Lake Tanganyika
Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
Sven Erik Jorgensen*, Royal Danish University of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Copenhagen, Denmark, sej@dfuni.dk
Gaspard Ntakimazi, University of Burundi, Bujumbura, Burundi
Sixtus Kayombo, Dar es Salaam University, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
* Corresponding author
1. Introduction
Lake Tanganyika has the
largest volume of the three
African Great Rift Valley lakes.
It also is the second deepest,
and the second largest lake
in the world by volume,
containing almost 19,000 km3
of water--only Lake Baikal is
larger. The lake contains almost
as much freshwater as the fi ve
North American Great Lakes
combined. It contains a volume
of water seven times more than
that of Lake Victoria, which is
the largest lake by area in Africa.
It has a length of more than 670
km and an average width of 48
km. The length of the shoreline
is about 1,900 km, of which
43% is rocky, 21% is mixed rock
and sand, 31% is sand, and 10%
is marshes. Figure 1 depicts the
lake and its basin.
2. Background
The main economic activity
of the 10 million people
living in the lake's drainage
basin is agriculture. The
main agricultural products
include maize, tobacco, rice,
sugarcane, coffee, beans,
groundnuts, cassava, cattle
and goats. The socio-economic
statistics for the riparian
nations of Lake Tanganyika
are given in Table 1. Tanzania,
Burundi, Zambia and the
Democratic Republic of Congo
(DR Congo) all have low levels
Figure 1. The Lake Tanganyika Basin.
of economic development,
with gross national incomes

---

(GNIs) per capital respectively of US$250, 140, 320 and 110.
In recent years, Lake Tanganyika, like many other biologically
However dependence on the lake varies signifi cantly between
sensitive areas, has begun to feel the environmental and socio-
the riparian countries. Agriculture, livestock raising and the
economic effects of increased population pressures. Fishing
processing of these products, as well as mining, are the main
practices, for example, have become much more effi cient and,
industries in the drainage basin of Lake Tanganyika.
consequently, more destructive. For example, commercial
fi shing, began in the mid-1950s, has had an extremely heavy
The lake has a crucial travel and trading role in regard to the
impact of the fi sh stocks and the majority of fi sh species.
neighboring countries of Tanzania, Burundi, DR Congo, and
Zambia. Bujumbura, Kigoma and Mpulungu serve as shipping
The fi sheries of Lake Tanganyika are by far the most important
centers for commercial trade between the riparian countries.
source of animal protein for human consumption in this region
Ship lines connect Kigoma (Tanzania), Kalemie (DR Congo) and
of Central Africa. Lake Tanganyika has traditionally supplied
other coastal towns as an essential part of the inland traffi c
between 25-40% of the protein needs of the local population
system of East Africa.
in the four riparian countries. About 45,000 people are directly
involved in the lake fi sheries, operating from almost 800
Although landlocked, Zambia has water resorts on the shores
sites. The main fi shery product, the "Tanganyika sardine"
of Lake Tanganyika in the north part of the country. The (Stolothrissa tanganikae, Herring family), also is very important
Nsumbu National Park provides world-class game fi shing.
for the local economy. It constitutes 55-90% of the commercial
Goliath Tiger fi sh of over 35 kg and giant catfi sh of over 50
fi shery and 80-99% of the traditional artisinal fi shery (Rufl i
kg have been caught at the three lodges; namely, Kasaba Bay,
2001). A major increase in the number of fi shermen has been
Nkamba Bay Beach and Ndole Bay. The lake also serves as a
observed throughout large parts of the lakeshore. Many
base for boating expeditions. In February or March of every
people are now exploiting the more accessible coastal waters,
year, a national fi shing competition attended by fi sherman
which are richest in fi sh biodiversity and the nursery for most
from around the world is held at Kasaba Bay.
of the pelagic fi sh.
Tanzania earns some income generated from tourist activities
In spite of the need for maintenance of sustainable fi sheries
at Mahale Mountain and Gombe Stream National Parks. The
essential for the livelihoods of riparian populations, traditional
park's forested mountain slopes, which help defi ne the Great
approaches to enforcement have had little success, often
Rift Valley, are home to chimpanzees, which are accustomed
being constrained by limited resources. Ornamental fi shery is a
to humans and, therefore, somewhat approachable. Mahale
particularly serious problem because it is a major threat to the
is rich in plant species that have a major infl uence on the life
lake's biodiversity. Reasonable management of this exportable
of chimpanzees, which utilize 328 food items from 198 plant
resource could provide sustainable economic benefi ts.
species. Some of these plants are used by chimpanzees as
medicine and appetizers.
The most damaging threat to the lake's biodiversity, however,
appears to be an increased rate of sediment infl ux, especially
Burundi's capital, Bujumbura, with a population of 400,000, is
from the heavily-impacted smaller watersheds of northern
the largest city at the northeastern end of Lake Tanganyika, and
Lake Tanganyika, where large-scale deforestation and
hosts many tourist hotels. The Rusizi Delta National Reserve,
farming practices have caused a dramatic increase in the soil
the "Musee Vivant" in Bujumbura and Reptile Park are some
erosion rates. It is noted that Lake Tanganyika is a source of
of the interesting places to be seen. Uvira and Kalemie in DR
fi sh, a means of transportation, a water supply for drinking
Congo also provide tourist attractions.
and washing, and a receptacle for effl uents. Unfortunately,
however, traditional attitudes and responses to land and water
Table 1. Socio-economic Statistics for Lake Tanganyika's Riparian Nations.
Item
Burundi
DR Congo
Tanzania
Zambia
Population growth rate (%)
2.0
3.2
2.4
2.2
Population density (persons/km2)
250
21
36
13
Adult literacy (%)
46
59
74
76
Per capita GNP (US$)
120
110
240
320
School enrolment (% of school age population)
51
78
67
89
Life expectancy (yr)
42
51
47
43
Percent of population without access to:
Safe water
48
32
34
62
Health service
20
NA
7
25
Sanitation
49
NA
14
29
Source:
Adapted from Odada et al. (2004).
364 Lake
Tanganyika

