intensity of storms.
climate change (e.g., the Medieval
Optimum from ~AD 800-1100, and the
Key parties and organizations for
Little Ice Age from ~1550 to 1850),
promoting and supporting the
paleoclimate information (e.g., the
foregoing developments may include
Altithermal ~4,000-8,000 years ago),
interested parties in the UN General
and sediment studies tracking
Assembly, interested facilitators of the
variability in marine life prior to
UNFSA, which urges States to
fishing activity.
cooperate to ensure conservation and
optimum utilization of fisheries
Given the current inadequacy of
resources, various components of the
mainstream science to forecast the
FAO, and the Consortium for Ocean
future impacts of global warming in
Leadership;
certain marine ecosystems--a situation
which is likely to continue until a
Particularly needed now is a
worldwide monitoring system is in
cooperative international effort that
place--generalizations regarding
will be comparable to--and even
impacts and adaptations to climate
exceed--previous global-scale
change by fishing communities will
15
still have to be drawn from case
6. Recommendations on how best
studies.
the Global Forum can contribute to
the identified priority goals and
It will therefore be important to
action plans.
continue to build the store of case
studies concerning how fishing people
At the national level most States are
and coastal communities have
already working to address
responded to climatic and marine-
overcapacity, IUU fishing, destructive
ecosystem variability and change, but
fishing practices, and other undesirable
in such a way that they are
fisheries-management problems, while
methodologically comparable and
also promoting reforms and greater
provide scientifically replicable results.
cooperation among RFMOs.
Thus, as such studies accumulate they
Otherwise, the integration of these
should provide important clues
efforts with climate-change
concerning how fishing people should
considerations has only just begun.
attempt to adapt to climate and marine-
Thus, the Global Forum conference in
ecosystem change in the future, and in
Vietnam provides an auspicious venue
that way help to inform the
for underscoring the importance of
development of more sustainable
making greater efforts in this regard.
fisheries policies.
The Global Forum can initially assist
Increased levels of support should also
fishing industries and communities by
be provided for promoting the
raising awareness among the wider
theoretical development of fisheries
oceans community about the work that
models that integrate climate and
is already underway that focuses on the
ecosystem change and fisheries effects.
effects of climate change on fisheries.
These efforts should generalize from
The meeting in Vietnam can also seek
situations where good data already
to identify linkages and co-operative
exists concerning the interactive
approaches between efforts to combat
dynamics of marine ecosystem change
the effects of climate change in
and fishing effort. Similarly, increased
fisheries as well as reduce the
support should also be provided for
vulnerability of coastal communities.
studies of situations existing prior to
Similarly, the Global Forum provides
fishing, as well as documented
an excellent venue for underscoring the
instances of stock increases or declines
importance of encouraging the political
that cannot be attributed to fishing.
will that will be necessary for
achieving adequate means for
Additionally, support should be
monitoring and adapting to climate
provided to assess the carbon footprint
change.
of every fisheries sector, from the
smallest to the largest scale. This will
Indeed, because the Global Forum
be important if the fisheries are to be
promotes advances in the global
regarded as responsible players in
oceans agenda and integrated oceans
addressing the WSSD goals for
management, it can also support
enhancing the sustainability of living
fisheries-management initiatives that
resources. In this regard, research
ensure sustainable fisheries that take
should also be promoted that explores
into account global climate change.
ways of reducing the carbon footprint
Additionally, it can provide a setting
of the fisheries, for example by
where public officials may work with
facilitating a return to greater reliance
private sector participants to find ways
on sail propulsion where feasible.
of mutually addressing these problems.
16
7. Conclusions and future
change, as well as suggesting changes
projections
in fishing approaches.
At the heart of anticipating and
mitigating the impacts of climate
References:
change in fisheries will be the
development of measures for
ACIA 2004. Impacts of a Warming
monitoring and adapting to climate
Arctic Arctic Climate Impact
change at national and international
Assessment. Cambridge: Cambridge
levels. Not all measures will be
University Press (The ACIA report
applicable in every country, but each
stems from the Fourth Arctic Council
country's national plan of action
Ministerial Meeting, Reykjavik,
should incorporate measures to deal
Iceland, November 24, 2004).
with the impact of climate change in
the fisheries in which its citizens are
Arnason R. 1995. Icelandic Fisheries
involved. At the same time, the fishing
and Fisheries Management:
industry should be involved in
Adaptation to a
developing these measures so that
Limited Resource Base. Chapter VI,
market based incentives and processes
pp. 237-266 in Arnason R and Felt L,
can be developed to support
eds., The North Atlantic Fisheries:
monitoring and adaptation efforts.
Successes, Failures and Challenges.
Charlotte, Prince Edward Island:
Effective monitoring and adaptation to
Institute of Island Studies.
climate change in fisheries in
international waters that are beyond
Belkin IM, Levitus S, Antonov J, and
national jurisdiction will require
Malmberg SA. 1998. `Great salinity
heightened levels of cooperation
anomalies' in the North Atlantic.
among States. Over the past 25 years
Progress in Oceanography 41: 1-68.
enormous progress has been made in
defining the rights and duties of States
Dickson RR, Meincke J, Malmberg
over fisheries resources at the
SA, and Lee AJ. 1988. `The `Great
international level, with various
Salinity Anomaly' in the northern
initiatives and agreements in
North Atlantic 1968-1982. Progress in
international fora helping to eliminate
Oceanography 20: 103-151.
or at least mitigate many previous
conflicts.
Durrenberger EP and Pálsson G. 1989.
The Anthropology of Iceland. Iowa
In the near future, however, the ocean
City: University of Iowa Press.
and ecosystem conditions on which the
foregoing agreements were predicated
FAO 1995. Code of Conduct for
may be significantly changed by
Responsible Fisheries.
climate change, and where this occurs
new and innovative cooperative efforts
FAO 1995. International Conference
among States will be required.
on the Sustainable Contribution of
Indeed, the sustainable management of
Fisheries to Food Security. Kyoto,
international fisheries may ultimately
Japan, 4-9 December 1995. The Kyoto
require the establishment of a new
Declaration and Plan of Action, and
global convention for monitoring the
summaries of technical papers
marine-ecosystem impacts of climate
presented.
17
FAO 1999. International Plan of
McGoodwin, J. R. 2007. Effects of
Action for the Management of Fishing
climatic variability on three fishing
Capacity.
economies in high-latitude regions:
Implications for fisheries policies.
Hamilton LC, Jónsson S,
Marine Policy, vol. 31, issue 1,
gmundardóttir H, and Belkin IM.
January, pages 40-55. Special Issue on
2004. Sea Changes Ashore: the
Climate Change and Fisheries.
Ocean and Iceland's Herring Capital.
Arctic 57 (4): 325-335.
United Nations 1995. United Nations
Fish Stocks Agreement (The United
IPCC 2001a. IPCC Third Assessment
Nations Agreement for the
Report: Climate Change 2001: The
Implementation of the Provisions of
Scientific Basis. Contribution of
the United Nations Convention on the
Working Group I to the Third
Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982
Assessment Report of the
relating to the Conservation and
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Management of Straddling Fish Stocks
Change (IPCC). Cambridge:
and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks).
Cambridge University Press.
United Nations 2002. Report of the
IPCC 2001b. Climate Change 2001:
World Summit on Sustainable
Impacts, Adaptation & Vulnerability.
Development Johannesburg, South
Contribution of Working Group II to
Africa, 26 August 4 September 2002.
the Third Assessment Report of the
A/CONF/199/20*. Annex, Plan of
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Implementation of the World Summit
Change (IPCC). Cambridge:
on Sustainable Development. Ch IV,
Cambridge University Press.
Para 31(d).
IPCC 2001c. Climate Change 2001:
Mitigation Contribution of Working
Group III to the Third Assessment
Report of the Intergovernmental Panel
on Climate Change (IPCC).
Cambridge: Cambridge University
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IPCC 2007a. Climate Change 2007 -
The Physical Science Basis: Working
Group I Contribution to the Fourth
Assessment Report of the IPCC.
IPCC 2007b. Climate Change 2007 -
Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability:
Working Group II contribution to the
Fourth Assessment Report of the
IPCC.
IPCC 2007c. Climate Change 2007 -
Mitigation of Climate Change:
Working Group III contribution to the
Fourth Assessment Report of the
IPCC.
18
Policy Brief:
IUU Fishing
1. Introduction
people who depend on them in the
pursuit of their legitimate livelihoods.
The international community has
experienced a growing incidence of
IUU fishing also occurs in waters under
fishing activity that does not respect
the control of coastal countries. A large
applicable laws and regulations,
proportion is conducted by vessels
including fishing rules adopted at the
registered in the coastal countries
national and international levels.
themselves, particularly in the form of
Examples of such activity include
underreporting or misreporting of catch.
reflagging of fishing vessels to evade
In other cases, foreign vessels fish
controls, fishing in areas of national
without permission or in violation of the
jurisdiction without authorization by the
terms of access granted to them. This
coastal State, failure to report (or
primarily harms the coastal countries in
misreporting) catches, etc. Such
question and the responsible fishers who
irresponsible fishing activity directly
operate there. By eliminating IUU
undermines efforts to manage fisheries
fishing in their own waters, coastal
properly and impedes progress toward
countries will be able to receive direct
the goal of sustainable fisheries.
and immediate benefits, both now and in
the future. An initial step for coastal
The term "illegal, unreported and
States to take is to increase the penalties
unregulated fishing" or IUU fishing
for IUU fishing, as research has shown
covers three main types of practice: (1)
that they are generally too low to
infringements against agreed rules on
provide an effective deterrent.
fisheries management/conservation in
national and international waters; (2)
Another important facet to the fight
high seas fishing in waters covered by
against IUU fishing is the transshipping
Regional Fisheries Management
of harvests at sea. Because it is difficult
Organizations (RFMOs) by vessels from
to monitor, States should consider
outside that RFMO; (3) high seas fishing
requiring that all transshipments take
in waters outside RFMO coverage
place in port or, at a minimum, require
without regard to State responsibilities
that transshipment at sea is done is
under international law. IUU fishing can
accordance with proper controls and at
occur in all capture fisheries, whether
locations where inspectors can be
they are conducted within areas under
present. Some countries have already
national jurisdiction or on the high seas.
begun to limit and regulate access to
IUU fishing poses a direct and
their ports to control IUU fishing but
significant threat to effective
port States will also need to require other
conservation and management of fish
foreign vessels involved in fishing-
stocks, causing multiple adverse
related activities, such as transport
consequences for fisheries and for the
vessels, to provide information before
entering a port and only grant foreign
19
fishing vessels access to its ports where
Other rules that can be flouted by IUU
it can conduct inspections to verify the
fishers include those associated with
nature of the vessel's fishing activities.
food safety and aquatic animal health,
potentially putting consumers and fish
By impeding fishery management
populations at risk in IUU fish importing
objectives, IUU fishing can lead to
countries.
reduced biodiversity, the collapse of a
fishery or seriously impair efforts to
In addition to its detrimental economic,
rebuild depleted fish stocks. This, in
social, environmental and safety
turn, may result in lost economic and
consequences, the unfairness of IUU
social opportunities, both short-term and
fishing raises serious concerns. IUU
long-term, and may diminish food
fishers gain an unjust advantage over
security. Current estimates of global
legitimate fishers, i.e., those who operate
IUU activity amounts to an annual
in accordance with those standards. In
market value of $4.2 to $9 billion (total
this sense, IUU fishers are "free riders"
value of global fish trade $71 billion).
who benefit unfairly from the sacrifices
These losses effect developing countries
made by others for the sake of proper
the most as they provide the majority of
fisheries conservation and management.
internationally traded fish products.
This situation undermines the morale of
Losses from Sub-Saharan African waters
legitimate fishers and encourages them
alone are believed to be around $1
to disregard the rules as well. IUU
billion a year. Left unchecked, IUU
fishing may promote additional IUU
fishing can completely negate the
fishing, creating a downward cycle of
benefits of effective fisheries
management failure.
management.
Those who conduct IUU fishing are also
2. Relationship to the broader
unlikely to observe rules designed to
protect the marine environment from the
global ocean WSSD goals/targets
harmful effects of some fishing activity,
including, for example, restrictions on
Working through Regional Fisheries
the harvest of juvenile fish, gear
Management Organizations (RFMOs),
restrictions established to minimize
the Food and Agriculture Organization
waste and bycatch of non-target species,
(FAO), and other international fora,
and prohibitions on fishing in known
there have been significant advances in
spawning areas. To avoid detection,
the policy arena. There has been
IUU fishers often violate certain basic
increased use of flag State control
safety requirements, such as keeping
measures over fishing vessels, including
navigation lights lit at night, which puts
registration requirements, specific
other users of the oceans at risk.
authorization as a condition for fishing,
Operators of IUU vessels also tend to
vessel monitoring systems (VMS), and
deny to crew members fundamental
observer programs. The use of trade-
rights concerning the terms and
related tools, including catch
conditions of their labor, including those
documentation schemes, trade-tracking
concerning wages, safety standards and
measures and multilateral import
other living and working conditions.
prohibitions has also increased and the
focus on port controls has gained
20
momentum through the adoption of the
should be improved coordination among
FAO Model Scheme, various RFMO
fisheries enforcement personnel, such as
measures, and the initiation of work to
through the strengthened International
develop a legally binding instrument.
Monitoring, Control and Surveillance
Network For Fisheries Related
Efforts are underway to harmonize
Activities.
measures across regions and across
RFMOs, including work toward
Other policy directions that need to be
combined "IUU" vessel lists. The
taken at the national, regional and global
harmonization of trade-related
levels include the implementation of the
documentation continues to be refined,
FAO International Plan of Action to
and there has recently been a decision to
prevent, deter and eliminate illegal,
develop a comprehensive global register
unreported and unregulated fishing
of fishing vessels under FAO auspices.
(IPOA-IUU), and the development of a
All of this work has resulted in high-
legally binding instrument designed to
level attention to IUU issues, as seen in
prevent the landing, transhipment and
the 2005 Ministerial Declaration on IUU
processing of IUU-caught fish in port.
Fishing, the High Seas Task Force and
The presence of such a Port-State
similar initiatives.
measure will be imperative in reducing
the economic drivers behind IUU fishing
activities. Nations should also consider
3. Top priority policy issues
the establishment of new RFMOs and
arrangements that are designed to bring
The overall policy objectives are (1) to
previously unregulated fisheries under
prevent, deter and eliminate IUU fishing
multilateral management.
through the application and
harmonization of measures designed for
that purpose, and (2) to build capacity of
5. Recommendations for
developing States in support of their
addressing priority issues and
efforts to prevent, deter and eliminate
IUU fishing. In order to reach these
for progress toward achieving
goals, there are a number of short and
targets/goals
medium term initiatives that can be
achieved.
Although there has been substantial
progress in moving forward the policy
areas identified above, there are a
number of key next steps that address
4. Suggested goals, targets, and
these priority issues. In order to
objectives for improvement
strengthen global monitoring, control
and surveillance efforts, fishing nations
An important first step towards
should: (1) implement the commitment
achieving these policy objectives is the
made in the 2005 Ministerial Declaration
building of political-level awareness of
on IUU Fishing to have VMS on all
the problems that are caused by IUU
large-scale fishing vessels no later than
fishing and the establishment of a firm
the end of 2008; (2) complete a legally
commitment to combat IUU fishing.
binding instrument on port State
The immediate result of this effort
21
measures; (3) develop a comprehensive
market as well through encouragement
global register of fishing vessels; and (4)
of industry-based initiatives to combat
increase their participation in the
IUU fishing, such through the
International MCS Network.
