Nile Basin Initiative
Shared Vision
Program
EFFICIENT WATER
USE FOR
AGRICULTURAL
PRODUCTION
PROJECT DOCUMENT
March 2001
Council of Ministers of Water Affairs of
the Nile Basin States

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Efficient Water Use for Agricultural Production i
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS................................................................................................ iii
PREFACE..........................................................................................................................................v
1.
SUMMARY................................................................................................................................ 1
2.
PROJECT DEVELOPMENT OBJECTIVE.................................................................................. 1
2.1
Project Development Objective ........................................................................................ 1
2.2
Performance Indicators.................................................................................................... 2
3.
STRATEGIC CONTEXT ............................................................................................................ 3
3.1
The Nile Basin Initiative (NBI)........................................................................................... 3
3.2
NBI Guidelines and Project Goals .................................................................................... 5
3.3
Main Sector Issues and the Nile Strategic Action Program ............................................... 5
3.4
Sector Issues to be Addressed by the Project and Strategic Choices ............................... 6
4.
PROJECT SUMMARY............................................................................................................. 10
4.1
Project Components ...................................................................................................... 10
4.2
Benefits and Target Population ...................................................................................... 14
4.3
Institutional and Implementation Arrangements .............................................................. 14
5.
PROJECT RATIONALE........................................................................................................... 15
5.1
Alternatives Considered ................................................................................................. 15
5.2
Major Related Projects Financed by External Support Agencies (ESAs)......................... 16
5.3
Lessons Learned and Reflected In Proposed Project Design.......................................... 17
5.4
Value Added of Donor Support in this Project................................................................. 17
6.
ISSUES REQUIRING SPECIAL ATTENTION.......................................................................... 18
6.1
Economic/Financial........................................................................................................ 18
6.2
Technical/Environmental ................................................................................................ 18
6.3
Institutional Issues ......................................................................................................... 18
7.
SUSTAINABILITY AND RISKS................................................................................................ 19
7.1
Sustainability ................................................................................................................. 19
7.2
Critical Risks.................................................................................................................. 19
8.
PROJECT PREPARATION PROCESS.................................................................................... 21
8.1
Evolution of the Shared Vision Program: A Coordinated Basin-Wide Program ............... 21
8.2
Detailed Project Preparation: A Multi-Country, Multi-Sectoral, Participatory Process....... 22
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FIGURES, TABLES, AND BOXES
Figure 1.
An Illustration of Possible Levels of Nile Cooperation ....................................................... 5
Table 1.
Synthesis of Main Issues and Strategic Options............................................................... 7
Table 2.
Possible Topics to be Addressed by the Project............................................................. 11
Table 3.
Initial Budget Allocations ................................................................................................ 14
Table 4.
Preparation of the Shared Vision Program...................................................................... 23
Box 1.
Possible Project Themes Based On Country Reports....................................................... 2
ANNEXES

ANNEX A. LIST OF COUNTRY REPORTS .................................................................................... 25

ANNEX B. AGRICULTURAL WATER USE IN THE NILE BASIN .................................................... 27

ANNEX C. RELATED PROJECTS IN NBI COUNTRIES................................................................. 43

ANNEX D. PROJECT DESIGN SUMMARY.................................................................................... 45

ANNEX E. PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION ORGANIZATIONAL CHART ........................................ 47

MAP OF THE NILE BASIN.............................................................................................................. 49
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Efficient Water Use for Agricultural Production iii
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
CIDA
Canadian International Development Agency
DRC
Democratic Republic of the Congo
ENSAP
Eastern Nile Subsidiary Action Program
ESW
economic and sector work
ETp
potential evapo-transpiration
FAO
Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations
GDP
gross domestic product
ha
hectare(s)
ICARDA
International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas
ICCON
International Consortium for Cooperation on the Nile
ICRAF
International Center for Research in Agroforestry
ICRISAT
International Crops Research Institute For the Semi-Arid Tropics
IFAD
International Fund for Agricultural Development
IMT
irrigation management transfer
IPP
Irrigation Improvement Project (Egypt)
ISF
irrigation service fee
IWMI
International Water Management Institute
JICA
Japanese International Cooperation Agency
km2
square kilometers
LVEMP
Lake Victoria Environmental Management Project
mm
millimeters
m3
cubic meters
NBI
Nile Basin Initiative
NELSAP
Nile Equatorial Lakes Region Subsidiary Action Program
NGO
non-government organization
Nile-COM
Council of Ministers of Water Affairs of the Nile Basin States
Nile-SEC
Nile Basin Initiative Secretariat
Nile-TAC
Nile Basin Initiative Technical Advisory Committee
O&M
operations and maintenance
PMU
project management unit
ppm
parts per million
RELMA
regional land management unit
SAP
Subsidiary Action Program
SIDA
Swedish International Development Agency
SVP
Shared Vision Program
UNDP
United Nations Development Programme
USAID
United States Agency for International Development
WUA(s)
water users association
Please note that all dollar figures are current U.S. dollars unless indicated otherwise
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Efficient Water Use for Agricultural Production v
PREFACE
In an historic effort, the ten countries of the Nile have come together within the Nile Basin Initiative to
realize a shared vision `to achieve sustainable socio-economic development through the equitable
utilization of, and benefit from, the common Nile Basin water resources.' Recognizing the
tremendous benefits that can be reaped from cooperation, yet fully aware of the challenges ahead,
the Nile countries have embarked on a remarkable journey to translate their shared vision into
concrete activities and projects that will build confidence and capacity across the basin (the Shared
Vision Program), as well as initiate concrete investments and action on the ground at local levels
(Subsidiary Action Programs).
Presented herein is one of the projects within the Shared Vision Program. The full project portfolio
includes:
Ø Nile Transboundary Environmental Action
Ø Nile Basin Regional Power Trade
Ø Efficient Water Use for Agricultural Production
Ø Water Resources Planning and Management
Ø Confidence-Building and Stakeholder Involvement (Communications)
Ø Applied Training
Ø Socio-Economic Development and Benefit-Sharing.
As a whole, the Shared Vision Program aims to create an enabling environment for cooperative
development and management. Though each project is different in focus and scope, all contribute to
building a strong foundation for regional cooperation by supporting basin-wide engagement and
dialogue, developing common strategic and analytical frameworks, building practical tools and
demonstrations, and strengthening human and institutional capacity.
The seven projects of the Shared Vision Program build upon each other to form a coordinated
program. They address the major water-related sectors and cross-cutting themes deemed critical by
the Nile riparians to ensure an integrated and comprehensive approach to water resources
development and management, and that this development serves as a catalyst for broader socio-
economic development and regional cooperation. Together, the projects of the Shared Vision
Program seek to forge a common vision for ­ as well as build the capacity to achieve - the
sustainable development the River Nile for the benefit of all. They pave the way for the realization of
investments on the ground through the Subsidiary Action Programs.
The detailed preparation of the Shared Vision Program was accomplished through a unique, multi-
country, multi-sectoral and highly participatory process led by the Nile Council of Ministers and
Technical Advisory Committee and executed by the Nile Secretariat. More than 70 national experts,
including 8 technical specialists from nine countries, were involved in detailed project preparation.
For many, it was the first time that they were able to discuss common concerns with their colleagues
from neighboring and co-riparian countries. The energy and hope for the future engendered by this
preparation process were a visible demonstration of the power of cooperation, strong riparian
ownership, and the commitment of the Nile countries to jointly pursue their common goal.
But the preparation of the Shared Vision Program is just a beginning. Implementing these projects
and ensuring that tangible benefits are realized is the next challenge. It is a challenge which requires
deepening partnerships with the international development community. Promoting cooperation
among the countries of the Nile will inherently be a complex process. However, such cooperation is
essential if sustainable development and management of the Nile is to be achieved.
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Efficient Water Use for Agricultural Production 1
1.
SUMMARY
This proposal for a project on efficient water use for agricultural production was developed under the
Shared Vision Program of the Nile Basin Initiative. The objective of this project is to provide a sound
conceptual and practical basis for Nile riparian countries to increase the availability and efficient use
of water for agricultural production. This is in keeping with the vision articulated by the Nile riparians:
"to achieve sustainable socio-economic development through equitable utilization of, and benefit
from, the common Nile Basin water resources." The project will do so through the establishment of a
regional forum of experts involved in agricultural water to address issues related to efficient water use
in the Nile Basin. The exchange of experiences will further Nile cooperation by enhancing mutual
confidence and providing a critical building block to sustainable utilization of Nile waters.
Themes of a basin-wide regional relevance that will be addressed through the project have been
identified by national experts and include watershed management, community-managed irrigation
development, and public irrigation. The project has two main components:
Regional Consultations and Training. Consultations and training at the regional level will provide
the opportunity to jointly review roles and challenges in increasing water use and efficiency for
agricultural production, and to study concepts and practices which are currently being implemented.
National consultations are expected to link the regional findings back to the national level.
Demonstration, Pilots, and Regional Exchange of Experience. The exchange of experience
among member countries and the study of good practices on technical, institutional, financial, and
environmental issues of water use for agricultural production will foster an atmosphere of
collaboration among water related experts.
The project will not only enhance individual and institutional capacity to address issues related to
efficient water use for agriculture, but also have large but immeasurable benefits in building intra-
riparian cooperation and confidence by establishing a forum of regional experts. This forum is
expected to play a lead role in developing a common culture of good practice and collaborative and
equitable development of agricultural water. The estimated cost of the two components under this
project is $5 million.
Project Preparation. This project was developed by representatives of the riparian countries through
a complex, multi-country, participatory process. National experts from each of the Nile Basin
countries worked with members of the Nile Basin Initiative Technical Advisory Committee (Nile-TAC)
and the Nile Basin Initiative Secretariat (Nile-SEC) to conduct national-level reviews and to contribute
substantively to the preparation of project documents. This project document reflects riparian
perspective on national and regional needs, project components which are deemed to be
implementable and confer real benefits, and a project design based on lessons learned from other
related projects in the region. The participatory project preparation process demonstrates riparian
ownership and commitment to successful project implementation.
2.
PROJECT DEVELOPMENT OBJECTIVE
2.1
Project Development Objective
Project Objective. The objective of this project is to provide a sound conceptual and practical basis
for Nile riparian countries to increase the availability and efficient use of water for agricultural
production.
In line with the NBI Shared Vision, this objective implies that the overall goal of the project is to
increase the availability and efficient use of water for agricultural production in support of sustainable
socio-economic development in the Nile Basin countries. However, recognizing the limits of a basin-
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wide project, the focus is expected to be on the provision of a "conceptual and practical basis" for Nile
riparian countries for more efficient water use in agriculture.
Agricultural Water Use Efficiency. This can be defined in a variety of ways. A first definition is
technical in nature, and focuses on the amount of water abstracted relative to the amount of water
consumed by a crop. Losses are the amounts of water that have been abstracted above the crop
water requirements. However, iunder a system perspective, losses at one point in the system could
be used again in another place. The agronomic definition of efficiency focuses on the amount of crop
produced per unit water. According to this definition, losses are the amounts of water that have not
contributed to additional production of biomass within the system. A third, economic definition of
water use efficiency emphasizes the productivity of water in terms of "value generated per unit water,"
and seeks a water allocation to highest value uses within the system (allocative or economic
efficiency). Losses are those amounts of water that could have been used in a more productive way.
Efficiency in this Document. The primary focus of this project document is on agronomic water use
efficiency in the sense of increased value of agricultural production or "more crop per drop." This is
reflected by the priority themes of the country reports prepared by national experts in Basin countries
that are summarized in Box 1. The working hypothesis is that a project focusing on increasing water
availability and its efficient use could lead to increased agricultural production. The primary
opportunities identified are to better manage watersheds, to enhance productivity of rain-fed
agriculture, to identify options for development of community-managed irrigation schemes, and to
improve management of public irrigation systems, while at the same time strengthening government
institutional capacity. The riparian countries at a later stage might decide to widen the perspective to
include considerations of economic efficiency across the Basin.
Box 1. Possible Project Themes Based on Country Reports
Ø Formulate and implement appropriate government policies
Ø Enhance participation of water users and other private sector in development and management of water resources for
agriculture
Ø Promote capacity-building programs, both for government and private sector institutions
Ø Identify and evaluate options for more efficient utilization of rainfall and runoff in upper catchment areas
Ø Identify options for improving the productivity of rain-fed agriculture, and for decreasing year-to-year variation in production
Ø Identify and evaluate options to reduce water losses in irrigation systems
Ø Identify and promote options for enhancing quality of natural resources by addressing environmental problems of
deforestation, soil erosion and sedimentation, salinity, etc.
Ø Identify options for decreasing water consumption in the agricultural sector.
2.2
Performance Indicators
Expected long-term outputs of the project and associated indicatiors are:
The first output will be an enhanced enabling environment for sustainable watershed management
and increased productivity by improved watershed management. Key indicators are the number of
improved watershed management activities identified and implemented and the related increase in
productivity.
Secondly, the project will result in an enhanced enabling environment for community-managed
irrigation development and increased agricultural production. Appropriate performance indicators
related to this output include the number of options for community-managed irrigation development
towards increased agricultural production.
Finally, the project will review options for reform in publicly managed irrigation and implement
appropriate pilots implemented that demonstrate improved system performance. This includes
exploration of options for irrigation development. Performance indicators for this output will include
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Efficient Water Use for Agricultural Production 3
the number of options for publicly managed irrigation reform towards improved system performance
and increased reliability of water supply reviewed and piloted.
3.
STRATEGIC CONTEXT
3.1
The Nile Basin Initiative (NBI)
The Nile Basin. The Nile River, the longest river in the world, traverses more than 6,700 kilometers
from its farthest point at the headwaters of the Kagera River in Rwanda to its delta in Egypt on the
Mediterranean Sea. Ten countries share the Nile: Burundi, Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC),
Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Sudan, Tanzania, and Uganda. The Nile River Basin covers
3 million km2--one tenth of Africa's total land mass. It serves as home to world-class environmental
assets, such as Lake Victoria (the second largest fresh water body by area in the world) and the vast
wetlands of the Sudd. It also serves as home to an estimated 160 million people within the
boundaries of the Basin; while nearly twice that number--roughly 300 million--live within the ten
countries that share the Nile waters.
Challenges and Opportunities. Despite the extraordinary natural endowments and rich cultural
history of the Nile Basin, its people face considerable challenges. Today, the Basin is characterized
by poverty, instability, rapid population growth, and environmental degradation. Half the Nile riparian
countries are among the world's ten poorest. Population is expected to double within the next 25
years, placing additional strain on the scarce water and other natural resources. Yet the Nile holds
significant opportunities for win-win development that could enhance energy availability, food
production, transportation, industrial development, environmental conservation, and other related
development activities in the region. Cooperative water resources management might also serve as a
catalyst for greater regional integration, both economic and political, with benefits far exceeding those
derived from the river itself.
Towards a Long-Term Legal and Institutional Framework. Aware that forward movement on Nile
cooperation requires a development focus, a permanent institution, and agreement on core legal
principles, the Nile riparians established a forum to facilitate a process of legal and institutional
dialogue in 1997. In early 2000 a panel of experts, including senior government lawyers and water
resources specialists from each country, produced a draft text of a "Cooperative Framework." This
draft Framework has moved the riparians a long way and important compromises have been reach.
However, some key issues remain to be resolved, and the Council of Ministers agreed in August
2000 to extend the process to further dialogue on outstanding issues. The United Nations
Development Programme (UNDP) has pledged its continued support to the process--a process
which by its very nature requires time and effort.
The Nile Basin Initiative. Recognizing the need to take concrete steps to realize the development
potential of the Nile while the dialogue on a permanent legal and institutional framework continues,
the Nile riparians took an historic step towards cooperation in the establishment of the Nile Basin
Initiative (NBI). Formally launched in February 1999, the NBI is a transitional institutional mechanism
that includes all riparians and provides an agreed basin-wide framework to fight poverty and promote
economic development in the region. The Initiative is guided by a shared vision "to achieve the
sustainable socio-economic development through the equitable utilization of, and benefit from, the
common Nile Basin water resources"1 and a set of policy guidelines which provide a basin-wide
framework for cooperative action. The NBI is comprised of a Council of Ministers of Water Affairs of
the Nile Basin (Nile-COM), a Technical Advisory Committee (Nile-TAC), and a Secretariat (Nile-SEC)
located in Entebbe, Uganda.
A Strategic Action Program. To translate the NBI's shared vision into action, a strategic action
program has been launched to identify and prepare cooperative projects in the Basin. The Program