---

resource management, as well as waste disposal practices, are
transportation route, among other uses. It is bordered by four
no longer sustainable because they cannot keep pace with the
national parks or nature reserves, as follows:
rapid increase in the human population density.
·
Rusizi River Nature Reserve (Burundi);
Pollution will inevitably lead to increased threats to human
health associated directly with declining water quality. ·
Gombe River National Park (Tanzania);
In addition, the associated loss of the lake's fi shery, the
traditional protein source, will increase the vulnerability of ·
Mahale Mountains National Park (Tanzania); and,
the people living in the region. The population of the region is
expected to grow annually by an average of 2-3% over the next
·
Nsumbu National Park (Zambia)
twenty years. This will inevitably increase the pressures on
the aquatic environment, by increasing the fi shery and water
The lake could serve as an example for managing lakes in
demands, as well as higher land development pressures, with
other developing countries. Because prevention is much more
increased erosion from farms causing more sediment transport
cost effective than abatement, it is important to establish
to the lake.
a management plan at this stage to maintain the lake in an
oligotrophic state. Its residence time is 440 years, which
3. Biophysical
Environment
implies that, if the lake's water quality deteriorates it will take
a very long time for the lake to recover. Many rivers enter the
3.1 The
Ecosystem
lake, but only the Lukuga River fl ows out. The lake volume is
18,880 km3, giving the lake an enormous buffer capacity, but
Some basic information about the lake is summarized in also making it extremely diffi cult for the lake to recover if it is
Table 2. As shown in Figure 1, major towns around the lake
polluted. Thus, it is of utmost importance to prevent pollution
include Bujumbura (Burundi), Uvira and Kalemie (DR Congo),
and general over-exploitation of the lake in the fi rst place.
Mpulungu (Zambia) and Kigoma (Tanzania). Lake Tanganyika
is located between latitude 3°20' and 8°48' S and between
Fortunately, the lake has received relatively less human
longitude 29°03' and 31°12' E. The lake is estimated to impact than many other African lakes, including Lake Victoria.
be about 12 million years old and is of tectonic origin. The
However, the drainage basin population of 10 million is
maximum depth is in the southern part of the lake, while growing very rapidly (about 2.5% per annum), and the
almost the same depth (1,250 m) is found in the north central
anthropogenic impact on the lake's water quality is expected
part of the lake.
to increase in the coming years. On a lake-wide basis, the lake
is still not polluted; is in an oligotrophic state, and has not yet
The four riparian countries that share the lake, in terms of
suffered from eutrophication. The chlorophyll-a concentration
surface area, are Burundi (8%), DR Congo (45%), Tanzania in the southern lake is approximately 1 µg/L, while it is about 2
(41%), and Zambia (6%). The lake is an important source of
µg/L in the northern lake, and even about 5 µg/L in the central
drinking and domestic water source, as well as an international
lake. The concentration of reactive inorganic nitrogen (mainly
nitrate) is 50-90 µg/L, and the reactive inorganic phosphorus
concentration is 5-10 µg/L.
Table 2. Basic Information about Lake Tanganika and its
Drainage Basin.
Limited, but very sensitive, areas (Bujumbura Bay in Burundi;
Kigoma Bay in Tanzania), currently show evidence of
Riparian countries
Burundi, Congo, Tanzania
and Zambia
unfavorable water quality changes, due mainly to urban and
industrial runoff. It is a high priority that these places remain
Altitude (surface)
773 m
unpolluted, since drinking water for more than 400,000 people
Surface area
32,600 km2
in Bujumbura and 80,000 in Kigoma is withdrawn from the
Volume
18,880 km3
lake. It would be a major catastrophe if the lake, for one reason
or another, became unsuitable as a drinking water source, and
Maximum depth
1,470 m
its fi sh unfi t for human consumption.
Average depth
570 m
Residence time
440 years
The primary production derived from chlorophyll estimates in
Drainage area
223,000 km2
1995 is on the order of 0.80-0.86 g C m-2 d-1 in April to May, and
more than three times as much in October to November (2.8
Population in drainage area
10 million
g C m-2 d-1); with an annual production of 662 g C m-2 a-1. The
Population density in
45/km2
same estimates obtained from radiocarbon measurements
drainage area
indicate an overall average for the whole lake of 1.2 g C m-2
Length of lake
670 km
d-1, or 426 g C m-2 a-1. The annual production of herbivorous
Length of shoreline
1,900 km
copepods (secondary production) is estimated to be 23 g C m-2
pH
8.6-9.2
a-1 (Sarvala et al. 1999).
Source:
Adapted from Odada et al. (2004).