International Coalition of Fisheries
Associations, the Coalition of Legal
The process of trying to achieve these
Toothfish Operators, and similar
efforts on an international scale has
organizations.
already demonstrated the difficulty that
some countries have with making
progress. They simply can not move
6. Recommendations on how
forward to the extent required without
addressing their domestic situation first.
best the Global Forum can
This includes, inter alia, the
contribute to the identified
strengthening of national laws to reach
priority goals and action plans
IUU fishing activities carried out by
their own nationals or beneficial owners
The Global Forum can initially assist by
who are using vessels registered in other
raising awareness among the wider
States and the implementation of
oceans community about the work
stronger controls to regulate
underway at the global and regional
transhipment at sea. In some States, the
levels to combat IUU fishing. This
priority may instead be the strengthening
includes raising awareness among
of fisheries access agreements to provide
developing States of the lost revenue and
additional assistance to coastal States in
the resources that are available to them
monitoring fishing within areas under
for combating IUU fishing, such as
their national jurisdiction.
funds, technical assistance, the
International MCS Network, and others.
On the regional level, there needs to be
It would also be beneficial if the Global
further harmonization of measures to
Forum could promote awareness of
combat IUU fishing across RFMOs.
industry's role in market based
This process has begun to be discussed
approaches.
in some of the tuna RFMOs, i.e.
harmonizing IUU vessel lists, but it
The meeting in Vietnam can encourage
needs to be further developed. In order
ratification of basic international
to make these, and other measures,
fisheries instruments, such as the UN
feasible for all Parties to implement,
Fish Stocks Agreement and seek to
nations should assist in efforts to
identify linkages and co-operative
increase additional capacity-building for
approaches between efforts to combat
developing States, including through the
IUU fishing and related issues, notably
Part VII Fund established under the UN
the need to reduce overcapacity in the
Fish Stocks Agreement, FAO
world's fishing fleets.
development assistance mechanisms,
RFMO assistance vehicles, the World
The Global Forum might also do a
Bank and other multilateral donor
service by fostering a dismantling of the
organizations, bilateral funding and
term IUU into its component parts, as
technical assistance programs. It will
the term is commonly used to denote
also be necessary to incorporate the
only illegal fishing and represents an
22
unwieldy, if related, bundle of issues that
In an effort to further utilize market
often each require a different approach.
based approaches, the European
Community has published a draft
proposal "On a new strategy for the
7. Conclusions and future
Community to prevent, deter and
projections
eliminate Illegal, Unreported, and
Unregulated fishing." The proposal
At the heart of preventing, deterring and
would require that all fisheries products
eliminating IUU fishing are measures on
(primary and processed) entering the EU
monitoring, control, and surveillance.
market bear a certificate verifying that
The IPOA-IUU calls for a
the fish or the fish input was legally
comprehensive tracking of fishing
caught. The certificate itself is similar to
activities, development of control
the documentation required by the
schemes, vessel and owner
Commission for the Conservation of
documentation, implementation of VMS
Antarctic Marine Living Resources
and observer programs, training of
(CCAMLR) and the EU hopes it will
officials involved in MCS, meaningful
have similar success.
and effective MCS operations,
Effectively preventing, deterring and
promotion of industry knowledge and
eliminating IUU fishing in international
cooperation, outreach to national
waters requires cooperation among
judiciaries, establishment of systems for
states. Such cooperation is also often
acquisition, storage, and dissemination
required if action within waters under
of MCS data, consideration of privacy
national jurisdiction is to be effective,
and confidentiality requirements, and
due to the mobility of fishing vessels.
implementation of internationally agreed
The prospects of significantly reducing
procedures for boarding and inspection
the incidence of IUU fishing will depend
regimes, where applicable.
to a large measure on the extent to which
states succeed in cooperating to put a
The IPOA is merely a set of tools that
stop to IUU fishing, in addition to
are available for use in many different
implementing effective MCS measures
circumstances to combat IUU fishing.
within their own jurisdictions.
Not all of them will be appropriate for
every country but each country's
national plan of action should at least
consider how each of the basic tools
could be put to use in the fisheries in
which their nationals are involved. The
industry also needs to be engaged more
effectively so that market based
incentives and processes can be adopted
- traceability, catch documentation -
which raise the cost of illegal activity,
squeezing it out of the market, and
rewarding responsible operators and
Flag States.
23
24
Policy Brief:
Regional Fisheries Management Organization (RFMO)
Reform
1. Introduction
for improved governance by RFMOs,
reviewing of RFMO performance,
At its session in 2005, the Food and
encouraging RFMOs to work more
Agricultural Organization's (FAO)
effectively together through better
Committee on Fisheries (COFI), called
coordination and use of port and trade-
for the strengthening of all regional
related measures, and supporting
fisheries management organizations and
initiatives to bring all unregulated high
for each to carry out an assessment of its
seas fisheries under effective
effectiveness. This call was echoed in
governance. An independent, high-level
the Ministerial Declaration of the St.
panel, hosted by the UK Royal Institute
John's Conference on the Governance of
of International Affairs published its
High Seas Fisheries in May 2005, the
report, "Recommended Best Practices
report of the High Seas Task Force on
for Regional Fisheries Management
Illegal, Unreported, and Unregulated
Organizations" in mid-2007.
Fishing in March 2006, and the report of
the Review Conference for the UN Fish
The Panel's analysis indicates that there
Stocks Agreement.
is clearly scope for more effective
cooperation between members of
A number of regional fisheries
RFMOs and between RFMOs
management organizations (RFMOs)
themselves, particularly in the area of
have already undertaken efforts to
compliance and enforcement.
improve their structure, governance and
Immediate practical steps that could be
functioning. In some cases the review
taken without changing existing
has focused on updating and
paradigms include, for example,
modernizing the RFMOs establishing
standardizing and sharing or
treaty (as in IATTC, NEAFC, and
consolidating vessel registers and
NAFO). In others, the review has
information from vessel monitoring
focused on improving the conservation
systems, as well as compiling and
and management measures under the
assessing scientific data on a global basis
RFMOs purview through broader
including on ecosystem based
application of the precautionary
approaches and improved marine
approach, increased reflection of
science.
ecosystem considerations, and better
compliance by Contracting Parties (as in
This paper focuses on RFMOs. It sets
CCAMLR and NASCO).
out an overall policy objective regarding
RFMOs, looks at the key policy
The final report of the High Seas Task
directions since the Summit, and
Force contained several
considers the relevant institutional
recommendations for improving
structures, progress made and where
RFMOs, including developing a model
actions can now be best focused. It
25
concludes with a number of suggestions
(CCAMLR) has continued to develop
as to how the meeting in Vietnam can
leading approaches on fisheries and
assist, including in relation to IUU
ecosystem management, compliance and
fishing and broader cross cutting issues
enforcement.
such as poverty reduction and capacity
building.
At the 2006 UNFSA review, there was
agreement on performance reviews of
RFMOs and the strengthening of
2. Relationship to the broader
mandates; and a significant number of
global ocean WSSD goals/targets
countries agreed to ratify UNFSA. The
FAO, in 2007, also agreed to work on
performance review and the
The WSSD oceans outcomes can be
strengthening of RFMOs. Since then, a
characterized as setting out a strategy for
number of RFMOs have begun to
improved oceans governance,
address directly the question of
sustainable fisheries, and conservation of
performance review, and the North East
marine biodiversity. Regional
Atlantic Fisheries Organization has
fisheries bodies (which include regional
undertaken and completed a
fisheries arrangements as well as
performance review consistent with the
RFMOs) are seen as key implementation
provisions of UNFSA. In January, 2007,
vehicles.
at Kobe, Japan there was a joint meeting
of tuna RFMOs, which agreed on co-
Working through these institutions and
operative approaches on performance
fora, there have been significant
review, IUU fishing and compliance and
advances in the policy areas identified
enforcement. A further meeting is
above. There has been substantial
planned in 2009.
progress on global coverage of the
world's oceans by RFMOs: the South
East Atlantic Fisheries Organization;
Southern Indian Oceans Fisheries
3. Top priority policy issues
Agreement; and the ongoing processes
to establish new RFMOs in the southern
The overall policy objectives are (1) for
and northern Pacific, including the
RFMOs to become genuine cornerstones
adoption of interim arrangements. In
of sustainable fisheries management in
2006, the United Nations General
the world's oceans, and (2) to contribute
Assembly (UNGA) Resolution on
to the integration of fisheries with a
fisheries set out a framework to end
broader understanding of the
destructive bottom fisheries by the end
sustainability of the oceans and the
of 2008. In addition, a number of
Millennium Development Goals. In
RFMOs have deepened their mandates
order to reach these goals, there are a
to adopt ecosystem based and
number of short and medium term
precautionary approaches in line with
initiatives that can be achieved.
the United Nations Fish Stocks
Agreement (UNFSA) and the UNGA
fisheries resolution, while the
Commission for the Conservation of
Antarctic Marine Living Resources
26
4. Suggested goals, targets, and
The need for enhanced cooperation
objectives for improvement
between RFMOs arises from the fact that
some species of fish have a distribution
The key policy directions required to
range that covers the convention areas of
achieve the above objectives begin with
more than one RFMO and that modern-
the strengthening of RFMOs by the
day fishing fleets are highly mobile and
modernizing of mandates and the
may well target similar stocks in
adoption of performance review in the
different parts of the world almost
light of the principles and policies of the
simultaneously. It is therefore essential
UNFSA and FAO Code of Conduct for
that there is increased co-operation
Responsible Fisheries. Parallel with
between RFMOs, especially when it
these efforts, new RFMOs should be
comes to shared issues such as stock
established to cover areas of the oceans
management, compliance and IUU
and the commercial stocks not covered
fishing. Practical steps such as shared or
presently (along with effective interim
consolidated vessel lists, better
arrangements), thus bringing all
coordination of port and market
unregulated high seas fisheries under
measures (such as catch documentation
effective governance.
schemes) and vessel monitoring systems
It is also necessary for RFMOs to
can bring about significant
cooperate with other international
improvements in compliance. For the
organizations as an integral part of the
same reasons there is also a need for
global system for oceans governance.
improved collaboration between RFMOs
The use of effective global institutions
and other regional fora such as regional
and fora, such as FAO and the UNFSA
seas conventions. These short-term
Review, can help guide and support
steps forward would create the required
RFMO reform and strengthening, along
impact on generating the political will
with improved inter-agency co-
that is necessary for reform.
operation, for example the International
Maritime Organization (IMO) and the
Convention on Biodiversity, to promote
5. Recommendations for
policy integration on shared issues. In
addressing priority issues and
addition, further ratification and
for progress toward achieving
implementation of key governance
mechanisms, such as UNFSA and
targets/goals
various FAO initiatives, would also
benefit regional fisheries management.
Although there has been substantial
progress in moving forward the policy
Capacity building is also important, both
areas identified above, there are a
for developing countries to participate
number of key next steps that address
meaningfully in RFMOs but also in
these priority issues. One important step
terms of the ability of Secretariats to
is the intensification by RFMOs in
undertake necessary functions. Pooling
implementing already existing processes.
of information, better use of information
This includes further progress by all
technology and improving mechanisms
RFMOs on performance and
for transparency and accountability can
strengthening in line with UNFSA and
all help in this regard.
related model approaches as well as
27
maintaining momentum on extending
6. Recommendations on how
RFMO governance to new areas and
best the Global Forum can
stocks and addressing destructive
contribute to the identified
fisheries.
priority goals and action plans
Concurrently, there should be efforts to
continue building on more horizontal,
The Global Forum can initially assist by
partnership processes. Further joint
raising awareness among the wider
meetings of RFMOs and the
oceans community about the work
development of shared approaches
underway by RFMOs and related fora
(shared vessel registers, common catch
and by building support from this
documentation schemes and analysis of
community to these areas of work,
trade and finance flows) as stressed
including promoting capacity building
before, are a good example. This type of
approaches. By highlighting the short-
co-operation should also happen
term goals outlined above, the Forum
between RFMOs and other regional
provides the perfect venue to underline
structures; e.g., NEAFC and The
the importance of political will in
Convention for the Protection of the
achieving reform.
Marine Environment of the North-East
Atlantic (OSPAR Convention) are
The meeting in Vietnam can promote
developing a Memorandum of
best practices in RFMOs ( possibly
Understanding to promote cooperation
through a panel presentation on case
on shared interests. Another possibility
studies) and highlight issues such as why
is the involvement of industry to
some RFMOs work well, how interim
promote issues as such as chain of
arrangements were established,
custody. A chain of custody certification
performance reviews, compliance, and
ensures labeled seafood can be tracked
capacity building. Representatives can
through the supply chain and provides a
then discuss how good practice
vital assurance for fish buyers seeking
contributes to broader oceans
sustainable seafood.
sustainability issues and governance, e.g.
on biodiversity conservation and food
Finally, there needs to be continued
security, recognizing that there are
support for the development of
necessary limits to what RFMOs can
underpinning strategic measures on
achieve.
information and compliance, linked to
IUU fishing. This includes: the
The Forum might also assist in
transformation of the FAO voluntary
identifying linkages and co-operative
network on monitoring, control and
approaches between RFMO work and
surveillance into a more robust,
other issues/fora, notably IUU fishing,
resourced instrument; the development
but also between cross cutting issues
by FAO in conjunction with IMO of a
such as capacity building and poverty
legally binding instrument on minimum
reduction.
standards for Port State measures; and
the development by FAO of a
comprehensive global record of fishing
vessels.
28
7. Conclusions and future
under heavy criticism for failing to take
projections
decisions that the science tells us is
necessary to ensure sustainability of
Ongoing discussions about
fishery resources, or to take steps (many
improvements to RFMOs have
of which are widely acknowledged to be
investigated a wide range of institutional
effective) to mitigate the impacts of
and legal reforms. Over the last 25 years
fishing activities on non-target species
enormous progress has been made in
and habitats. Maybe we need to take a
better defining the rights and duties of
more holistic approach to RFMO
States over fisheries resources at the
management and look at mechanisms to
international level. Initiatives and
improve the economic returns to RFMO
agreements in various international fora
fisheries as a whole, such as more
have made substantial strides in
innovative approaches to the allocation
eliminating some of the previous
and distribution of TACs or quotas, so as
disputes. Any remaining obstacles to
to improve the size of the economic pie.
effective management result primarily
from an absence of political will to
resolve management problems and a
References:
capacity barrier (e.g. enforcement,
information) in using the tools available
in international fishery instruments.
Recommended Best Practices for
Regional Fisheries Management
This does not mean that further
Organizations;
challenges do not lie ahead. With
Michael W Lodge, David Anderson,
increased globalization we see fleets that
Terje Lĝbach, Gordon Munro, Keith
are increasingly mobile and an increase
Sainsbury, Anna Willock, August 2007
in the complexity of getting fish from
harvest to markets. Further
http://www.chathamhouse.org.uk/public
compounding overcapacity in the
ations/papers/view/-/id/523/
world's fishing fleet, it is becoming
readily apparent that increased
Recommended Best Practices for
regulation in one area often just results
Regional Fisheries Management
in the transferring of capacity from one
Organizations: Technical Study No. 1
region to another. In some cases,
Regional Fisheries Management
management action in one region has
Organizations: Progress in Adopting the
had an immediate effect on other
Precautionary Approach and Ecosystem-
regions. If we are to achieve long-term
Based Management;
sustainable management of international
Marjorie L Mooney-Seus and Andrew A
fisheries, the key challenge for the future
Rosenberg, October 2007
will be to establish a globalized regime
in which all nations have the incentive to
cooperate.
In many ways, we are at a crossroads.