1 Council of Ministers of Water Affairs of the Nile Basin States, Policy Guidelines for the Nile River Basin
Strategic Action Program, February 1999.
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consists of two complementary sub-programs, a Shared Vision Program (SVP) of technical
assistance and capacity-building-type projects to be implemented basin-wide to create an enabling
environment for cooperative development and Subsidiary Action Programs (SAPs) carried out by
smaller groups of Nile riparians, comprising physical investments at the sub-basin level.
The basin-wide Shared Vision Program currently includes seven projects. Four of these are thematic
in nature, addressing issues related to environmental management, power trade, efficient water use
for agriculture, and water resources planning and management. The remaining three are facilitative,
supporting efforts to strengthen confidence-building and stakeholder involvement, applied training,
and socio-economic development and benefit-sharing.
Two Subsidiary Action Programs have formed. The Eastern Nile (EN-SAP) currently includes Egypt,
Sudan and Ethiopia, while the Nile Equatorial Lakes Region (NEL-SAP) includes the six countries in
the southern portion of the Basin, as well as the downstream riparians Sudan and Egypt. These
subsidiary groups have identified joint investment projects which warrant further investigation and
preparation.
Riparian Consultative Process. The Nile-COM is the main policy and guidance forum for Nile Basin
cooperation. Important roles of the Nile-TAC are to coordinate joint activities and establish working
groups as needed to accomplish specific tasks. The Nile-TAC is responsible to the Nile-COM for the
preparation of the Shared Vision Program, which will be coordinated and implemented at the basin-
wide level. While the Nile-TAC is to promote the establishment of working groups of concerned
countries to identify Subsidiary Action Program projects at the sub-basin level, the responsibility for
Subsidiary Action Programs will rest with the involved riparians. Throughout the process, high priority
will continue to be placed on strengthening the process of consultation in order to build trust and
confidence. Figure 1 below illustrates how country activities will take place within sub-basin
frameworks, which will occur within the broader context of the basin-wide framework. The basin-wide
framework also includes an "international discourse" to promote international support for the
sustainable development and management of Nile waters.
International Consortium for Cooperation on the Nile (ICCON). An International Consortium for
Cooperation on the Nile (ICCON) is being established to support the NBI's Strategic Action Program.
Its first meeting is scheduled for June 2001. The ICCON will be a unique forum, organized by the
World Bank at the riparians' request, and envisioned as a long-term partnership of the riparian states
and the international community. The first meeting of the ICCON will seek to raise funding for a
portfolio of basin-wide Shared Vision Projects and the preparation of projects identified under the
Subsidiary Action Programs. The first ICCON meeting will also celebrate cooperation and
demonstrate international solidarity for cooperative development in the Nile Basin.
Partnerships. Support for the Nile Basin Initiative has been characterized by partnership since it
began. The initial partners comprised the World Bank, the United National Development Programme
(UNDP), and the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA). These initial `cooperating
partners' played the role of concerned facilitators, assisting the process of dialogue. As the NBI
moved into the preparation of the Strategic Action Program, the governments of Denmark, Finland,
Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and the United States,
together with the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the Global Environmental Facility
(GEF), actively supported the Initiative, directly or through World Bank trust funds. With the first
ICCON, the circle of partners will widen as the international development community commits further
support for Shared Vision Projects and for preparation of Subsidiary Action Projects.
Summary. The NBI provides a transitional institutional mechanism, an agreed vision and basin-wide
framework, and a process to facilitate substantial investment in the Nile Basin to realize regional
socio-economic development. The NBI represents deep commitment by the Nile riparian countries to
foster cooperation and sustainable development of the River Nile for the benefit of all.
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Efficient Water Use for Agricultural Production 5
International Nile Discourse
Burundi
Rwanda
Ethiopia
Sudan
Tanzania
Eastern Nile
Southern Nile
Egypt
Eritrea
Kenya
DRC
Uganda
Nile Basin
Figure 1. An Illustration of Possible Levels of Nile Cooperation
3.2
NBI Guidelines and Project Goals
The policy guidelines2 adopted by the NBI's Council of Ministers of Water Affairs (Nile-COM) in
February 1999 further define the primary objectives of the NBI. These objectives are:
Ø To develop the water resources of the Nile Basin in a sustainable and equitable way to ensure
prosperity, security, and peace for all its peoples
Ø To ensure efficient water management and the optimal use of the resources
Ø To ensure cooperation and joint action between the riparian countries, seeking win-win gains
Ø To target poverty eradication and promote economic integration
Ø To ensure that the program results in a move from planning to action.
This project contributes to achieving the goals of the NBI by addressing issues related agricultural
water use. Agriculture is the main water using sector in the Basin, and issues related to agricultural
water use are expected to figure high on future management plans by countries. These issues also
directly affect the daily lives of the majority of the people living in the Basin. To-date no basin-wide
mechanism exists for exchange among practitioners, technocrats, and decisionmakers within the
sector. This project therefore seeks to provide an avenue within the NBI strategic action program to
begin to address these issues.
3.3
Main Sector Issues and the Nile Strategic Action Program
The country reports by national experts (see also Section 8) have identified several institutional,
technical, environmental, and economic/financial constraints related to increasing available water for
agriculture and its efficient use. The analysis of the national reports has been synthesized in Annex B.
Table 1 summarizes issues and strategic options proposed by the countries.
The agricultural sector in the Nile Basin countries accounts for 80% of all water use is in the Basin.
Despite large differences in climatic conditions, and despite the fact that interests across the Basin
may vary, it appears that Nile Basin countries face a number of common concerns. In general terms,
the agricultural sector is characterized by its high economic importance, dominance of subsistence
agriculture, a high variance of rainfall, and a related low productivity of rain-fed agriculture. In most
countries, irrigation facilities and storage for agricultural water use are limited, while sedimentation

2 Policy Guidelines for the Nile River Basin Strategic Action Program, Council of Ministers of Water Affairs of the
Nile Basin States, February 1999.
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and the related problem of maintenance pose serious threats to the long-term sustainability of
investments. This is aggravated by poor investments and O&M cost recovery from farmers.
Excessive use of agro-chemicals as well as water pollution, deforestation, and soil erosion are the
most serious environmental problems. In addition, a number of institutional weaknesses appear to
exist: lack of operational policy, unclear roles of private and public sector involvement, and need for
capacity-building are among the most important ones. In particular, the absence of a regional forum
for exchange of experiences in the field of agricultural water use was identified as a priority issue. As
a result, regional knowledge, expertise, and experience are not sufficiently being utilized.
3.4
Sector Issues to be Addressed by the Project and Strategic Choices
The main technical, institutional, economic, and environmental challenges and opportunities are
discussed separately for the three water-using agricultural sub-sectors:
Ø Watershed management
Ø Community-managed irrigation development
Ø Management of public irrigation.
The analysis seeks to answer the following questions:
Ø With respect to which issues would a basin-wide approach have an added value?
Ø How can the selected issues be addressed? What are possible mechanisms for finding solutions
to the problems that have been identified?
Ø On the basis of previous experiences, what are the lessons learned, and what are the best
practices?
Watershed Management
The Problem. All country reports emphasized the problems resulting from poor management of
watersheds in the equatorial Nile Basin countries and in the Ethiopian plateau. The catchment
highlands are densely populated and intensively used for farming and animal grazing. Poor farming
practices on steep lands and uncontrolled grazing has led to excessive deforestation and removal of
vegetative soil cover. As a result, much of the rainfall turns into runoff and is not effectively utilized for
agriculture. In addition, the runoff causes soil erosion, decline in soil fertility, sedimentation in
downstream irrigation systems, and flash floods, which further exacerbate the low productivity of rain-
fed agriculture, a common concern in the equatorial Nile Basin countries.
Most problems associated with watershed management are of a transboundary nature, and need a
regional perspective for the identification of solutions. There is no regional forum for the discussion
and exchange of experience between Nile Basin countries national experts. In addition, many recent
developments in the field of watershed management are particularly innovative, both in terms of
approach as well as activities. However, in the absence of sufficient contact among fellow
practitioners and policy makers, new developments go unnoticed, and important learning
opportunities are lost.
Challenges. Most country reports mention a large potential for stabilizing and improving crop
production and rangeland carrying capacity by better management of watersheds, in particular
because good watershed management practices are also effective in conservation of rainwater and
its effective use for agriculture. Biological methods, including forestation and restoring the vegetative
soil cover, decrease runoff by promoting infiltration of rainwater into the soil. Physical technologies for
good watershed management, such as terraces and storage ponds, also help to conserve rainwater
and play an important role in making rain-fed agriculture less dependant on erratic rainfall. In addition
to direct rainfall, there are a number of other options to increase water supplies for agriculture. In
several countries, numerous Nile and non-Nile streams could be developed for small-scale irrigation.
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Efficient Water Use for Agricultural Production 7
Table 1. Synthesis of Main Issues and Strategic Options
ISSUES TO BE ADDRESSED
Technical/ Environmental
Institutional
Economic/Financial Issues
Excessive deforestation of catchments and
Low capacity of government institutions
Poor cost recovery for O&M
resulting soil erosion
Low institutional capacity to address technical,
Lack of public funds and cost
Inadequate management of watersheds:
institutional, and financial aspects of efficient
recovery from users
rainfall/small streams not well utilized,
agricultural water use
Low financial capability for proper
excessive use of agro-chemicals,
Lack of departmental coordination
irrigation O&M
deforestation, and soil erosion
Lack of government support services
Lack of credit sources for farmers
Low and erratic productivity of rain-fed
(extension, research, etc.)
agriculture
Absence of incentives for efficient
Lack of trained personnel
water use
Inadequate irrigation system O&M
Inadequate research and extension
Low performance of irrigation
Inadequate information and data for planning
Mismanagement of irrigation, excessive
water use, and losses
Lack of water user/community and private
sector participation in irrigation
High sedimentation in irrigation system
Low participation of water users in irrigation
Increasing soil salinity
system O&M
Degradation of water quality due to urban
Lack of ownership rights in irrigation systems
discharges
Inadequate development and use of
wetlands
Lack of data
STRATEGIC OPTIONS
Improved Watershed Management
Improved Community-Managed Irrigation
Options for Reform of Public
Encourage community participation and
Development
Irrigation and for Irrigation
extension to promote land and water
Develop small-scale irrigation by harvesting
Development
conservation practices
rainfall and water from streams
Studies to identify and demonstrate
Promote forestation and vegetative land
Identify strengths and weaknesses of public
effective cost recovery mechanisms
cover
and private sectors in promoting and supporting
to finance irrigation O&M
Promote appropriate crop cultivation and
local community-based efforts
Develop and strengthen water users
livestock grazing practices through
Promote private sector and local community
associations for irrigation system
community extension and training programs
roles in agriculture and water resources
O&M
Identify and demonstrate technologies for
development, including water users
Rehabilitate aging irrigation
rain harvesting, e.g., capturing water from
associations
infrastructure, especially in Sudan
streams to support small-scale irrigation
Formulate and implement policy reforms that
and Egypt, to reduce water losses
Promote proper use of agro-chemicals to
provide incentives for efficient and sustainable
Promote efficient crop selection and
reduce water pollution
use of land and water resources (water use
management practices
fees, cost recovery mechanisms, etc.)
Strengthen performance monitoring, data
collection, and its use in planning and
management of natural resources
Improve agricultural land and water
management in the wetlands
Identify proper drainage and irrigation
infrastructure, develop and implement laws that
define land ownership and procedures for using
wetlands, and train farmers in the use of
wetlands for agriculture
Experiences. In order to exemplify the importance of watershed management and integrated
approaches, it may be helpful to briefly review the experiences of the Fanya Yuu project in Tanzania.
Fanya Yuu ("throwing soil uphill" in Swahili), is a technique that has been used in East Africa for many
years, and involves the digging of small contour trenches, the spill of which is thrown uphill. This soil
slightly reduces the uphill slope, and therefore the velocity of runoff water. Over time, the field
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Efficient Water Use for Agricultural Production
immediately uphill of the trench levels out through sedimentation. In this way, terraces are made
naturally and much less labor is required. The Fanya Yuu was successful because farmers realized
that labor investments were returned within 1.5­2 years, even though initial labor investments were
high as compared with the alternative of planting fodder grasses along lines. The technique allowed
farmers to not only grow fodder, but also beans and fruit trees.
The relevant lesson to draw in this context is that rainwater harvesting development based on water
capture from runoff streams is intimately connected to the condition of watersheds and related
management practices, in particular from a farming system perspective. As a consequence, the issue
of improving rain-fed agriculture must essentially be addressed in concert with proper management of
watersheds. This is recognized by country reports, most of which emphasize the urgent need to
improve the existing condition of watersheds and initiate better management practices in direct
relationship with the issues of land insecurity and land tenure.
Opportunities. Improving watershed management contains a number of important win-win
opportunities for upstream and downstream users alike, both on a national and on an international
level. Development activities for improving watersheds and rainwater harvesting, such as forestation
and constructing small reservoirs, will need effective coordination among several government
agencies (forestry, water resources, etc.), and between countries. Common decisionmaking bodies
for watershed users, at present absent, should be established so as to provide a forum for discussion.
Experiences by countries need to be exchanged, and best practices documented and disseminated.
Also, staff involved need to be trained so as to create a favorable environment for coordination and
cooperation in the Nile Basin.
Community-Managed Irrigation Development
The Problem. Agriculture in the equatorial countries, Ethiopia and southern Sudan, is almost entirely
dependent on rainfall, which is highly variable and erratic. Irrigation facilities are extremely modest
and to a large extent limited to private estate plantations. The result is that crops do not receive the
right amount of water at the right time, and the productivity of agriculture is low. Rice crop yields of
1.2­1.8 tons/ha are reported, compared with typical rice yields of 6 tons/ha for irrigated cultivation.
Although irrigation has a high potential for intensifying agriculture and increasing agricultural
productivity, costs associated with irrigation development are often prohibitively high, more so in Sub-
Saharan Africa than in any other region in the world3. With dwindling prices for major staple crops,
extensive large-scale irrigation development to meet the challenge of satisfying future food demands
will be outside the scope of most Nile Basin riparian countries.
New approaches towards irrigation development need to be identified that do not exclusively focus on
infrastructure delivery. As interesting initiatives have been and are being taken on an individual
country level, there is a need for intensified regional exchange of experiences between national
experts, private sector representatives, and farmers so as to identify and adopt appropriate
approaches and to learn from each others' experiences.
Challenges. A large potential exists region wide for increasing the productivity of rain-fed agriculture
by improving the reliability and adequacy of water supply. A possible water source would be rainwater
harvesting, mentioned in the context of better watershed management. Another option identified in
the country reports is to develop irrigation schemes by capturing water from small streams, which are
numerous in these countries. Rather than becoming involved in costly small-scale irrigation
development themselves, the approach would be for governments to identify options for small-scale
irrigation development. There are a number of pilot initiatives currently in Africa that encourage
private investments in irrigation.