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
365

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The lake contains around 500 endemic species out of the total
between 1.4-2.5 m/s from 1964 and 1979, and between 0.5-1.5
of 2,156 species (Coulter et al. 1991). The number of species
m/s between 1986 and 1990 (Plisnier 1997).
inhabiting the lake is 325 fi sh, 759 algae, 81 aquatic plants,
219 crustaceans, and 171 birds. This includes about 200 These climatic changes seem to have caused an increase of
species of cichlids. The lake has 8 species of crab, 15 species of
surface water temperature of 0.40°C during the dry season,
shrimp and about 60 species of snails. Although the lake has
and 0.28°C during the wet season near Bujumbura, a greater
a uniquely high biodiversity, it is endangered. As previously
stratifi cation (upwelling becoming rarer, even in the south), a
noted, the lake is important for its fi shery (commercial, shallower thermocline and oxygenated water layer, a decrease
subsistence and ornamental fi shing). The estimated fi sh
in water transparency, and a higher surface primary production
harvest in Lake Tanganyika is 165,000-200,000 tons/year and zooplankton development in the north, compared to the
(Mölsä et al. 1999), comprising a primary protein source.
south. These limnological changes in the lake (mainly lower
water mixing and transparency) seem to have a negative impact
The lake's ecosystem is sensitive to climatic conditions. There
on the catchability of Lates stappersii (a visual predator) in the
are two main weather seasons. The wet season, usually north, and Clupeids abundance in the south (Plisnier 1997).
from September to May, is characterized by high humidity,
considerable precipitation and frequent thunderstorms. In the south of Lake Tanganyika, it has always been observed
Heating of the lake takes place mainly during the beginning of
that the dry and windy season was a period of increased
this season (i.e., from September to November). As a result,
clupeid abundance, probably related to an increase in
thermal stratifi cation establishes all over the lake, with the
phytoplankton during the upwelling period. In the last 10 to
temperature difference between the surface and bottom water
15 years, climatic changes have probably reduced upwelling
layers within 4°C. The dry season from May to August has dry
in the south, resulting in a decrease in turbulence and wave
weather and strong southern and southeastern winds. The lake
amplitude for the whole lake, which would cause the lake to be
loses heat by evaporation caused by strong winds. The cooling
less dynamic (Plisnier 1997).
is strongest in the southern basin, from May to September
(Coulter et al. 1991).
Clupeids distribution patterns also may have changed,
probably due to a reduced migratory behavior. The very low
Southeastern winds drive warm epilimnion surface water level of Stolothrissa tanganicae catches in the south over
towards the north end of the lake, while water fl ows south as a
the last decades suggests there could be a change in their
deep current, causing upwelling along the southern coast. This
distribution pattern, related to environmental conditions.
results in a tilting of the epilimnion (Lewis 1995). Thermocline
Climatic changes probably affect other aspects of the ecology
depths at Bujumbura and Kigoma were 74-83 m in the dry
of the lake and its drainage area as well. According to Verburg
season of 1993, while the epilimnion in the south end was
et al. (2003), there is no doubt that the climatic changes play a
reduced in May and disappeared in June during the upwelling
major role in the lake dynamics.
(Lewis 1995). The productivity of the lake is highly dependent
on these hydrodynamic states and climatic conditions, 3.2
Threats to the Ecosystem
particularly wind and temperature. As mentioned above, the
monsoon wind from the southeast causes the accumulation of
There have been a number of studies of the lake over the
water in the epilimnion, thereby deepening the thermocline in
last 15 years (Odada et al. 2004) which have provided a good
the north, while deep, rich waters upwell in the southern end
understanding of its chemistry, hydrology and ecology. These
(Plisnier and Coenen 2001).
studies include the following:
After the dry season, when the wind force weakens, ·
Lake Tanganyika Research (LTR) Project "Research for
oscillations of the metalimnion form waves. These waves
the Management of the Fisheries on Lake Tanganyika"
infl uence the thermocline depth. Consequently, a regular
(GCP/RAF/271/FIN);
pulse of production is induced when the deep eutrophic
waters are able to reach the biotic and euphotic zone, where
·
Pollution Control and Other Measures to Protect
photosynthesis takes place. Thermocline depth rises and falls
Biodiversity in Lake Tanganyika (LTBP) UNDP/GEF RAF/
several times over course of a the year. When the thermocline
92/G32;
is deep, the production is high (i.e., the production pulses
follow the rhythm of the thermocline). The water transparency
·
Limnologic and Paleolimnologic Investigations of Lake
follows a similar, fl uctuating pattern. There is no oxygen in the
Tanganyika by University of Arizona researchers;
water below 100-200 m (Coulter et al. 1991).
·
Global Warming is Choking the Life Out of Lake
An increase in air temperature has been noted at stations
Tanganyika by Steve Connor;
around Lake Tanganyika since the 1960s (a mean increase of
about 0.7°C in the north and 0.9°C in the south). During the
·
Nyanza Project by National Science Foundation (NSF)--
same period, the wind speed over the lake seems to have
A project for Research Experience for Undergraduates
decreased; the yearly mean speeds at Bujumbura fl uctuated
366 Lake
Tanganyika