Many national and multilateral fora
responsible for fishery management are
29
30
Policy Brief:
Overcapacity
1. Introduction/Background
fisheries and fishers have little reason
to support investments in the
Overcapacity1 and overfishing are two
conservation and management of
of several often co-occurring
living marine resources.
undesirable outcomes of a common
underlying management problem. The
Unfortunately, changing the
other undesirable outcomes include
management of fisheries in order to
high levels of bycatch, adverse impacts
address the underlying cause of
on habitat, substandard vessel safety,
overcapacity becomes increasingly
lower product quality, poor economic
costly as the severity of those
performance, less viable fishing
outcomes increases. The greater the
communities, non-compliance with
adjustment necessary to capacity or
regulations, and a fishery management
catch to protect or rebuild fish stocks,
regime that is unnecessarily complex,
the greater the impact of the
unstable, burdensome, contentious,
adjustment and, consequently, the
intrusive, and costly.
greater the resistance to it. However,
the benefits from fundamentally
The underlying problem is that, in the
changing a fishery's management
absence of well-defined property, use
regime to one based on user/harvest
or harvest rights, fishers have no
rights also increase with the severity of
means of ensuring their share of catch
the problems facing the fishery. In
unless they race for fish. In doing so,
addition, after the underlying
this competitive allocation creates
management problem has been
incentives for individual fishers to
addressed, States and fishers generally
increase fishing capacity and to take
will be better positioned to accept and
other actions that are not in the best
adapt to catch reductions or other
interests of either the fishery as a
management actions that are taken to
whole or the general public. The
rebuild stocks and prevent/end
negative results of this problem are
overfishing of target or non-target
exacerbated by inadequate
species.
information, monitoring, and
enforcement, which, in part, can be due
Several states have implemented well-
to the underlying problem. Basically,
defined rights-based management
without well defined use rights or
regimes, thereby resolving the
harvest privileges, the interests of
underlying management problem and
individual fishers are not aligned with
substantially improving the alignment
the sustainability objectives for
of the interests of individual fishers
with the objectives for sustainable
1
fisheries. These successes have
For this report, "overcapacity" is the generic
term that means too much fishing capacity.
occurred for a diverse group of
The technical definition of fishing capacity is
fisheries using various types of rights-
the amount of fish (or fishing effort) that can
based management systems that were
be produced of a period of time (e.g. a year or
designed in response to fishery-
a fishing season) by a vessel or a fleet if fully
specific conditions, objectives and
utilized and for a given resource condition.
(FAO)
management capabilities.
31
The basic implications are as follows.
2. Relationship to the broader
global ocean WSSD
1. The failure to align the interests of
goals/targets
individual fishers or groups of
fishers with the sustainability
Assessing progress towards the
objectives for domestic and
WSSD goal of resolving the problem
international fisheries has provided
of overcapacity
reasons for them to individually
Three years after the adoption of the
maintain or increase fishing
International Plan of Action for the
capacity when there is already too
Management of Fishing Capacity
much capacity and to take other
(IPOA-Capacity), the Johannesburg
actions that prevent the attainment
Plan of Implementation of the World
of those objectives.
Summit on Sustainable Development
2. Similarly, the failure to align the
(WSSD) - also known as the
interests of individual States with
Johannesburg Plan of Action2-
the sustainability objectives for
reinforced the international
international fisheries has provided
community's call to address and
incentives for them to maintain or
resolve the problem of overcapacity
increase fishing capacity for their
noting, inter alia, the essential role of
State when there is already too
sustainable fisheries in food security
much capacity and to take other
and economic prosperity. The
actions that prevent the attainment
Johannesburg Plan of Action also
of those objectives. In both cases 1
called for nations to put the IPOA-
and 2, these perverse incentives
Capacity into effect by 2005 as part of
have resulted in inadequate
actions aimed towards achieving
investments in the conservation
sustainable fisheries.
and management of living marine
resources by fishers and States.
This explicit linkage reflected global
3. Looking at each category of
concern about addressing overcapacity
problems that emerge when harvest
in fisheries as a critical part of the
rights are weak and trying to treat
international efforts to meeting the
each separately without addressing
goals of the WSSD. Most importantly,
the common cause is
the WSSD reflected the growing
counterproductive and will result in
recognition that capture fisheries
the need for frequent management
simply cannot contribute sustainably to
changes to prevent increasing
economic prosperity and food security
disparities between the desired and
if the matter of overcapacity is not
actual outcomes. In addition, such
addressed.
a disjointed approach is not
consistent with an ecosystem
3. Global/multilateral efforts to
approach to fishery management.
manage fishing capacity
Potential strategies for meeting those
goals are discussed in this policy brief
Food and Agriculture Organization of
after an overview of the general status
the United Nations (FAO)
and trends in managing fishing
The IPOA-Capacity was adopted by
capacity.
the 23rd session of the FAO
Committee on Fisheries (COFI) in
February 1999 and endorsed by the
2 United Nations 2002
32
FAO Council at the session in
development and dissemination of
November 2000. The stated
practical information about the
immediate objective is for "States and
fundamental linkages between
regional fishery organizations, in the
overcapacity and fisheries management
framework of their respective
measures; practical information on
competencies and consistent with
working to address and resolve the
international law, to achieve
many challenges presented by
worldwide, preferably by 2003 but no
managing fisheries and the issue of
later than 2005, an efficient, equitable
overcapacity; and ways and means for
and transparent management of fishing
addressing, reducing and minimizing
capacity"
the recurrence of overcapacity.
In the half decade since the WSSD,
World Trade Organization (WTO)
efforts to manage fishing capacity have
Fisheries subsidies are being discussed
been based on four major strategies in
in the current WTO round of trade
the IPOA-Capacity:
negotiations. When the round was
launched in 2001, the Doha Ministerial
1. the conduct of national, regional
declaration mandated participants "to
and global assessments of capacity
clarify and improve WTO disciplines
and improvement of the capability
on fisheries subsidies." From 2001 to
for monitoring fishing capacity;
2005, the negotiations have therefore
2. the preparation and implementation
progressed from debating the need to
of national plans to effectively
further discipline fisheries subsidies to
manage fishing capacity and of
recognizing that subsidies that lead to
immediate actions for coastal
overcapacity and overfishing must be
fisheries requiring urgent
disciplined.
measures;
3. the strengthening of regional
While the round is not over, there has
fisheries organizations and related
been considerable progress in the
mechanisms for improved
negotiations related to fisheries
management of fishing capacity at
subsidies. The 2005 WTO Ministerial
regional and global levels;
Conference noted that "there is broad
4. immediate actions for major
agreement that the Group should
transboundary, straddling, highly
strengthen disciplines on subsidies in
migratory and high seas fisheries
the fisheries sector, including through
requiring urgent measures.
the prohibition of certain forms of
fisheries subsidies that contribute to
The FAO fishing capacity program has
overcapacity and over-fishing."
been focusing on both the "Urgent
Actions" and "Mechanisms to Promote
Within the ongoing negotiations,
Implementation" that are mentioned in
members remain divided concerning
the IPOA-Capacity. FAO activities
the approach to use. Some advocate a
that are most directly linked to
'bottom-up approach' that would ban
overcapacity include: the development
specific types of subsidies, such as
and dissemination of substantive
those that directly contribute to
guidance on matters relating to the
increased fishing capacity. Others
capacity issue; the development and
argue for a 'top-down' method that
dissemination of practical information
would ban all fishing subsidies save
relating to the definition, measurement
for some negotiated exceptions.
and reduction of capacity;
33
In addition, proposals concerning
overcapacity, particularly the highly
special and differential treatment
migratory species (HMS) fisheries.
(S&DT) for developing countries, and
artisanal and small-scale fisheries are
A summary of relevant activities taken
also being discussed. While the
by RFMO/As can be found in Table 1.
overall goal is for a level playing field
The most common measure used by
in trade, the potentially positive
RFMO/As in their attempts to control
environmental and distribution/equity
the level of fishing capacity and
impacts of special and differential
therefore overcapacity has been the
treatment have resulted in support for
creation of vessel lists, in which Flag
S&DT from the environmental non-
States identify the vessels authorized to
governmental organization (ENGO)
fish in area waters. Although these
community and some States.
lists may provide information on the
fleets' physical characteristics that in
A major reason for governments to
part determine current capacity levels,
provide financial support for fisheries
vessels lists often do not reduce
is to help ease the burden of
capacity and they do not prevent
adjustment and restructuring during
significant increases in capacity. At
times of change. Indeed, some of the
best, such lists usually have been
countries mentioned below that have
relatively unrestrictive license
moved to harvest rights-based fisheries
limitation programs for international
management have, in various ways,
fisheries.
worked with fishers and have used
public funds to facilitate the transition.
Some RFMO/As, predominately those
for highly migratory species, have
4. Regional efforts to manage
implemented or begun to discuss
fishing capacity
measures that could further limit but
not prevent increases in fishing
The importance of Regional Fisheries
capacity and, therefore, overcapacity.
Management Organizations and
However, to date, not one RFMO/A
Arrangements (RFMO/As) in
has implemented harvest rights-based
preventing or eliminating overfishing
measures (such as individual
and overcapacity has been identified in
transferable quotas or enforced
both UN Fish Stock Agreement and
national, community or sector quotas)
the IPOA-Capacity. However,
that could address the underlying
proposals to address overcapacity in
management problem that is the source
these fora are often thwarted, and those
of overcapacity and the other often co-
that are adopted are not always binding
occurring undesirable outcomes.
and enforced.
It is widely recognized that the present
Traditionally, RFMO/As have focused
worldwide tuna fishing capacity is in
on determining appropriate catch
excess of sustainable catch levels.
levels (e.g. TACs) and, in some cases
Despite this acknowledgement, there
allocating this limited catch among
are few, if any, international tuna
countries, rather than managing
fisheries management organization
capacity, and the limited recent
with management measures that will
attempts to manage the level of fishing
prevent significant increases in fishing
capacity have not always been
capacity.
effective. As a result, many fisheries
managed by RFMO/As have
34
Table 1. Summary of actions taken by RFMO/As to address fishing capacity
RFMO/A
Actions taken to address fishing capacity
Vessel registry for authorized vessels. Within 7 days of authorization, Flag States must provide
detailed information on the vessel, including name of owner and pictures of the boat, to the
Secretariat.
CCAMLR Flag State must ensure that vessel can comply with the conservation and management measures
prior to authorization.
Entrants into new fisheries require Commission approval.
CCBST
List of all vessels authorized to fish in CCBST waters
List of all vessels 15 meters and above. With the exception of vessels less than 15 meters,
vessels not included in this list are not allowed to fish in GCFM waters.
GCFM
Flag States must ensure that vessels on the list are in compliance with conservation and
management measures of GCFM and not IUU vessels
Regional vessel registry of authorized vessels. Purse-seine vessels not included in this list are
not allowed to fish in WCPFC waters.
Prohibition on new purse seine entrants unless replacing existing vessels and does not increase
IAATC
total hold capacity. (2002 Resolution)
Established a Plan for the Regional Management of Fishing Capacity
Established target hold capacity level for purse seine fisheries (2005 Resolution)
Each Contracting Party (CP), Cooperating non-Contracting Party (CNP), Entity or Fishing
Entity is required to submit the list of its large-scale fishing vessels (over 24 meters) that are
authorized to operate in the Convention Area.
CP and CNP in the Northern Albacore fishery large scale fleet to limit the fleet size to the
ICCAT
average number vessels from 1993-1995 (1998 Recommendation)
CP and CNP in the Bigeye Tuna fisheries to limit large scale fleet, based on gross tonnage, to
1991-1992 levels. (1998 Recommendation)
Established a Working Group on Capacity, which met in the summer of 2007. (2006
Recommendation)
Record of Vessels 24 meters and above (and 24 and below if outside EEZ)
Parties with 50 or more vessels on the record of vessels to maintain fleets at 2003 levels (2003
Resolution)
IOTC
For swordfish and albacore, limit vessels by gear type to 2007 levels until 2010. (2007 Res XX)
For tropical tuna, limit vessels according to gross tonnage to 2006 levels until 2009 (2006 Res
XX)
Vessel registry for authorized vessels over 50 gross tons. Vessels not included in this list are
not allowed to fish in NAFO waters.
NAFO
Contracting Parties should only authorize those vessels that can implement conservation and
management measure and report the Secretariat the name of authorized vessels.
Vessel registry for authorized vessels. Vessels not included in this list are not allowed to fish in
NEAFC waters.
NEAFC
Contracting Parties should only authorize those vessels that can implement conservation and
management measures and report the Secretariat the name of authorized vessels.
List/record of authorized vessels. Vessels not included in this list are not allowed to fish in
WCPFC waters.
Flag States ensure that vessels on the list are in compliance with conservation and management
WCPFC
measures of GCFM and are not IUU vessels
Due to unsustainable capacity increases from 1999-2005, Flag States called to reduce
overcapacity in their purse seine fleet by 12/31/07.
LVFO Regional Plan of Action for the Management of Fishing Capacity in Lake Victoria
LVFO
(adopted March 2007)
Development of agreed measures for implementing the RPOA-Capacity (underway)
At a meeting of joint tuna RFMOs, held in
participants in these fisheries should
Kobe, Japan in 2007, participants
exercise caution to avoid growth in fleet
recognized the critical need to deal
capacity.
effectively with overfishing and
overcapacity and agreed to work
To date, this plan has assisted in framing
collaboratively to reduce capacity, where
discussions to restrain future growth in the
appropriate. Most RFMOs have begun
fishing capacity of the IATTC fleets.
the process of identifying and
Prior to the development of the Plan, the
implementing more effective measures to
IATTC had established limits on the hold
control the fishing capacity of all or some
capacity for specific IATTC fleets and
of the tuna fleets operating in their
had taken other actions to prevent more
respective convention waters.
rapid increases in fishing capacity.
For example, the Inter-American Tropical
5. National efforts to manage
Tuna Commission (IATTC) and the
fishing capacity
International Commission for the
Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT)
At the national level, most States are
have done that, respectively, through a
working to address overcapacity and the
regional capacity management plan and
other often co-occurring undesirable
through the formation of a working group
outcomes of a common underlying fishery
on capacity. Related recent actions by
management problem. Preliminary
these two RFMOs are discussed below.
assessments of capacity at the fishery
level have been undertaken by around
IATTC
three-quarters of States responding to a
In 2005, the Inter-American Tropical
2004 FAO survey, and all of the major
Tuna Commission presented its plan for
producers responding to the survey had
regional management of fishing capacity.
undertaken preliminary assessments of
The objective of the IATTC Plan is to
capacity.
achieve, by 1 January 2006 or as soon as
possible thereafter, an efficient, equitable
The United States was the first country to
and transparent management of fishing
develop its National Plan of Action for the
capacity in the Eastern Pacific Ocean
Management of Fishing Capacity (NPOA-
(EPO), to assist in achieving long-term
Capacity). Since it was issued in 2004,
sustainability of the fishery targeting
several significant actions have been
species covered by the Convention.
taken to improve the management of the
level and use of fishing capacity in US
The management of fleet capacity will
commercial fisheries, but it is difficult to
complement other measures taken to
identify actions that were motivated by
conserve the stocks of species covered by
the US NPOA-Capacity. In addition, the
the Convention. CPCs3 and all
US National Marine Fisheries Service has
participants in these fisheries should limit
developed and published guidelines on the
the total fleet capacity to the present level
design and implementation of Limited
and to reduce it, as appropriate, in
Access Privilege programs, pursuant to
accordance with an agreed program.
their domestic fisheries legislation.
After any targets for the fleet capacity
have been achieved, CPCs and all
Another State that has formally adopted a
NPOA-Capacity and made it available to
3 CPC is the acronym originally used by IATTC to
FAO is Namibia. However, many other
describe Contracting Parties, Cooperating non-
States plan to develop a NPOA-Capacity
Contracting Parties, Entities and Fishing Entities.
It is becoming generic and, as such, also may
and some States have taken actions to
include regional economic integration
organizations.
improve the management of fishing
which are included among the references
capacity in the absence of such plans.4
at the end of this policy brief.
