Lake Victoria
Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
Sixtus Kayombo*, Dar es Salaam University, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, kayombo@wrep.udsm.ac.tz
Sven Erik Jorgensen, Royal Danish University of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Copenhagen, Denmark
* Corresponding author
1. Introduction
fl ushing time is 123 years. Because of its long retention time,
pollutants entering the lake remain in it for a long time.
Lake Victoria is the second largest freshwater lake in the world
by area (Figure 1), and has the world's largest freshwater Domestic and industrial wastewater, solid wastes, sediments
fi shery, largely based on the introduced of Nile perch, which
from soil erosion in the catchment area, agricultural wastes
supports an economically and socially important export fi shery
and atmospheric deposition are the major nutrient sources
for the riparian countries. The lake basin supports about 30
to the lake. Parts of Lake Victoria, especially the deeper
million people and is the source of the Nile River. The threats
areas, are now considered dead zones, unable to sustain life
facing the lake include eutrophication, over-exploitation of due to oxygen defi ciency in the water. The threats facing the
fi sheries, introduced exotic species, and climate change. The
lake have caused considerable hardship for the populations
population in the catchment is growing rapidly, with the lake
dependent on it for their livelihoods, and also have reduced
itself attracting people because of the economic opportunities
the biodiversity of the lake's fauna, most notably the
it offers. The lake's water residence time is 23 years, while its
phytoplankton and fi sh.
Figure 1. The Lake Victoria Basin.
As is often the case with ecological problems, the challenges
2. Background
facing the lake do not recognize jurisdictional boundaries.
Addressing these issues effectively, and in a sustainable Lake Victoria is the world's second largest freshwater lake in
manner, calls for an ecosystem-oriented approach that surface area, second only to Lake Superior in North America. It
includes cooperation among all countries in the lake basin. Key
is bordered by Tanzania, Kenya and Uganda, and, although not
to this approach is a common vision shared by all countries
riparian, Burundi and Rwanda also lie within the lake drainage
and communities regarding the benefi cial uses of the lake and
basin. Lake Victoria stretches 412 km from north to south,
how to protect them. The availability of useful and timely data
between latitudes 0°30' N and 3°12' S, and 355 km from west
and information on the physical and biological state of the
to east between longitudes 31°37' and 34° 53' E. It is situated
lake and the socio-economic factors in the basin will support
at an altitude of 1,134 m above sea level, and has a volume of
implementation of that vision. Such data and information have
2,760 km3, and an average and maximum depth of 40 m and
been gathered through several projects previously undertaken
80 m, respectively. Lake Victoria is the largest lake in Africa,
on the lake.
with a surface area of 68,800 km2, and a catchment area of
193,000 km2. The lake's morphometric data is summarized in
One of the major initiatives undertaken by the three riparian
Table 1. The lake contains numerous islands, and has a highly
countries to reverse the lake's deterioration is the Lake indented shoreline estimated to be about 3,460 km long. The
Victoria Environmental Management Project (LVEMP) Phase catchment area of the lake is illustrated in Figure 1. The lake's
I. The major objective of the project is to restore a healthy,
fl ushing time (volume/average outfl ow) is 138 years and its
varied lake ecosystem that is inherently stable, and that can
residence time is 21 years. Lake Victoria surrounds several
support the many, varied human activities in a sustainable
groups of large islands (e.g. Sesse or Kalangala and Buvuma in
manner. LVEMP Phase I was funded by the World Bank and
Uganda; Ukerewe in Tanzania and Rusinga in Kenya), and many
the Global Environment Facility (GEF). It became operational in
smaller ones.
1997, and was completed in 2004. Phase II is currently under
preparation. The total Phase I funding was US$75,636,000, of
2.1 Drainage
Basin
which the three riparian states contributed 10% (LVEMP 2003).
The project components included management and control of
The main rivers fl owing into the lake from the Tanzanian
water hyacinth, improved fi sheries management and research,
catchment are Mara, Kagera, Mirongo, Grumeti, Mbalageti,
water quality monitoring, industrial and municipal waste Simiyu and Mori (LVEMP 2001). From the Kenyan catchment,
management, conservation of biodiversity, catchment forests
the main rivers are Nzoia, Sio, Yala, Nyando, Kibos, Sondu-
and wetlands, sustainable land use practices, and capacity miriu, Kuja, Migori, Riaria and Mawa. From the Ugandan
building.
catchment, the main rivers are Kagera, Bukora, Katonga and
Sio (LVEMP 2003). The Kagera, draining Burundi and Rwanda
With assistance from the European Union-funded Lake Victoria
and part of Uganda, is the single largest river fl owing into
Fisheries Research Project (LVFRP), the riparian governments
the lake. However, rivers entering the lake from Kenya, which
have begun coordinating their responses to managing the contains the smallest portion of the lake, contribute over
fi sheries sector, but have yet to develop a coordinated 37.6% of its surface water infl ows (Table 2). About 86% of
action plan for managing the lake and its catchment across
the total water input, however, falls as rain, with evaporative
all sectors. However, the recent formation of the East African
losses accounting for 80% of the water leaving the lake
Community (EAC), and the development of its Protocol for (Okonga 2001; COWI 2002). The mean annual rainfall, based
Sustainable Development of the Lake Victoria Basin, are the
on rainfall data from 1950 to 2000, ranges between 886-2609
beginnings of such a response. In spite of these recent, positive
mm, while the mean evaporation rate over the lake ranges
developments, however, there remains a tension between between 1108-2045 mm per year (COWI 2002).
managing the lake to benefi t the riparian communities versus
managing it to benefi t the downstream countries of the Nile
The Nile River is the only surface outlet from the lake, with an
River. This issue is currently being addressed within the Nile
outfl ow of 23.4 km3/y (Mott MacDonald 2001). The long-term
Basin Initiative (NBI), a forum that brings together all of the ten
average discharges from the river basins in the lake catchment,
countries in the Nile Basin.
based on data from 1950 to 2000 are shown in Table 2.
Table 1. Morphometric Data for Lake Victoria.
Item
Total
Kenya
Tanzania
Uganda
Rwanda
Burundi
Surface area (km2)
68,870
4,113
33,756
31,001
0
0
(6%)
(49%)
(45%)
Catchment area (km2)
193,000
42,460
84,920
30,880
21,230
13,510
(22%)
(44%)
(16%)
(11%)
(7%)
Shoreline (km)
3,450
550
1,150
1,750
0
0
(17%)
(33%)
(50%)
Source: Andjelic
(1999).