---

(REU) funded by the NSF Paleoclimate Program,
northern drainage area, and around 50% of the central
University of Arizona;
areas, have been cleared of their natural vegetation,
leading to increased erosion. The Malagarasi and Rusizi
·
CLIMLAKE--Climate variability and ecological dynamics
Rivers provide a major share of the infl owing waters
in Lake Tanganyika--DWTC-project IGBP/PAGE, IDEAL;
to the lake, also contributing most of the suspended
solids load to the lake. Siltation is the most damaging
·
Recent ENSO and paleo-ENSO events during the last
threat to the lake's biodiversity, especially siltation from
1000 years in Lake Tanganyika--DWTC-Duurzame
the heavily-impacted smaller watersheds of northern
Ontwikkeling; and,
Lake Tanganyika, where large-scale deforestation and
farming practices have led to a dramatic increase in soil
·
UNDP/GEF/UNOPS Lake Tanganyika Management
erosion rates. The freshly eroded sediments entering the
Planning Project (LTMP).
lake adversely affect its biodiversity, not only because
of decreasing species habitat, but also because of
Based on these studies, the following are identifi ed as the
effi ciently complexing certain essential nutrients/trace
main threats facing Lake Tanganyika.
elements.
1.
Over-exploitation of the biological resources because
3.
Untreated wastewater discharges, including industrial
of very high fi shing pressure and the use of destructive
and domestic wastewater from large cities such as
methods, reducing the fi shery potential and the unique
Bujumbura in Burundi, Kigoma in Tanzania, Uvira and
biodiversity. Annual recorded fi sh catches on Lake
Kalemie in Congo, and Mpulungu in Zambia. These
Tanganyika have shown an upward trend since 1970s,
waters might contain nutrients, organic matters, heavy
standing today at about 200,000 tons. Recent estimates
metals (mercury, chromium), pesticides, ash residues as
per country indicate a yield of about 21,000 tons for
cement, and fuel from ports, harbors, shipping places
Burundi in 1992 (94.5 kg/ha/yr), 55,000 tons during
and boats, etc.
1994-95 for Tanzania (60 kg/ha/yr), 12,900 tons for
Zambia (69 kg/ha/yr), and 90,000 tons in the DR Congo
4.
Agricultural runoff, particularly via the Malagarasi
(34 kg/ha/yr). These estimates translate into an average
and Rusizi Rivers. The agricultural expansion in the
catch range between 54-66 kg/ha/yr for the whole lake
region could be accompanied by an increased use of
(Lindqvist et al. 1999). Thus, the actual catches are much
agrochemicals.
higher for Burundi and Zambia than elsewhere, while
for the Tanzania and DR Congo waters, representing 5.
Increased population, urbanization and
86% of the total lake, the fi gures are much lower. Such
industrialization. The annual population growth
differences probably refl ect greater fi shing intensity in
rate of most countries in the region is 2.5-3.1%. This
the northern and southern parts of the lake, rather than
progressive increase in population pressure (this
the actual lake productivity. The observed fi sh yields in
region has one of the world's greatest rural population
Burundi (94.5 and 111.5 kg/ha/yr, respectively in 1992
densities) has forced a change in land use from pristine
and 1995) are close to the potential yield of 100 kg/ha
tropical forests, to small agricultural plots located on
estimated by Coulter (1977). This means that, on a lake-
steep, denuded slopes bordering the lake. As a result,
wide scale, Lake Tanganyika is probably under-fi shed,
accelerated erosion rates supply streams and rivers
but that the fi shery pressures are very high in the north
with an increased suspended particulate load, which
and the south. Evidence of over-fi shing in Burundian and
is deposited as fi ne-grained silts and clays in the lake's
Zambian waters is suggested in that the trend of catch
rocky deltas. Record sediment accumulation rates in
per unit effort (CPUE) for industrial units (purse seiners)
highly impacted river systems can reach up to 100 cm/yr.
has been declining. Nightly CPUE for commercial units in
Unfortunately, traditional attitudes and responses to
Burundi decreased from 166 kg in 1994 to 111 kg in 1996;
land and water resource management, as well as waste
in Mpulungu, it dropped from 877 kg in 1994 to 535 kg
disposal practices, are no longer sustainable because
in 1996. The decline in catchable stocks of L. stappersii
they cannot keep pace with the rapid increase in human
around the vicinity of Mpulungu is not compensated,
population density.
even with an increased duration of fi shing trips. In the
northern end of the lake, commercial units have stopped
6.
Increased tourism that will cause increased impacts
their activity; L. stappersii now make up only around
on the lake, if not properly planned. Some are of the
20% of the commercial catch, with juveniles accounting
opinion, however, that the local infrastructure is not yet
for most of this contribution.
on a level that would allow mass tourism.
2.
Siltation, due to erosion in the drainage area as a result
7.
Recent studies indicate that global climate change is
of increased deforestation. The topsoil is transported to
causing impacts to the lake.
the lake, where it joins fertilizers and pesticides washed
from the lake's drainage area. An astounding 100% of the