3 See World Bank 1994. A Review of World Bank Experience in Irrigation, Washington, D.C.
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Efficient Water Use for Agricultural Production 9
Experiences. In the Senegal valley, for example, farmers themselves have installed diesel pumps to
irrigate land that, technically speaking, was not recommended for irrigation. Nevertheless, from 1976
onwards, over 800 20ha schemes have been successfully developed with a minimum of government
interference. In sharp contrast, large-scale, centrally managed, government initiated irrigation in the
delta area of the Senegal river was undertaken with major investments and without much success.
If provided with the appropriate enabling environment, farmers themselves are well capable of
investing in their own sustainable development. The role of the government should be transformed
into being a service provider and facilitator.
Opportunities. Improving community-managed irrigation through the identification of development
options addresses a number of issues simultaneously and builds upon local stakeholders and the
private sector for developing the small-scale irrigation sector. The question that needs to be
answered is how governments, farmers, and the private sector could become instrumental in
unleashing the energies available at grass root level for sustainable and farmer-driven irrigation
development. Experiences need to be exchanged, and important lessons that have been learned
need to be collected, documented, and disseminated among Nile Basin member country
stakeholders.
Management of Public Irrigation
The Problem. In government-managed irrigation systems several common concerns have been
raised in the country reports. Water users are not actively involved in system O&M, especially at the
tertiary level. Although currently, they are required to pay irrigation service fees, cost recovery rates
are often extremely poor. Other cost recovery mechanisms are not well developed. The result is that
the irrigation systems do not receive proper operation and maintenance, and as such are not
productive. Irrigation water deliveries are not properly matched to crop water requirements, and
appropriate drainage infrastructure has often not been included in the original design. This results in
excessive water loss and related problems of waterlogging and salinity. In addition, due to inflexible
and unreliable water supplies, very little use is made of available rainfall in irrigation. Efficiencies are
further decreased because farmers grow crops, such as rice and sugarcane that use large amount of
water.
Challenges. To respond to these concerns, it may be helpful to review past experiences with these
issues. Inadequate O&M is a leading cause of poor performance in most large government-managed
irrigation systems. Some of the solutions to O&M problems have been to increase public funding or to
initiate payment of user fees. Both approaches have been tried in many countries without much
success. Water fees often become part of the general government revenue and are not available for
system maintenance. In other cases, allocation of maintenance funds is insufficiently transparent.
Experiences. A relatively successful solution is based on the logic that satisfactory users groups
beget satisfactory O&M, which begets satisfactory cost recovery. The Irrigation Management Transfer
(IMT) approach takes the next logical step beyond participation; it empowers farmers to take over
many system management tasks themselves, while collection and allocation of funds is done in a
decentralized and transparent way. The Irrigation Improvement Project (IIP) in Egypt, for example, is
currently trying to promote farmers water users associations that can assume responsibility for
system O&M at the tertiary level. An outstanding experience outside the Nile Basin is the reform of
the Office du Niger, a large-scale previously publicly managed irrigation scheme located in Mali. After
transfer of O&M responsibility to local committees, production levels, water fee recovery rates, and
maintenance spending have all gone up.
The important lesson here is that the users themselves are better than others at achieving efficient
irrigation management. However, mere "involvement" or "participation" is not enough incentive; as
much as possible, farmers should be empowered and the irrigation systems turned over to them. This
means that the user groups will be given the management (in some cases even the ownership) rights
to the system facilities, and the legal authority to recover O&M costs from their members. Legislation
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10 Efficient Water Use for Agricultural Production
on water users associations must include appropriate provision for payment of fees (who is
responsible for payment ­ owner or sharecropper, possibility to impose fines, and procedures for
dealing with defaulters). Irrigation system turnover is a complex process in large-scale publicly
managed irrigation systems.
Opportunities. It is clear that the issue of reform of publicly managed irrigation poses a number of
challenges that are shared among a number of Nile Basin countries. Important lessons can be
learned from other countries in the Basin, provided that a forum exists for the exchange of
experiences. Irrigation management transfer is likely to become one of the major issues in the Basin,
and has a demonstrated impact on efficient water use.
There is a good understanding in the country reports of the main issues that need to be addressed by
the project. What seems to be absent is a regional forum for consultation, exchange of experience,
training, and sharing lessons learned among Nile Basin stakeholders. The activities proposed under
this project are in the form of studies and consultations that share experiences. For each proposed
activity, the role of government, the private sector, and the local communities in the activity needs to
be identified.
4.
PROJECT SUMMARY
4.1
Project Components
The immediate objective of the project is to create a regional forum to address issues related to
agricultural water use in the Nile Basin. In a first phase, the project will address the issues and
themes identified during the in-country analysis through two components or types of activities,
regional consultation and training, and demonstration/pilots and regional exchange of experience.
Possible topics to be addressed under the three themes (watershed management, community-
managed irrigation development, and public irrigation management) are presented in Table 2.
Component 1. Regional Consultations and Training
Activity 1.1. Basin-wide consultations/seminars/training in topics related to watershed
management, community-managed irrigation development, and public irrigation management
Rationale. Consultations, seminars, and training at the regional level provide the opportunity to jointly
review roles and opportunities in increasing water use and efficiency for agricultural production, and
to study some of the concepts and practices which are being discussed elsewhere. Topics for
consultation may include, but are not limited to:
Ø Public-private sector roles in watershed management, community-managed irrigation
development, and management of public irrigation
Ø Management transfer of natural resources to local communities
Ø Decentralization and contracting through local communities
Ø Management transfer and joint management of irrigation infrastructure
Ø Recovery of O&M and investment costs through user fees
Ø Role of water users associations (WUA).
The primary addressees of this component will be agriculture and irrigation government officials
within the Nile Basin countries, although it is expected that the private sector and community
representatives would provide input to these consultations. These regional consultations will raise
issues and identify opportunities. As such, they can provide inputs towards, but will not substitute for,
national-level policy dialogue (see Activity 1.2).
Approach. The project manager with support of national project coordinators (see Section 4.3) will
consult with government officials in the Nile Basin countries and develop a first series of
consultations, seminars, and training in priority areas. This will include the development of a
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Efficient Water Use for Agricultural Production 11
Table 2. Possible Topics to be Addressed by the Project
POSSIBLE TOPICS
WATERSHED MANAGEMENT
COMMUNITY-MANAGED
MANAGEMENT OF PUBLIC
IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT
IRRIGATION
Technical aspects of watershed
Public-private sector roles in
Ways to improve water use
management
development of community-
efficiency
Public-private sector roles in
managed irrigation
Public-private sector roles in
planning and management of
Cost recovery, service fees for
planning and management of
watershed management
WUAs, and incentives for efficient
irrigation systems
Management transfer of natural
water use
Management transfer and
TIONS/TRAINING
resources to communities
Current use of wetlands and
joint management of irrigation
A
REGIONAL
Participatory appraisal and
options for sustainable use for
infrastructure
diagnostics of catchment
agriculture
Recovery of O&M and
degradation
Decentralization and contracting
investment costs through user
through local communities
fees
CONSULT
COMPONENTS
Terracing, cut and carry for
Rainwater harvesting, spate
Low water-using technologies
livestock, minimum tillage
irrigation, flood control, treadle
O&M cost recovery
Green fertilizer (intercropping)
pumps
Improved management of
Role of empowered communities
Role of WUAs in sustainable
national irrigation boards
PERIENCE
in watershed management
irrigation
X
Role of WUAs in increasing
PILOTS AND
REGIONAL
EXCHANGE OF
E
water use efficiency
DEMONSTRATION/
Enabling environment for
Enabling environment for
Options for reforms in publicly
sustainable watershed
community-managed irrigation
managed irrigation reviewed
management enhanced and
development enhanced and
and piloted, demonstrating
increased productivity by improved
increased agricultural production
improved system
watershed management
demonstrated
performance, and options for
demonstrated
irrigation development
EXPECTED
OUTPUTS
explored
curriculum and the identification of possible participants. After execution of a first series of
consultations, lessons learned will be reviewed and possible follow-up activities will be
recommended.
Products. This activity will deliver, among others, the following products:
Ø Guidelines for public-private partnership in watershed management
Ø Manuals for management transfer of natural resources to local communities
Ø Compilation of case studies for O&M and investment cost recovery
Ø Methodology of irrigation management transfer to WUAs
Ø Training curricula in the field of O&M of agricultural water supply schemes.
Activity 1.2. National-level consultations on agriculture/irrigation policy at country request
Rationale. Whereas the primary focus of the project is on regional activities, it will be important to
allow for feedback of results of regional consultations into the national level policy and
decisionmaking process. The project will therefore provide an opportunity to support national irrigation
policy dialogue for those countries that request such support. For this purpose, a drawdown facility
will be established through which governments can access support, advice, and assistance in the
review and analysis of existing policies and institutions, policy dialogue, and development. The
services provided by the facility will be of a support nature only, given that national policy
development is a sovereign activity and should therefore be prepared by nationals of the country
concerned.
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12 Efficient Water Use for Agricultural Production
Approach. The project management unit (PMU) will administer limited funds for policy support to
countries requesting such support. It will establish criteria for access and rules for its use. In order to
access the drawdown facility, countries will have to apply to the PMU, explaining proposed use of the
funds, including objectives, activities, and outputs.
Products. The products that this activity is expected to deliver include:
Ø National-level policy recommendations for addressing issues related to efficient water use for
agriculture
Ø Proposals for national studies to be conducted to complement regional research
Ø Advise for review and analysis of existing policies related to efficient water use for agriculture
Ø National contributions to regional projects.
Component 2. Demonstrations/Pilots and Basin-Wide Exchange of Experience
Rather than developing pilot schemes by themselves, the proposed project will at first focus on
existing pilots and projects in the Basin. In addition, and on the basis of the outcomes of the first
phase, specific options for new pilots will be studied and proposals to that end will be prepared.
These will be considered for funding under subsequent phases of the project.
Activity 2.1. Exchange of good practice and experience and identification of project
opportunities
Rationale. This activity aims to exchange experience and study good practice on technical,
institutional, financial, and environmental issues of water use for agricultural production in watershed
management, community-managed irrigation development, and in public irrigation. Possible topics
include the following.
In watershed management:
Ø Terracing, cut and carry for livestock, minimum tillage
Ø Green fertilizer (intercropping)
Ø Role of empowered communities in watershed management.
In community-managed irrigation development:
Ø Rainwater harvesting, spate irrigation, flood control, treadle pumps
Ø Role of WUAs in sustainable irrigation.
In public irrigation development:
Ø Low water-using technologies
Ø O&M cost recovery
Ø Improved management of national irrigation boards.
These topics will be jointly studied by relevant government officials, and by other public sector and
community representatives. Special consideration will be given to the role of gender in project
planning and implementation. The project will also identify specific project opportunities for
implementation at subsidiary level for example, NBI Subsidiary Action Programs (SAP), and will
recommend approaches that would ensure the sustainability of proposed projects.
Approach. The PMU in collaboration with national project coordinators (a) collates and reviews
relevant ongoing pilots and full-fledged projects in the Basin, (b) identifies relevant experiences
outside the Basin, (c) identifies relevant groups for exchange, (d) organizes exchange visits, and (e)
disseminate lessons learned. The PMU will closely collaborate with agricultural working groups within
NBI Subsidiary Action Programs, both in terms of good practice and in identification of project
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Efficient Water Use for Agricultural Production 13
opportunities. The PMU will also consider approaches towards support to demand-driven pilots in the
three thematic areas, meeting needs of communities, and ensuring sustainability.
Products. Examples of products include but are not limited to:
Ø Action plans for promoting low-cost irrigation technology to farmers
Ø Proposals for pilot projects in the field of terracing and minimum tillage, to be funded under a later
phase of the project
Ø Reviews of best practices in the field of rainwater harvesting and water conservation
Ø Inventory of projects in the field of irrigation bureaucracy management reform
Ø Compendiums of lessons learned in empowering communities for watershed management
Ø Project proposals for possible implementation under SAP.
Activity 2.2. Basin-wide twinning of institutions and exchange visits among WUAs, research
institutions and irrigation bureaucracies
Rationale. Most of the Nile Basin countries suffer from insufficient research, extension, and support
services to the agricultural sector. This basin-wide project provides an opportunity to pool resources,
link ongoing initiatives across the Basin, and eventually, to provide targeted support to fill gaps. It also
offers an opportunity to create new partnerships among institutions at various levels, for example
among farmer/water users associations, cooperations, research institutes, and others.
Approach. The PMU together with national project coordinators will establish a roster of relevant
research institutes, WUAs, government, and private organizations and identify opportunities for
twinning, and encourage proposals for joint activities. Based on the roster and consultations, specific
institutional gaps will be identified and proposals for support be prepared.
Products. The products that are expected to be delivered under this activity include, for example:
Ø Letters of agreement between institutions
Ø Joint work programs between research bodies
Ø Joint publications by irrigation bureaucracies on experiences with management reform
Ø Action plans for establishment of umbrella organizations by WUAs.
Outputs. It is expected that the following long-term outputs can be achieved in the three thematic
areas identified:
Ø An enhanced enabling environment for sustainable watershed management and increased
productivity by improved watershed management demonstrated
Ø An enhanced enabling environment for community-managed irrigation development and
increased agricultural production
Ø Reviews of options for reforms in publicly managed irrigation with pilot projects, demonstrating
improved system performance, and exploration of options for irrigation development.
Initial Budget. The project will be implemented progressively, building on successes obtained during
early phases. Initial budget allocations are presented in Table 3. The budget assumes that project
staff will be regional recruits; if they are considered international recruits, the budget rises by
approximately $0.27 million to a total of $5.01 million.
The budget will balance allocations towards the various groups of stakeholders in the project,
including farmers' organizations, the private sector, government, and parastatal staff. This shall
ensure that all stakeholders, including those who traditionally have less access to project resources,
will be able to benefit.
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14 Efficient Water Use for Agricultural Production
Table 3. Initial Budget Allocations
INITIAL BUDGET ALLOCATIONS
DISBURSEMENT CATEGORY
AMOUNT
(US$ million)
Regional Recruits
Consultations/demonstrations
2.33
Salaries
1.79
Equipment & operating costs
0.07
SUBTOTAL
4.19
SVP Coordination, Quality Assurance
0.13
and Monitoring (3%)
Contingencies (10%)
0.42
GRAND TOTAL
4.74
4.2
Benefits and Target Population
Making Use of Comparative Strengths. The project seeks to identify options to make efficient use
of water and increase agricultural production. While local communities and farmers will be the
ultimate beneficiaries, the project will address all relevant actors, government institutions,
communities, and the private sector in their respective roles and will seek to make use of their
strengths and comparative advantages. The project will ultimately encourage local communities to
initiate new approaches towards water use for agricultural production. The community-based efforts
need to be supported by appropriate definition of user rights and incentives, which is a critical role for
the government agencies. Also, the government and the private sector can provide the necessary
technical assistance in support of local initiatives.
Given the nature of this regional project, expected primary beneficiaries and proposed project
activities are related in the following way.
Component 1 Beneficiaries. The primary audience of the basin-wide seminars and consultations
will be agricultural experts and senior-level government officials from the participating countries, but
the private sector and community representatives will provide inputs to these consultations.
Component 2 Beneficiaries. All parties--the public sector, the private sector, and community
representatives are expected to benefit from the study of good practices and exchange of experience.
Due consideration will also be given to gender roles.
4.3
Institutional and Implementation Arrangements
Implementation at Regional Level. A project organizational chart is shown in Annex E. At the policy
level, Nile-TAC will have project oversight. A regional project coordination committee, composed of
senior-level government staff and representatives from donor agencies and research institutions will
be responsible for regional coordination. The project coordination committee will be key for anchoring
the project and its activities in the respective line ministries in the NBI countries and to provide
sectoral guidance for the project's activities. For project implementation, a small project management
unit (PMU) will be established, consisting of a project manager and support staff for procurement,
finance, and administration. A lead specialist, recruited on an as-and-when-needed basis, will provide
technical backstopping. The project manager, who will report to the regional project coordination
committee, will supervise the administrative and financial aspects of the project and execute the work
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Efficient Water Use for Agricultural Production 15
program. In order to decrease overhead costs, it is recommended that the project be co-hosted with
(an)other SVP project(s) and co-managed by one project manager.
Implementation at National Level. Each participating country will recruit a national project
coordinator to coordinate and implement the project at the national level. Project implementation will
ensure participation of all relevant government and private sector stakeholders, including ministries of
water, agriculture and forestry, local communities, NGOs, and the private sector.
Release of funds for the implementation of the project activities will be related to:
Ø The establishment of a regional project coordination committee
Ø The establishment of a project management unit (PMU), consisting of a project manager and a
lead specialist
Ø The identification of a national project coordinator for each country, to be supported by relevant
stakeholders involved in project implementation of all project components.
The project provides for the establishment of ad-hoc regional thematic working groups. These groups
will, at the request of the project manager and on advice from the lead specialist, provide technical
back-stopping to national project coordinators and support the lead specialist in the design of regional
activities. These working groups will consist of national level lead specialists with an international
reputation in selected areas of relevance to agricultural water use. These specialists may represent,
for example, research institutes, the private sector, NGOs, and farmers' unions.
5.
PROJECT RATIONALE
5.1
Alternatives Considered
At the outset of project identification, the following alternatives were considered:
Ø Comparative advantages and agricultural trade in the Basin, to address questions related to
economic efficiency and regional optimization of water use for agricultural production, urban and
industrial functions, power generation, environment, navigation, etc.
Ø Water use efficiency, to address issues related to technical and institutional options for increasing
efficient water use for agriculture.
However, it appeared that issues related to economic efficiency and trade would be addressed in
other components within the Shared Vision Program, such as the Socio-Economic Development and
Benefit-Sharing Project. These issues may also be addressed in subsequent agricultural projects as
cooperation grows. Therefore, it was decided to focus on agronomic water use efficiency and related
issues.
An additional choice was made between the following two alternatives:
Ø Implementation of pilot and demonstration projects throughout the Basin
Ø Focus on capacity and institutions building, exchange of experience, and basin-wide
consultations.
For a number of reasons, the second option has been retained. In the first place, it became clear that
during a first phase of the project, donor contributions would primarily be sufficient for capacity and
institutions building. It is, however, understood that the first phase will be an opportunity to identify
and appraise a number of project ideas that will be submitted for funding, either under a second
phase of the project, or by other projects (for example, SAP). These project proposals are expected
to address the issues summarized in Table 1, including issues of a more technical nature. In the
second place, under an initial phase, the added value of this project would be in particular to
contribute to regional confidence-building through the establishment of a forum of experts in the field
of agricultural water use. Presently, such a forum does not exist. In the third place, there was a strong
feeling that with the number of projects currently under implementation in the region (see Annex C),
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16 Efficient Water Use for Agricultural Production
there would be a sufficient number of pilots already underway. It was therefore decided to shift the
focus away from pilot implementation towards basin-wide pilot stocktaking and the organization of
study tours and exchange visits.
5.2
Major Related Projects Financed by External Support Agencies (ESAs)
Agriculture and water resources development have been one of the priorities for the Nile Basin
countries. Considerable assistance from external support agencies has been received. An outline of
on-going or recently completed projects related to agricultural water use in the Nile Basin countries is
provided below and in Annex C. From a review of these and similar projects in other regions,
important lessons have been incorporated in the project design.
Of direct relevance to the proposed project are efforts by ICARDA (the International Center for
Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas), ICRAF (the International Center for Research in
Agroforestry), and ICRISAT (the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics) that
have established regional drawdown facilities for training, study tours, and workshops related to
agroforestry and to arid and semi-arid agriculture. In addition, the FAO and UNDP both finance
regional programs that are relevant to the current project proposal.
ICARDA. ICARDA is involved in cooperative agricultural research carried out in many countries in
West Asia and North Africa. The results of research are transferred through cooperation with national
and regional research institutions, with universities and ministries of agriculture, and through the
technical assistance and training that the Center provides. A range of training programs is offered and
these efforts are supported by seminars, publications, and specialized information services.
ICRAF. ICRAF is involved in cooperation with national institutions in technology-generating research
projects and training programs through the Agroforestry Research Networks for Africa (AFRENA).
ICRAF, with headquarters in Nairobi, offers agroforestry training courses, fellowship schemes, on-the-
job training and agroforestry education, and organizes international conferences and workshops in
Africa.
ICRISAT. ICRISAT serves as a global center for the development of improved farming systems that
will help to increase and stabilize agricultural production through more effective use of natural and
human resources in the seasonally dry semi-arid tropics. It also assists in the development and
transfer of technology to the farmer through cooperation with national and regional research
programs, and by sponsoring workshops and conferences, operating training programs, and assisting
extension activities. ICRISAT has established skill development programs to improve the background
and qualifications of agriculturists in national and cooperating programs concerned with ICRISAT
mandate.
RELMA. In 1998, the Swedish International Development Agency (SIDA) established the Regional
Land Management Unit (RELMA) based in Nairobi as a tool to address issues of food security in
Eastern Africa (Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, and Zambia). RELMA aims at focusing
on the productive potential of the farm in land husbandry, including aspects of soil and water
conservation, agroforestry, animal and crop husbandry, water harvesting, and farm economy and
marketing. Activities include dissemination of information, production of publications, training,
institutional capacity-building, networking, and manpower development.
FAO. FAO's Special Program for Food Security aims at enabling conditions, improving access to
food, producing food, increasing the role of trade, dealing adequately with disaster, and investing in
food security. This is done through (a) participatory constraints analysis and resolution, (b)
agricultural policy reform aimed at addressing macro-level socio-economic and institutional
constraints, and (c) an investment program that ensures availability of the resources required to
overcome infrastructure constraints.
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Efficient Water Use for Agricultural Production 17
With funding from the Italian government, the FAO is also involved in the implementation of the
Capacity-Building for Nile Basin Water Resources Management Project. The project focuses on
strengthening capacities in water resources planning and data base management, however, it does
not focus specifically on agricultural water use.
In addition, a significant number of projects are being implemented in the region from which lessons
can be learned. These are summarized in Annex C. Although all listed projects are being
implemented in Nile Basin countries, not all of them work at present exclusively in river basins
belonging to the Nile Basin.
5.3
Lessons Learned and Reflected In Proposed Project Design
The review of lessons learned during design of this project included vast experience in the Nile Basin
countries, as reflected in the country reports, but also went beyond the Nile Basin, and looked into
selected experiences worldwide. Part of these experiences is reflected in Annex B, and some
important lessons are summarized below.
Ø Efficient use of water for agriculture is a transboundary issue, both in terms of the origin of the
problems, the strategies for addressing them, and the implementation of viable solutions.
Ø Whereas most programs and projects have a component that aims to bring sectoral people
together for specific purposes, there is no Nile basin-wide regional forum of national experts
involved in agricultural water use.
Ø Stakeholder participation and leadership in irrigation development and management has emerged
as an effective approach towards sustainability. It has provided user input in designs resulting in
systems that are easily manageable, and it has led to better management and water delivery
service.
Ø Community-managed small-scale irrigation development has shown a better performance track
record than publicly managed irrigation. This is especially true when the systems are initially
developed by local communities or turned over to irrigators' groups for management. In large
government-managed systems, fWUAs can manage the tertiary level better, improving water use
efficiency, and conserving a significant amount of water.
Ø Water Users Associations have demonstrated abilities to take responsibility for system O&M. The
government can support WUAs by providing appropriate legal and financial framework. WUAs
should be empowered to collect service fees from their members, but the fees must be used to
provide better service rather than making them part of government revenue.
It is proposed that the consultations and exchange proposed in this project will deal with these
experiences in more detail.
5.4
Value Added of Donor Support in this Project
Agricultural Water Use­An Important Topic in Basin-Wide Dialogue. Given that agriculture is the
predominant consumptive water user in the Nile Basin (as elsewhere), basin-wide consultation,
training, and exchange of experience among professionals in the sector is a first step towards a
constructive and informed discourse on agricultural water use the in the Basin. This dialogue has
never taken place before, and for many of the national experts participating in project preparation, it
was the first time that they met colleagues from co-riparian countries. In the course of project
preparation, it became clear that many of the Nile Basin countries face similar structural problems. A
basin-wide project thus provides an opportunity to learn jointly as well as from each other, and to
address issues of common concern. In line with the objectives of the Shared Vision Program, this
project seeks to create an appropriate enabling environment for the realization of the NBI Shared
Vision in the sector.
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18 Efficient Water Use for Agricultural Production
Donor Support to this Project. It is expected that this project will qualify for donor support in the
form of grant assistance. Donor support would provide for the incremental cost or added dimension of
a regional project which provides opportunities to promote confidence-building and cooperation in a
region where the latter is still not the norm. This project provides the opportunity to draw level with a
discussion which has taken place in the agriculture sector in many parts of the world during the last
decade or so, but which appears to have largely by-passed many of the Nile countries.
The project should be seen as precursor and as a first contribution towards confidence-building and
cooperation. Future phases of the project, if proven instrumental to achieving the objectives, will focus
more on joint, basin-wide activities, grass-root stakeholders involvement, and implementation of
relevant pilots and initiatives that have been identified under the first phase.
Country Commitment. While it is expected that donors will contribute towards the additional cost of
regional cooperation, they will closely observe indications of country ownership and commitment
towards the project. In the most general sense, country commitment will be reflected by country
contributions towards the Nile Basin institutions (such as Nile-SEC). It is also expected that countries
would provide in-kind contribution at different tiers of the project organization.
6.
ISSUES REQUIRING SPECIAL ATTENTION
6.1
Economic/Financial
Support from Donor Agencies. Country funds will probably be limited, at least in the initial project
phase. Therefore, support from donor agencies will be critical for project implementation and
successful performance. On this basis, it is expected that a future phase of the project will become
more involved in actions on the ground. The current phase will be instrumental to that end, as
outcomes from exchange visits and regional consultations are expected to include concrete project
proposals for funding.
6.2
Technical/Environmental
Ø With the large number of on-going initiatives in the Basin, the challenge will be for the PMU to
demonstrate leadership and stay ahead of developments, to identify promising developments at
an early stage, and to take initiatives where needed and appropriate. It is clear that modern
communication technologies will play an important role in the implementation of the project.
Ø Linking the agriculture sector solidly with the environment should not be taken for granted,
particularly because of the many new developments that have taken and are taking place. This
issue needs to be addressed through technical backstopping by environmental experts.
Ø Lack of data, especially on flow characteristics of streams, groundwater, etc. is an important
concern that needs to be addressed. Data will not be available immediately. The project will need
to adopt a collaborative approach and work together with existing agriculture-related projects
(such as the Tanzanian River Basin Management Project), as well as with other SVP projects
(such as the Nile Basin Decision Support System component of the Water Resources, Planning
and Management Project).
6.3
Institutional Issues
All activities that seek to promote cooperation among ten countries of the Nile Basin will inherently be
complex. However, such cooperation is essential if sustainable development and management of the
Nile is to be achieved. This challenge must therefore be met. Key institutional issues will be regional
coordination, institutional capacity at the national level to implement and sustain project outcomes,
the training and retention of staff at national and regional levels, and continued commitment to
regional cooperation. One of the common concerns expressed in the country reports is the
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Efficient Water Use for Agricultural Production 19
inadequate capacity of government institutions to provide effective leadership and support services.
The NBI project approach, therefore, should assist in capacity-building of national experts. Capacity-
building through the organization of study tours and exchange visits will be an important part of the
project.
The Shared Vision Program will be coordinated by the NBI. The collaboration of all Nile riparian
governments in the NBI is an historic step and an expression of the commitment of the riparian
governments to regional cooperation. The preparation of the Shared Vision Program projects has
been complex, multi-country, multi-sectoral process involving more than 70 national experts from nine
countries in the preparation of seven projects. The NBI institutions, supported by the Nile-SEC, have
effectively managed this process, demonstrating Nile riparian capacity for basin-wide coordination.
Effective implementation of the Agricultural Water Use and other Shared Vision Program projects,
however, will be a challenge. The creation of strong project management (implementation) units, as
well as continued attention to strengthening the regional coordination capabilities of the NBI
institutions will be critical to the success of this project.
However, ownership of the project should not remain limited to national experts in the capital city.
Other stakeholders need to be directly involved in the project, such as representatives from the
private sector and WUAs. The project resources will be proportionally earmarked for the various
stakeholder groups. In addition, care will be taken to make sure that all stakeholders are properly
informed about this opportunity. And finally, project management is expected to take appropriate
initiatives to make sure that all stakeholders benefit in a balanced way.
7.
SUSTAINABILITY AND RISKS
7.1
Sustainability
Project Ownership. Sustainability of project initiatives will greatly depend on the approach adopted
during project design and implementation. First and foremost is the question of project ownership.
Through a resolutely participatory process of project design, every effort has been made to ensure
that respective sector ministries genuinely "own" the project. This first step will prove to have laid the
foundation for future steps, when local communities and the private sector need to be genuinely
engaged in the process and encouraged to take ownership. Project ownership will also be
demonstrated through continued commitment to sustain the Nile Basin Initiative institutions.
Tangible Benefits. The second important concern is whether the project will result in tangible
benefits for the local communities and farmers. The initial beneficiaries of the project will be selected
government agencies and ministries, the private sector, and local farmer organizations. For long-term
sustainability, the project benefits must reach the national level and the private sector. As these long-
term benefits are likely to be less visible than the outcomes of, for example, direct infrastructure
delivery, the project will need to remain alert and need to demonstrate tangible change for
stakeholders. Incorporating regional experiences at the national level will need to form an important
element of this strategy.
Regional Cooperation. Project sustainability will also depend on the level of cooperation that can be
maintained among the Nile Basin countries. Transparent operational procedures, open
communications, networking, and sharing of information are important factors that will influence
regional cooperation in the long run. The project will, from the beginning, need to establish good
communications among the member countries, and establish full transparency with respect to the
transmission of messages.
7.2
Critical Risks
The major critical risks of this project as identified by the agricultural water use experts involved in
project preparation are summarized below.
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20 Efficient Water Use for Agricultural Production
Ø NBI cooperation stalls
Ø Lack of commitment of individual countries and support for national level activities
Ø Insufficient regional level management capacity to ensure basin-wide coordination
Ø Insufficient national level institutional capacity and cooperation to implement and sustain the
project
Ø Riparians unable to reach consensus on specific project elements and the extent of information
sharing
Ø Insufficient donor support and funding and inability to establish sustainable funding mechanisms.
Factors that mitigate these risks are described in the following paragraphs.
NBI Cooperation. The NBI has evolved from a long process that has culminated in the formation of
this inclusive mechanism in the Nile Basin. Cooperation has continued in the face of difficult
challenges. The riparian governments have continuously expressed their commitment to the NBI
process, as well as to the continuation of the riparian process to agree on a basin-wide Cooperative
Framework.
Country Commitment. National experts, appointed by the riparian governments, have fully
participated in the project preparation process to ensure there is full riparian ownership and strong
national commitment to successful project implementation. Further, the project will primarily be
implemented by staff from the region and the detailed work program will be developed by regional
working groups, with input from national networks and stakeholders, to ensure the project meets
national as well as regional needs. The project components are demand-driven and the project will be
developed with full participation of riparian teams. The two components have also been designed to
include awareness-raising, training, and mutual benefits to motivate participation in the national water
use for agriculture networks and in return have access to the benefits of project tools.
Regional Coordination Capacity. The institutions of the NBI, supported by the Nile-SEC, have
effectively managed a complex, multi-country, multi-sectoral process to prepare the seven projects of
the Shared Vision Program. This demonstrates capacity for basin-wide coordination. Effective
implementation of the Efficient Water Use for Agriculture Project and other Shared Vision Program
projects, however, will be a challenge. The creation of a strong project management unit has been
incorporated into the project design, while the continued strengthening of the regional coordination
capabilities of the NBI institutions will be addressed at the Shared Vision Program level.
National Institutional Capacity. Recognizing that some countries in the Basin face institutional
capacity constraints, the project has been designed to strengthen institutional and human resources
capacity in the recipient countries. The drawdown facilities will support learning by doing and can also
provide seed money to start larger planning and institutional efforts if desired. The project at the
national level will most likely be anchored in the national institution responsible for agriculture. The
three-year time frame of the project, the extensive focus on training, and exchange of experience are
designed to strengthen institutional capacity for efficient use of water for agriculture.
Consensus and Information Sharing. Several project elements require riparian consensus. The
project components have been designed to build confidence and collaborative attitudes among the
respective riparians through openness and transparency in operations and through the participatory
development of the systems. The project is also designed to ensure national ownership and confer
national benefits, as well as to become an important element in NBI operations. The project will
provide the technical framework to support information exchange, while the extent of regional
information exchange is likely to evolve gradually as cooperation grows and real needs emerge to
address common issues.
Donor Support and Long-Term Financial Sustainability. All project components initially require
donor financial support. However, it is expected that at project completion, the performance of the
project will form a basis for continued donor support. Under the prevailing situation in the Basin, it is
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Efficient Water Use for Agricultural Production 21
difficult to see how the project could become financially independent in the short term, although some
of its elements may be taken up by the private sector. Financial sustainability will be understood in
this proposal as the long-term capability of the project to provide sufficient quality so as to continue to
attract donor funding.
There are several important assumptions that may result in the project not meeting its desired
outputs. These were discussed in the national experts meetings and are outlined below.
Commitment of the Nile Basin Countries. The project success will be critically dependent on the
countries' continued commitment to the collaboration with other Nile Basin member countries, and to
achieving the objectives of the SVP program, as articulated by the NBI. This is intimately related to
political stability in the region. Many countries in the region are facing conflict, political uncertainty,
extreme poverty, disease, etc. These conditions are not conducive to a long-term project aimed at
improving an enabling environment on a regional basis. On the other hand, this and other NBI
projects seek to build trust among the Nile Basin countries. It is therefore crucial that this process
have palpable benefits. The emphasis on regional cooperation, the collaborative efforts that have
been made to design the project, and the regional ownership that is the result thereof are powerful
instruments for not only achieving the project's objectives, but also for accomplishing the longer term
trust and understanding.
Institutional Leadership. The project depends on the capability of government institutions and staff
to provide visionary leadership. This is a challenge in a setting where incentives for staff, research,
innovation, and supporting infrastructure are often insufficient. Through regional learning from study
tours, exchange visits, and consultations, the project endeavors to create institutional capacity and
leadership that will form the basis for implementation of project activities. It should be pointed out that
the project intends to seek visionary leadership within, and not outside the boundaries of the Nile
Basin.
8.
PROJECT PREPARATION PROCESS
The preparation of the Efficient Use of Water for Agriculture Project, as well as the other projects
within the Shared Vision Program project portfolio, was directed by the institutions of the NBI and
involved the active participation of technical experts from across the Basin. This complex, multi-
country, multi-sectoral process, which is described below, demonstrates riparian ownership and
commitment to successful project implementation.
8.1
Evolution of the Shared Vision Program: A Coordinated Basin-Wide
Program
The Shared Vision Program evolved from four thematic areas, or pillars, as described in the NBI
policy guidelines to a coordinated program of seven basin-wide projects between February 1999 and
December 2000. The process, summarized in Table 4, was executed and coordinated by the Nile-
SEC, involved active participation of and guidance from the Nile-TAC, and received formal
endorsement by the Nile-COM at critical milestones.
The final portfolio of Shared Vision Program projects includes:
Ø Nile Transboundary Environmental Action
Ø Nile Basin Regional Power Trade
Ø Efficient Water Use for Agricultural Production
Ø Water Resources Planning and Management
Ø Confidence-Building and Stakeholder Involvement (Communications)
Ø Applied Training
Ø Socio-economic Development and Benefit-Sharing.
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22 Efficient Water Use for Agricultural Production
Four of these are thematic projects--focusing on environment, power, agriculture, and water
resources management--and three are facilitative projects related to confidence-building and
stakeholder involvement, training, and benefit-sharing. The thematic projects aim to provide a
technical foundation, including common analytical frameworks, practical tools and demonstrations,
and human capacity, to support regional cooperation; while the facilitative projects serve to forge a
common vision and ensure long-term sustainability. The projects build on each other, and together
will serve to provide an enabling environment for cooperative development.
The Shared Vision Program projects are linked to each other and to the Subsidiary Action Programs
in important ways. For example, the information management system of the DSS component of the
water resources project will provide a common communication platform and information management
system for all Shared Vision Program projects. At the same time, the benefit-sharing project will
develop and evaluate socio-economic development scenarios, which will provide the context for
potential river development alternatives. The efficient water use for agriculture project will coordinate
with the applied training and stakeholder involvement projects to share knowledge and expertise as
relevant.
8.2 Detailed Project Preparation: A Multi-Country, Multi-Sectoral, Participatory
Process
As noted above, preparation of the Shared Vision Program projects was driven by Nile-TAC,
coordinated by Nile-SEC, and involved significant substantive input by Nile-TAC members. Detailed
project preparation was a complex and highly participatory process, which involved eight national
experts from each country, representing expertise in environment, power trade (ministry and utility
perspectives), agriculture, water resources, training, and communications. The project preparation
process created a forum for interaction among the technical experts from different water-related
sectors across the Basin. As such, the project preparation process has laid the foundation for broad-
based support for project implementation.
Preparation of each Shared Vision Program project was supported by a lead consultant and a focal
point of the World Bank-UNDP-CIDA Nile team.
For the Efficient Water Use for Agricultural Production Project, one national expert was appointed
from each country, typically with experience in the field of agricultural water use. One lead consultant
was employed to facilitate the preparation process, while a Nile team focal point served as a liaison
and provided technical support to the Nile-SEC. A list of the individuals involved is provided in Annex
A.
The national experts played a critical role in the preparation process. Under the guidance of the Nile-
TAC member, the experts conducted national level reviews and analyses. The national experts,
along with the Nile-TAC members, provided critical input regarding project formulation during the two
three-day working group meetings, as well as reviewed and revised project documents throughout the
preparation process. This project document reflects riparian perspective on national and regional
needs, project components which are deemed to be implementable and confer real benefits, and a
project design based on lessons learned from other related projects in the region.
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Efficient Water Use for Agricultural Production 23
Table 4. Preparation of the Shared Vision Program
DATE
MEETING
LOCATION
KEY OUTCOMES
TYPE
July 1998
Nile-TAC
Dar es Salam,
Drafting of policy guidelines that define the SVP and four major
Tanzania
thematic areas of the program
Feb 1999
Nile-COM and
Dar es Salam,
Adoption of the NBI Policy Guidelines, and instruction by Nile-COM
Nile-TAC
Tanzania
to prepare a portfolio of priority SVP projects for ICCON
May 1999
SVP Planning
Sodere, Ethiopia
Preliminary list of priority projects, including project goals and
Meeting
objectives, based on consultation and brainstorming by Nile-TAC
members and 2 additional sectoral experts from each country
May 1999
Nile-COM and
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Approval of list of priority projects and project preparation process
Nile-TAC
Sept 1999
Nile-TAC
Entebbe, Uganda
Based on output from Sodere planning meeting, development of
project concept notes for seven priority projects and approval of a
detailed project preparation process and schedule for each project
Dec 1999
Project
Entebbe, Uganda
Review and further development of draft project concept
Preparation 1
notes/documents by working groups (WGs). For each project, the
WGs included a Nile-TAC member and national expert(s) from
each country. A total of 8 national experts were involved from
each country. Each project was assisted by a lead consultant.
Dec 1999 ­
National
Nile Basin countries
Lead consultants together with national experts prepare draft
Nov 2000
Analysis and
project documents. Depending on the project and country, national
Consultations
experts provided inputs through preparation of national reports,
country consultations, and/or country visits by lead consultants
Jan 2000
Nile-TAC
Entebbe, Uganda
Review of progress in project preparation and further refinement of
project concepts as warranted
Mar 2000
Nile-TAC
Delft, the Netherlands
Review of progress in project preparation and further refinement of
project concepts/design, as warranted
July 2000
Project
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Review and further development of detailed draft project
Preparation 2
documents by working group members for each project and Nile-
TAC members
Aug 2000
Nile-COM and
Khartoum, Sudan
Approval of SVP project portfolio and updated project summaries
Nile-TAC
Oct 2000
Nile-TAC
Via electronic mail
Review of draft final project documents
Dec 2000
Distribution of
Via express mail and
Distribution of all English draft final project documents to all Nile-
draft final
electronic mail
TAC members (French versions sent February 2001)
project
documents
Mar 2001
Nile-COM
Khartoum, Sudan
Final approval of SVP project portfolio and project documents
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24 Efficient Water Use for Agricultural Production
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Efficient Water Use for Agricultural Production Annex A 25