States have used various combinations of
Evaluation of Harvest Rights-Based
the following four generic approaches in
Programs
attempting to prevent/eliminate
Harvest rights-based programs establish
overcapacity: harvest rights or privileges
secure and enforceable harvest rights or
for either a specific share of the allowable
privileges either to specific shares of the
harvest or a specific area;
allowable catches or to specific aspects of
buyback/decommissioning programs;
the management of a specific area. The
license limitation or restricted vessel
rights or privileges are granted, auctioned
registration programs; and traditional
or otherwise sold to recipients who may
harvest restrictions.
be individual fishers, groups of fishers, or
fishing communities. Therefore, this
Three of the criteria can be used to
approach includes individual transferable
evaluate those generic approaches:
quota (ITQ), regional fishery associations,
1. Feasible and proven: They should be
fishing cooperatives, community quota,
technically, politically, and
and sector allocation programs.
economically feasible and should have
a proven track record of capacity
Establishing and enforcing secure harvest
reduction.
rights or privileges can address the
2. Permanent effect: They should
underlying management problem of the
promote permanent reductions in
absence of use rights and, therefore,
overcapacity. A management system
substantially reduce overcapacity and the
that adjusts capacity levels
severity of the other often co-occurring
automatically to changes in target
undesirable outcomes that are the result.
catch levels (e.g., TACs), and market
and environmental conditions is
This approach has been used successfully
particularly desirable.
by a variety of States for various types of
3. Flexibility: Given the diversity of
fisheries. It tends to provide a long-term
marine fisheries, effective reform
solution because it addresses the
programs should be adaptable to the
underlying fishery management problem
unique needs and management
and can provide a mechanism for
capabilities of individual fisheries.
automatic adjustment to changing
conditions. This is a flexible approach
Although the effectiveness of a given
with specific applications being designed
approach will depend on a variety of
to reflect fishery-specific conditions,
factors, such as the biological, social and
objectives and management capabilities.
economic characteristics of the fishery
and the specific application of that
For the fisheries around the world that
approach, the following brief evaluation
have moved to harvest rights-based
of the four generic approaches using those
regimes - e.g. fisheries in Australia (ITQs
criteria provides some insights concerning
and tradable gear unit allocations),
the merits of those approaches. The
Canada (enterprise allocations, communal
evaluation is based on numerous FAO,
commercial license, ITQs, and IVQs),
OECD and national reports, several of
Chile (Management and Exploitation
areas for Benthic Resources (MEABRs),
ITQs), Iceland (ITQs), Namibia (ITQs)
4 Such examples include Canada, Namibia, and
New Zealand (the quota management
New Zealand, where the respective governments
system, which includes ITQs), South
have opted to pursue capacity management
Africa (ITQs), USA (community
directly using management systems that address
the underlying management problem.
development quotas, ITQs and harvesting
37
cooperatives) the transitions have not
rates of overcapacity that many fisheries
always been easy and have typically been
exhibit and that prevent the attainment of
driven by fiscal, commercial, and
the sustainability objectives for domestic
overfishing crises. Indeed, many of these
and international fisheries.
States have used various
decommissioning schemes (e.g., buybacks
Evaluation of Buyback/
of vessels, permits and gear)
Decommissioning Programs
complemented with retraining
This approach removes fishing vessels
opportunities to expedite and mitigate the
and, therefore, capacity from a fishery
impacts of the change, with either private
directly by means of a buyback or
funds from the fishing industry or
decommissioning of fishing vessels or
environmental non-governmental
permits. With this approach, vessel
organizations (ENGOs) or with public
owners are compensated for removing
funds.
their vessels from specific fisheries or, in
some cases, all fisheries. The
In evaluating the effectiveness of harvest
compensation can be made with funds
rights-based programs to eliminate and
from the commercial fishing industry, the
prevent overcapacity, it is important to
recreational fisheries, ENGOs, the
remember that:
government, or some combination of the
above.
1. the reductions will not occur
immediately unless done in
The use of decommissioning schemes has
conjunction with vessel buyback or
increased in recent years. Although
other decommissioning schemes;
decommissioning promoted as a "win-
2. the rates and magnitudes of the
win" solution, with reductions in capacity,
reductions in fishing capacity will
less pressure on stocks, and increased
depend on the specifics of the program
profitability to the remaining fishers - the
used to implement that approach,
available evidence suggests that most
where the specifics will reflect
vessel decommissioning schemes fail
multiple conservation, management,
(Holland et al, 1999). It is also well
and social objectives5; and
recognized that decommissioning
3. the elimination of overcapacity still
schemes may actually increase
means that there will be occasional
overcapacity as they inject new capital
periods of excess capacity that may
into the fisheries sector and are generally
result from changes in market or
not introduced in conjunction with
environmental conditions (such as El
effective mechanisms to eliminate the
Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO)
incentives for fishers and countries to
events, but it does create the
increase fishing capacity and to take other
conditions to weather such
actions that prevent the attainment of the
fluctuations.
sustainability objectives for fisheries. In
addition, the presence of latent capacity
Nonetheless, over the long term, an
tends to increase the costs and decrease
effective harvest rights-based program
the effectiveness of this approach.
will eliminate the race for fish and move
the level of fishing capacity in the right
Although stand-alone
direction and, therefore, tend to
buyback/decommissioning programs
eliminate/prevent the chronic and high
typically have not been effective for
eliminating and preventing overcapacity
and can actually cause an increase in
5 For example, some ITQ programs include
fishing capacity, in some cases they have
constraints on transferability to meet distributional
been used effectively to facilitate the
or social objectives such as preventing too much
consolidation
transition to harvest rights-based
38
programs that have addressed the
Evaluation of Traditional Harvest
underlying management problem.
Restrictions
Much of current marine fisheries
Evaluation of License Limitation
management is based on this approach
Programs
that includes most input controls as well
License limitation or restricted vessel
as aggregate (e.g., fleet wide) output (total
registration programs restrict the number
catch) controls that limit where, when,
and, perhaps, the physical characteristics
how much, and with what type and how
(e.g., length, gross tonnage, engine power,
much gear a fishing vessel can be used.
or hold capacity) of the vessels that can
Examples of such controls include TACs,
participate in a fishery. They do this by:
aggregate or individual limits on effort,
requiring a license or permit as a
time and area closures, and various types
condition for participating in a fishery;
of gear restrictions.
setting specific past and current
participation requirements to obtain and
Therefore, this is an approach that has
renew a permit; and limiting the changes
been used in virtually all managed
that are allowed to specific vessel
fisheries to try to control the level or use
characteristics through either modifying
of fishing capacity, as well as for a variety
or replacing a permitted vessel.
of other reasons, including the reduction
of bycatch, the conservation of essential
This approach has been used widely and
fish habitat, and the protection of
flexibly; but, unless the rules to obtain and
endangered and threatened species.
renew a permit, to upgrade a vessels, and
to transfer a permit to a replacement
This approach does not directly remove
vessel are sufficiently restrictive and
fishing vessels from a fishery, but limits
become more restrictive over time, a
the ability of each vessel in the fishery to
license limitation program will not
harvest fish. The measures used with this
necessarily reduce capacity, and capacity
approach often increase costs and reduce
will tend to increase after any initial
revenues, and, therefore, may have the
reduction as fishing technology improves
cumulative effect of forcing some vessels
and as the use of the unrestricted inputs is
out of the fishery; however, it also creates
increased.
reasons for participants to overcapitalize.
The basic problem is its failure to address
The conclusions with respect to the three
the common underlying management
criteria are as follows: this approach has
problem of weakly defined harvest rights
been used to try to control both the level
and, therefore, to remove the perverse
and use of capacity and for other
incentives for fishers to increase fishing
management purposes in most fisheries;
capacity. However, such a program can
because there are so many types of
precede the transition to a harvest rights-
harvest restrictions, these measures are
based approach that will do both. For
highly flexible; but these measures do not
example by limiting the number of vessel
eliminated and prevent overcapacity
owners in a fishery, a license limitation
unless they are very restrictive and made
program can facilitate cooperative efforts
more restrictive over time.
to address the underlying management
problems through the use of either
This approach does not address the
contracts/agreements among the vessel
underlying management problem and does
owners or the standard fishery regulatory
not respond automatically to changes in
process.
the target catch levels and either market or
environmental conditions. However, if
some of these measures are implemented
in conjunction with a harvest rights-based
39
approach, they can contribute to an
Goal 2: Substantially decrease the
effective management regime that meets
incentives for Flag States with fleets in
the objectives of sustainable fisheries.
international fisheries to maintain or
increase fishing capacity in international
6. Top priority policy issues
fisheries when there is already
overcapacity and to take other actions that
The failure to align the interests of
prevent the attainment of the
individual States with the sustainability
sustainability objectives for international
objectives for international fisheries has
fisheries;
provided incentives for them to maintain
or increase fishing capacity when there is
Goal 3: Strengthen the Regional Fisheries
already too much capacity and to take
Management Organizations and
other actions that prevent the attainment
Arrangements (RFMO/As) in terms of
of those objectives. Similarly, the failure
their abilities to address capacity based on
to align the interests of individual fishers
incentives.; and
or groups of fishers with the sustainability
objectives for domestic and international
Goal 4: Mitigate the effects generated by
fisheries has provided incentives for them
perverse incentives as part of moving to
to maintain or increase fishing capacity
harvest rights systems.
when there is already too much capacity
and to take other actions that prevent the
4. Suggested goals, targets, and objectives
attainment of those objectives.
for improvement
In both cases, these perverse incentives
Strategies to substantially decrease
have resulted in inadequate investments in
perverse incentive for fishers
the conservation and management of
Moving to substantially reduce
living marine resources by fishers and
overcapacity
States. In addition, attempts to address
There is no need for fisheries managers
the undesirable outcomes of these
and fishers to wait for a perfect
perverse incentives individually without
"measuring stick" and perfect estimates of
eliminating or substantially reducing those
fishing capacity in a fishery, and in many
incentives often have been
cases fishery managers have taken actions
counterproductive and have resulted in the
to decrease fishing capacity in the absence
need for frequent management changes to
of quantitative estimates of fishing
prevent increasing disparities between the
capacity.
desired and actual outcomes.
Ward et al. (2004) and others have
Therefore, the overarching priority policy
identified qualitative measures of
issue is to identify and implement fishery
overcapacity and indicators of the
policies and management systems that
presence of or increases in overcapacity.
will contribute to the following four goals,
For example, there probably is
preferably where successful strategies for
overcapacity if: there is overfishing or if
one goal can contribute to meeting the
the quotas are exceeded consistently; the
other goals.
process for setting and allocating the
allowable catch is contentious; there are
Goal 1: Substantially decrease the
significant compliance problems; or the
incentives for fishers to maintain or
fleets are idle for a significant part of the
increase fishing capacity when there is
year or more than in the past.
already overcapacity and to take other
actions that prevent the attainment of the
Conversely, even very good estimates of
sustainability objectives;
fishing capacity for the commercial
fisheries do not indicate if capacity should
40
be reduced, how much to reduce it, how to
Retraining, unemployment and
reduce it, and the urgency for reducing it.
community development programs have
been used to decrease the burden on a
These determinations generally will be
broader group of adversely impacted
more difficult for multispecies fisheries,
individuals.
rebuilding stocks, stocks subject to sharp
environmental fluctuations, stocks with
Programs that decrease the adverse
significant recreational catch, and stocks
impacts or at least change the distribution
with significant incidental catch or
of the impacts can decrease opposition to
bycatch. Yet, if and when the underlying
the reductions in fishing capacity.
absence of harvest rights problem that
Similarly, temporary reductions in fishing
results in overcapacity and other often co-
capacity and catch to rebuild depleted
occurring undesirable outcomes is
stocks will be more acceptable if those
addressed effectively, the need for such
who bear the cost of those reductions
determinations will be substantially
expect to receive sufficient benefits from
reduced, if not eliminated.
rebuilding the stocks. Such an
expectation can be increased through both
Mitigating the undesirable impacts of
the use of participatory harvest rights-
reducing overcapacity
based management and the empowerment
Fishing capacity cannot be decreased
of local communities to make the difficult
without either removing some fishing
decisions about managing their fisheries
vessel and fishers from the fishery;
because fishers are more involved in
therefore, it cannot be done without
deciding how to share the benefits
decreasing the ability of at least some
generated by fisheries.
vessel owners, fishers and others who
provide them with goods and services to
Addressing the redeployment of capacity
earn a living and provide food for their
When boats are removed from one
families. The cost borne by these
fishery, they often end up in another
individuals and fishing communities can
fishery, perhaps in another country and/or
be substantial, particularly when
region, as fishers work to maintain their
alternative sources of employment,
incomes and livelihoods. This issue,
income or food are not readily available to
which can be a serious problem, calls for
them.
improved coordination at all levels of
fisheries management from locally to
In many cases, States have used a variety
across RFMOs - particularly where gear
of programs to decrease the adjustment
types are similar. For example, being
costs for these individuals. For example,
aware of the planned actions of other
with market-based solutions, such as
RFMO/As can be useful to a potentially
ITQs, the vessel owners who leave a
impacted RFMO/A in determining the
fishery after being granted ITQs are
benefits of improving its management of
compensated for leaving the fishery by
fishing capacity.
being able to sell their ITQs.
Buyback/decommissioning programs have
Internationally, such redeployments can
also been used to compensate vessel
include capacity "transfers" even without
owners who leave a fishery, but as note
change in ownership: fleets in some flag
abovet, it is difficult to ensure that such
states have responded to domestic
compensation is not used to increase the
capacity reduction measures by moving
fishing capacity of another vessel in the
large numbers of vessels to other flag
same fishery unless the fishery is
states, while allowing the original owner
transitioned to a harvest rights-based
companies to continue to own the vessels.
regime. Even then, the capacity may
simply be redeployed to other fisheries.
41
In recognition of this problem, some
A requirement to use existing vessels
States that have used buybacks to remove
could substantially decrease the benefits
vessels from one fishery have taken
to the Developing States adjacent to the
actions, such as scrapping or
fishing grounds of the international
decommissioning the vessels, to prevent
fisheries. No matter what methods are
the vessels from being used in some or
used in an attempt to meet the
any other fisheries. However, before
sustainability objectives for international
imposing a prohibition on the
fisheries, it will be very difficult to make
redeployment of vessels to other fisheries
real progress without addressing these two
after they have been removed from a
aspects of the difficult allocation issue.
fishery as part of a fishing capacity
As with the establishment of domestic
reduction program, the broadly defined
harvest right-based programs or other
benefits and costs of such a prohibition
programs to reduce fishing capacity,
should be carefully assessed.
compensation for the parties that are
adversely impacted can facilitate the
Strategies to substantially decrease
implementation of more effective
perverse incentive for flag States with
measures to manage the level and use of
fleets in international fisheries
fishing capacity in RFMO/A fisheries.
Each RFMO/A should identify and
implement an effective method or mix of
A related key issue for each RFMO/A is
methods for substantially increasing the
determining if each State will be free to
reasons for Flag States with vessels that
use any share of the allowable catch it
participate in the RFMO/A's fisheries to
receives in a way that best meets its own
support the sustainability objectives for
objectives subject to some restrictions
fisheries. Examples of such methods
established by the RFMO/A or whether
include establishing secure, enforced and
the RFMO/A would develop a one size
durable harvest rights that are granted or
fits all program, such as an ITQ program
sold to States, multilateral trade measures,
under which the fishers of all States
and port state measures.
would be managed. Whilst the former
may encourage participation in such a
One of the key issues that will need to be
scheme, it would not address issues of
addressed is the rights of States, often
overcapacity or capacity management at
Developing States, to harvest or otherwise
the level of the recipient States.
benefit from the fishery resources in their
Nonetheless, the merits of both
own EEZs and adjacent areas of the high
approaches should be evaluated.
seas. There are two aspects to this
difficult allocation issue between those
If Developing States are going to avoid
States and the often Developed States
the mistakes already made by others, such
with the distant water fleets that continue
as not preventing/eliminating chronically
to account for a large share of the total
high levels of overcapacity in their fleets,
harvest in international fisheries. First,
they need to ensure that their fishing
the allocation of either harvest rights for
capacity management programs, including
either explicit shares of the allowable
their ability to exert flag state controls, are
catches or, as a proxy for this, to use a
adequate. The Community Development
specific share of the total allowable
Quota systems in Alaska, USA, offer one
number of fishing vessels, carrying
of the best examples of where
capacity or effort. Also rules concerning
communities have benefited in terms of
whether the Developing States can use
on-the-ground training, wealth, and
any fishing vessels to harvest fish or will
sustainable harvesting as a result of
be required to purchase vessels or the
transition to rights-based management and
services of vessels that are already in the
could serve as a model.
fishery.