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
367

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Of the two fi rst threats noted above, over-exploitation is ·
A wastewater treatment plant has been installed, with
thought to be the most acute for short-term fi shery potential,
World Bank funding, to treat about 40% of the urban
while siltation is the most detrimental factor affecting the
and industrial wastewaters from Bujumbura. The
lake's biodiversity and long-term resource potential.
treatment plant is under the responsibility of the city of
Bujumbura, but has yet to function properly.
4. Management
Environment
·
The Ministry of Health has interest in wastewater
Management implementation arrangements for Lake
disposal and sanitation problems in inhabited zones,
Tanganyika are complex because its drainage basin comprises
but has no special interest in the lake.
four riparian countries. Thus, any approach to improve the
understanding and subsequent management of the lake ·
INECN also has the national responsibility for
must have an international and regional perspective. The
biodiversity, although its conservation activities
main problems to be addressed include lack of resources
concentrate on national parks and reserves; no offi cial
for the involved institutions; poor enforcement of existing
Reserve or National Park has been established in the
regulations; lack of appropriate regulations for the lake; and
lake's waters.
lack of institutional coordination.
·
In regard to biodiversity, some studies have been done
4.1 National
Institutions
at the University of Burundi through short projects and
student studies. Most focus on fi sh population structure
It would be expected that the national institutions involved in
and biodiversity evaluation in different lake habitats.
Lake Tanganyika management efforts have the capability to
act in matters of biological stock management, biodiversity
·
No national institution has the responsibility to monitor
conservation, water quality and pollution control, decreasing
or control sediment transportation to the lake. The
sediment transport to the lake, etc., and in a harmonized way
exact impacts of sediment on the lake's biodiversity
with the other riparian countries. A common feature, however,
and water quality is still to be established. The Ministry
is that each government at least has agencies responsible for
of Agriculture only concentrates on controlling erosion
fi sheries, with local offi ces at or near the lake, even though
on cultivated land, while the Ministry of Public Works
the involvement in other aspects of lake management at the
concentrates on controlling erosion and land slides
national level is not highly developed.
along roads. Action to decrease sediment transportation
to the lake should be under the technical services in
There are a large number of local and international NGOs in the
these two ministries.
four riparian countries, although most of them do not have the
necessary resources for action.
4.1.2 Democratic Republic of Congo
·
DR Congo's Ministry of Scientifi c Research has a Natural
4.1.1 Burundi
Sciences Research Centre (CRSN) at Uvira.
Bujumbura, the capital city of Burundi, located on the shores
of the lake, depends on it both as a source of drinking water
·
The Centre d'Actions et de Développement et
and as a receptacle of wastewater. Increased population
d'Initiatives Communautaires (CADIC), a local NGO
and poor agriculture practices in the catchment accelerate
in South Kivu Province, is involved in community
erosion and sediment transport to the lake. Unfortunately, the
development, including fi sheries-related activities.
activities of national institutions involved in lake management
are not harmonized.
4.1.3 Tanzania
·
The National Environmental Management Council
·
Fisheries management and associated activities are
(NECM), under the President's Offi ce, has the mandate
under the responsibility of the Department of Water,
for all environmental matters. The UNDP/GEF LTBP
Fish Culture and Fisheries, in the Ministry of Agriculture
project was coordinated by this institution.
and Livestock. This institution has few resources to
implement regulations prepared through the support of
·
Tanzania's Ministry of Scientifi c Research includes the
different FAO projects since the 1960s, as well as from
Tanzanian Fisheries Research Institute (TAFIRI), with a
other donors.
regional offi ce at Kigoma. The FAO/FNNIDA LTR project
was coordinated by this institution.
·
Water quality monitoring and pollution control are
under the responsibility of the National Institute of ·
Tanzania National Parks (TANAPA) is responsible for
Environment and Nature Conservation (INECN), in
management and tourism in important Parks bordering
the Ministry of Land Management and Environment.
Lake Tanganyika; Gombe Stream National Park and
However, it does not have an equipped laboratory and
Mahale Mountain National Park.
other resources for performing its tasks.
368 Lake
Tanganyika