432 Lake
Victoria
The mass balance of water in the lake based on the infl ow and
addition to atmospheric deposition of nutrients from poor land
outfl ow is shown in Table 3. The outfl ow in the White Nile is
management practices within, and possibly outside, the lake
correspondingly larger than the infl ow from the catchment. The
catchment.
sum of the fl ows gives a small positive infl ow of 33 m3/s, which
accounts for the observed lake water level rise of about 1.0 m
2.2 Socio-economic
Setting
between January 1950 and December 2000 (COWI 2002). The
annual fl uctuations in levels, however, range between 0.4-1.5
The population of the lake basin is about 30 million,
m (Balirwa 1998).
constituting about one-third of the population of Kenya,
Tanzania and Uganda. The population growth rate of the
The topography around the lake is fl at, allowing satellite lakes
riparian municipalities of the three countries stands at above
and wetlands to predominate. The catchment area of Lake 6% per annum, among the highest in the world. The lake
Victoria is slowly being degraded due to deforestation and,
basin nevertheless provides resources for the livelihoods of
coupled with bad agricultural practices, has degraded the the basin population, with the lake used as source of food,
soil, leading to siltation in the lake. Industrial and domestic
energy, drinking and irrigation water, shelter, transport, and
effl uents are polluting the lake, being localized in urban as a repository for human, agricultural and industrial wastes.
areas around the lake, while deforestation, soil erosion, and
The lake basin resources also provide amenities for cultural
increasing human and livestock populations have contributed
activities, as well as leisure. Over 70% of the population
to increased nutrient loading to the lake from rivers, in in the catchment area of the three riparian countries is
engaged in agricultural production, mostly as small-scale
farmers, for crops such as sugar, tea, coffee, maize, cotton,
Table 2. Long-term Average Discharge from River Basins in
Lake Victoria Catchment Area.
horticultural products, and livestock keeping. Lake Victoria
supports the most productive freshwater fi shery in the
Country
Basin
Discharge
Percentage
(m3/s)
(%)
world, with annual fi sh yields exceeding 300,000 tons, worth
US$600 million annually. The lake fi sheries are dominated
Kenya
Sio
11.4
1.5
by two introduced species, Nile perch (Lates niloticus) and
Nzoia
115.3
14.8
Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus), and one native cyprinid
Yala
37.6
4.8
(Rastrineobola argentea). Nile perch is the basis of a lucrative
Nyando
18.0
2.3
export industry supporting about 30 fi sh-processing factories
in the three countries.
North
Awach
3.7
0.5
South
Awach
5.9
0.8
The lake is the source of the White Nile and is therefore an
Sondu
42.2
5.4
important asset for all countries within the Nile River Basin.
Gucha-Migori
58.0
7.5
The waters originating from the lake provide hydropower
through its only outlet, the Victoria Nile River, at Owen Falls in
Sub-total 292.1
37.6
Uganda, and other power plants further downstream. The two
Tanzania
Mara
37.5
4.8
plants at Owen Falls provide 260 MW of power, part of which
Grumeti
11.5
1.5
is exported to Kenya. These waters also support extensive
irrigated agriculture schemes in Egypt, ecological values in
Mbalageti
4.3
0.5
the Sudan and other wetlands, an important tourism industry
E. shore stream
18.6
2.4
on the Nile River, and navigation and transport over large
Simiyu
39.0
5.0
distances in the lower river.
Magogo moame
8.3
1.1
Nyashishi
1.6
0.2
Issanga
30.6
3.9
S. shore stream
25.6
3.3
Biharamulo
17.8
2.3
Table 3. Average Infl ows and Outfl ows from Lake Victoria.
W. shore stream
20.7
2.7
Type of fl ow
Flows (m3/s)
Percentage (%)
Kagera
260.9
33.5
Infl ows
Sub-total 476.40
61.2
Rain over lake
3,631
82
Uganda
Bukora
3.2
0.4
Basin discharge
778
18
Katonga
5.1
0.7
Outfl ows
N. shore stream
1.5
0.2
Evaporation from lake
-3,330
76
Sub-total 9.8
1.3
Nile River
-1,046
24
Total average infl ow 778.3
100.0
Balance
+33
Source: COWI
(2002).
Source: COWI
(2002).
Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
433
3. Biophysical
Environment
stations were used to compute the lake's water balance and
nutrient loads.
3.1 Water
Quality
3.1.1 Pollution Loading Due to Urban Wastewater and
The Lake Victoria ecosystem has undergone substantial and, to
Runoff
some observers, alarming changes that have accelerated over
The LVEMP study on pollutant loads (COWI 2002) indicates
the last three decades. Massive algal blooms have developed,
there are 87 large towns in the Lake Victoria basin (51 in Kenya,
becoming increasingly dominated by the potentially toxic blue-
30 in Tanzania, 6 in Uganda). Table 4 shows the pollutant
green variety. The lake water transparency has declined from
loading to the lake from urban areas.
5 m in the early 1930s, to 1 m or less for most of the year by
the early 1990s. Waterborne diseases also have increased in
The data in Table 4 incorporate a 50% load reduction in order
frequency. Although presently under control, water hyacinth,
to take into account load reduction through other treatment
absent in the lake as late as 1989, choked important waterways
methods. However, reductions in pollutant loads through
and landings, especially in bay areas in Kenya and Uganda,
the river system before reaching the lake have not been
in the late 1990s. Over-fi shing, introduced fi sh species and
incorporated in the data. A different LVEMP study (LVEMP
oxygen depletion at lower lake depths threaten the artisanal
2001) indicated that the pollutant loading to the lake from
fi sheries and biodiversity (over 200 indigenous species are
urban areas was 6,955 t/y of Biochemical Oxygen Demand
facing possible extinction). These extensive changes have (BOD), 3028 t/y of Total Nitrogen (T-N), and 2,686 t/y of Total
been attributed both to the introduction of Nile perch that
Phosphorus (T-P). These fi gures represent the pollutant load
altered the food web structure, and to increased nutrient input
from urban areas close to the lakeshore, and do not consider
to the lake, resulting in eutrophication.
the pollutant load from towns located far away from the lake
that drain into it via streams and rivers.
Land use has intensifi ed and human and livestock population
increased, especially along the lakeshore and on the islands
3.1.2 Pollution Loading Due to Industrial Activities
in the lake. Increased pollution from municipal and industrial
The pollutant load to the lake from industrial activities in
discharges is visible in some of the rivers feeding the the catchment area is shown in Table 5. The total number of
lake, and in urban areas along the shoreline (e.g., Kisumu,
major industries in the catchment area is 68 (16 in Kenya, 34
Mwanza, Kampala). The pollution sources to the lake include
in Tanzania, 18 in Uganda) (COWI 2002). The pollutant load
a number of basic industries (e.g., breweries, tanning, fi sh
to the lake from industries was estimated on the basis of the
processing, agro-processing, abattoirs). Small-scale gold production rate or the quantity of water used.
mining is increasing in parts of the Tanzanian catchment and,
if mining wastes are not well contained, might lead to mercury
3.1.3 Pollutant Loading Due to Rivers
discharges into the lake water. Increased nutrient fl ows are
Rivers carry soil eroded from the catchment area to the lake.
entering the lake from eroded sediments in the catchment,
Thus, the water is more turbid and shallow at the inlets
burning of wood-fuels, and from human and animal waste from
than in other parts of the lake. For example, Winam Gulf is
areas surrounding the lake.
comparatively shallow, having a maximum depth of 35 m and a
mean depth of 6 m. The input of nutrient loads from the rivers
Given the importance of degradation due to eutrophication,
located in the catchment area is 49,509 t/y T-N and 5,693 t/y
one of the major technical challenges facing the management
T-P (Table 6).
of Lake Victoria is the accurate quantifi cation of the nutrient
load to the lake. This following sub-sections discuss the 3.1.4 Pollution Loading Due to Atmospheric Nutrient
quantifi cation of the pollutant loads to the lake undertaken
Deposition
under the LVEMP. A total of 56 monitoring stations (9 stations
Atmospheric deposition can be divided into wet deposition
in Kenya, 19 in Uganda, 28 in Tanzania) were established within
(i.e., deposition of nutrients washed out by rain) and dry
the lake to determine the in-lake pollution concentrations. deposition (i.e., deposition onto the water surface from the
About 18 monitoring stations were established on rivers air during dry weather periods). Due to lack o special sampling
draining to the lake. The data obtained from the monitoring
equipment for dry deposition, COWI (2002) applied a simple
Table 4. Pollution Loading to Lake Victoria Due to Urban
Wastewater and Runoff.
Table 5. Industrial Loading to Lake Victoria.