ANNEX A.
LIST OF COUNTRY REPORTS
COUNTRY
TITLE
AUTHOR (NATIONAL EXPERT)
DATE
Burundi
National Situation Analysis
Nimubona Dismas
April 2000
DRC
Rapport national en vue de l'eleboration
Muruhuka Ntako Jean Bosco
May 2000
d'un projet pour l'ensemble du bassin lie
a l'utilisation de l'eau pour la production
agricole
Egypt
Country Level Analysis for Project
Mohamed Lofty Youssef Nasr
June 2000
Preparation ­ Egypt Country Report
Ethiopia
Country Level Analysis for Project
Makonnon Loulseged
July 2000
Preparation ­ Ethiopia
Kenya
Country level analysis for project
Charles J. Mbara
April 13, 2000
preparation ­ Kenya
Rwanda
National Document (Rwanda)
Jean-Pierre Murenzi
May 10, 2000
On Efficient Water Use For Agricultural
Production
Sudan
Country Level Analysis for Project
Dr.Omer El Awad
May 14, 2000
Preparation ­ Sudan Country Report
Tanzania
National Level Analysis Report ­
Idris A. Masenza
June 13, 2000
Tanzania
Uganda
Country Level Analysis for Project
John B. Kalule-Sewali
June 2000
Preparation ­ Uganda Country Report
The following Nile-TAC members also participated in the working group that prepared this project
proposal:
COUNTRY
TAC MEMBER
Burundi
Manasse Nduwayo
DRC
Kayembe Ditamta
Egypt
Ahmed M. Fahmy Abdalla
Ethiopia
Dr. Mohamed Ahmed Hagos
(the current Tac member is Kidane Asseffa)
Kenya
James.K. Waititu
Rwanda
Vincent De Paul Kabalisa
Sudan
Dr. Osman El Tom Hamad
Tanzania
Mrisho Kivugo
(the current Tac member is Butingo Luhumbika)
Uganda
Patrick O. Kahangire
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26
Efficient Water Use for Agricultural Production Annex A
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Efficient Water Use for Agricultural Production Annex B 27