---

·
Tanganyika Catchment Reforestation (TACARE), a local
Analysis (TDA), a Strategic Action Program (SAP) and a
NGO, focuses on women's development, especially Convention for the Management of the Lake between the four
community development training focusing on improving
riparian countries.
the standard of living in the region of Lake Tanganyika,
while also promoting reforestation, curbing soil erosion,
Other initiatives were limited geographically, focused on
and delivering conservation education to the local limnology, biodiversity and fi sh ecology, and did not have a
population.
management component. Those applicable for the northern
part of the lake include:
4.1.4 Zambia
·
The Zambian Ministry of Agriculture has a Department of
·
UNESCO/MAB/DANIDA Ecotones Project at University
Fishery (DOF), with a provincial fi shery offi ce at Mbala.
of Burundi (1991-1994);
The FAO/FNNIDA LTR project was coordinated by this
institution.
·
Centre Régional de Recherches en Hydrobiologie
Appliquée (1992-1995), sponsored by Belgian
·
Environmental Council of Zambia (ECZ), under the
Government aid to Burundi and DR Congo; and,
President's Offi ce, has the mandate for all environmental
matters. The UNDP/GEF LTBP project was coordinated
·
Ecological and Limnological Studies on Lake Tanganyika
by this institution.
and its Adjacent Regions (1985 ­1995) by Japanese
research teams in localized places around the lake,
4.2 Regional
Mechanisms
sponsored by the Japanese Government.
Since the 1960s, lake management coordinated at the The outputs of these local projects was incorporated in LTBP's
regional level has been concerned only with fi sheries, through
literature data, especially for biodiversity evaluations of the
FAO projects working at national levels and coordinated lake.
periodically by the FAO Committee for Inland Fisheries
for Africa (CIFA). The latter has had a Sub-Committee for 4.2.1 LTR's Framework Fisheries Management Plan
Lake Tanganyika since the 1970s. Issues such as fi sh stock
(FFMP)
management, fi shing regulations, fi sheries statistics and (Note: This section draws heavily on FAO (1999).)
information, post-harvest processing and fi sh marketing, etc.,
have been discussed nationally and regionally in those FAO
LTR's Framework Fisheries Management Plan (FFMP) was
meetings. Unfortunately, most of the recommendations issued
endorsed by the FAO Committee for Inland Fisheries for Africa
in these meetings have not been implemented in a coordinated
(CIFA) in 1999, being the fi rst important mechanism that
regional program. Laws and regulations regarding fi shing and
could facilitate regional management of the lake's resources
associated activities also are yet to be harmonized across the
(especially fi sheries) in a sustainable way.
lake.
The conclusion of the LTR studies on Lake Tanganyika fi sheries
In the 1990s, the following two projects, with a lake-wide is that, under current circumstances, none of the fi sheries
view to address Lake Tanganyika management issues, were
management institutions within the four riparian states is in
undertaken:
a position to effectively carry out the tasks entrusted to them
by national legislation. The principal defi ciencies common
·
FAO/FINNIDA Lake Tanganyika Research Project (LTR),
to institutional frameworks can be summarized as follows:
from 1992-1999; and,
(a) inadequate budgetary allocations to fi sheries sectors by
central governments; (b) inadequate research funding; (c) lack
·
UNDP/GEF Lake Tanganyika Biodiversity Project (LTBP),
of human resources and equipment; (d) poor to non-existent
from 1995-2000.
enforcement of fi sheries regulations; and (e) insuffi cient
linkages between central administration and fi eld agents at
These two projects had institutional and managerial the local level.
components. All the projects had signifi cant research
components, with much of our understanding about the lake
To solve the problem, LTR proposed the FFMP to the Lake
and its fi shery garnered through these projects. The FAO/
Tanganyika riparian nations. The governments have ratifi ed
FINNIDA project (LTR) came up with a Framework Fisheries
a convention (see section 4.2.2 for more detailed discussion
Management Plan (FFMP) in 1999.
on the convention), necessitating the formation of the Lake
Tanganyika Management Authority to reduce pressures on
The other aspects of lake management (biological diversity
the lake resources. The convention harmonizes management
conservation, water quality and pollution control, habitat policies, laws, regulations monitoring and data exchange,
protection, etc.) had not been addressed at a regional level
and provides a forum for the countries to engage in lake
before the UNDP/GEF Lake Tanganyika Biodiversity Project management discussions.
(LTBP). The LTBP outcomes are a Transboundary Diagnostic