Loading to Lake Victoria (t/y)
Loading to Lake Victoria (t/y)
Country
Country
BOD
Total N
Total P
BOD
Total N
Total P
Tanzania
5,069
719
292
Tanzania
3,259
324
208
Kenya
10,724
2,019
848
Kenya
860
57
46
Uganda
2,145
767
484
Uganda
1,487
33
88
Total
17,938
3,505
1,624
Total
5,606
414
342
Source: COWI
(2002).
Source: COWI
(2002).
434 Lake
Victoria
method involving analysis of the increased nutrient levels in
lake was divided into 17 "rain boxes" for which the annual
distilled water in a bucket exposed to the atmosphere for a
average rainfall could be individually calculated.
certain time. In estimating the atmospheric deposition, the
Table 6. Annual Loads of Nitrogen and Phosphorous to Lake Victoria from River Basins.
Country
Basin
Area (km2)
Discharge (m3/s)
Total-N (t/y)
Total-P (t/y)
Kenya
Sio
1,450
12.1
248
47
Nzoia
12,676
118
3,340
946
Yala
3,351
27.4
999
102
Nyando
3,652
14.7
520
175
North Awach
1,985
3.8
112
15
South Awach
3,156
6.0
322
39
Sondu
3,508
40.3
1,374
318
Gucha-Migori
6,600
62.7
2,849
283
Sub-total
36,378
285
9,764
1,925
Tanzania
Mara
13,393
38.50
1,701
304
Grumeti
13,363
12.7
561
185
Mbalageti 3,591
4.9
216
50
E. shore stream
6,644
20.2
892
159
Simiyu
11,577
34.1
1,507
435
Magogo moame
5,207
6.3
278
50
Nyashishi
1,565
1.4
62
11
Issanga
6,812
5.1
225
40
S. shore stream
8,681
27.0
1,193
213
Biharamulo 1,928
21.5
950
170
W. shore stream
733
21.1
932
166
Kagera
59,682
265.3
29,303
1,892
Sub-total
253,176
458.1
37,820
3,675
Uganda
Bukora
8,392
2.9
575
30
Katonga
15,244
4.7
1,023
47
N. shore stream
4,288
1.5
327
15
Sub-total
27,924
9.1
1,925
92
Total average load
197,478
752.2
49,509
5,693
Source: COWI
(2002).
Table 7. Annual External Nutrient Loading to Lake Victoria.
Loading to Lake Victoria (t/y)
Pollution Source
BOD Load
Nitrogen Load
Phosphorus Load
Domestic Waste (including urban runoff )
17,938
3,505
(1.68%)
1,624
(4.24%)
Industrial Sources
5,606
414
(0.21%)
342
(0.89%)
River Basin
25,122
49,509
(23.78%)
5,693
(14.86%)
Runoff from Cultivated Land
...
22,966
(11.03%)
2,297
(6.00%)
Runoff from Non-cultivated Land
...
29,615
(14.23%)
3,949
(10.31%)
Atmospheric
Wet
Deposition
...
62,601 (30.08%)
11,831 (30.89%)
Atmospheric Dry Deposition
...
39,550
(18.99%)
12,567
(32.81%)
Total
48,666
208,160 (100%)
38,303 (100%)
Source: Modifi ed from LVEMP (2003).
Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
435
The estimated total pollutant loads from atmospheric denitrifi cation rates. Further, sediment fl ux experiments would
deposition were 102,148 t/y of T-N and 24,402 t/y of T-P strongly support understanding of the nutrient exchange
(COWI 2002). These values are close to the initial estimates
between the sediments and the water column. Nevertheless,
from a model study described in COWI (2002), indicating the preliminary mass balance provides a suffi ciently realistic
that atmospheric deposition is by far the most signifi cant
estimate of the relative importance of the different nutrient
contribution to the lake's overall nutrient budget. It is sources to guide eutrophication management actions.
noted, however, that some authorities question these data.
The data clearly illustrate that the areas highly affected by
Thus, these estimates require confi rmation before initiating
eutrophication are those near the lakeshore (e.g., Winam
management actions based on them.
Gulf, Murchison Bay, Napoleon Gulf, Mwanza Gulf ). The COWI
(2002) study measured 170 µg/L of chlorophyll-a in Mwanza
Table 7 summarizes the sources and relative pollutant loads
Gulf, while a 1997 study on Murchison Bay measured up to 300
to Lake Victoria. As shown in Table 7, atmospheric deposition
µg/L chlorophyll-a. In comparison, Talling (1965, 1966) reported
is considered to be the major pollutant source to the lake.
maximum chlorophyll-a concentration of 70 µg/L in the lake's
The results indicate that total atmospheric deposition (wet nearshore areas. A low N:P ratio in the lake's nearshore
and dry deposition) contributes about 49.07% and 63.70%,
waters indicates that nitrogen may occasionally be the algal
respectively, of the total nitrogen and total phosphorus load.
limiting nutrient, promoting the occurrence of potentially toxic
Thus, changes in farming, land utilization, industrial activities
blue-green algae. The data indicate that lakeshore areas are
and forest management will likely signifi cantly reduce the highly affected by eutrophication, especially "hotspots" such
pollutant load to the lake from atmospheric deposition. It is
as Winam Gulf, Murchison Bay, Napoleon Gulf, and Mwanza
reiterated, however, that some local scientists dispute the high
Gulf. Phosphorus and nitrogen concentrations have increased
nutrient loadings attributed to atmospheric deposition.
and algal growth has increased fi ve-fold since the 1960s. The
chlorophyll concentrations are typically 2-3 times greater in the
3.1.5 Nutrient
Mass
Balance
gulfs than in the main lake (Njiru et al. 2001). Further, although
The load of nutrients buried in the sediments was calculated
the lake's primary productivity has increased by a factor of 2,
using a mass balance approach, indicating that 20,100 t/y the chlorophyll-a (i.e., phytoplankton) concentrations have
of phosphorus were buried in the sediments, and 502,900 increased by 8-10 times (Mugidde 1993).
t/y were released by the sediments into the water column.
The same calculation approach resulted in a net deposition of
Whereas Talling (1965, 1966) reported anoxia only in the
73,400 t/y of nitrogen in the sediments (Figure 2). Because the
deepest parts of the lake in 1960-1, Hecky (1993) reported
N:P ratio is known to be about 10:1, however, this may be a low
widespread, long lasting (October-March) anoxia below 45
estimate.
m in 1990-1, while Njiru et al. (2001) reported deoxygenation
to within 30 m of the surface. Given the lake's mean depth
It is clear that the nutrient mass balance still needs to be of 40 m, this implies a signifi cant volume of the lake is now
refi ned. The load estimates with the greatest uncertainty unsuitable as habitat for commercial and non-commercial fi sh
are atmospheric deposition and the nitrogen fi xation and species for part of the year. These conditions have probably
contributed to the loss of endemic benthic fi sh species.
Lake Victoria has experienced a steady increase in its nutrient
and phytoplankton concentrations for many decades. The
diatom, Aulacosiera, the dominant phytoplankton up until the
1960s, was last recorded in the lake in 1990. Nitrogen-fi xing
cyanobacteria (particularly Cylindrospermopsis sp.) and, to a
lesser extent, Anabaena, now dominate the phytoplankton. If
Mugidde (2001) is correct that over 70% of the nitrogen input
to the lake is from nitrogen fi xation, then the phytoplankton
community is not likely limited by access to nitrogen. Instead,
there is evidence they are limited by the availability of light
(Mugidde et al. 2003) as a result of self-shading by algal
biomass within Lake Victoria proper (Mugidde 1993) or by
higher mineral turbidities in Winam Gulf (Njuru 2001) and
possibly other enclosed areas receiving riverine inputs.