ANNEX B.
AGRICULTURAL WATER USE IN THE NILE BASIN
A.
Agriculture Sectors
Economic Importance of Agriculture. Agriculture is the mainstay of most NBI countries. It
contributes about 35-50% of GDP and it employs about 60-90% of the work force. In Egypt, however,
agriculture's contribution is relatively lower--about 17% of GDP, while employing about 30% of the
population (Table B.1).
Table B1. Contribution of Agriculture Sector to National Economy, 1990­1995 Average
COUNTRY
% CONTRIBUTION TO
AGRICULTURAL EXPORTS
AGRICULTURAL IMPORTS
GDP
EMPLOYMENT
US M$
% of Total
US M$
% of Total
Burundi
50
94
44
97
7
8
DRC
51
70
1190
27
45
7
Egypt
17
30
1022
8
6706
15
Ethiopia
52
85
195
60
74
No Data
Kenya
35
85
No Data
No Data
39
No Data
Rwanda
40
90
66
90
55
19
Sudan
34
60
398
74
192
14
193
Tanzania
50
84
360
50
76
7
77
Uganda
42
90
382
65
73
6
Source: Country reports
Dominance of Subsistence Agriculture. Agriculture in NBI countries, except Egypt and parts of
Sudan, is mainly a subsistence activity, characterized by small landholdings, low use of inputs, and
low crop yields. For example, small farmers, who grow mainly food crops such as cereals and
vegetables, cultivate over 75% of the agricultural land in Tanzania. Reported yields of rice, a crop that
has become increasingly important, vary from 0.75 tons/ha in DRC to 1.5 tons/ha in Uganda (Table
D.2). Yields of other cereals (maize, wheat, and millet), fruits, and cash crops (sugarcane, coffee and
tea) are also below average. Most agriculture is not commercially oriented and agricultural support
services including input supply, agro-processing, and marketing are poorly developed. Livestock,
often present in large numbers, form an integral part of agriculture and human welfare in rural areas.
Exports-Imports. In addition to securing food for local consumption, agriculture is an important
source of foreign exchange earnings. Data presented in Table B.1 show that the agricultural sector
contributes 65-90% of the total value of exports in Rwanda, Sudan, and Uganda. Large commercial
plantations in equatorial countries (including Kenya and Uganda) grow cash crops such as coffee and
tea for export. In downstream countries (Egypt and Sudan), cotton is an important part of agricultural
exports. In most countries, the value of agricultural exports exceeds that of imports with the exception
of Egypt where the agricultural share in total exports has declined from about 16% in 1990 to below
8% in 1997, and imports have risen to 15%. The value of agricultural imports in Egypt is
approximately seven times the value of exports.
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28
Efficient Water Use for Agricultural Production Annex B
Irrigated Agriculture. Agriculture in Egypt and Northern Sudan is different from other Nile Basin
countries in the sense that almost all of it is based on irrigation water. Rainfall is very limited in this
desert climate, and the Nile is by far the major source of water, both for agriculture and urban use.
With advanced water control and high use of inputs, crop yields in Egypt are significant -- rice yields
over 8.5 tons/ha are reported in the delta region (Table B.2). Other major crops in Egypt and Sudan
are wheat, cotton, sugarcane, vegetables and clover. Cotton, gum arabic, and sugarcane are
important export crops. In upstream countries, on the other hand, irrigation facilities are very limited.
Even in large countries such as Kenya, only 62,000 ha of land is irrigated, compared to 2.6 million ha
of rain-fed land (Table B.2). In Tanzania, an estimated 155,000 ha out of 3 million ha of rain-fed land
is irrigated (5%), while only 8,700 ha out of 2.2 million ha is under irrigation in Burundi (0.3%).
Public Policies. Governments in the Nile Basin countries recognize the importance of agriculture,
which is clearly reflected in their policy statements (summarized in Table B.3). There is a strong
consensus to revive and modernize agriculture, and introduce structural reforms to orient the sector
towards a market-based economy. National development objectives include increased incomes and
food security, increased rural employment, and increased foreign exchange earnings. To achieve
these objectives, several countries have implemented macro-economic reforms to liberalize markets,
remove price controls and subsidies, and restructure public sector to allow more private sector
participation.
Performance of Policy and Development Programs. The country reports provide limited
information on the performance of the policy reforms and related development programs. In Sudan,
Egypt, and Kenya, there are indications that macroeconomic policies have resulted in more
liberalized markets through removal of government subsidies and price controls. The private sector in
Egypt plays an increasingly active role in crop processing, marketing, and extension services. Sudan
has turned over the management of small and medium size irrigation schemes to farmers' water
users associations. However, the reports also indicate that reforms have also had negative effects for
farmers. Production inputs, such as fertilizers, are expensive in comparison to agricultural commodity
prices that have fallen sharply worldwide. In addition, farmers have inadequate access to credit.
Water users associations in Sudan are reported to face difficulties in adopting appropriate cost
recovery mechanisms with the result that the schemes are not receiving proper O&M.
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Efficient Water Use for Agricultural Production Annex B 29
Table B2. Description of the Agriculture Sector in Nile Basin Countries
COUNTRY
MAJOR CROPS
PRODUCTION
CROP AREA (1,000HA)
CROP YIELDS
1,000 TONS/YR
RAIN-FED
IRRIGATED
(TONS/HA)
Burundi
Cereals (maize, rice)
266
Rice: 3.0
Legumes and tubers
1,762
Total = 8.74
Wheat: 1.2
Fruits and cash crops
1,526
DRC
Cereals (rice, maize)
1,556
1,991
13.5
Maize: 0.8
Tubers
17,303
2,168
Tubers: 8.0
Cash crops (coffee, cocoa)
201
Sugarcane
98
8.6
3.6
Sugarcane: 8.9
Egypt
Cereals (wheat, rice, corn)
19,000
2,620
Wheat: 6.0,
Cotton
628
332
Rice: 8.6
Sugarcane
14,710
122
Cotton: 2.14
Clover
1,614
1,026
Sugarcane: 117.0
Total irrigated land:
Fruits: 1.88
3,300
Ethiopia
Cereals (maize, teff, barley,
8,629
6,688
No Data
Maize: 1.85
sorghum, wheat)
Wheat: 1.12
Pulses
802
905
Oilseeds
213
478
Vegetables
520
52
Kenya
Sugar
447
2,640
62
Wheat:1.9,
Fruits and vegetables
1,890
Maize:1.6
Tea, coffee
348
Rice:5.0,Potatoes:7
.0-9.0
Cotton
23
Sugarcane:43.0
Cotton: 0.6
Rwanda
Cereals (maize, wheat)
174
1,100 mostly rain-fed.
Maize: 0.9, Wheat:
Beans, peas
157
Highlands: 700,000 ha
0.8
Bananas
2,897
Wetlands: 160,000 ha dry
Rice: 1.8
season cultivation
Potatoes
1,038
Potatoes: 4.8
Irrigated rice: 3,360 ha.
Coffee, tea
15
Sugarcane: 80.0
Sudan
Cotton
3,500
10,000
1,900
Wheat: 1.6, Cotton:
Cereals(sorghum, wheat)
3,550
1.6
Tanzania
Cereals
3,305
3,036
Maize: 1.2, Rice:
Coffee, tea, sugarcane
80
300
1.25
Cottonseed
252
Wheat: 1.4
Paddy rice (irrigated)
549
440
Potatoes: 1.7
Uganda
Cereals
2,084
5,000
32
Maize: 1.23, Rice:
Root crops,
5,764
1.4
Coffee and tea
23
Cotton: 0.6,
Sugarcane: 50.0
Source: Country reports