42
The Global Forum could suggest a
based management programs. Therefore,
schedule for meeting this recommendation
efforts to develop MCS programs that are
and methods for assisting each RFMO/A
more efficient and to share information on
to meet it.
efficient programs should be encouraged.
This strategy would also assist in
Strategies to strengthen the RFMO/As
improving the management of domestic
Several examples of ways to strengthen
fisheries.
RFMO/As and, therefore, to increase the
potential for meeting the sustainability
Identify other methods for improving
objective in international fisheries are
compliance with their fishery policies
briefly discussed below. With most of
and management measures
these examples, there will be tradeoffs
The ability of an RFMO/A to hold its
between the sovereignty of individual
Contracting Parties accountable is critical
States and the sustainability of
for effective management and both the
international fishery resources, but it
importance and challenges of having that
needs to be remembered that the
accountability can increase with the use of
sovereign rights to participate in an
right-based management measures.
international fishery with depleted stocks
are of limited value.
Therefore, efforts to develop feasible,
enforceable, and otherwise effective
The Global Forum could agree on the
accountability measures and to share
need to pursue these or alternative
information on those measures should be
methods for meeting this goal and suggest
encouraged.
a process and schedule for making
progress on each priority method for
Identify RFMO/A governance policies
meeting this goal.
that can be barriers to sustainable
fisheries
Provide RFMO/As with the
It is important to identify any RFMO/A
unambiguous authority to enforce their
governance policies that can be barriers to
fishery policies and management
sustainable fisheries and, if there are any,
measures on all fishing vessels and Flag
to determine which can/should be
States that operate in their fisheries
changed. Examples could include
Ambiguities concerning the authority of
operating by consensus, requiring
an RFMO/A to take direct enforcement
unanimity or relying on nonbinding
actions against any fishing vessel that is
measures.
not fishing in compliance with the
RFMO/A's fishing policies and
Therefore, efforts to identify such policies
management measures substantially
and feasible alternatives that decrease this
decreases its ability to meet its fishery
problem while maintaining an acceptable
conservation and management objectives.
balance in the trade-off between sovereign
rights and sustainability should be
Therefore, providing clear authority to
encourage; and the results of such efforts
take such actions is an important step in
should be made readily available to all
strengthening RFMO/As.
RFMO/As.
Identify methods and technologies for
Identify mechanisms for RFMO/As to
improving RFMO/A monitoring, control,
coordinate their actions where
and surveillance programs
appropriate
Adequate and affordable monitoring,
The challenges for RFMO/As include the
control, and surveillance (MCS) programs
mobility of both the fish stocks and the
are essential and the challenges and need
fishing vessels that pursue them. Because
for such programs can increase with right-
fishing vessels commonly participate in
43
the fisheries of multiple RFMO/As and
Efforts to limit catches sufficiently to end
because the RFMO/As face many
or prevent overfishing and to rebuild
common problems, improved
depleted stocks will only succeed if the
communication, coordination and
participants in the fisheries actively
cooperation among RFMO/As can
support such efforts. And, that support is
increase their potential to attain the
unlikely unless those who bear the costs
sustainability objectives.
of the constraints on catch and fishing
capacity expect to receive at least roughly
For example, if all the vessels in a fleet of
comparable benefits. Harvest rights-
100 fishing vessels fished in the fisheries
based approaches have been effective in
of two RFMO/As and if each RFMO/A
gaining support for such constraints in
decided to allow no new entrants in its
many fisheries.
fisheries but to allow for replacement
vessels, that fleet could expand to 200
Very basically, there are only two
vessels with each vessel fishing in just
categories of fisheries management
one RFMO/A's fisheries, unless there was
approaches that are used to manage
sufficient communication and
fisheries, they are (1) command and
coordination between the two RFMO/As.
control approaches and (2) harvest rights-
based approaches that are supplemented
Therefore, it is important to identify and
as necessary with additional management
support mechanisms for improving such
tools. The former consists of measures
interactions.
that are based on trying to prevent fishers
from catching as many fish by, in essence,
Determine if corporate governance is a
making it more difficult and more costly
feasible and better alternative to
to operate. Unfortunately, when used as
RFMO/A governance
the primary or core means of
If the governance policies of the
management, these measures do little to
RFMO/As are found to be substantial
address the underlying causes of
barriers to meeting the sustainability
overcapacity and frequently lead to
objectives, the exploration of alternatives,
overcapacity.
such as corporate governance, might be
useful even if it is used only to identify
The core management measures in the
any deficiencies of the current governance
second category of approaches focus on
policies and feasible remedies.
aligning the commercial forces that are
part of the daily operations of fishers with
7. Recommendations for
the biological goal of sustainability.
addressing priority issues and for
These "incentive aligning" measures are
progress toward achieving
based on defensible harvest rights for the
stakeholders, and they are being
targets/goals
implemented in a growing number of
fisheries around the world. Their
The management of fisheries around the
implementation has often been more
world has arrived at a critical juncture
contentious because they clearly
with biologically and economically
determine who can catch which fish;
unsustainable fishing practices in many of
however, once implemented, harvest
the world's fisheries. There is a profound
rights-based management systems
link between the approaches to managing
(typically supplemented with input
fisheries and fishing capacity and the way
controls for additional reasons) have
in which participants behave and conduct
tended to eliminate or prevent the
their fishing operations.
chronically high levels of overcapacity
that had prevented the attainment of the
fishery sustainability objectives.
44
Moreover, these measures work even
fishing industry or the fishery
when there is neither a quantitative
management process.
assessment of fishing capacity or a
determination of the optimum level of
Efforts to increase political awareness of
fishing capacity.
the common underlying management
problems caused by weak harvest rights
Therefore, the crucial strategic policy
should be redoubled. It should be made
decision currently facing fisheries
clear that rigorous quantitative estimates
managers is how to initiate or accelerate
of fishing capacity and overcapacity are
efforts to identify and implement harvest
not required to improve the management
rights-based approaches that are
of fishing capacity. Participants can also
supplemented as necessary with additional
increase general awareness of the wealth
management tools.
generated by transitioning to sustainable
rights-based fisheries6, the broad range of
8. Recommendations on how best
rights-based management solutions that
the Global Forum can contribute
have been used successfully to address the
to the identified priority goals and
common underlying management problem
that results in overcapacity and various
action plans
other undesirable outcomes; and the
ability to adapt such solutions to address
In its work of promoting international
fishery-specific and user group-specific
consensus-building and cross-sectoral
conditions, objectives and management
dialogue on ocean and coastal issues,
capabilities.
especially among governments,
nongovernmental organizations,
In order to fully address the impediments
intergovernmental organizations, the
to solving the underlying fishery
private sector, and scientific institutions,
management problem, the Forum provides
the Global Forum provides an excellent
a venue for public officials to work with
platform for recognizing and reinforcing
private sector participants especially
global efforts to address the common
fishers and ENGOs to help ensure that
source of overcapacity and the other often
capacity reduction efforts are carried out
co-occurring undesirable outcomes of the
in collaboration with other fishers and
underlying management problem.
fisheries, both within countries and/or
international fora to mitigate the problems
Additionally, in its advocacy at the
that can result (e.g., when the fishing
highest political levels, because the
boats removed from one fishery are
Global Forum can help reinforce
redeployed to another fishery).
knowledge, resources, and organizational
action to advance the global oceans
The Forum in Vietnam should consider
agenda and to promote integrated oceans
approaches for improving the
management, it can serve to support
management of fisheries and fishing
ongoing fisheries management efforts
capacity globally, including the
relating to the issue of overcapacity. For
implementation of harvest rights-based
example, it can reinforce the ongoing
measures or other measures that address
work to identify and implement
the misalignment problem facilitated by
mechanisms that will contribute to
(ENGO-funded) decommissioning
correcting the misalignment problem by
proving both better information
6 Because rights-based fisheries management
concerning the expected results of various
systems increase the profitability of the fishery,
fishery management policies and better
the fishers have increased ability to pay for
incentives for States, fishery managers,
fisheries management and enforcement costs and,
fishers, and other participants in the
importantly, a reason to participate in the
protection of their assets.
45
schemes, as well as the introduction of
FAO. 2007 (forthcoming). Managing
management schemes using units of effort
Fishing Capacity. FAO Technical
that are effective proxies for actual
Guidelines for Responsible
harvest shares, including tradable gear or
Fisheries. No. 4, Suppl. 3 Rome.
time units, if harvest shares cannot be
FAO. 1999. International Plan of Action
monitored and enforced adequately.
for the Management of Fishing
Capacity.
It is also important to allow the work of
FAO) 1998. Report of the Technical
participants to feed into future work at the
Working Group on the Management
policy level, particularly within
of Fishing Capacity, La Jolla, USA,
RFMO/As. To facilitate this, the Global
15-18 April 1998. FAO Fisheries
Forum should recognize and support the
Report. No. 586. Rome.
FAO. 2000. Report of the Technical
ongoing work of the five tuna RFMOs
Consultation on the Measurement of
and other regional fisheries organizations
Fishing Capacity. Mexico City,
working to address the underlying
Mexico, 29 November to 3
misalignment problems. It can then seek
December 1999. FAO Fisheries
to identify mechanisms for RFMO/As to
Report. No. 615. Rome.
coordinate their actions where appropriate
Cunningham, S and D Greboval. 2001.
and methods to provide RFMO/As with
Managing Fishing Capacity: A
the unambiguous authority to ensure that
review of policy and technical
all vessels and States that operate in their
issues involved in managing
fisheries are subject to monitoring and
capacity. FAO Fisheries Technical
enforce programs that effectively support
Paper 409. Rome.
compliance with their fishery policies and
FAO. (forthcoming). Technical Guidelines
management measures, including harvest
for Responsible Fisheries
rights-based measures.
Fisheries Management Supplement
3: Managing Fishing Capacity.
Furthermore, it may be useful to identify
Rome.
the RFMO/A governance policies that are
Grafton, R.Q., R. Hannesson, B. Shallard,
barriers to sustainable fisheries and
D. Sykes, and J. Terry. 2006. The
determine if corporate governance is a
Economics of Allocation in Tuna
feasible and better alternative to RFMO/A
Regional Fisheries Management
governance.
Organizations. Australian National
University Economics and
Environment Network Working
9. Conclusions and future
Paper EEN0612.
projections
http://een.anu.edu.au/download_file
This section is deliberately left open for
s/een0612.pdf.
discussion by the representatives at the 4th
Holland, D.,E. Gudmundsson, and J. Gates.
Global Forum in Hanoi, Vietnam.
1999. Do fishing vessel buyback
programs work: a survey of the
______________________________
evidence. Marine Policy, 23(1): 47-
69.
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48
Policy Brief:
Aquaculture
1. Introduction
fishers in developing countries who
rely on fish as their main source of
Fish for food: A shift in reliance
animal protein and income, but, it can
from wild stocks and capture
also affect economic development and
fisheries to aquaculture?
social welfare in many countries
Aquaculture has been around for
around the world.
centuries. Since remote Antiquity,
mankind has mastered techniques to
Yet, not only capture fisheries are
grow and cultivate fish and other living
unlikely to recover adequately in the
aquatic resources inland or near the
near future, but there is no indication
seashore. However, until recent times,
that fish production from the capture
aquaculture has been shadowed and
will increase significantly in the short
even dwarfed by capture fisheries,
or medium run; it will remain
especially when the amount of catch
unchanged, at best (Figure 1).
began to increase hugely and steadily
as a consequence of the combination of
Meanwhile, owing to population
technological development and growth
growth and to an increased
in demand for fish. From less than 4
understanding of the human health
million tonnes in 1900, catches
benefits of increased seafood
increased to 16.7 million tonnes in
consumption, the world demand for
1950, 62 million tonnes in 1980,
fish continues to be on the rise. With
reaching a record high of 86.7 million
improving incomes and well-being in
tonnes in 2000.
many countries, primarily in South
Asia, home to more than one fifth of
Since then, the levels of catch are
the world's population, per capita fish
stagnating globally. It is generally
demand is likely to expand further.
estimated that about 50 percent of the
stocks are fully exploited (with no
In light of this situation, while
room for further expansion and some
recognizing that the recovery of
risk of decline if not properly
depleted stocks is urgent and avoiding
managed), 25 percent overexploited or
depletion of still-healthy stocks is
depleted and only 25 percent
important, there is a growing
moderately exploited or
awareness that only aquaculture can
underexploited.
bridge immediately, and in the longer
term, the gap between the maximum
Wild stocks moreover are threatened
level of sustainable output from
by population pressure, illegal
capture fisheries and the increasing
unreported and unregulated fishing, the
world demand for seafood.
dramatic increase of abusive fishing
techniques and environmental factors
Aquaculture production has been
such as pollution from sea or land-
growing in response to the growth in
based sources and climate change. The
demand. There has been a momentous
resulting stock depletion not only can
increase of aquaculture in the past
have dramatic implications for food
thirty-five years from 9.9 percent of
security, especially for subsistence
total production of fish, crustaceans
49
and mollusks by weight in 1970, to
in 2005, 57 percent came from
29.9 percent in 2002, with mariculture
freshwater farming; the rest came from
representing still only 36.5 percent of
brackish water (8 percent) and from
that amount. Already, nearly 43
marine environments (35 percent) and,
percent of fish consumed comes from
as stressed below, this proportion
aquaculture (FAO, 2006).
should increase considerably in the
longer term.
In addition, aquaculture's contribution
to countries' economies is growing in
importance. The world value of
2. Relationship to the broader
aquaculture output reached US$ 70
global ocean WSSD
billion in 2004. In some countries, this
goals/targets
contribution to national economies
represents an important share of their
GDP. For example, in 1998,
The WSSD oceans outcomes can be
aquaculture added 4.96 percent to
characterized as setting out a strategy
Vietnam's GDP. Since then, the value
for improved oceans governance,
of Vietnam's aquaculture output has
sustainable fisheries, and conservation
been increasing exponentially, at an
of marine biodiversity. Aquaculture
annual average rate of more than 22
can play a vital role in achieving these
percent. Another significant example is
goals through sustainable economic
to be found in the Chilean salmon (and
development and environmentally
trout) farming, which constitutes 79
friendly technologies, reduction in
percent of the total fish and fish
fishing pressure on living marine
products exported from Chile, bringing
resources, and the rebuilding of
US $2.21 billion in export revenues
depleted stocks.
(from 387,141 tons exported) into the
country's economy in 2006, and
creating tens of thousands of direct and
3. Top priority policy issues
indirect jobs.
The main priority policy goals can be
Thus, whilst capture fisheries are only
parsed into a range of specific
expected to be responsibly and
concerns. They include issues related
sustainably managed and resources
to: (1) availability and access to space
conserved, there is an accepted and
and water; (2) availability and access
widespread expectation that
to production inputs; (3) the trend
aquaculture will and should be
towards marine aquaculture and sea-
developed. These indeed are the same
ranching; (4) the interaction between
terms used in the 1995 FAO Code of
aquaculture and the environment; (5)
Conduct for Responsible Fisheries and
technological development and access
the semantic nuance is significant.
to financial capital; and (6) access to
markets. Another important and cross-
There are a number of important issues
cutting topic is issues related to aquatic
linked to that evolving role and
animal health and human health,
growing importance of aquaculture.
including both sanitary and
As noted above, these issues are no
phytosanitary issues.
more circumscribed to inland waters or
to the coasts: they concern the seas and
oceans themselves. Of the 48.150.000
tons of fish produced from aquaculture
50
4. Suggested goals, targets, and
access and right to clean water.
objectives for improvement
Another element commonly
encountered in the legislative texts on
Issues related to availability and
the supply side of aquaculture is the
access to space and water
permits and licensing systems. Permits
Space and water are by far the most
and licenses enable Governments to
important production factors in
assess the environmental sustainability
aquaculture.
of aquaculture proposals and to impose
In freshwater or coastal aquaculture,
conditions that require the farms to be
with the possible few exceptions, there
operated in a sustainable manner. They
is little new land available for fish
further provide farmers with clear
farming in most countries around the
rights to run aquaculture facilities as
world. Land shortage is already acute
long as they comply with the terms of
in many countries, especially in Asia,
the permits, the relevant environmental
the world's leading aquaculture
laws and the applicable codes of
producer. As aquaculture countries
aquaculture practices.
expand their production and new ones
embark in this activity, land scarcity
However, such is not always the case.
will become even more severe. Land
In many countries, especially in the
availability and land use policies are
developing world, land rights are not
likely to remain as major constraints to
clearly defined, which often leads to
aquaculture expansion globally.
serious disputes. In other cases, the
land acquisition process is usually long
Different governments have taken
and fraudulent, which deters investors,
different approaches to address the
thereby hampering the development of
land issue. As is the case in Southeast
aquaculture. With the emergence of
Asia, one means has been to convert
large-scale commercial farms in many
agricultural to aquaculture land where
parts of the world, these issues will
crops such as rice have failed to
need to be properly addressed for an
produce competitive returns.
orderly development of the sector.