Although the dominant cyanobacteria species in the lake are
known to produce toxins that are toxic to mammals, including
humans, there is little information on this potential hazard. A
shift of algal fl ora composition towards blue-green algae is
causing deoxygenation of water. Deoxygenation of the deep
water is another undesirable change, which has precluded
Figure 2. Nitrogen Mass Balance for Lake Victoria.
a stable dermiesal fi shery (Hecky et al. 2002). Deepwater
436 Lake
Victoria
species have sharply declined and the periodic upwelling of
been cleared for settlement and agricultural activities. These
hypoxic water has caused massive fi sh kills.
poor land management practices have resulted in large areas
being subjected to severe soil erosion. Scheren et al. (2001)
3.1.6 Heavy Metals and Organics
indicated that land utilization has a high impact on nutrient
Pollution of Lake Victoria from heavy metals and organics loading to the lake, thereby contributing to eutrophication. The
appears to be localized. For example, although copper (Cu),
annual increase in cultivated land is 2.2%, while overgrazing by
mercury (Hg), lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr) and 1.5 million cattle and 1.0 million goats exceeds the sustainable
zinc (Zn) were found in the sediments of Mwanza Gulf, they
grazing rate by a factor of 5. The resulting infl uence of these
were not present in dangerous concentrations (Kishe and factors on eutrophication of Lake Victoria reveals itself through
Machiwa 2001). The concentrations were greatest near towns,
two main pathways; namely, increasing soil erosion, nutrient
indicating their urban industrial origins (except for mercury,
runoff and leakage to surface waters, and increasing nutrient
which may originate from gold mining activities). There was
release to the atmosphere from animal and biomass burning
no evidence of serious bioaccumulation of mercury in fi sh from
and their consequent deposition to surface water (Scheren
sites near cities along the lakeshore and this does not appear
et al. 2001). Siltation not only causes the turbidity observed
to pose a human health problem (Campbell et al. 2003). The
in Winam Gulf (and possibly other semi-enclosed areas), but
mean concentration of heavy metals in Winam Gulf water was
also transports nutrients (e.g., phosphorus) and contaminants
found to be 0.12-0.45 mg Pb/L, 0.01 mg Cd/L, and 0.16-1.82
(e.g., agricultural chemicals). It should be noted that, whereas
mg Cr/L (Tole and Shitsama 2001). The same study reported
high turbidity in Winam Gulf is caused primarily by increased
21.2-76.2 mg Pb/L, 0.4-2.8 mg Cd/L, and 37.6-394 mg Cr/L in
siltation from rivers, the increased turbidity in the main body
sediments.
of the lake is caused by high chlorophyll-a concentrations.
This distinction has signifi cant ecological consequences,
Although agro-chemicals and their residues have been detected
and requires different management strategies. Some rivers
in lake waters, their present concentrations are not suffi ciently
also are the likely source of mercury from mining activities
high to be a threat to human health, export products or observed nearshore in Mwanza Gulf.
ecosystem integrity. However, because of the tendency of
organics to bioconcentrate and bioaccumulate in the food The current annual sedimentation rates for Lake Victoria
chain, their potential long-term impacts on ecosystem integrity
are the same order of magnitude as modeled for 1978, and
cannot be ignored. Very low concentrations (0.01-0.03 mg/L)
comparison with calculated net deposition rates shows that
of endosufan, B-endosurfan and endosulphan were detected
4% of the phosphorus, 8% of the nitrogen and 10% of the
in fi sh (Henry and Kishimba 2002). The riparian countries silicon is permanently buried (COWI 2002). The burial rates
generally have adequate legislation and regulations to control
represent an annual accretion of 1 mm/y. However, Swallow et
the use of these chemicals, although the existing regulations
al. (2001) showed that the settling rate at the river inlets in the
forbidding the use of DDT for agricultural production reasons,
catchment area was 1.0 cm/y, indicating a high accumulation
and regulation of the use of other agro-chemicals, needs to be
of sediments at the lakeshore.
enforced by the riparian governments.
3.3
Wetlands and Pollutant Loading to the Lake
A recent inventory indicated there are high possibilities of
oil spillage to the lake due to transportation (LVEMP 2003).
The freshwater wetlands in the Lake Victoria drainage basin
The inventory further noted that the capacities of the oil constitute an important natural resource base upon which
separators/interceptors of nearly all visited factories/
the communities in the riparian districts depend for their
industries were too small, resulting in ineffi cient separation;
livelihoods. In Kenya and Uganda, the Lake Victoria wetlands
that the separators were contaminated, thereby having limited
constitute about 37% and 13%, respectively, of the total
functions; and that many drainage systems from fi lling stations
wetland surface area in the two countries. The wetlands are
were draining oil directly to sewerage systems or to rivers. It
important in terms of food production, hydrological stability
also has been noted that bilge oil is regularly discharged into
and ecological productivity. They also are a source of goods
Lake Victoria (LVEMP 2001).
and services for the riparian communities, including being
sources of raw materials, handicrafts, and fuel; supporting
3.2
Impacts of Land Use on Pollutant Loading to the
fi sheries, grazing and agriculture; providing outdoor recreation
Lake
and education for human society; providing habitat for wildlife
(especially water fowl); contributing to climatic stability;
While perennial horticultural areas are generally well managed
and being a source of water and food production during the
with perennial cover and runoff control, many other areas with
dry season. Wetlands also act as nutrient and silt fi lters for
annual crops (e.g., maize) do not maintain ground cover. Thus,
water entering the lake, with most of the nutrients being
Majaliwa et al. (2001) reported that soil erosion losses are
removed through incorporation into the tissues of wetland
highest for annual crops, and lowest for coffee and bananas.
plants, accumulation in wetland sediments and, in the case
In addition, cropping areas often extend down to streams of nitrogen, losses to the atmosphere via denitrifi cation in the
and lake edges, eliminating riparian buffering vegetation root zones of the aquatic plants.
(wetlands). Further, forested areas surrounding the lake have
Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
437
These wetlands are disappearing throughout the region, or
biological control using two species of weevils (Neochetina
are being degraded at an alarming rate (Balirwa 2001). Some
eichhornia, Neochetina bruchi) being particularly successful.
wetlands, particularly the shallow ones, have been put under
An important aspect of biological control was the successful
intensive cultivation for crops (e.g., sugar cane, sweet potatoes,
involvement of local fi sher communities in rearing and
yams, eucalyptus). Others are excavated for sand and clay for
distributing the weevils.
brick making. The resulting pits have attracted water hyacinth
and such waterborne disease vectors as mosquitoes and snails
The impacts of the unmanaged water hyacinth population
(e.g., Kyetinda wetlands in Kampala). Other wetlands are used
in Lake Victoria included impeded transport of irrigation
for wastewater and garbage discharges (e.g., those near Luzira
and drainage water in canals and ditches, hindered
prison, Masese swamp, and Walugogo valley in Iganga town in
navigation, interference with hydropower schemes, increased
Uganda). Others are deforested for wood fuel and other craft
sedimentation by trapping silt particles, decreased human food
products (e.g., Mukona, Mpigi and Amsha districts, and Sango
production in aquatic habitat (fi sheries and crops), decreased
Bay in Rakai district in Uganda). Although Uganda's wetlands
possibilities for washing and bathing, and adversely affected
are protected, most are still being reclaimed and degraded.
recreation (swimming) (Pieterse 1990). Additional impacts
It is estimated that about 75% of the wetland area has been
included hindered processing and delivery of municipal and
signifi cantly affected by human activity, and about 13% is industrial water supplies, the harboring of venomous snakes,
severely degraded.