4 There is a potential to further increase the irrigated area in Burundi to 0.2 million ha. Most irrigation will be
small-scale; no large-scale irrigation development is planned.
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30
Efficient Water Use for Agricultural Production Annex B
Table B3. Government Policies for the Agriculture Sector in Nile Basin Countries
COUNTRY
POLICY NAME
DEVELOPMENT OBJECTIVES5
STRATEGIC OPTIONS
Burundi
Information not
Increased incomes and food security
Increase research and information
available
Increased foreign earnings
Increase private sector involvement in extension
Protect agriculture and livestock
and marketing
Privatize agro-based industry
DRC
National Agriculture
Ensure food security, reduce rural
Formulate government policy for agriculture
and Rural Sector
poverty, and increase employment
Restructure institutions to support policy
Revival Program
Revive cash crop production
(1997-2000)
Implement revival program through local
Increase export earnings
participation
No one policy to
promote better
Increase food production at 20-60%
Support private sector to increase its investments
water management
annual growth rate
in agricultural production
for increased
Increase cash crop production at
Register and redistribute abandoned farmland to
agricultural
20% annual growth rate for tea, 60%
new Congolese people
production
for palm oil and 170% for coffee
Support agricultural research and improve
technical expertise of government staff
Improve rural infrastructure (roads, marketing)
Improve veterinary services
Develop small-scale irrigation systems
Egypt
Structural
Optimum allocation and utilization of
Increase irrigation water use efficiency (Irrigation
Adjustment
agricultural resources
Improvement Project)
Program (1986-
Food security and increased exports
Support Cotton Prize Stabilization Fund
present)
Create new employment
Increase edible oil production (sunflower,
opportunities in rural sector
soybeans, etc)
Increase sugar production by expanding
sugarbeet cropping
Upgrade horticulture marketing efficiency
Ethiopia
Agricultural
Increase domestic food production
Improve productivity of small-holder farmers who
Development Led
Increase export commodities
account for 96% of the agricultural output
Industrialization
Promote private sector investments
(1994-present)
Provide resources for
industrialization
Expand large-scale commercial farms
Kenya
National Food
Food self-sufficiency and security
Liberalize markets and remove price controls
Policy, 1994 and
Generate employment and incomes
Promote beneficiary participation, including cost
National
sharing of development and O&M
Development Plan
Rural-urban balance
1994-2001
Restructure public sector to allow for private
sector role in marketing, research and extension,
and water resource development
Rwanda
Specific name not
Improve living conditions
Need appropriate policies for watershed
available
Improve food security
management, ownership, and use of wetlands
Improve food self-sufficiency
Develop information to plan for exploiting key
resources such as wetlands
Extend pastures and forests for conservation of
highlands
Revive plantation cash crops (coffee, tea)
Promote private sector role in crop processing
and marketing, and in extension.