Aquaculture has also been integrated
Even in developed countries, assessing
into existing farming systems, such as
the viability of an investment in
in sugar plantations. However, land
aquaculture remains difficult. The lack
conversion and crop integration have
of a comprehensive, stable governance
their own limits. Where there is no
structure for aquaculture impedes
possibility of expanding aquaculture
financial planning and investment in
production through these means, one
aquaculture.
of the policies used to overcome this
constraint is to promote intensification
In many countries, the use of
of land-based production. This
freshwater in aquaculture gives rise to
approach will be re-visited in a
frequent conflicts. In addition to its use
different section.
in aquaculture, freshwater plays an
important role in human consumption
Most nations have come to understand
and irrigated agriculture. For many, its
the importance for the farmer to secure
use in aquaculture is a loss for
a legal right to the land on which the
agriculture, however, this is debatable.
farm is located, be it through
In many cases agriculture has been
ownership, a lease or similar legal
given priority in allocating water. Yet,
arrangements. They also enact laws
the two sectors need not be mutually
and regulations for farmers to have
incompatible. There are policies to
51
encourage multiple use of water
word in the maritime spaces under its
resources in many countries around the
sovereignty, it will have to take into
world. Local committees for water
account the rights and interests of other
management have also been
States in the exclusive economic zone
established in many countries to try to
in accordance with article 59 of the
avert or resolve water conflicts as they
1982 Convention on the Law of the
occur, but as aquaculture expands, the
Sea. In the high seas, all users are, in
problem of access to clean water is
theory, on the same footing and would
likely to become more acute and a
be in the obligation to negotiate the
serious limiting factor to aquaculture
establishment of the necessary
development; it may call for adequate
principles and rules applicable to this
policies at the national, regional and
new activity (see below).
global levels to lessen or avert
associated potential conflicts.
Issues related to availability and
However, in most developing
access to, and selection of,
countries, there is still a lack of
production inputs
modern water legislation for the
Availability and access to production
allocation of water resources,
inputs such as seed and feed are
especially during dry seasons or other
important in the selection of species to
times of water shortage, and for the
cultivate. Where these inputs are
control of water pollution which can be
available and affordable, other things
enforced at the insistence of the
being equal, often high value-species
farmer.
and sophisticated cultivation
techniques are used, and higher output
In the case of marine aquaculture and
levels generally follow. In Africa, for
sea-ranching, access to space is
example, the lack or limited access to
conditioned by one of the basic legal
good quality feed and seed has left
characteristics of the 1982 United
farmers with no choice but to grow
Nations Convention on the Law of the
almost only plankton feeder or
Sea. That is, the division of seas and
omnivorous species such as Tilapia (O.
oceans into areas subject to different
niloticus) and Catfish. This situation of
legal regimes. On the one hand, there
inadequate inputs along with the lack
are various areas under the sovereignty
of sound policies has left Africa
or national jurisdiction of the coastal
lagging far behind the rest of the world
State: internal waters, archipelagic
in terms of aquaculture production.
waters, territorial sea, contiguous zone,
exclusive economic zone and
Limited access to capital has resulted
continental shelf. On the other hand,
in limited farming of "high-value"
there are the international spaces,
species such as shrimp and abalone,
which include the high seas and the
which require important investment
international sea-bed area. The
capital. In Taiwan and Thailand where
development of aquaculture and sea-
feed, seed and capital are not an issue,
ranching will constitute an activity that
shrimp farming has been extensively
will necessarily compete with others,
developed.
especially those related to the
utilization of resources both living and
In general, producers might also
mineral. Competition will also occur
respond to increasing demand by
with those activities related to
expanding appropriate technologies to
navigation and communication. Whilst
cover diversification to new species or
the coastal State will have the final
strains, especially those of high
52
commercial value. Diversification to
vulnerabilities to fish health and/or
high value species is already
environmental problems. In the
expanding in several places in the
particular case of many developing
world, including in marine fish
countries, especially in Africa, limited
production in Southeast Asia with an
availability and access to good quality
increase of the number of farms for
seed and feed remain problematic and
mariculture of high value species while
could put these countries at a
farms producing low value species,
comparative disadvantage. There is a
such as cyprinids, are plummeting.
need to rethink policies to address
China and the Philippines are good
these issues.
examples.
The feed issue has also already risen in
The farming of non-food species, such
the developed world where it could
as ornamental aquaculture, is a still-ill-
become a major constraint to
explored and yet promising side of the
aquaculture expansion; fish feed has
industry. In 2000, ornamental fish
become and is likely to remain an
farming brought an estimated retail
important global issue. The problem
value of US $3 billion into the world
stems from the reliance on fishmeal
economy. Because of its potential for
and fish oils to grow fish in many
employment and income creation in
countries. With the predicted global
rural and urban areas, and for
increase in aquaculture production, the
generating foreign exchange earnings,
use of fishmeal in aqua feed is
Governments around the world are
expected to increase by more than 5
ever more promoting the culture and
percent (from 2.87 to 3.02 million
trade of ornamental fish. As the
tonnes from 2002 to 2012) while the
competition for the supply of food fish
demand for fish oil will increase by
increases, it is likely that this aspect of
more than 17 percent (from 0.83 to
aquaculture will grow in importance
0.97 million tonnes) from 2002 to 2012
with the least competitive farmers in
(Tacon et al., 2006).
the production of table fish shifting to
this new technology. The challenge
However, there are good reasons to
will be for policy makers to curve and
remain optimistic. The production of
limit the expansion of the disease
fishmeal and fish oil is expected to
outbreaks which already threaten this
remain stable over the next decade.
industry.
The share of fishmeal use by the
animal production sector is expected to
As some production factors such as
fall and the use of vegetable-based
land and water become scarce,
protein and oil to increase. Because of
producers will probably turn to less
technological advances, there are
land and water intensive farming
expectations that feeding practices will
systems, which will require intensive
become more efficient, thereby
feeding and high quality seed. Indeed,
allowing the sector to use less feed. A
intensification is becoming a growing
combination of these factors implies
phenomenon across the globe. But,
that fishmeal and fish oil availability is
because production costs generally rise
unlikely to seriously threaten
with the level of intensification, not all
aquaculture development in the
farmers are expected to intensify.
medium run. However, FAO (2006)
Instead, many may choose to reduce
cautions that this optimism should be
intensity and produce less output, but
taken cautiously. The demand for
lower the costs and/or the
fishmeal and fish oil from developing
53
economies like China may have a big
overfishing and depletion. A
impact on the overall supply and
significant example is the capture and
demand of these feedstuffs. In 2003,
fattening of the blue fin tuna in the
China's share of the total global
Mediterranean. A major problem in
fishmeal imports was 22.5% (FAO,
this "ranching" production is the
2005).
unreported capture of juvenile fish,
outside internationally agreed
There has been a good deal of effort in
conservation and management rules.
finding proper substitutes for fishmeal
and fish oil from vegetable and
Issues related to the trend towards
terrestrial sources. Unfortunately, total
marine aquaculture and sea-
replacement of fishmeal has so far
ranching
been possible only for omnivore and
The expected high demand for fish will
herbivore finfish and crustaceans.
eventually trigger the increase in fish
There is a need for concerted global
prices in the short run. As was the case
effort for more research in this area.
with the shrimp fever in the 1980's,
high prices will induce aquaculture
Finally, there are other dimensions of
entrepreneurs to look for new ways of
the use of fish in aquaculture that must
meeting the high demand for fish.
be mentioned. First, the use of fish as
feed. About six million tonnes of the
Faced with limited possibilities of
so-called trash fish are used as direct
inland expansion due to the increasing
feed in aquaculture annually,
land and water paucity, they are likely
particularly in marine aquaculture. For
to move outward instead. One of the
instance, it is projected that by the year
foreseen ways is to develop and widely
2013, China alone would require 4
adopt new production technologies
million tonnes of "trash" fish to sustain
such as sophisticated offshore cage
its marine cage culture. Yet, the
culture and enclosure systems. The
supplies are declining; the use of
potential for offshore aquaculture is
"trash" fish in aquaculture does not
high worldwide, especially in North
look sustainable. There are also
and Latin America, Asia Pacific,
concerns that the continued use of
Europe and West and Southern Africa.
"trash" fish may result in adverse
Since offshore aquaculture is contained
environmental effects and biosecurity
in the ambit of the coastal State's
risks. Claims that the so-called trash
jurisdiction, it is up to this State to take
fish should be used as human food are
the necessary action to define the
mounting. These concerns could put
applicable legal regime. An interesting
pressure on the use of fish meal,
example is the legal and regulatory
thereby limiting aquaculture expansion
framework being considered by the
(everything else remaining the same).
United States for offshore aquaculture
in that country's Exclusive Economic
Second, the utilisation of fish from
Zone.
wild stocks as seed. For some species,
capturing juveniles from the wild for
Another production technology which
fattening in pens or cages is
is likely to emerge at a wide scale as a
progressively becoming a common
consequence of land and freshwater
practice in some regions. This method
dearth and the search for enough
may lead to an additional pressure on
supply to meet demand, is sea
these stocks, which can be
ranching. This production system is
considerable and can result in their
likely to lead to a consolidated trend of
54
moving seaward and in deeper waters
Taking into account the radical
aquaculture operations and activities,
differences between sea-ranching and
which, for a long time, occurred close
marine capture fisheries, one possible
to the shore. The system is also likely
approach might be to focus on the rules
to result in a higher utilization of
applicable to the installations
marine species, such as tuna (in tuna
themselves rather than to consider the
farming). There are good reasons to
purpose for which they will be put in
believe that there will be installation of
place. Rather than treating these
sea-farms in the high seas, beyond the
installations as a kind of moored
200 miles belt of national jurisdiction
"ships", it might be more convenient
in a foreseeable future.
and fruitful to regard them as
belonging to the ambit of the new
From a legal point of view the sea-
"freedom of the high seas" referred to
ranching situation is quite different
in Article 87 of the 1982 Convention,
from marine aquaculture. Differences
that of constructing "artificial islands
arise in terms of the actors involved,
and other installations permitted under
but also with regard to the applicable
international law" .
rules of law. In the movement that led
to the negotiation and adoption of the
What is missing in the Convention,
1982 Convention, there was indeed
however, is the guidance about how
awareness of the possibilities that the
this rather general provision should be
advances in the field of marine
expanded for the purpose of its
aquaculture could bring. This was
implementation. There is some
encouraged then, not only by the
urgency to have this regulation in
general atmosphere of technological
place, since it is necessary to anticipate
optimism that characterized the 1960s,
the need for a more precise and
but also by the emergence of new
detailed regulation rather than wait for
experiments in sea farming. However,
a disorderly and unregulated rush to
such a future was perceived to be so
occupy stretches of the high seas. For
far away that the authors of the 1982
reasons of consistency, among others,
Convention did not take into account
the process for defining these rules
what was still a matter of speculation,
should be at the global level rather than
when negotiating the provisions related
at the regional level.
to the legal regime of the high seas.
The legal issue that is raised in
Issues related to the interaction
relation to sea-ranching on the high
between aquaculture and the
seas derives from the fact that,
environment
whatever their specific characteristics,
Aquaculture, both inland and offshore,
the installations that will be established
may be negatively affected by
will necessarily constitute a prolonged,
environmental factors. Pollution, both
semi-permanent or permanent,
from the sea or land-based sources, is a
occupation of the marine spaces
threat to aquaculture. But, so are other
concerned. The question, then,
factors such as climate change, the
becomes an assessment of whether the
effects1 of which may affect both the
provisions of the 1982 Convention are
production environment and the
comprehensive and flexible enough to
produced species themselves.
accommodate and regulate such a
situation, which was unresolved by the
1Examples are, on the one hand, sea-level rise
negotiators.
and flooding or, on the other hand, increased
scarcity of water supply; storms and other
meteorological phenomena.
55
Prevention of pollution and adaptation
associations, the civil society,
measures in relation to climate change
institutional buyers and different
must be actively pursued.
interest groups. Unfortunately, critics
Aquaculture can be affected by the
of aquaculture continue to have the
environment, but it may also have
louder voice. Sensational negative
adverse effects on the environment and
media is likely to intensify as
its ecosystems, including the fauna and
aquaculture activities expand further
flora of these ecosystems.
into the sea and intensify across the
Indiscriminate destruction of
globe. The challenges are (1) for the
mangroves and natural nurseries,
sector not only to continue its efforts
propagation of diseases and parasites
with a view at ensuring a sustainable
such as the salmon sea lice, genetic
and environmentally friendly
contamination of wild stocks by
aquaculture, but also to actively
aquaculture escapees and pollution
improve its public image and convince
from outputs of nutrients are only but a
consumers of its merits and (2) for the
few examples.
development of governance structures
that boost confidence throughout the
One should not be surprised of the
value chain, from investors to
negative publicity the sector has been
consumers.
subjected to, including in relation to
the quality of the aquaculture product
Issues related to technological
itself. For instance, it has been argued
development and access to financial
that farmed fish is fatty, dyed,
capital
polluting and stuffed with antibiotics,
As farms intensify and diversify into
and that aquaculture is unsustainable
production systems requiring
(The Economist, August 2003).
sophisticated technologies, access to
financial capital will be critical to the
The level of negative publicity of
development of the sector.
aquaculture seems to be over-inflated
and unfair; observed incidents are
Capital will be necessary not only to
often isolated cases. For instance, the
create, maintain and expand
output of pollutants (nitrates and
businesses, and increase efficiency in
phosphates) from aquaculture can be
order to remain competitive at home
considered insignificant in terms of
and abroad, but also to meet seasonal
their contributions to nutrient loading
operating cash needs. There will also
in most regions of the world.
be a need for aquaculture insurance as
Additionally, in recent years, important
these high-tech investments will
advances in minimizing the nutrient
probably attract more risks than
and organic inputs from aquaculture
generally experienced in conventional
have been achieved.
aquaculture.
In general, efforts aimed at promoting
Unlike in the developed countries
the application of an ecosystem
where access to financial capital might
approach to aquaculture as well as the
not be as big an issue, availability and
development of standards and codes of
access to financial capital can be a
practice that ensure the practice of
serious impediment to aquaculture
environmentally and socially sound
development in developing countries.
aquaculture by all stakeholders are
The capital market is poorly developed
under way. They are undertaken by,
and prospective borrowers have
inter alia, farmer and consumer
difficulties meeting the banks'
56
standard lending requirements. The
discussed above, not everyone agrees
usual loans from informal sources are
on who the real winners are from these
not only costly, but also limited and
investments. This could be one of the
mainly intended for working capital
issues that research should clarify.
needs and contingencies for micro-
enterprises.
With regard to the particular situation
of sea-ranching, the development of
Governments in many countries adopt
the sophisticated technologies that are
start-up policies aimed at providing
needed will require enormous capital
financial assistance to jump start the
to purchase expensive and complex
industry because of the inability of
machinery, pay engineers and train
potential entrepreneurs in infant
workers. These large amounts of
industries to afford initial investment
investment capital are not always
through their own equity or to obtain
readily accessible by individual
private funding. Assistance is also
farmers, especially those from
provided because as an infant industry,
developing countries. A possible
aquaculture may need support until it
inference from this scenario is that
reaches a stage at which costs are
these new technologies are likely to be
competitive. If industries learn by
dominated by big corporations, either
doing, costs will decline with
from and operating in the developed
experience, and so the argument goes,
world, or from the developed world
such industries need government
and operating in developing countries.
assistance in their early years.