transformation of aquatic habitats into wetlands or terrestrial
habitats through succession by other plant species, the
3.4 Aquatic
Weeds
disappearance of native fl ora and fauna unable to compete
or survive in infested environments, and reduced lake levels
Water hyacinth (Eichhonia crassipes) is an invasive aquatic because of increased water loss. Water hyacinth is also known
macrophyte that invaded Lake Victoria in 1989, causing to provide a favorable habitat for disease vectors for malaria,
signifi cant socio-economic and environmental impacts that encephalitis and fi lariasis (Mitchell 1990; Denny 1991; Maillu et
remain largely unquantifi ed (Ochiel and Wawire 2001, Raytheon
al. 1998; Raytheon et al. 2002).
et al. 2002). Water hyacinth has a high growth rate, resulting in
physical obstruction of waterways, hydropower generation In contrast, water hyacinth also had some positive impacts
plants, and water abstraction units, among others (Masifwa et
on Lake Victoria fi sheries, including pollution abatement
al. 2001). It produces large quantities of long-lived seeds that
since the plant has the capacity to accumulate heavy metals
can survive up to 30 years and weed populations can double
(e.g, cadmium, lead, magnesium, nickel) and phenols. The
every 5-15 days at temperatures between 25-27.5°C. The weed
other notable impact in the Kenyan waters of Lake Victoria
forms a permanent fl oating fringe, often replacing the obligate
involved increased fi sh diversity with the establishment of
acropleustophyte, Pistia stratiotes, at the highly productive
water hyacinth. Some of the species that have disappeared
wetland/open water interface (Denny 1991), altering the food
(e.g., Protopterus aethiopicus, Clarias gariepinus) have since
web (Balirwa 1998), and affecting biological diversity (Masifwa
reappeared in the fi sh catches (Ogari 2001).
et al. 2001).
3.5 Biodiversity
The total water hyacinth cover in Lake Victoria at the peak of
infestation in 1998 was estimated to be 12,000 hectares, with
Lake Victoria originally had a multi-species fi shery, in which
6,000 hectares in Kenyan waters, 2,000 hectares in Tanzania,
two tilapiine species (Oreochromis Esculentus, O. Variabilis)
and 4,000 hectares in Uganda. It covers the lake surface, were the most important (Ogutu-Ohwayo 2003). In the mid-
especially along the shoreline, with serious impacts on the
1950s, the lake had a diverse fi sh fauna, comprising 28 genera
health and livelihoods of the local fi shermen and farming and about 350 species (Greenwood 1974). Of these species,
communities. About 80% of the Ugandan shoreline has been
more than 300 were haplochromine cichlids (Greenwood
affected by this problem. Although no authoritative estimates
1974; Witte et al. 2000). Beginning in the 1950s, Nile perch
have been made on the adverse economic impacts of the water
(Lates niloticus) and non-indigenous tilapiines, Nile tilapia
hyacinth invasion, they include a rapidly-declining fi sh catch
(Oreochromis niloticus, O. leucostictus, Tilapia zilli, T. Rendalli)
for small-scale fi sherfolk, and the disruption of commercial
were introduced into the lake. Introduction of tilapiines
transportation on the lake, which is much slower and more
was aimed at improving the declining indigenous stocks of
costly and risky.
O. esculentus and O. variabilis, and removing the so-called
"trash fi sh" (haplochromines) with little value. During the
The water hyacinth infestation has been substantially reduced,
1970s, haplochromines were the most abundant fi sh species
now existing primarily at the river mouths (where it remains
in the lake, constituting up to 80% of the demersal fi sh
a nuisance), and in a few other hotspots. Generally, however,
stocks (Kudhongania and Cardone 1974). Stocks of Nile perch
the above-noted problems have been largely overcome. Efforts
increased rapidly during 1970s, followed by the decline and, in
made under the LVEMP have reduced the infestation of the
some areas, total disappearance of some indigenous species
weed to about 78% lakewide (Aloyce et al. 2001; Ndunguru
(Witte et al. 1992). Within the last 50 years, as many as 200
et al. 2001). A combination of physical and biological methods
species of fi sh in Lake Victoria have disappeared, due partly
has been used to combat the proliferation of the weed, with
to the introduction of the Nile perch, which has eaten many of
438 Lake
Victoria
the smaller fi sh species. Eutrophication also may have played
· Residue
infl ows from the use of chemical herbicides
a role by making the benthic waters uninhabitable to fi sh.
and pesticides and, to a limited extent, heavy metals
resulting from gold mining operations that cause
The Nile perch and Nile tilapia are the two exotic fi sh species
localized pollution;
that have contributed both negatively and positively to the
Lake Victoria fi sheries. Their positive impacts include increased
·
Proliferation of water hyacinth, resulting in biodiversity
export earnings, recreational opportunities, increased supply
and economic losses in the lake's nearshore areas;
of desirable protein food, increased fi sh production, and
increased employment and earnings for fi shermen (Ogari ·
Unsustainable utilization of the major wetlands for
2001). Given the importance of the Nile perch fi shery to the
agricultural activities and raising of livestock, which
economy of the region and the riparian nations, it is not likely
has greatly compromised the buffering capacity of the
that the pressure exerted by these predators on the endemic
wetlands; and,
species will lessen.
·
Introduction of two exotic species (Nile perch, Nile
The threat to the biodiversity of the Lake Victoria region
tilapia), and use of unsustainable fi shing practices and
continues to grow, despite our increasing knowledge of the
gears, altering the composition of the lake's fauna and
system (Fuerst and Mwanja 2001). Studies by Mwanja et al.
fl ora species (noting that while this had detrimental
(2001) for nearly ten years in the Lake Victoria aquatic system,
effects on the lake's biodiversity, however, it also
however, have revealed that a signifi cant portion of the
provided an important income source to some lake
cichlid fauna considered lost from the main lakes of the Lake
communities).
Victoria region (Lakes Victoria and Kyoga) is still extant, both
in marginal habitats in the periphery of the main lakes, and in
4. Management
Environment
the small satellite waterbodies around the main lakes. If well
planned and managed, reintroduction and restoration efforts
4.1
Institutional Roles and Management Strategies
will be the only tool for conserving cichlid biodiversity in view
of the many threats facing them.
The three riparian countries currently do not have an agreed
policy for the overall management of Lake Victoria. The national
There was a decreasing trend in the Nile perch standing stocks
water resources, agriculture and livestock, and forestry
in Lake Victoria from 790,000 metric tons in August 1999 policies of all three riparian countries do not give particular
to 530,000 metric tons in September 2001, while the small
attention to the issues of lake or transboundary water resource
pelagics increased from 350,000 to 1,200,000 metric tons in
management. That function has been assigned instead to the
same period. The causes of the decline in Nile perch are over-
recently-revived East African Community (EAC) organization,
exploitation, the use of illegal fi shing gear, and environmental
representing Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda. Management
degradation from the catchment areas. Different areas of is sectoral, with little coordination among sectors. Of the
the lake exhibit different fi sh production, due to different existing sectors, fi sheries management is probably the most
nutrient levels. The proliferation of water hyacinth led to an
coordinated, partly because of its importance to the economy
increased catch of C. gariepinus, P. aethiopicus, Tilapia and
of the riparian countries, and partly because of the external
haplochromines. The weed provided refuge, breeding and assistance provided to this sector. The activity in this sector
feeding areas, and reduced fi shing activities.
was galvanized following the denial of Nile perch imports into
the European Union (EU) because of poor hygienic conditions
3.6 Summary
of
Major
Threats
in the industry. The lake-wide fi sheries management improved
primarily because of the shock all riparian countries felt
Based on the above analysis, the current major threats to Lake
when their earnings from a major export commodity were
Victoria can be summarized as follows:
threatened.