5 Little information was provided about the results of policy implementation. It is therefore difficult to draw lessons
about what works and what does not.
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Efficient Water Use for Agricultural Production Annex B 31
Table B3. Government Policies for the Agriculture Sector in Nile Basin Countries (cont'd.)
Sudan
National
Increased food security
Increase irrigated cropped area 3 times
Comprehensive
Efficient use of resources
Increase rain-fed cropped area 10 times
Policy 1992-2000
Balanced regional growth
Increase grain production by 6 times
Increased exports
Note: After seven years of policy
implementation, little of these targets have
been met
Tanzania
Agriculture and
Food security and increased
Support agr. Research, extension and
Livestock Policy,
rural living standard
training
1997
Integrated and sustainable use of
Develop new markets and products
natural resources
Provide good infrastructure
Increase foreign exchange
Control standards, appropriate taxes, and
earnings
subsidies
Uganda
Plan for
Eradicate poverty
Decentralize public institutions
Modernization of
Ensure food security
Efficient use of land and water resources
Agriculture
Generate employment
through water harvesting, irrigation
techniques
Provide market information, effective
research, and extension
Source: Country Reports
B.
Water Resources for Agriculture
Background information on government policies and development opportunities with respect to
agricultural water resources is summarized in Table B.5.
Rainfall
Rainwater Availability and Spatial Variability. Most country reports underline the fact that rainfall
has a high spatial variability. For example, in a comparatively small country as Rwanda, the average
annual rainfall varies from 700-1,000 mm in the lowlands to 1,400-2,000 mm in the highlands.
Similarly, in Kenya, rainfall varies from a low of 600 mm in the Rift Valley and Tana River area to a
high of 1,400 mm in the Lake Victoria region. Sudan experiences a rainfall variation from 1,200 mm in
the southwest of the country, to desert conditions with less than 25 mm in the north. In Egypt, rainfall
is extremely limited and makes no significant contribution to crop water requirements. Average annual
rainfall for southern Egypt is barely 25 mm, and increases to 200 mm on the coast.
Reliability. Another characteristic of Nile Basin rainfall is its highly erratic pattern in time and thus its
unreliability. The rainfall pattern shows high variation from year to year, and within a year. For
example, strong rains in 1998 associated with the El Niño phenomenon resulted in a significant
amount of crop damage in many Nile countries. In sharp contrast, rainfall was very low in 1999,
leading to reduced crop production. Rainfall patterns also show a large degree of seasonal variation.
In Rwanda, for example, at least four seasons are identified--minor rainy season from September to
December; minor dry season from January to February; major rainy season from March to May; and
major dry season from June to mid-September (during which water is the constraint for an additional
cropping season).
Productivity of Rain-fed Agriculture. Rainfall is currently a primary water source for agriculture in
the equatorial countries and in Ethiopia and Sudan, where it supports a large amount of cropped
area. This includes about 8 million ha in Ethiopia, 10 million ha in Sudan, 5 million ha in Uganda, and
3.3 million ha in Tanzania ( Table B.2). Rain-fed agriculture in Sudan produces 75% of the sorghum
and 100% of the millet, major staple food crops for the rural population. Most country reports from the
Equatorial Lakes region underline the fact that, despite the presence of high water resource potential
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Efficient Water Use for Agricultural Production Annex B
in the form of rainfall, the level of resource development for storage, irrigation, and drainage is very
low. As a consequence of the quasi-exclusive dependence of agriculture on unreliable rainfall, use of
agricultural inputs is insignificant, and overall productivity of rain-fed agriculture remains low.
Surface Water Resources
Surface Water Runoff. Several rivers drain the humid equatorial plateau into an extensive natural
system of lakes including the Lakes Victoria, Kyoga, and Albert -- the source of the White Nile, as
well as the Ethiopian plateau, which is the source of Blue Nile, Sobat, and Atbara Rivers. In Uganda
alone, the average annual runoff into rivers is estimated at 220 m3 per second, which is large in
comparison to other regions. Lake Victoria outflow is estimated at 914 m3 per second. Despite the
large amount of stream runoff, very little of this water resource is presently utilized for irrigated
agriculture and runoff is causing soil erosion, flash floods, and sedimentation in downstream bodies of
water.
River Water for Irrigation. The river Nile is the major source of irrigated agriculture in Sudan and
Egypt­about 97% of Sudan's and 100% of Egypt's irrigation water originates from the Nile. Farmers
in Egypt use some 55 billion m3 annually (including recycled wastewater) to irrigate about 3.3 million
ha, while Sudan uses about 15 billion m3 to irrigate some 1.9 million ha.
Losses in Irrigation Systems. Most of the irrigation schemes in Sudan are located in the Central
Clay Plains, on the eastern side of the Central Sudan. The source of water is the Blue Nile, its
tributaries and River Atbara. These plains are characterized by a flat topography and exceptionally
low-permeability soils, and water losses due to seepage and percolation are reportedly small. In
irrigation systems in Egypt, individual pumping from supply channels to the land results in
considerable operational losses, especially at the farm level.
Groundwater
Data Constraints. The use of groundwater for irrigated agriculture is comparatively small in the Nile
Basin countries. In the equatorial countries, most groundwater development is for domestic and other
urban uses, and not for agriculture. Availability of proper information is a major constraint towards
groundwater development. Large-scale development of groundwater resources for agriculture would
particularly require detailed hydro-geological data that are presently not available. However,
groundwater resources easily available for irrigation development appear to be limited.
Groundwater for Irrigation. Groundwater use in Egypt and Sudan depends on the aquifer type --
whether it is non-renewable (desert aquifers) or renewable (aquifers underlying the Nile Valley). The
use of the desert aquifers is limited because the groundwater level is deep (sometimes exceeding
1000 m), the development cost high, and the quality uncertain. The current total abstraction in the
Sinai and Western Desert regions in Egypt, for example, is estimated at 0.5 billion m3 per year. Use of
groundwater for irrigation in Sudan is limited to very small schemes of 2-3 ha each in the Nile Valley
where the groundwater depth is relatively shallow. The irrigation schemes tend to be located near the
urban centers and produce fruits and vegetable, to justify the high production cost. The Sudan
country report estimates that about 4.0 billion m3 per year of groundwater could be safely developed
for urban and agricultural uses.
Wetlands
Current Use of Wetlands. Wetlands are an important resource in Nile Basin countries including
Burundi, Rwanda, Tanzania, Uganda, and Sudan. Because of increasing population pressure,
wetlands are more and more used, developed, and drained in unsustainable ways, including for the
purpose of agricultural production. In Burundi, for example, a 1990 estimate shows that about 40% of
the wetlands are being cultivated. Current wetlands use has still a low intensity, with only one crop
cultivated during the dry season (July­September) using the residual soil moisture. In the rainy
season, river flows inundate the wetlands and crop growth is not possible. In Rwanda, about 57% of
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Efficient Water Use for Agricultural Production Annex B 33
the country's total wetland area (about 160,000 ha) is currently used, of which about 71% is
cultivated.
A number of Nile Basin countries have adopted legislation on sustainable use of wetlands, particularly
Uganda, according to which drainage of wetlands is outlawed. In Uganda, extensive research has
been carried out as a basis for new strategies towards sustainable wetland development and use.
C.
Water Resources Policies
Policy Statements and Objectives. Most policy statements share a common objective to manage
and develop water resources in an integrated and sustainable way, so as to provide water in
adequate quantity and quality to the benefit of all social and economic needs ( Table B.5).
Development of rain-fed agriculture, due to its prevalence in the countries' agriculture, and as a result
of high investment costs related to irrigation development, receives high priority in national water
resources policy statements to increase food production. In addition to concerns about water quantity
for agriculture, issues related to deteriorating water quality are also being raised. The quality issues
include physical, chemical, and biological degradation of water quality (high silt content, localized
occurrence of agro-chemicals, etc.). There are also concerns that in many countries, appropriate
government agencies are not in place to provide effective leadership.
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Efficient Water Use for Agricultural Production Annex B
Table B4. Policies and Development Opportunities for Agricultural Water Resources
COUNTRY
INSTITUTIONS
POLICY AND OBJECTIVES
DEVELOPMENT OPPORTUNITIES
Burundi
Ministry of Territorial
National Policy for Water Resources
Create a water resources mgmt.
Planning and
(Draft)
Department
Environment, Ministry of
Formulate National Water Guide by
Formulate national water plan
Agriculture and Livestock
reinforcing IGEBU network
Develop small-scale irrigation and
Exercise rigorous control on
wetlands
environmental standards
Conduct a national program to prevent
Promote small-scale irrigation
soil erosion
Improve knowledge and management of
Implement a national reforestation
wetlands
program
Build capacity of public and private
institutions
DRC
National Action
National Policy for Water Resources
Formulate government policy to
Committee for Water
Management (Min. of Environment, 1998)
promote agricultural production,
Management (CNAEA,
Promote better water supply and efficient
especially through better water control
1981-)
use in urban areas
and management
The Regideso,
Control and improve water quality
Create a government agency for water
National Rural Water
resources
Presently no specific policy to promote
Distribution Department.
efficient agricultural water use. In the
Involve local communities in water
No one government
Minimum Three Year Program (PTM:
development programs
department for water
1999-2001), irrigation is not included as
Develop small-scale irrigation and
resources development
strategic option to improve agricultural
strengthen National Irrigation Unit,
and management.
production
Promote forestation to check soil
erosion
Promote extension and research
Egypt
Ministry of Water
No policy name available
Support Irrigation Improvement Project
Resources and Irrigation
Development objectives:
(IPP) implementation to improve water
­ Department of
use efficiency,
Irrigation,
Optimize the use of available water
resources
Institute cost recovery to finance better
Ministry of Agriculture and
system O&M,
Land Reclamation,
Improve water use efficiency in
agriculture by reducing losses
Develop groundwater in the Nile Valley,
Environmental Affairs
Western Desert and Sinai,
Agency.
Develop groundwater resources
Increase Nile flow through projects such
Reuse:
as Jongli Canal (the country report
Agriculture drainage water
qualifies this statement by noting that
Urban wastewater.
the gov. does not depend on these
since the projects would require large
international efforts).
Ethiopia
Ministry of Water
Proclamation No. 92/1994: Utilization of
Develop irrigation infrastructure to cover
Resources
Water Resources
some 2.5 million ha
Promote role of private sector
Develop hydropower in the range of
Give more responsibility to regional
15,000 to 3,0000 MW
governments
Increase private investments for water
Ethiopian Water Resources Management
related developments
Policy, 1999
Development of the water resources of the
country for economic and social benefits
of the people, on equitable and
sustainable basis
Allocation and apportionment of water,
based on comprehensive and integrated
plans and optimum allocation principles
that incorporate efficiency of use, equity of
access, and sustainability of the resource
Managing and combating drought as well
as other associated slow onset disasters
ineralia, efficient allocation, redistribution,
transfer storage, and efficient use of water
resources
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Efficient Water Use for Agricultural Production Annex B 35
Table B4. Policies and Development Opportunities for Agricultural Water Resources (cont'd.)
COUNTRY
INSTITUTIONS
POLICY AND OBJECTIVES
DEVELOPMENT OPPORTUNITIES
Kenya
Ministry of Environment
National Water Resources Policy, 1999
Build institutional capacity for
and Natural Resources
National Water Master Plan until 2010 ­
implementing public policy
Ministry of Agriculture
JICA Report
Promote private sector participation
(Irrigation and Drainage
Decentralize government institutions to
Branch)
allow local-level decisionmaking
Private NGOs and Estate
Formulate a national water
firms
conservation plan including better
management of catchment areas
Introduce water use fees
Construction of small storage reservoirs
Strengthen water resources monitoring
Rwanda
Ministry of Agr. Livestock,
National Policy for Water Resources
Develop reliable knowledge of water
and Forestry, (Wetland
Development
resources and development potential
Management and
Satisfy needs of population and livestock
Improve and protect water quality
Irrigation Sections)
Preserve quality of water and land
Control discharge of pollutants
Ministry of Energy, Water
and Natural Resources;
Promote private sector role
Implement intensive reforestation in the
Ministry of Land, Human
Encourage users to meet costs
Nile-Congo watershed (Nyungwe
Resettlement and
forest)
Integrate national policy into regional and
Environment Protection
international framework
Control soil erosion and water hyacinth
problem
Develop wetlands through proper
drainage and irrigation
Sudan
Ministry of Irrigation and
National Comprehensive Strategy (NCS,
Develop reliable data base
Water Resources
1992)
Improve irrigation O&M through cost
Ministry of Agriculture and
Full utilization of Nile water share (under
recovery from users
Forestry
1959 agreement)
Increase storage capacity Nile river
Ministry of Higher
Develop unused water resources
Decrease soil erosion in upper
Education and Research
Develop groundwater resources
watersheds and sedimentation in
reservoirs and canals
Utilize more rainfall through rain
harvesting techniques
Tanzania
Ministry of Water (Basin
Water Policy of 1991(currently under
Better management of surface water
Water Boards),
review)
including catchment protection and
Ministry of Agriculture
Water Utilization Control and Regulation
irrigation development
(Irrigation Section). In the
Act No. 42 of 1974, National Irrigation
Develop groundwater resource for city
process of forming
Development Plan
and domestic use
National Irrigation
Increase health and productivity of
Reform existing legal framework and
Agency.
population
information system
Identify and preserve water resources and
Develop facilities to harvest rain and
catchments
seasonal stream water
Reduce losses in irrigation
Uganda
Ministry of Water, Land
Nation Water Resource Policy
Develop facilities for better utilization of
and Environment; Ministry
Manage and develop water resources in
rainwater
of Agric., Animal, Industry
an integrated and sustainable manner
Strengthen government capacity to
and Fisheries; National
address water issues
Agriculture Research
Secure and provide water in adequate
Organization
quantity and quality for all social and
Strengthen data collection and
economic needs
information for proper planning
Develop small-scale irrigation
Source: Country Reports
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Efficient Water Use for Agricultural Production Annex B
D.
Main Issues Related to Agricultural Water Use
The country reports have identified several constraints related to increasing available water for
agriculture and its efficient use. Despite large differences in climatic conditions, and despite the fact
that downstream interests are not usually congruent with upstream interest, Nile Basin countries face
a number of common concerns as described below.
Institutional Issues
Weaknesses of Government Institutions. Issues related to government organizations, their
policies, programs, and roles in the development of agriculture and water sectors were common
concerns in all country reports. Clear management weaknesses exist, including the lack of clear
policy objectives, definition of roles and responsibility, and capability to involve the private sector.
There is a shortage of skilled staff, financial resources, and data that are necessary for effective
leadership in the development of agriculture and water sectors. In some countries, appropriate
government institutions do not exist. For example, the Democratic Republic of Congo report mentions
the need for creating a government agency for Water Resources Development and Management.
Similarly, the Burundi report also identified the need to create a Water Resources Management
Department.
Lack of Community/Private Sector Participation and Weak Support Services. A major common
concern is the difficulty in institutionalizing private sector participation. The result is that the support
services such as crop processing, marketing, credit sources, etc. are not well developed; water users
associations remain paper organizations, and cost recovery mechanisms are difficult to implement. In
addition, there is a lack of supporting infrastructure such as rural roads and electricity, while research
and extension services are inadequate.
Absence of a Regional Forum for Exchange of Experiences in the Field of Agricultural Water
Use. Although many of the agricultural water use concerns of Nile Basin members are shared among
most of the countries, the prior focus for studies, consultations and exchange of experiences is
outside the region. Surprisingly few opportunities exist for regional experts, researchers, government
staff, and farmers to consult, share ideas, research results, and brief each other about new
developments. As a consequence, regional knowledge, expertise, and experience has not received
the value that they deserve, and regional collaboration is set back just because experts do not meet.
Policy Implementation Deficits. The government policies and objectives are not well articulated and
are generally implemented with a top-down approach. Frequently, the development objectives are
unrealistically high and performance monitoring and evaluation have not received priority. For
example, the national policy in one country set the development targets to increase irrigated cropped
area three times, rain-fed cropped area ten times and grain production by six times. These were
clearly unrealistic objectives, and after seven years of implementation, few if any of the targets are
met.
The case of the Privatization Policy in Sudan (1990s) is a good example, whereby the government
handed over the management of medium-scale irrigation systems to the private sector and farmers'
associations. The institutions managing the irrigation schemes faced great difficulties, however, and a
large number of the schemes are at present out of production. They were not able to finance proper
O&M because of difficulties in adopting effective cost recovery mechanisms. This led to deterioration
of infrastructure and the level of services, which, in turn, led to unwillingness of the farmers to pay for
O&M.
Technical Issues
Lack of Data. All country reports identify the lack of reliable data as a major constraint for proper
design of water development and management efforts. There is a lack of access to research facilities
and training opportunities, which limits national staff qualifications. These concerns are of particular
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Efficient Water Use for Agricultural Production Annex B 37
importance when pursuing new and delicate initiatives such as development of wetlands.
Development and use of wetlands is fundamentally a management issue which requires appropriate
knowledge of hydrology, soil, biological conditions, and social practices of people. Other examples of
development initiatives requiring good information are; assessing degradation of watersheds, better
utilization of rainfall for agriculture, groundwater use, etc.
Low Use of Rainfall. A major concern is that the available rainfall is not effectively utilized. In the
absence of storage facilities, much of the rainfall becomes runoff that causes soil erosion, catchment
degradation, and flash floods downstream. There is a strong consensus in most country reports that
increasing productivity of rain-fed agriculture should be a priority issue. In view of the almost
exclusive dependence of agriculture on rainfall, there seems to exist a large potential for improving
crop production, yields, and rangelands carrying capacity by effectively utilizing rain harvesting
techniques.
Watershed Degradation. Another common concern is the continuing degradation of watershed
areas. The combination of human activities, livestock grazing and inadequate management practices
has led to deforestation and removal of the vegetative cover. The result is flash floods and excessive
soil erosion caused by rainfall runoff. Runoff of nutrients promotes the growth of hyacinth weed in the
region, including Lakes Victoria and Albert and the Nile River. It has seriously reduced fish intake in
Rwanda, Burundi, Uganda and Tanzania, and is a major O&M problem in irrigation systems of Sudan
and Egypt.
Problems in Irrigation Systems. In Sudan and Egypt, with major irrigated agriculture, the following
technical problems were identified:
Ø Irrigation Efficiency. The country reports from Sudan and Egypt maintain that the water losses
from irrigation canals and fields are low, primarily because of the heavy clay soils. However, there
are significant operational losses because of the aging infrastructure, inappropriate water
management practices such as individual pumping by farmers, etc.
Ø Inadequate Maintenance of Irrigation Facilities. There is a general deterioration of irrigation
service in most government-managed systems as a result of aging infrastructure, lack of
maintenance, lack of funds, etc. Governments cannot afford to pay for irrigation O&M, and it has
been difficult to institute effective cost recovery from water users.
Ø Heavy Sediment Deposition in Reservoirs and Irrigation Canals. The Blue Nile and Atbara
rivers carry large sediment loads, with 4,000-6,000 ppm. It reduces the carrying capacity of
irrigation canals and storage capacity in reservoirs. In Central Sudan, silt removal from canals
alone is estimated to cost $8/ha of irrigated land.
Ø Limited Storage Facilities on the Nile River. This is especially apparent in Sudan where the
present storage capacity on the Blue Nile is 2.6 billion m3, which is only 6% of the annual yield.
Similarly, the storage capacity on the Atbara River is 0.67 billion m3 which is 5% of the annual
yield. About 76% of Sudan's irrigated lands receive water from these two rivers.
Ø Strong Dependence on the Nile for Irrigation. Some 97% of the irrigated area in Sudan and
almost 100% of the area in Egypt depend on the Nile River. Over 71% of Ethiopian's water
resources lie in the Nile basin. In Sudan, there are many non-Nile seasonal streams that are not
utilized primarily because their development cannot be justified on economic grounds. However,
for social equity reasons, small-scale irrigation development from these streams and from
groundwater may be justified. In Egypt, there is potential for additional groundwater development.
Environmental Issues
Deforestation. Deforestation and degradation of vegetation in upper watersheds was identified in
most country reports as a major environmental problem. There is a lack of community participation in
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Efficient Water Use for Agricultural Production Annex B
proper use and management of forests and vegetative cover in catchment areas. The problems of
soil erosion, flash floods, sedimentation of reservoirs, and irrigation canals all result because of poor
management of watersheds. As a result of frequent droughts (and regional wars), there have been
mass population and livestock displacements, thereby increasing the already significant pressure on
limited land and water resources.
Waterlogging and Salinity. In downstream countries Egypt and Sudan, waterlogging and salinity
are reported to have increased. In Egypt, there is an increased use of drainage water, which has
higher salt content. Also, the lands are more intensively cultivated and excessively irrigated. All these
practices have raised ground water tables and increased soil salinity.
Economic/ Financial Issues
High Cost of Finance. Following liberalized market economic policies, governments in many Nile
Basin countries have withdrawn subsidies on agricultural inputs such as fertilizers. With the prevailing
high inflation rate, the cost of financing production inputs is exceptionally high. This, coupled with the
lower prices for agricultural produce, has put farmers in a difficult position with respect to operation
and maintenance cost recovery.
Lack of Access to Credit. Formal credit from banks is not available to a majority of farmers, while
informal credit markets are very limited. Farmers are reluctant to obtain credit from banks because
the transaction costs are high and because they lack collateral such as officially registered land.
Inefficient Marketing. The market information systems are not well developed and available to the
producers. As such, private sector middlemen adopt bargaining practices that put the farmers at
disadvantage. The poor market information systems have led to competition inefficiency, weak
market integration, and lack of transparency. In addition, transaction costs are prohibitively high.
Poor Cost Recovery. Government organizations have difficulties in recovering costs associated with
the provision of irrigation services. Farmers complain that the quality of service is not adequate (water
is not supplied in the right amount at the right time) and therefore do not feel obliged to pay for it.
Agency staff maintains that the funds are not enough for proper system operation and maintenance,
and that they are therefore unable to provide required levels of service.
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Efficient Water Use for Agricultural Production Annex B 39
Table B5. Main Issues and Strategic Options Suggested in the Country Reports
COUNTRY
MAIN ISSUES
STRATEGIC OPTIONS
Burundi
Excessive deforestation of
Anti-erosion campaign
catchments and resulting soil
Biological methods: crop and tree cover
erosion
Physical methods: terraces and storage reservoirs
Lack of clear definition of
Institutional capacity-building
institutional roles
Training of government personnel in engineering,
Lack of funds for financing
hydrology, economics, etc.
development projects
Strengthening of extension, research and technical
assistance services
Improve funding of development programs
Improved water management
Develop small-scale irrigation
Develop wetlands for agricultural production
Involve private sector and water users associations
DRC
Absence of state organization for
Capacity-building
water resource management
Identify organization with main responsibility for water
Absence of clear policies for water
resources development and management
resource development and
Formulate appropriate policies, especially to encourage
management, private sector
private sector participation
participation, etc.
Strengthen research, extension, and similar support
Inadequate water control due to lack
functions
of irrigation
Private sector participation
Absence of research, extension, and
Reduction of tariffs and taxes on imports and exports of
other support services
agricultural goods
High cost of irrigation development
Improve credit facilities
Absence of agricultural credit
Develop and strengthen water users associations
Small-scale irrigation development
Egypt
Technical Issues
Technical Improvements
Lack of field data and information,
Tertiary level irrigation improvement
especially for groundwater
Decision support systems to reduce mismatch of irrigation
Inadequate irrigation system O&M
supplies and crop water requirements
Institutional Issues
Encourage crops that require less water
Insufficient water user and private
Institutional Reforms
sector participation in irrigation
Strengthen Irrigation Advisory Service
Lack of government support
Strengthen and support water users associations
services (extension, research,
Strengthen institutional coordination
etc.)
Improve agricultural support institutions (extension,
Lack of institutional coordination
research, marketing, etc.)
Financial/Economic Issues
Economic/Financial Improvements
Lack of public funds and cost
Strengthen private sector role by:
recovery from users
Allowing it to compete with public sector in
Lack of credit sources for farmers
buying/selling and processing cotton
Environmental Issues
Allowing it compete with PBDAC in farm inputs, credit
Increasing soil salinity
and agricultural loans
Degradation of water quality due
Allowing it to compete in extension and research
to urban discharges
Set floor commodity prices as incentive to farmers for
increasing production
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Efficient Water Use for Agricultural Production Annex B
Table B5. Main Issues and Strategic Options Suggested in the Country Reports (cont'd.)
COUNTRY
MAIN ISSUES
STRATEGIC OPTIONS
Ethiopia
Lack of data
Irrigation extension, service, and training
Lack of resources, especially skilled
Irrigation infrastructure development
manpower
Improved catchment management to reduce soil erosion
Lack of research
Data collection and management for sound development
Low infrastructure development
planning
Environmental issues, including
watershed erosion
Kenya
Low capacity of government
Capacity-building and institutional reforms
institutions
Bridge gap between farmers and government
Inadequate involvement of the
Improve enabling environment for the private sector
private sector
(irrigation extension, research, and development)
Mismanagement of irrigation,
Address mismanagement of agriculture
excessive water use and losses
Irrigation system management
Poor cost recovery for O&M
Reduce losses in irrigation system
Lack of ownership rights in
Empower farmers' WUAs
irrigation systems
Identify appropriate technology
Inadequate management of
watersheds
Watershed management and water harvesting
Rainfall/small streams not well
Promote forestation and vegetative soil cover
utilized
Harvest rainfall and stream flow to develop small-scale
Excessive use of agrochemicals
irrigation
Deforestation and soil erosion
Water quality
Reduce excessive use of agrochemicals, nutrient loading
of streams
Control sedimentation of lakes and streams
Rwanda
Organizational dispersion in water
Policy and laws
resources development
For wetlands, irrigated lands, ownership rights
Overlapping roles, conflict, and lack
Better organization of government roles
of information sharing
Promoting private sector role in water resources
Lack of clear policy for land
Capacity-building
ownership and use in wetlands
Research, demonstrations, and information
Lack of experience in wetland
exploitation, degradation of land
Better guidance to private sector
quality
Improved watershed and wetland development
Lack of private sector participation in
Reforestation of uplands, training of local users
land and water development
Develop drainage and irrigation infrastructure in the
Environmental degradation due to
valleys and wetlands
hyacinth, droughts, etc.
Develop irrigation in the dry eastern savanna lands
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Efficient Water Use for Agricultural Production Annex B 41
Table B5. Main Issues and Strategic Options Suggested in the Country Reports (cont'd.)
COUNTRY
MAIN ISSUES
STRATEGIC OPTIONS
Sudan
Low and erratic productivity of rain-
Water Control and Land Development
fed agriculture
Rain harvesting: identify and demonstrate technologies for
Deforestation of watersheds and
more efficient use of rain water
resulting soil erosion
Develop non-Nile water streams
High sedimentation in irrigation
Improve crop management practices (crop diversification,
system
crop rotation, and proper inputs)
Low participation of water users in
Constraint Analysis Component
irrigation system O&M
Studies for enhancing water users participation in
Low cost recovery for financing
irrigation system O&M, including payment of service fees
irrigation O&M
Study the impact of government's Free Market Policy on
agriculture production
Studies to identify government institutional strengths and
weaknesses
Tanzania
Low management capacity
Improve Water Resource Management
Increased demand and pollution of
Strengthen government capacity
water resources
Better data collection and use in planning
Lack of data for proper planning
Develop small-scale irrigation
and management
Rehabilitate aging irrigation infrastructure
Lack of trained personnel
Empower WUAs
Low performance of irrigation due to
Provide appropriate legal base, including cost recovery for
inappropriate design, aging
O&M
infrastructure and inadequate O&M
Build financial capability of WUAs
Deforestation of catchments,
resulting in soil erosion and
Promote better watershed management
sedimentation in canals
Promote forestation through community participation
Low financial capability for proper
Decentralization of authority to local government level and
irrigation O&M
community
Absence of incentives for efficient
water use
Low participation of farmers
Uganda
Low institutional capacity to address
Policy and strategies
technical, institutional, and financial
Increase agricultural water utilization
aspects of efficient agricultural water
Improve credit availability for intensive agriculture
use
Improve marketing of agricultural produce
Inadequate information for sound
development planning
Develop small-scale irrigation through construction of
small reservoirs
Inadequate research, extension, and
training
Pilot studies and demonstrations
Inadequate community participation
Better watershed management practices
Utilization of swamplands
Rain harvesting by small reservoirs
Institutional capacity-building
Strengthen Department of Agriculture including research
and extension
Strengthen private sector participation
Identify appropriate technology
Source: Country Reports
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Efficient Water Use for Agricultural Production Annex B
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Efficient Water Use for Agricultural Production Annex C 43