One of the policy implications is the
need for policy makers and
Through expansionary policies,
development agencies to look for ways
Governments also help farmers to
of availing such technologies to
grow. One of the commonly policies
developing countries, especially those
advocated by farmers is the use of
where a good percentage of the
subsidies. The argument is that with
population depends on fish farming for
high costs of inputs, the industry may
livelihood.
lack absolute and competitive
advantage, and therefore fail to
Issues related access to markets
flourish. However, the high fiscal cost
More and more aquaculture products
of subsidies, the investment
are moving into international trade. As
disincentive they create for the private
aquaculture grows, so will the need to
sector and the resulting distortions are
trade. Access to markets will be a key
forcing their curtailment worldwide.
to success for producers, and, hence,
the entire sector. Unfortunately,
Overall, provided that good
important quantities of fish often fail to
governance and investment conducive
cross importing countries' borders
policies exist, globalization should
where they are detained and then
ease the issue of access to financial
rejected or destroyed. Some of the
capital. By allowing capital flows from
difficulties faced by exporters include
one country to another, globalization
standards and safety regimes which
may enable capital intensive farming
can vary from one importing market to
systems to also be established in
another (FAO, 2006). Many exporters
developing countries as is already the
often view this practice as a sheer way
case in countries like Uganda and
of shielding their domestic aquaculture
Zimbabwe in Africa, and Chile and
industries from foreign competition, or
Honduras in Latin America. But, as
57
more bluntly, as a "non-tariff barrier"
handling and selling of farmed fish.
to trade.
Others hold taste tests at government
functions, produce recipe booklets and
As aquaculture develops worldwide
organize cooking demonstrations on
and producers compete for higher
radio and television, or provide
market shares, these kind of
transport and ice for the big buyers.
accusations and counter-accusations
By so doing, they hope to increase
are likely to increase in volume, which
demand by developing new markets
could block aquaculture from
and/or expanding existing ones,
supplying enough fish to meet the
thereby triggering more supply.
growing shortfall as the world's wild
Government interventions occur also
fisheries become more and more
through regulations of aquatic food
exhausted. There have already been
safety.
many instances where domestic
producers in importing countries
Because of the globally increasing
complained that imported aquaculture
presence of aquaculture products that
products were dumped into their
look exactly like their wild capture
national markets or benefited from
counterparts in international markets,
illegal subsidies, prompting importing
strong arguments against the use of
countries to set up measures against
subsidies and other economic
such imports. On several occasions,
incentives in aquaculture can be
settlements of these disputes were only
expected to increase in the near future.
possible through the World Trade
The challenge for policy-makers, at
Organization (WTO).
this stage, would be to anticipate the
growing international opposition to
Export promotion policies are
direct government transfers to
commonly used to help producers
producers and the use of other forms of
compete internationally. Aquaculture
instruments aiming at shielding them
is more and more becoming an
against foreign competition and
international business, targeting export
propose policies and other
markets. It may cause a dynamic
arrangements which would regulate the
evolution of market shares
use of these instruments internationally
internationally. Though globally
while allowing aquaculture to grow
insignificant, policy assistance is
harmoniously.
selectively provided to producers to
help them compete internationally.
There is also a need to anticipate
These policies consist of tax holidays
attempts in using tariff and non-tariff
and tax exemptions on imported
barriers by some countries as a means
production inputs including equipment,
of protecting their domestic
machinery, broodstock, feed and
aquaculture industries against foreign
fertilizers, exemptions from permit
competition, and to support initiatives
fees, as well as holidays and/or
such as the development of
exemptions from sales and other local
internationally agreed on guidelines for
taxes.
the elaboration of transparent and non-
discriminatory certification procedures
On the demand side of the industry,
and the harmonization of aquaculture
Governments also intervene at the
quality standards.
micro-level through marketing
policies. Some establish market
structures that permit hygienic
58
5. Recommendations for
therefore, a need for the international
addressing priority issues and
community and development agents to
for progress toward achieving
explore the means of availing modern
technologies and building capacity in
targets/goals
developing countries for aquaculture to
develop harmoniously.
The need for good governance and
appropriate policies at the national
Intergovernmental bodies, such as the
and international level
"Network of Aquaculture Centers in
As is the case in any other business,
Asia-Pacific (NACA) and the nascent
good governance (including political
"Aquaculture Network for the
stability) and sound policies play an
Americas" (ANA), can also play an
important role in aquaculture
important role as demonstrated by their
development. They assure and attract
recent efforts. Both seek to serve as
domestic and foreign investors, reduce
vehicles for technology transfer and
transaction costs and enhance the
infrastructure capacity-building among
competitiveness of the industry at
their members, precisely to overcome,
home and abroad. Good governance
through pooled and shared resources,
and policies can influence both the
the obstacles enumerated above.
supply and the demand side of the
sector.
Countries should actively include
6. Recommendations on how
aquaculture in their development
best the Global Forum can
agenda, promote sustainable
contribute to the identified
aquaculture development, create
priority goals and action plans
investment friendly climate and supply
good supporting infrastructure and
This section is deliberately left open
emphasize research, technological
for debate by the representatives at the
breakthrough and information
4th Global Forum in Hanoi, Vietnam.
dissemination as development
instruments.
Unless there is proper planning and
7. Conclusions and future
adequate legal and regulatory
projections
structures are in place to avert potential
environmental harm, there could be an
This section is deliberately left open
unregulated, uncontrolled aquaculture
for debate by the representatives at the
development in many parts of the
4th Global Forum in Hanoi, Vietnam.
world, which, in turn, could lead to the
industry's self-destruction. This
Figure 1
implies that in countries with incipient
aquaculture industries, governments
will need to make substantial
investments in research, technology
development, building human and
institutional capacity as well as
governance arrangements for
aquaculture. Such investments may not
always be achievable. There is,
59
_______________________________
policy implications. FAO Fisheries
Circular No. 1018, Rome, FAO.
References
FAO 2007. The State of world
fisheries and aquaculture 2006. Rome,
FAO. 2007.
Hishamunda, N. 2007. Analysis of
commercial aquaculture development
in Southeast Asia: a Policy perspective
(in Press). 2007.
Hishamunda, N. 2007. Duty Travel
Report to Chile. Rome, 2007.
Hishamunda, N. 2006. Global trends in
aquaculture development. In David L.
VanderZwaag, editor: "Aquaculture
law and Policy" pp. 37-46. 2006.
Karakassis, I., Pitta, P. & Krom, M.D.
2005. Contribution of fish farming to
the nutrient loading of the
Mediterranean. Scientia Marina
69:313321.
Pulvenis de Séligny, J.-F., The Living
Marine Resources and the Evolving
Law of the Sea, Paper presented at the
Symposium organized by the
Association internationale du droit de
la mer and the Rhodes Academy of
International Maritime Law and Policy
in memory of Theodore Halkiopoulos
(Rhodes, October 8-10, 2005)
Tacon, A.G.J., 2006. Study and
analysis of feed and nutrients for
sustainable aquaculture development:
A global synthesis. Paper presented in
FAO Expert Workshop on "Use of
Feed and Fertilizer for Sustainable
Aquaculture Development", Wuxi, PR
China, 18-21 March 2006.
Tacon, A.G.J., Hasan, M.R. and
Subasinghe, R.P., 2006. Use of fishery
resources as feed inputs for
aquaculture development: trends and
60
Policy Brief:
Tuna: A Global Sustainability and Governance Challenge
1. Introduction
albacore, and skipjack. According to
the FAO, catches for key tuna species
Tuna is a large share of the volume and
account for less than 5% of the total
value of global fisheries that is under
world marine fish harvest by volume,
stress in all major fishing areas of the
but the landed gross value is estimated
world. As one of the ocean's top
to account for nearly 20% of the global
predators and fastest swimmers, they
marine total.
are highly migratory across the world's
oceans, fished in both domestic waters
Except for the skipjack tuna fishery in
and on the high seas.
some areas, the FAO considers most
tuna stocks fully exploited, over-
Being highly migratory, tuna and tuna-
exploited, or depleted2. The increased
like species are managed by five
popularity of the sashimi-sushi markets
Regional Fisheries Management
is now considered to be one of the
Organizations (RFMOs)1. The
main causes of overfishing of this
Convention Areas for these RFMOs
species, specifically bluefin tuna.
include the EEZs of coastal States, but
Other factors that affect fishing
the treaties generally recognize that
activities include regulations,
provisions will not prejudice the
enforcement, and fishing costs, such as
exercise of sovereign rights of a
fuel. Soaring market demand for
coastal State in accordance with the
bluefin tuna has been blamed for their
international law of the sea.
spawning biomass being reduced to
20% of 1970 levels3. The seemingly
Depending on the size and species, an
endless appetite for tuna has given way
individual fish can be worth $25,000 or
to the development over the last ten
more. Due to these factors coupled
years of a "tuna ranching" industry that
with the modernization of fishing fleets
has now become a major factor in the
and the globalization of markets, tuna
exploitation of juvenile tuna stocks in
and related species are at increased risk
the Mediterranean Sea. "Sea
of overexploitation. As a result of
ranching" involves the capture of
changes in fishing capacity and market
migrating juvenile bluefin tuna to
demand, the global tuna harvest has
fatten them in floating cages for a few
gone from 0.5 million metric tonnes in
months or up to two years.
1950 to over 6 million metric tonnes
by the middle of this decade.
Non-governmental organizations have
been working to raise awareness
Key species for commercial fishing
among consumers that stocks are in
include bluefin, yellowfin, bigeye,
trouble (e.g., through dissemination of
information and promoting boycotts,
1 International Convention on the Conservation
of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT), Inter-American
2 FAO. The state of world fisheries and
Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC), Western
aquaculture. Rome: FAO Fisheries
and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission
Department; 2004 2005 and 2006
(WCPFC), Commission for the Conservation
3 JL. Jacquet and D. Pauly The rise of seafood
of Southern Bluefin Tuna (CCSBT), and
awareness campaigns in an era of collapsing
Indian Ocean Tuna Commission (IOTC).
fisheries Marine Policy 31 (2007) 308313
61
which call for supermarket chains,
The WSSD goals for sustainable
chefs, restaurant patrons and
fisheries call for the implementation of
consumers to refrain from selling and
fishery capacity management
consuming Mediterranean Bluefin
measures, the elimination of IUU
tuna). The resulting level of awareness
fishing, the maintenance or restoration
among the public and the impact such
of depleted fish stocks where possible
information has on consumer
no later than 2015 and the elimination
preferences and demand is both
of subsidies that contribute to IUU
unknown.
fishing and overcapacity. Additional
WSSD goals for which the fisheries
Should member States of tuna RFMOs
sector has a responsibility to address
fail to reverse the declines in tuna
include the goals for integrated oceans
stocks, there will be renewed calls not
and coastal management, which call
only for fishing moratoria, as is already
for the application of the ecosystem
the case, but also for strong controls on
approach by 2010, and the goals for
international trade in some tuna
conservation of biodiversity, which
species. This raises questions about
call for a significant reduction in the
the potential future role for
rate of biodiversity loss by 2010.
environmental conservation fora, such
the Convention on the International
Trade of Endangered Species of Wild
3. Top priority policy issues
Fauna and Flora (CITES), in governing
trade in commercial species that have
The challenges in the management of
become endangered due to trade
tuna fisheries include fleet
through institutional overfishing as
overcapacity, institutional overfishing,
well as IUU fishing. At the same time,
IUU fishing, maintaining and restoring
the potential impact of a CITES listing
depleted stocks, and reducing bycatch
would only apply to products traded
of non-target tuna species and other
internationally, not those destined for
species, such as sharks, seabirds,
domestic consumption. While these
turtles, and mammals. Mechanisms by
fora could provide valuable tools for
which some of these challenges can be
deterring overfishing, IUU fishing, or
addressed include the implementation
other harmful practices, it will be
of flag State, port State and market
important to ensure that discussions are
State responsibilities, as well as better
grounded by relevant fisheries
data collection and information sharing
expertise and respect the mandates and
regarding catches and vessels.
jurisdictions of international
organizations charged with the
One of the top priority policy issues to
responsibilities of managing this
address the problems in tuna RFMOs
resource.
should be to improve the governance
of each organization as well as
compliance with existing policies and
2. Relationship to the broader
programs.
global ocean WSSD
Management of Fishing Capacity
goals/targets
It is widely recognized that the present
worldwide tuna fishing capacity is in
excess of sustainable catch levels.
Despite this acknowledgement,
particularly through resolutions
62
encouraging no increase in capacity,
activities are proving difficult to
there have been few decisions within
eradicate.
tuna RFMOs aimed at decreasing
existing fishing capacity. Also to be
Some RFMOs have instituted catch
addressed is the issue of controlling
documentation schemes to fight IUU
other vessels that facilitate fishing on
fishing and in some cases have
the high seas, namely transshipment
achieved a limited success in
vessels, supply vessels and others. It
combating illegal activities. As noted
must be recognized as well that
above, ICCAT is making some
recreational fishing contributes to tuna
progress in this direction to institute
mortality at a level that might be, as
better catch documentation schemes.
yet, not well documented as not all
However, questions remain about the
countries have implemented systems
effectiveness of these schemes
for monitoring and tracking their
especially if importing states do not
recreational fisheries.
cooperate.
Some initiatives have been undertaken
Institutional overfishing (as opposed to
by the Inter-American Tropical Tuna
IUU fishing), can be defined as
Commission (IATTC) and the
overfishing that is effectively
International Commission for the
sanctioned by member States within
Conservation of Atlantic Tunas
RFMOs. Depending on the RFMO,
(ICCAT) to limit capacity to current
there can be many causes of
levels, through a regional capacity
institutional overfishing, including
management plan and through the
inadequate investment in scientific
formation of a working group on
advice, lack of explicit limits on
capacity, respectively. Despite these
fishing activity, decision-making
initial efforts, more work is still
processes that effectively allow
required to reduce overcapacity.
member States to set fishing quotas
higher than sustainable levels
Increasing fishing capacity, through
determined by science, lack of
vessel construction and modernization,
agreement on setting TACs, and lack
has often been linked with government
of adequate member State control of
subsidies. State members of the WTO
and accountability for fishing activity
are currently negotiating fisheries
by their fishing fleets to ensure that
subsidies disciplines, the first sector-
quotas are respected.
specific negotiations of this kind.
Negotiations here will likely set a
Institutional overfishing can be
precedent for other sectors. The goal
reduced by eliminating the failure to
is to discipline subsidies that contribute
report catches and by including tuna
to overcapacity, while recognizing the
farming as a capture activity.
special and differentiated treatment
Presently, countries that fish tuna for
required for developing countries.
tuna ranching operations are not
required to submit data on these
Elimination of IUU Fishing and
catches (The new ICCAT catch
Institutional Overfishing
documentation scheme is intended to
All tuna RFMOs are attempting to
capture information on fish destined
eliminate IUU fishing through
for farms, then harvested from farms).
increased monitoring, surveillance and
Other measures to improve
reporting methods. Many more
management of tuna stocks include the
challenges remain as IUU fishing
enforcement of minimum size for
63
juvenile tuna. Finally, when
successfully and thereby ensure tuna
establishing quotas, tuna RFMO
RFMOs are living up to their
should also take into account the
responsibilities to protect the
interactions between tuna populations.
ecosystem and biodiversity that
support tuna species, these RFMOs
Strengthening of RFMOs
will have to undertake new science
Maintaining and restoring of depleted
over the coming years to understand
tuna stocks should be a priority for all
the interactions that lead to this
tuna RFMOs and scientific activities
bycatch and other ecosystem impacts
have been augmented considerably in
and members will have to agree on
the last few years.
appropriate measures in the interim.