·
Population pressure, contributing to the existence of Other aspects of lake management, however, are nationally-
"hot spots" caused by human wastes, urban runoff, and
based and uncoordinated. There are no agreed baselines
effl uent discharges from such industries as breweries,
against which management actions can be judged, no common
tanning, paper and fi sh processing, sugar, coffee lake management protocol, and no common water quality or
washing stations and abattoirs;
discharge standards. Lack of transboundary water quality
standards makes it impossible to ensure remedial actions
·
Nutrient (phosphorus, nitrogen) infl ows, including taken by one government will be effective and sustainable.
atmospheric deposition, causing a fi ve-fold increase Even a uniform set of data that describes the state of the
in algae growth since the 1960s, resulting in de-
lake's water quality has not been assembled from the
oxygenation of the water that threatens the survival of
separate national data collection efforts. Thus, there is no
deep water fi sh species;
baseline against which to measure or evaluate changes in the
status of the lake's environment, or from which coordinated
management activities can be based.
Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
439
In spite of a lack of formal cooperative water quality water resources such as Lake Victoria. In many cases, the
mechanisms, when water hyacinth spread rapidly in the mid-
policies and strategies of Ministries that affect water resources
1990s to threaten much of the lakeshore, the riparian countries
within each country are not coordinated. Thus, forest clearing
communicated well to contain the outbreak, even though activities in Kenya, for example, have been undertaken in
different control mechanisms were tried in each country. many of the critical headwater areas with little regard for the
The Lake Victoria Environmental Management Programme impacts on other sectors, such as downstream agriculture and
(LVEMP), which had an aquatic weed component, contributed
fi sheries.
to this effort. The water hyacinth is believed to have entered
the lake via the Kagera River from Rwanda. Thus, unless efforts
The EAC is the main regional forum for the three riparian
to manage the weed within Rwanda are made, the lake will
countries to discuss Lake Victoria management issues. The
remain vulnerable to further infestations. Thus, water hyacinth
other regional institution dealing with management of the
control provides an example in which management efforts lake is the Lake Victoria Fisheries Organization (LVFO). The
must extend beyond the three riparian countries.
projects undertaken in the lake basin include the LVEMP, Lake
Victoria Fisheries Research Project (LVFRP), and Nile Basin
Many of the pollutants entering Lake Victoria originate in Initiative (NBI). The effective performance of these institutions
its catchments. However, catchment management activities and projects has been based on fi nancial assistance from
are nationally-based, with little harmonization between international institutions, such as the World Bank, SIDA,
countries and, in some instances, even between Ministries DANIDA, UNDP, GEF and others. The following fi ve sub-
within the same country. Thus, while Kenya and Uganda sections summarize the roles played by the above-mentioned
have comprehensive legislation covering environmental institutions and projects.
management, Tanzanian environmental and resource
legislation remains fragmented among the various sectors. 4.1.1 East African Community (EAC)
On the other hand, Kenya has introduced extensive water The East African Community (EAC) is a regional forum
resource reforms, starting with the 1999 water policy, the 2002
representing Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda. The EAC is the
Water Act, and the draft water resource management strategy.
main regional forum for discussing management issues in
Tanzania also is introducing reforms, with a new water policy
Lake Victoria. Through the EAC, the three partner states have
that includes specifi c reference to managing transboundary
designated the Lake Victoria Basin as an economic growth
Box 1. East African CommunityDonor Partnership for Development of the Lake Victoria Basin
Recognizing the vast potential for economic development existing within the Lake Victoria Basin, the three countries that
share Lake Victoria (Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda), through the East African Community (EAC), have declared the area as an
Economic Growth Zone. Strategies, and a shared vision for the lake basin, have been developed to foster economic growth
in the basin. This initiative is supported by development partners through a Partnership Agreement between EAC and the
development partners signed in 2001. The initiative lays an important foundation for a more coordinated approach to lake
management, and it is anticipated that the EAC will approve a Protocol for Sustainable Development of the Lake Victoria
Basin, establishing a Lake Victoria Basin Commission as part of that Protocol.
The objectives of the EACLake Victoria Basin Partnership include:
·
Exploiting the opportunities for development in the Lake Victoria Basin in a sustainable manner, and addressing the
present problems relating to economic and social development, poverty and environment;
·
Identifying and investigating specifi c aspects of threats and obstacles to sustainable, economic, social and
environmental development, and their underlying causes, and proposing relevant interventions;
·
Assisting in the formulation of policies to guide the various actors involved with activities relevant to sustainable
development in the region;
·
Building capacity through the development and strengthening of local institutions and organizations concerned with
these issues;
·
Promoting coordination of the development efforts undertaken by various authorities, institutions and bodies
established within EAC with an interest in supporting developments in the Lake Victoria Basin;
·
Providing a consultative forum and focal points for various actors with an interest in developments in the basin;
and,
·
Broadening cooperation between EAC, its member states and donor agencies; identifying investment opportunities
and working to create a climate conducive to investments; and mobilizing resources for the implementation of
identifi ed programs.
440 Lake
Victoria
zone that must be developed in a sustainable manner. The EAC
US$75,636,000, of which the three riparian states contributed
and the Governments of Sweden, France and Norway, and the
10% (LVEMP 2003). Specifi c LVEMP Phase I objectives were to
World Bank and the East African Development Bank (EADB)
maximize the sustainable benefi ts to the riparian communities
have joined into a long-term partnership on the promotion
from using resources within the basin to generate food,
of sustainable development of the Lake Victoria Basin. This
employment and income; to supply safe water and sustain
arrangement was formalized in 2001, through the signing of a
a disease-free environment; to conserve biodiversity and
Partnership Agreement between the EAC and its development
genetic resources for the benefi t of the riparian communities;
partners. The agreement included the need to take a multi-
to harmonize national and regional management programs in
sectoral, regional approach to the lake's management, the order to reverse environmental degradation to the maximum
need for a long-term commitment, the need for a common
extent possible; and to promote regional cooperation (see Box
understanding and vision that transcends sectoral and national
2).
approaches, and the need for subsidiary in management. The
partnership is guided by visions and strategies developed 4.1.4 Lake Victoria Fisheries Research Project (LVFRP)
as part of ongoing programs. The partnership was entered During the 1990s, the Governments of Kenya, Tanzania and
into on the recognition that the Lake Victoria Basin, with its
Uganda requested the European Union's assistance for a new
abundance of natural resources, has the potential of becoming
fi sheries project. The Lake Victoria Fisheries Research Project
a prosperous region, that a majority of the people in the basin
(LVFRP) was established in 1997, with the principal objective of
live in abject poverty, that environmental degradation in the
assisting the Lake Victoria Fisheries Organization to develop a
basin is escalating, and that the basin's economic potential
framework for the rational management of the lake's fi sheries.
cannot be sustainably developed unless the problems Specifi c objectives of the project included carrying out stock
associated with environmental degradation, deepening assessments, training fi sheries researchers, rehabilitating and
poverty and poor health standards are addressed in a broad,
constructing research vessels, equipping research institutes,
coordinated manner. This project, to be completed in 2015, will
and investigating socio-economic issues related to the lake and
lay the foundation for a more coordinated approach to lake
its fi sheries. The LVFRP provided the research institutes with
management, and it is anticipated that the EAC will approve
support needed to carry out lake-wide research covering both
a Protocol for Sustainable Development of the Lake Victoria
stock assessment and socio-economic studies. This includes
Basin, establishing a Lake Victoria Basin Commission as part
operational expenses and workshops for data analysis, 7 Ph.D.