ANNEX C.
RELATED PROJECTS IN NBI COUNTRIES
A large number of projects are being implemented in the region as summarized below. It should be
noted that, although all projects are implemented in Nile Basin countries, not all of them work at
present exclusively in river basins belonging to the Nile Basin.
Institutional Support to the National Irrigation Coordination Unit, DRC. Overall goal of the
project is to increase agricultural production through irrigation development and its efficient
management. Specific objective is to promote and coordinate irrigation development through
following initiatives:
Ø Develop a basic data bank on water resources and exchange information with other countries
Ø Institute a water management policy and formulate a national irrigation strategy
Ø Organize WUAs and ensure their training
Ø Develop and implement capacity-building programs for government personnel and farmers.
The National Rice Program, DRC. UNDP/FAO and the government of DRC support the project.
The project has assisted farmer communities to develop irrigated rice cultivation on about 2,300 ha.
The development approach has been very successful specially because the local communities
assume leadership in the development of irrigation infrastructure and its subsequent management.
The irrigation facilities are simple and small-scale that can be easily developed and managed by the
farmers' WUAs.
Irrigation Improvement Project, Egypt. The World Bank and the government of Egypt (1997­
present) currently sponsor a second phase of the project. A first phase was supported by USAID
(1989­96). Its overall goal is to improve water use efficiency in irrigated agriculture and increase crop
production. Specific project objectives are:
Ø Promote organization of farmers in WUAs for collective pumping and efficient use of irrigation
water at the tertiary system level
Ø Rehabilitate and improve tertiary level irrigation infrastructure
Ø Institute continuous water delivery from the main irrigation system
Ø Institutionalize a new government agency, Irrigation Advisory Service, to provide irrigation
extension to the farmers and their WUAs.
The IIP project is now institutionalized as a separate sector within the Ministry of Water Resources
and Irrigation. It has also led to the formation of an Irrigation Advisory Service. However, even after
ten years of implementation and field demonstrations, IIP suggested practices have not been widely
accepted. The fundamental problem is that its strategy does not really empower farmers and their
WUAs.
Lake Victoria Environmental Management Project, Kenya/Tanzania/Uganda. The project is
sponsored by the Global Environment Facility (GEF), the International Development Association
(IDA) and the governments of Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda with a budget of $77.6 million for 1996-
2000 period. The project objectives are:
Ø Maximize benefits to riparian communities from sustainable use of resources within the Lake
Basin to generate food, employment, and income
Ø Promote better management programs to stop environmental degradation of the Lake Victoria.
Watershed and Wetland Management Program, Rwanda. The project is managed by the Ministry
of Agriculture, Livestock, and Forests and financed by the African Development Bank. The project
aims to increase agricultural land by developing 10,000 ha of small swamps, and by applying
improved soil conservation measures in the upper watersheds (erosion control terraces, etc.).
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Efficient Water Use for Agricultural Production Annex C
Present agriculture in Bugesera region is practiced on poor hilly soils where it is hampered by
insufficient rainfall.
Rehabilitation of Pump Irrigation Schemes, Sudan. The project is financed by IFAD and
implemented by the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, government of Sudan. Primary objective of
the project is to rehabilitate the pump irrigation schemes on the White Nile as they are turned over to
the farmers' associations. Initially, these pump irrigation schemes were owned and operated by the
government. Recently, the schemes are being handed over to the farmers as a part of the adoption
of market economic policies of the government.
River Basin Management and Small-holder Irrigation Improvement Project, Tanzania. The
project is sponsored by the World Bank and the government of Tanzania, with a budget of $31 million
for the period 1996­2002. The project improvements will cover a 7,000-9,000 ha area and the project
objectives are:
Ø Strengthen government capacity to manage water resources in river basins
Ø Improving stakeholder participation in Basin Water Boards
Ø Improve water use efficiency through improved performance of small irrigation schemes
Ø Increase crop yields and raise farmers income
Ø Promote farmers' participation in the development, implementation, and management of irrigation
schemes.
Participatory Irrigation Development Program, Tanzania. The project is sponsored by IFAD and
the government of Tanzania with a budget of $25 million for the period 2000­2007. It will cover about
11,400 ha of agricultural land to pursue the following developments:
Ø Enhance government institutional capacity in irrigation development
Ø Promote farmers' organizations and increase their capacity for managing irrigation
Ø Promote private sector involvement in irrigation development.
Small-Scale Irrigation Development, Uganda. The project is sponsored by FAO and the
Government of Uganda, with the overall purpose of increasing agricultural production by developing
small-scale irrigation. There is abundant rainwater and surface stream flow that can be more
productively utilized. The project will demonstrate how local communities can take leadership in
building small-scale irrigation schemes, which can be managed by farmers' associations.
Olweny Swamp Rice Irrigation Project, Uganda. The African Development Bank and the
Government of Uganda finance this on-going project. The purpose is to demonstrate to the local
communities ways to develop and utilize wetlands in a sustainable manner. The project actively
involves local people, especially womens groups, in cultivating irrigated rice in small wetlands. The
project collaborates with IUCN, the National Environment Management Agency, and the National
Wetlands Program in design, monitoring, and evaluation
The Kenya country report outlined the following major projects related to agriculture water resources:
Ø Rain-fed Rice Production Project, funded by the African Development Bank
Ø Small-Scale Irrigation Development Program, funded by the Dutch Aid.
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Efficient Water Use for Agricultural Production Annex D 45

ANNEX D.
PROJECT DESIGN SUMMARY
HIERARCHY OF OBJECTIVES
KEY PERFORMANCE INDICATORS
MONITORING AND EVALUATION
CRITICAL ASSUMPTIONS
Sector-related NBI Goal
Sector Indicators
Sector / Country Reports
(from Goal to Shared Vision)
To increase the availability and efficient use of
Agricultural production and productivity increased
ESW in agriculture, irrigation, and
Willingness of member countries to take
water for agricultural production in support of
Water availability increased
drainage (periodic)
advantage of win-win opportunities, to share
sustainable socio-economic development in the
experiences, and to learn from best practices
Nile Basin countries
Water use efficiency increased
Willingness of member countries to continue
process of cooperative development
Project Development Objective
Outcome/Impact Indicators
Project Reports
(from Objective to Goal)
To provide a sound conceptual and practical
Conceptual basis piloted, monitored, and
Nile-Sec reports
Political willingness in place to go beyond
basis for Nile riparian countries to increase the
evaluated; practicality demonstrated by likelihood
External evaluation reports (mid-
pilots
availability and efficient use of water for
of replication
term and final)
Availability of institutional leadership
agricultural production
Level of satisfaction among Nile Basin member
Beneficiary assessment reports
Reciprocal openness of member countries to
countries with project outcomes
(annual)
host study tours, exchange visits, and share
Number of new regional initiatives launched
information and outcomes of pilots.
Output from Each Component
Output Indicators
Project Reports
(from Outputs to Objective)
Options for sustainable watershed
Number of options for sustainable watershed
Nile-Tec implementation progress
Sufficient administrative flexibility to
management identified and increased
management identified
reports
implement changes to approachwhen
productivity by improved watershed
Number of improved watershed management
Technical audit reports (periodic)
necessary
management demonstrated
activities identified and implemented
Disbursement rates
Monitoring and evaluation in place to analyze
Extent to which productivity has increased in
outcomes and formulate conceptual basis
Evaluation reports (mid-term and
watersheds where above activities have been
final)
Nile-Tec sufficiently staffed for appropriate
implemented
administrative and financial support
Options for community-managed irrigation
Number of options for irrigation development
Other pillars willing to share project
development identified and increased
identified and implemented
management
agricultural production demonstrated.
Extent to which agricultural production has
increased
Options for reforms in publicly managed
Number of options for publicly managed irrigation
irrigation reviewed and piloted, demonstrating
reform reviewed and piloted
improved system performance, and options for
Extent to which system performance improved
irrigation development explored
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Efficient Water Use for Agricultural Production Annex D
PROJECT DESIGN SUMMARY (CONT'D.)
HIERARCHY OF OBJECTIVES
KEY PERFORMANCE INDICATORS
MONITORING AND EVALUATION
CRITICAL ASSUMPTIONS
Project Components/Sub-Components
Inputs (budget for each component, including
Project Reports
(from Components to Outputs)
contingencies)
Watershed management
$2.4 million
Progress reports (quarterly)
Willingness of government and farmers to
Studies/consultations
Disbursement reports (quarterly)
test innovative approaches
Demonstration/pilots, and exchange of
Open and frank exchanges between country
experience
experts
Community-managed irrigation development
$1.5 million
Farmers sufficiently educated and
empowered to self-organize
Studies/consultations
Wide country level dissemination of
Demonstration/pilots and exchange of
outcomes of project
experience
Management of public irrigation
Studies/consultations
$0.8 million
Demonstration/pilots and exchange of
experience
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Efficient Water Use for Agricultural Production Annex E 47

ANNEX E.
PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION ORGANIZATIONAL CHART

Nile-COM
Policy Level
Nile-TAC
Nile-SEC
Technical Coordination Committee
Regional Coord. &
Management
Project Management Unit*
Administration *
Lead Specialist
Special Working Groups
(ad hoc)
* Recommended to co-locate
National Level
(one per country)
with Environment or Water
Resources Projects for
cost-effectiveness

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Efficient Water Use for Agricultural Production Annex E
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