This will not occur without effective
A recent success story of restoring a
strengthening of the organization over
depleted stock is the northern Atlantic
the long-term.
swordfish managed by ICCAT. As a
result of a stringent rebuilding plan, the
Developing Countries
2006 assessment for Atlantic swordfish
Another critical challenge going
indicated that the biomass had
forward will be addressing the
improved greatly possibly due to
expectations of an expanding and
strong recruitment in the late 1990s
diversifying set of fisheries interests.
combined with reductions in reported
In the case of developing States, they
catch in the early 2000s. The 2006
have indicated their interest through
assessment estimated that the biomass
UN fora, the FAO, the WTO and
for North Atlantic swordfish, at the
within RFMOs in managing fisheries
beginning of 2006, was about 99% of
for longer-term sustainability while
the biomass needed to produce the
seeking to develop their fisheries
ICCAT goal of maximum sustainable
sectors. Doing so requires access and
yield (MSY).
allocation to high seas fish stocks
(such as tunas), the right to use
While the stock was considered rebuilt
government subsidies to expand
in 2006, the North Atlantic Swordfish
fishing capacity, and support from
TAC remained at 14,000t for both
developed States for fisheries
2007 and 2008. Although the stock is
management, science, and enforcement
now considered rebuilt to a level that
infrastructure and expertise. The
would produce MSY, there are still
challenge will be to enable developing
concerns regarding overexploitation
States to be responsible and beneficial
and fishing mortality. Given these
partners for international fisheries and
concerns, ICCAT is continuing its
oceans governance reform.
rebuilding program through 2009.
In addition to concern over
4. Suggested goals, targets, and
management of targeted commercial
objectives for improvement
species, there is also a growing
concern over bycatch of non-target
In order to achieve credible
and/or non-commercial species by gear
international fisheries governance both
used in tuna fisheries. Particular
within and outside of (RFMOs) to
problems are shark, seabird and marine
combat IUU fishing, flag States, port
turtle bycatch in tuna long line gear
States and market States must
and fish aggregating devices (FADs).
undertake complementary initiatives
To deal with these problems
for the seamless identification of IUU
64
fish products through the value chain.
developed identifying areas for
Flag state measures are, of course,
effective cooperation and coordination
fundamental, but (recalling that IUU
among the five tuna RFMOs to
fishing is fundamentally an
improve their performance.
economically motivated activity), port
Unfortunately, to date there has been
State measures can also be an effective
little follow-up activity on the Course
tool to prevent IUU fishing vessels
of Actions both within tuna RFMOs,
from landing fish. Port State controls
and by member States. More work
are, however, hindered when fish
remains on coordinating efforts to
products are imported, exported or re-
address the challenges that fall under
exported with minimal inspection.
the purview of the State members
Market State measures can also be
themselves.
used to prevent IUU fish from entering
into markets or international trade,
provided that such measures do not
5. Recommendations for
undermine port and market access for
addressing priority issues and
legitimate fish products and that data
for progress toward achieving
and reporting mechanisms (such as
catch documentation schemes and
targets/goals
import/export documents) are reliable.
Progress requires:
Multilateral initiatives intended to
address IUU fishing are being
- adopting effective management
undertaken with urgency, with
measures (both for successful
mechanisms in place to create a
rebuilding of depleted stocks,
binding legal instrument on port State
healthy stocks and the yet-to-be
measures and to develop criteria to
managed stocks) that adhere to
assess flag State performance. These
the best scientific advice
activities are in addition to various
provided;
measures being implemented or
considered by regional fisheries
- adopting capacity control
management organizations (RFMOs).
measures that ensure a State's
Some countries have already
fishing capacity is
introduced legislation that would
commensurate with the State's
attempt to restrict the entry of IUU
quota (fishing opportunity);
product into their markets, although
operationalization of this legislation
- adopting penalties for non-
remains unclear.
reporting and non-compliance;
In January 2007, the Government of
- promoting compliance with,
Japan hosted and chaired the first Joint
and the strengthening of, MCS
Tuna RFMOs meeting in Kobe, Japan.
measures, including vessel
Participants identified a range of
monitoring systems (VMS) and
challenges for the sector and
observer programmes;
eventually agreed that enhanced
cooperation among tuna RFMOs can
- promoting the common criteria
increase their effectiveness and
for performance reviews of
efficiency, and provide improved
RFMOs and best practices as
management of all tuna stocks. As a
one tool to guide the
result, a Course of Actions was
65
strengthening of these
7. Conclusions and future
organizations;
projections
- ensuring effective coordination,
Should tuna RFMOs fail to address the
collaboration and cooperation
problems of institutionalized
among the tuna RFMOs;
overfishing, IUU fishing, and a lack of
adherence to science advice, and in
- developing a legally-binding
doing so fail to reverse the downward
port State instrument and
trends of tuna stocks, there will be
ensure its ratification by all
renewed calls not only for fishing
RFMO members; and
moratoria, as is already the case, but
also for bans on international trade in
- implementing market measures
some tuna species unless they can be
that are consistent with
proven to be harvested in a sustainable
international trading rules and
manner.
ensure a level playing field
among States.
This raises questions about governing
trade in commercial tuna species that
6. Recommendations on how
have become endangered through
best the Global Forum can
institutional overfishing as well as IUU
fishing, and the difficulties that this
contribute to the identified
will entail for sustainable fisheries,
priority goals and action plans
such as ensuring tracking and
traceability for all fish caught and
The Global Forum can:
certifying, to the satisfaction of the
- consider how tuna RFMOs can
importing State that the fish were
better collect data and develop
caught in a sustainable manner.
scientific advice;
RFMOs can be the most effective
- develop guidance for how
institutions by which to ensure
member States can make
conservation and management goals
decisions on access and
are met for the sustainable use of
allocations for tuna resources;
commercially harvested fish species.
A failure of tuna RFMOs to address
- consider how member States
the issues identified above could result
can improve monitoring,
in a loss of credibility for the entire
control and surveillance efforts;
RFMO system.
and
_______________________
- consider what fisheries
References:
management and non-fisheries
management tools can be used
[to be added]
to build tuna stocks and reduce
overfishing/IUU fishing.
66
Steering Committee, Global Forum on Oceans, Coasts, and Islands*
Co-Chairs
Management Project (MACEMP),
Satya Nandan, Secretary-General,
Charles Ehler, Consultant to UNESCO
Biliana Cicin-Sain, Director, Gerard J.
Ministry of Natural Resources and
International Seabed Authority,
Julius Francis, Executive Secretary,
Mangone Center for Marine Policy,
Tourism
Jamaica
Western Indian Ocean Marine Science
University of Delaware (also Head of
Rolph Payet, Advisor to the President,
Tiago Pitta e Cunha, Member, Cabinet
Association, Tanzania
Secretariat, Global Forum)
Seychelles
of Fisheries and Maritime
Matthew Gianni, Political Advisor,
Patricio A. Bernal, Executive-
Lori Ridgeway, Director-General,
Commissioner, European Commission
Deep Sea Conservation Coalition,
Secretary, Intergovernmental
International Coordination and Policy
Mary Power, Director, Resource
Netherlands
Oceanographic Commission,
Analysis, Department of Fisheries and
Mobilization Office, World
Vladimir Golitsyn, Professor of
UNESCO, Paris, France
Oceans, Canada, and Camille Mageau,
Meteorological Association
International Law, Moscow State
Veerle Vandeweerd, Director,
Director, Marine Ecosystems
Cristelle Pratt, Director, South Pacific
University of International Relations
Environment and Energy Group,
Conservation Branch, Department of
Applied Geoscience Commission
Lynne Hale, Director, Marine
United Nations Development
Fisheries and Oceans, Canada
(SOPAC), Fiji
Strategy, The Nature Conservancy
Programme (UNDP)
Mario Ruivo, Intersectoral
Diane Quarless, Chief, Small Island
Art Hanson, former Ministerial Ocean
Governmental
Oceanographic Commission, Ministry
Developing States Unit, UNDESA
of Science, Technology, and Higher
Ambassador, Department of Fisheries
David Balton, Deputy Assistant
Education, Portugal
John Richardson, Head, Maritime
and Oceans, Canada, member of the
Secretary for Oceans and Fisheries,
Policy Task Force, European
Canadian Foundation for Innovation
Indroyono Soesilo, Chairman, Agency
Bureau of Oceans, U.S. Department of
Commission
(CFI)
for Marine and Fisheries Research,
State
Department of Marine Affairs and
Anne Rogers, United Nations
Gregor Hodgson, Director, Reef
Phil Burgess, Director, Cetacean
Fisheries, Indonesia
Department of Economic and Social
Check
Policy and Recovery, Department of
Affairs (UNDESA)
Ambassador Enele S. Sopoaga,
Paul Holthus, Independent Consultant
the Environment and Water
Tuvalu, Former Vice-Chair, Alliance
Eduard Sarukhanian, Director, World-
Gunnar Kullenberg, Independent
Resources, Australia
of Small Island Developing States
Weather-Watch-Applications, World
Consultant and former Director,
Nguyen Chu Hoi, Director, Institute of
(AOSIS)
Meteorological Organization (WMO),
Intergovernmental Oceanographic
Fisheries Economics and Planning,
Switzerland
Chris Tompkins, Independent
Commission (IOC)
Ministry of Agriculture and Rural
Consultant
Alan Simcock, Independent
Dan Laffoley, World Commission on
Development, Vietnam
Consultant
Intergovernmental
Protected Areas-Marine, IUCN
Aldo Cosentino, Director-General,
Dann Sklarew, Director and Chief
Carl Lundin, Head, IUCN Marine
Directorate for Nature Protection, Sea
Salvatore Arico, Programme
Technical Advisor, GEF, IW:LEARN
Programme
Protection, Ministry for Environment
Specialist, Ecological Sciences,
Asterio Takesy, Director, Secretariat
and Protection of the Territory, Italy
UNESCO
Dawn Martin, President, Sea Web,
for the Pacific Regional Environment
USA
Margaret Davidson, Director, Coastal
Julian Barbiere and Stefano Belfiore,
Programme
Services Center, National Oceanic and
Intergovernmental Oceanographic
Gerald Miles, The Nature
Khulood Tubaishat, Advisor, The
Atmospheric Administration (NOAA),
Commission, France
Conservancy, Pacific Region,
Regional Organization for the
USA
Chua Thia-Eng, Partnership in
Brisbane, Australia
Conservation of the Environment of
Antonio Diaz de Leon, Director-
Environmental Management for the
the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
Iouri Oliounine, Executive Director,
General, Environmental, Regional
Seas of East Asia (PEMSEA),
(PERSGA)
International Ocean Institute, Malta
Integration and Sectoral Policy,
IMO/UNDP/GEF, Philippines
Chika Ukwe, Industrial Development
Pietro Parravano, President, Institute
Environment and Natural Resources
Anjan Datta, Global Programme for
Officer (International Waters), United
for Fisheries Resources, World
Ministry (SEMARNAT), Mexico
the Protection of the Marine
Nations Industrial Development
Fisheries Forum
Ambassador Angus Friday, Chair,
Environment from Land-Based
Organization (UNIDO)
Sian Pullen, Independent Consultant,
Alliance of Small Island States
Activities, The Hague
Marjo Vierros, Visiting Professor,
New Zealand, and former Head of
(AOSIS), Permanent Representative of
Ahmed Djoghlaf, Executive Secretary,
Institute of Advanced Studies, United
European and Middle East Marine
Grenada to the United Nations
Convention on Biological Diversity
Nations University, Vancouver
Program, WWF International, UK
Gi-Jun Han, Ministry of Maritime
Al Duda, Senior Advisor, International
Eugenio Yunis, Chief, Sustainable
Victoria Radchenko, Director,
Affairs and Fisheries, Republic of
Waters, Global Environment Facility
Development of Tourism World
International Ocean Institute, Ukraine
Korea
(GEF)
Tourism Organization
Tony Ribbink, Director, Sustainable
Elie Jarmache, Chargé de Mission,
Serge Garcia, Independent Consultant,
A.H. Zakri, Director, Institute of
Seas Trust
Secrétariat Général de la Mer, France
and Former Director, Marine Fisheries
Advanced Studies, United Nations
Evelia Rivera-Arriaga, Centro de
Magnus Johannesson, Secretary-
Resources Division, Food and
University, Yokohama
Ecologia, Pesquerias y Oceanographia
General, Ministry for the
Agriculture Organization (FAO)
Nongovernmental
del Golfo de Mexico (EPOMEX),
Environment, Iceland
Marea E. Hatziolos, Senior Coastal
Mexico
Ambassador Jagdish Koonjul,
and Marine Specialist, Environment
Milton Asmus, International
Nirmal Jivan Shah, Chief Executive,
Mauritius, former Chair, Alliance of
Department, The World Bank
Representative, Brazilian Agency for
Nature Seychelles
Small Island States (AOSIS)
Coastal Management
Indumathie Hewawasam, Independent
Alan Simcock, former Executive
Gerhard Kuska, Associate Director
Consultant
Awni Behnam, President, International
Director, OSPAR, and former co-
and Director of Ocean and Coastal
Ocean Institute, Malta
Andrew Hudson, Principal Technical
chair, UN Informal Consultative
Policy, White House Council on
Advisor, International Waters,
Charles A. Buchanan, Administrator
Process on Ocean Affairs and Law of
Environmental Quality, USA
UNDP/GEF
Luso-American Development
the Sea
Tom Laughlin, Deputy Director,
Foundation, Portugal
David Johnson, Executive Secretary,
Nancy Targett, Dean, University of
International Affairs Office, National
OSPAR Convention, London
Torkil J. Clausen, Managing Director,
Delaware College of Marine and Earth
Oceanic and Atmospheric
DHI Water Policy and Senior Adviser,
Studies
Administration (NOAA), USA
Vladimir Mamaev, GEF Regional
Global Water Partnership
Technical Advisor, UNDP, Europe
Kristian Teleki, International Coral
Haiqing Li, Deputy Director-General,
and the CIS, Slovak Republic
Simon Cripps, Director, Global
Reef Action Network, Switzerland
State Oceanic Administration (SOA),
Marine Programme, World Wide Fund
Hiroshi Terashima, Executive
China
Franklin McDonald, Adviser, UNEP
For Nature (WWF) International
Caribbean Environment Programme
Director, Institute for Ocean Policy,
John Low, Adviser to the Minister of
(UNEP/CEP), and former Director,
Richard Delaney, Executive Director,
Ocean Policy Research Foundation,
Marine Resources for the Cook Islands
National Environmental Policy
Center for Coastal Studies,
Japan
Rejoice Mabudafhasi, Deputy Minister
Agency, Jamaica
Provincetown, Massachusetts, USA
Grant Trebble, African Marine and
of Environmental Affairs and
Vaclav Mikulka, Director, UN
Annick de Marffy, former Director of
Coastal Resource Over-exploitation
Tourism, South Africa
Division for Ocean Affairs and the
Division of Ocean Affairs and Law of
Prevention Strategy (AMCROPS),
Jan Mees, Director, Flanders Marine
Law of the Sea
the Sea (UNDOALOS), United
South Africa
Institute, Belgium
Nations International Consultant
Ali Mohamed, Coordinator, Coastal
Philippe Vallette and Manuel Cira,
Guillermo Garcia Montero, President,
and Marine Secretariat, New
Sylvia Earle, Chair, Deep Ocean
NAUSICAA, France, and the World
National Aquarium, Havana, Cuba
Partnership for Africa's Development
Exploration and Research (DOER),
Ocean Network
and Explorer-in-Residence, National
Magnus Ngoile, Team Leader, Marine
(NEPAD), Kenya
Geographic Society
David VanderZwaag, IUCN Specialist
and Coastal Environmental
Group on Ocean Law and Governance
* Please note: Members of the Steering Committee participate in their individual capacities.
Document Outline
- FISHERIES-AQUACULTURE_PolicyBriefMarch29.pdf
- ClimateChangeandFisheriesFormattedA4March29.pdf
- RFMOsFormattedA4March29.pdf
- Policy Brief- Overcapacity-A4-March29.pdf