of the Protocol (Box 1).
and 12 M.Sc. scholarships, a range of research equipment,
books, computers and vehicles, and technical assistance. The
4.1.2 Lake Victoria Fisheries Organization (LVFO)
successful formula has been the fruitful collaboration achieved
The Lake Victoria Fisheries Organization (LVFO) is an between the East African Fisheries Research institutes and a
institution of the East African Community (EAC) specifi cally
consortium from Europe, led by UNECIA Ltd., consisting of the
responsible for promoting proper management and optimum
Hull International Fisheries Institute in the United Kingdom
utilization of Lake Victoria's fi shery resources. It is mandated
and the Institute of Marine Biology of Crete in Greece. The
to forge partnerships and collaboration with institutions and
LVFRP maintained a fl eet of research vessels, which conducted
stakeholders, and consolidate the relationships with mutual
surveys of the lake's fi sh stocks. Traditionally, it has been the
arrangements, through joint delivery of complementary government who has regulated the fi shery industry; however,
programs focused on the health of Lake Victoria's ecosystem for
one of the areas LVFRP has addressed is involvement of fi shing
sustainable fi sheries resource utilization and socio-economic
communities in managing the lake's fi sheries. Fish stocks, fi sh
development of the riparian communities. Establishment of
speciation, market surveys and species abundance studies
LVFO was facilitated by the concerted efforts of the three have been undertaken through the project.
riparian countries, the Food and Agriculture Organization of
the United Nations (FAO), the European Union (EU) through the
4.1.5 Nile
Basin
Initiative
(NBI)
Lake Victoria Fisheries Research Project (LVFRP), and the World
Ten countries make up the Nile River drainage basin, namely,
Bank and the Global Environment Facility (World Bank/GEF)
Burundi, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Egypt, Eritrea,
through funding of the Lake Victoria Environment Management
Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Sudan, Tanzania and Uganda. Some
Programme (LVEMP). The Strategic Vision document prepared
of these countries only have a small part of their area within
describes the focus, intent and direction of the LVFO programs
the basin, while others are located virtually entirely within
through the year 2015. Embracing a holistic management the basin. The Nile Basin Initiative (NBI) is an initiative by
view, a healthy ecosystem approach has been adopted as the
the ten Nile Basin countries, with the aim of promoting the
fundamental concept for utilizing Lake Victoria.
development potential of the Nile River in a way that focuses
on gaining mutual benefi ts from development, rather than on
4.1.3 Lake
Victoria
Environment
Management
defending rights. The initiative is funded by several donors,
Programme (LVEMP)
including the World Bank, Norway and Sweden. The Nile
The Lake Victoria Environment Management Programme Council of Ministers (Nile-COM) serves as the NBI's highest
(LVEMP) is a Global Environmental Facility (GEF)-funded decision-making body. The Nile-COM is made up by ministers
project. Phase I of LVEMP was completed in 2004, and Phase
of water affairs of the Nile Basin Riparian Countries. Technical
II is under preparation. The total funding for Phase I was support is provided by the Nile Basin Initiative Technical
Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
441
Advisory Committee (Nile-TAC), with the execution of its The Nile Equatorial Lakes Subsidiary Action Plan (NELSAP)
decisions by the Nile Basin Initiative Secretariat (Nile-SEC).
is a component of the NBI, concerned with transboundary
development in the Nile Equatorial Lakes countries (Burundi,
Box 2. Lake Victoria Environment Management Programme (LVEMP), Phase I
In response to the seriousness and magnitude of the problems facing Lake Victoria, the three riparian countries sought
funding from the Global Environmental Facility (GEF) to address Lake Victoria's ecosystem health. LVEMP Phase I was
completed in 2004, and Phase II is currently in preparation. The fundamental objective of LVEMP is to restore the ecological
health of the lake basin so that it can sustainably support the anthropogenic activities in the catchment, and in the lake
itself, in a holistic regional approach to the management of an ecosystem.
The specifi c objectives of LVEMP Phase I were:
·
To maximize the sustainable benefi ts to the riparian communities from using resources within the basin to generate
food, employment and income;
·
To supply safe water and sustain a disease-free environment;
·
To conserve biodiversity and genetic resources for the benefi t of the riparian communities;
·
To harmonize national and regional management programs, in order to reverse environmental degradation to the
maximum extent possible; and,
·
To promote regional co-operation.
The project had the following 11 components:
1.
Catchment Afforestation Component aimed at increasing forest cover through tree planting and preventing soil
erosion, as well as conservation of natural forests;
2.
Land use Management Component emphasized soil and water conservation, and appropriate use of agrochemicals,
to reduce pollution loading and improve agricultural production;
3.
Wetlands Management Component emphasized sustainable use of wetlands in order to conserve them, as well as to
improve their buffering capacity;
4.
Industrial and Municipal Waste Management Component emphasized wastewater management by industries, as well
as use of artifi cial or natural wastewater treatment;
5.
Water Quality Monitoring Component focused on the establishment of a water quality monitoring system in order
to provide qualitative and quantitative information on nutrient, eutrophication and pollution, phytoplankton
communities and their composition, algal blooms and their dynamics, lake zooplankton, microbes, etc.;
6.
Water Hyacinth Control and Management Component focused on controlling the weed by reducing it to manageable
levels, using a combination of biological and mechanical/manual removal methods;
7.
Fisheries Management Component focused on the establishment of a sustainable collaborative management of the
fi sheries through stakeholder involvement. The component also emphasizes extension services, law enforcement,
data collection, fi sh quality control, post harvest improvement and establishment of Fish Levy Trust to ensure
sustainability. It also fi nances community demand driven micro-projects to enhance the community's welfare;
8.
Fisheries Research Component focused on information on fi sh biology and ecology, stock sizes, qualitative and
quantitative information on aquatic biodiversity, socio-economic characteristics of the fi shery, and restoration of
scarce or depleted species;
9.
Micro-projects are small community demand-driven investments, which addressed concerns directly related to
communities in the sectors of health, water supply, education, sanitation, access roads, afforestation and fi sheries;
10.
Support to Riparian Universities Component aimed at building capacity and strengthening facilities for environmental
analysis and graduate teaching at the riparian Universities of Dar es Salaam, Moi and Makerere; and,
11.
Establishment of the Lake Victoria Fisheries Organization (LVFO) Secretariat aimed at establishing the LVFO
Secretariat in Jinja, Uganda. It was treated as a component under LVEMP in Uganda.
Source: LVEMP
(2003).
442 Lake
Victoria
Democratic Republic of Congo, Egypt, Kenya, Rwanda, Sudan,
4.3 Community
Involvement
Tanzania, and Uganda). Eight projects have been identifi ed
for investment in the NELSAP region, including 3 basin Community-level involvement in management is most
management projects for managing river basins fl owing into
advanced in the fi sheries sector. As a result of the LVFRP
Lake Victoria, water hyacinth control in the Kagera River, and
and LVEMP, beach management units have been established
a regional agricultural project, all with direct implications for
in all riparian countries, to provide local ownership for
Lake Victoria's management. The NELSAP presently is executed
enforcing fi sheries rules to avoid over-exploitation of the
by a small management unit located in Entebbe, Uganda, that
fi sh stock. Legislation is being prepared to support their
has links with other regional projects, but is independent of
activities in each country. Fishing communities also have been
them.
successfully engaged in raising and releasing the beetles for
water hyacinth control. Both activities highlight the power of
4.2 Technical
Capacities
community-level initiatives when the outcomes clearly directly
affect the livelihoods of those communities. However, this
There are good technical/scientifi c capabilities for fi sheries
level of involvement has not been achieved with catchment
management in all three countries, partly because of the communities to reduce the sediment and nutrient loads
support provided from the LVEMP and LVFRP projects. All three
reaching the lake from surface sources.
riparian countries have fi sheries research institutions with
good analytic capabilities, refurbished boats, and well-trained
The East African Communities Organisation for the
staff. Although the institutions focus on fi sheries research, Management of Lake Victoria (ECOVIC) is one of the most
they also undertake relevant water quality research in the prominent non-governmental organizations (NGO) in the
lake.