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
369

---

The Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries (CCRF) provides
Institutional Modalities. The FFMP proposes to modify the
a framework of basic policy orientation, through which the
Terms of Reference of the CIFA Sub-Committee for Lake
FFMP may be accommodated in an integrated fashion. It Tanganyika, in order to allow it to function more effectively as
calls for establishment of responsible fi sheries management,
a mechanism to facilitate co-ordination of regional fi sheries-
which will be elaborated, adjusted, and reviewed as part related matters, and especially to:
of an ongoing process. Other issues covered by the CCRF
are: (a) policy matrix; (b) partnership and resource access;
·
Facilitate discussions for all related fi sheries matters,
(c) institutional and legal modalities; (d) harmonization of
including coastal zone management, environment and
fi shing regulations; and (e) possible input controls to regulate
water quality;
fi shing.
·
Promote the exchange and dissemination of information
Adoption of CCRF Policy Matrix. First, in order to ensure that
and data;
the four riparian states act with a common set of development
objectives in mind, it is important that their respective ·
Develop and recommend conservation and management
competent authorities implement the CCRF as the policy matrix
measures;
for the shared fi sheries of Lake Tanganyika. It also is important
that the respective competent authorities adopt and pursue
·
Facilitate periodic elaboration and implementation of
management policy directions in support of: (a) adaptive or
a regional fi sheries management plan and monitoring
interactive management practices allowing for adjustments in
program;
fi shing pressures, and for fl exible application of management
treatments appropriate to different circumstances encountered
·
Harmonize national measures for the sustainable
around the lakeshore; (b) multi-disciplinary monitoring
utilization of the lake's living resources;
capability for measurements of continuity and change across
a range of biophysical and socio-economic parameters, ·
Facilitate the harmonization of fi sheries regulations for
as appropriate to the complexities of ecosystem-human
Lake Tanganyika; and,
system interactions; (c) partnerships with local stakeholder
groups in management decision-making and in fashioning ·
Explore ways and means of establishing an autonomous
modalities of enforcement and compliance; (d) allocation of
inter-governmental organization or arrangement.
access and fi shing rights at the local community level; and
(e) use of integrated development strategies and coastal Legal Modalities. Actions that can be immediately undertaken
area management models at the local level, both in order to
in all four riparian states, on the basis of existing legal
accommodate complex interactions and possible confl icts
framework to implement or facilitate the measures proposed
between fi shing and non-fi shing activities and, at national and
in the FFMP, include:
regional `macro-levels', to foster economic diversifi cation to
reduce pressures on the fi shery resource base.
·
Implementation of the FAO Code of Conduct for
Responsible Fisheries;
Partnership Arrangements and Local Control of Resource
Access. Establishment of co-management structures and ·
Use of existing traditional institutional arrangements
operational arrangements around the lakeshore would be an
and customary fi shing rights, where appropriate, for
important step in promoting local community participation
enhancing local control of fi sheries resource access;
in the management of the lake. Because attitudes towards
and,
co-management appear to vary by country, co-management
arrangements must be encouraged in a somewhat fl exible
·
Organize and conduct an awareness campaign designed
manner, depending on local pre-dispositions. Community
to inform local fi shers of FFMP objectives, and enlist
outreach activities, with a strong environmental education
their support for its implementation.
component, will be crucial for building local awareness
and acceptance of responsibility in fi sheries regulation In Zambia and Tanzania, where fi shing operations in Lake
decision-making and compliance processes. Local attitudes Tanganyika remain virtually unregulated, drafting of a
towards various forms of access limitation are not uniform.
comprehensive set of regulations applicable to the lake
Nevertheless, it is clear that a `free-for-all' or unlimited access
fi sheries is recommended. The regulations should address
regime will be impossible to sustain in the face of growing
the following tasks: (a) devising various classes of fi shing
population pressures within the Lake Tanganyika region. units or categories of fi shing operations; (b) determining
Licensing mechanisms, in combination with allocation of use
which classes of fi shing units are required to carry a fi shing
rights by zone or water territory between individual fi shing
license; (c) determining the number of fi shing licenses that
communities, would seem to be the most appropriate way of
can be issued for industrial fi shing units; (d) determining
countering the `race to fi sh'.
prohibited or authorized methods of fi shing and restrictions
on certain methods of fi shing (e.g., banning or gradual phasing
out of beach seining); (e) establishing prohibited fi shing areas
370 Lake
Tanganyika