Lake Victoria region, primarily focusing on poverty and
environmental issues. There is a very large number of Civil
Apart from this research and development capacity, the three
Society Organizations (CSOs) and NGOs active in the region,
countries have invested in laboratories for quality control of
although not necessarily involved directly in lake management
fi sh exports, as part of their continued entry to the EU market.
issues. It is estimated that about 40 NGOs in the lake region
In addition, a strong informal network has been established
are concerned with environmental issues. There has been
between the fi sheries researchers that will provide a basis a high level of community involvement in the design of
for future cooperation on technical issues. These technical donor-funded activities, such as the LVEMP, LVFO and EAC
capabilities remain one of the strengths for management of
Visioning exercises. It is less clear, however, whether or not
Lake Victoria. However, the infrastructure for fi sheries and these local groups are involved in the on-going management
water quality research is expensive, with the continuation of
of these projects or other national investments, and there
these capabilities dependent on further external investments.
appears to be no development of a long-term mechanism for
community-level involvement in lake basin management after
The technical/scientifi c capacity available for catchment these transient donor-supported investments are completed.
management is less coordinated than the fi sheries research.
The proposed Lake Victoria Basin Commission provides an
Universities in each of the countries provide the main technical
important vehicle for this input.
capacity in this area, although analytical capabilities also are
available in the various government ministries concerned with
5. Lessons
Learned
land and agricultural management. However, these capabilities
are not coordinated towards management of catchment Based on this review of the management situation of Lake
activities that impact the lake.
Victoria, several lessons can be drawn, which provide a useful
guide for the current and future management of the lake and
The various Lake Victoria projects have produced much new
its drainage basin.
knowledge about the functioning of the lake. Important issues
remaining to be resolved include the full taxonomy of the lake
An agreed vision is essential. The present management of the
fi sh, the sources of the atmospheric nutrient loads, and the
lake is fragmented between sectors and nations. Thus, critical
extent of internal nutrient loading. However, there is now a
choices--whether to manage for biodiversity or commercial
suffi cient knowledge base for informed lake management, fi sh catch, or how to allocate fi sh catches between countries--
particularly for the fi sheries sector. However, the mass of are made by default or not at all. Deliberate management to
information from the projects has yet to be assembled into
achieve the development of the lake for the benefi t of all will
management-friendly and community-friendly packages not happen until there is an agreed vision, common goals, and
that clearly convey the options available for other aspects of
accepted objectives, policies and national and transboundary
lake management. The benefi ts from these major investment
action plans. The fi rst steps of this process are now underway
programs will not be realized until this is done.
through the EAC's Vision exercise.
Lake management policies and action plans must be
consistent with national activities. Most of the actions
emerging from a lake-wide management policy must be
Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
443
implemented by the riparian and catchment governments. established. Thus, some of the R&D activities have not been
Thus, the national water resources, agricultural, forestry, of direct relevance and, more importantly, some management-
poverty alleviation policies of all riparian and catchment critical knowledge is yet to be acquired. A related issue is
governments must include specifi c components leading to the packaging of the knowledge gained in a management-
the required actions called for in the lake management policy.
and community-friendly way. Unless the R&D fi ndings are
In turn, establishment of the lake management policy must
simplifi ed and carefully related to the management objectives,
include consideration of the existing policies and strategies of
their relevance will evade senior decision-makers lacking
the riparian and catchment countries.
scientifi c training.
When a problem is catchment-wide, it is essential that all
Phase II of the LVEMP project is now under preparation and
countries in the catchment are involved in its management.
the second phase of the LVFRP is in place. The latter program
Some of the management issues are essentially in-lake will continue to support efforts to manage the lake's fi shery
(e.g., loss of biodiversity) and so can be managed by the resources, while the LVEMP Phase II will coordinate with
three riparian nations currently constituting the East African
these activities and tackle other management issues. Given
Community (EAC). Other issues (e.g., management of water
the above analysis, LVEMP Phase II can now cease to be
hyacinth, sediment control) are unlikely to be properly primarily a knowledge-acquisition project, and move toward
managed without the active involvement of all nations in the
supporting management of biodiversity, water weeds and
watershed. Thus, it is important that Rwanda (and to a lesser
eutrophication. Thus, Phase II can be directed toward such
extent Burundi) work actively with the EAC in managing the
activities as protecting endangered fi sh species in satellite
lake and its watershed, whether or not they actually join the
lakes, supporting the EAC management initiatives by building
EAC.
capacity in transboundary environmental management,
supporting joint Rwandan-EAC activities to control aquatic
In the absence of strong external motivations, it is important
weeds in the Kagera River, and reducing eutrophication by
to build a strong logical case for government action. The tackling the nutrient sources once they have been identifi ed.
advances in lake-wide fi sheries management occurred However, it also should include a focused, priority R&D
because of the shock all the riparian countries felt when their
component aimed at resolving some of the major management
earnings from a major export commodity were threatened. questions (e.g., the sources of atmospheric phosphorus
However, the riparian countries have not experienced the entering the lake; the potential for sediment nutrients to
same level of pressure to resolve the other major problems
continue to contribute to eutrophication even after external
facing the lake--loss of biodiversity, infestation by aquatic sources are controlled; the presence of cyanobacterial toxins
weeds, and eutrophication--and so have been slower to act.
in the lake; and opportunities to protect fi sh biodiversity in
Nevertheless, the inclusion of joint lake management in the
surrounding lakes and wetlands).
EAC program, and the subsequent development of a common
vision for the lake, are very positive steps. Given that the The EAC, identifi ed by the riparian countries to manage
other issues are not likely to catch the governments' attention
the lake, is the obvious organization to oversee further
because of the threat of economic losses, it is important that a
transboundary lake management programs. The Lake Victoria
credible scientifi c and social case be developed to ensure the
Fisheries Organization already has been transferred to the
EAC initiatives are properly mandated, funded and supported
EAC. It would be reasonable for the LVEMP Phase II also to be
from the highest political levels.
executed by the EAC to ensure coordination and focus. The Nile
Basin Initiative spans a much larger area than just the Lake
Communities must be involved in all aspects of management.
Victoria catchment. Nevertheless, implementation of the Nile
There are heartening success stories where communities Equatorial Lakes Subsidiary Action Plan program should be
have been involved in on-ground activities affecting their closely coordinated with EAC, to ensure its activities contribute
livelihoods. An outstanding example is the involvement of local
effectively towards the agreed vision for managing the lake.
fi sher communities in rearing and distributing weevils for the
biological control of water hyacinth. However, there are issues,
6. Acknowledgements
such as nutrient reduction, where the problem originates from
diffuse sources that are impossible to tackle other than through
This report benefi ted greatly from contributions by Oyugi
community engagement. Thus far, there has not been the same
Aseto, Fred Bugenyi, James Richard Davis, Kisa Mfalila, Victor
level of success with community involvement in these areas.
Muhandiki, Micheni Ntiba and Obiero Ong'ang'a.
As part of this action, community-level representation will be
needed on the ongoing lake management body.
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