---

(for all purposes, or for the protection of spawning grounds,
southern end of the lake. Management measures should focus
and/or in respect of any fi shing method or any species of on the gradual, but eventually total, retirement/phasing out
fi sh); (f ) establishing and demarcating prohibited industrial
of beach seining on the lake. As a step toward achieving this
fi shing areas and beach seining areas; (g) establishing closed
objective, `beach seining prohibited' areas should be identifi ed
times and/or closed seasons for fi shing; (h) setting gear and established. Initiatives to restrict beach seining would
specifi cations (mesh sizes, height and length of nets and other
require important complementary measures, in the form of
fi shing implements); and (i) banning the introduction of non-
environmental education, and the utilization of other gear and
native species of fi sh and aquatic plants.
method options, as viable alternatives to the practice.
For DR Congo and Burundi, it is recommended that reviews
There are also indications of high exploitation pressure on
of fi sheries regulations applicable to Lake Tanganyika be L. stappersii within the extreme northern waters of Lake
conducted in light of the fi ndings and conclusions of the Tanganyika, although in this case a result of a concentration
FFMP. In DR Congo, fi sheries regulations applicable to Lake
of artisanal liftnetting, on top of a history of industrial purse
Tanganyika should include provisions for: (a) banning the seining. For this reason, `off-limits' areas for industrial units
introduction of any non-native species of fi sh and aquatic should be considered for both the extreme north and extreme
plants; (b) limiting the number of industrial fi shing licenses
south sub-basins of the lake. The establishment of prohibited
that can be issued; (c) banning beach seining throughout fi shing areas would need to be complemented by the devising
Lake Tanganyika waters falling under DR Congo jurisdiction;
of alternative enforcement schemes, such as the involvement
and (d) reviewing the classifi cation of fi shing units with a view
of fi shers and local communities in enforcement activities.
to harmonizing fi sheries regulations. In Burundi, fi sheries
regulations applicable to Lake Tanganyika should include: (a)
Input Controls to Regulate Fishing. It is recommended that
banning beach seining throughout Lake Tanganyika waters licensing ceilings be established for both industrial units in
placed under Burundi jurisdiction; (b) modifying, if necessary,
the south and liftnet units in the north end of the lake. In the
the limit imposed on the number of industrial fi shing licenses
case of the purse seine fi shery, efforts should be reduced to
that can be issued in the Burundi portion of Lake Tanganyika;
levels that prevailed ten years ago. That is, licensing measures
and (c) reviewing the classifi cation of fi shing units, with the
should aim at the gradual retirement or transfer to other
goal of harmonizing fi sheries regulations.
fi shing zones of units that entered the southern fi shery within
the last decade. The implementation of licensing ceilings for
Harmonization of Fisheries Regulations. Emphasis should be
both industrial fi shing units in the south, and liftnet units in
placed on three specifi c measures, including: (a) elaboration
the north, should be accompanied by the inclusion of specifi c
of a common classifi cation of fi shing units or categorization
provisions in the FFMP encouraging the negotiation and
of fi shing operations; (b) development of mechanisms of conclusion of access agreements between riparian states.
management in partnership, including measures to ensure Such a measure is designed to ensure the redeployment of
consultation with fi shers and other stakeholders prior to fi shing units that would no longer be authorized to operate in
devising fi sheries regulations; and (c) improvement of their traditional fi shing grounds.
enforcement of fi sheries legislation; including reassessment of
the regime of sanctions provided for in existing legislation.
4.2.2 LTBP's Outputs: Transboundary Diagnostic
Analysis (TDA), Strategic Action Program (SAP)
Monitoring, Control, and Surveillance (MCS). The Lake
and Convention
Tanganyika Monitoring Program (LTMP), designed under LTR
(Note: See West (2001) for an extensive discussion on the LTBP
auspices, is consistent with the CCRF guidelines in as much as:
project.)
(a) its feasibility is undeniably one of its underlying principles
(proposed monitoring measures have been thoroughly One of the immediate objectives of the UNDP/GEF Lake
tailored to the availability of both human and equipment Tanganyika Biodiversity project was to formulate a Strategic
resources in each research station around the lake); (b) the
Action Program (SAP) that established clear priorities
cost of implementation has clearly been kept to a minimum;
endorsed at the highest levels of the partner governments.
and (c) it refl ects the characteristics of the local fi sheries.
The SAP should identify priority transboundary concerns,
A timeframe and fi nancial scheme designed to ensure the as well as sectoral interventions needed to resolve the
long-term sustainability of the monitoring program should be
transboundary problems, as well as institutional mechanisms
incorporated in the LTMP, bearing in mind that current funding
for implementing the SAP.
for the LTMP is of limited duration. It is further recommended
that a comprehensive set of regulations be developed in all
Thus, a Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis was one major
four riparian states, and that periodic frame surveys, designed
step needed to facilitating the formulation of the SAP. The
to assess the state of the fi shing industry, be required in every
fi rst phase of the process was a Project Inception Workshop
fi sheries legislation.
in 1996, wherein the country representatives identifi ed the
main threats to Lake Tanganyika's biodiversity. The country
Possible Technical Measures to Regulate Fishing. The beach
representatives ranked their perceived threats in order of
seine is an especially serious problem impacting fi shing in the

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
371

---

national importance. The summation of these discussions
pelagic zone; excessive or uncontrolled extraction of
provided the initial prioritization of threats for the region.
ornamental fi sh;
From this fi rst priority issues meeting, the project team ·
Control of sedimentation: Erosion from inappropriate
prepared a consultation document for a Preliminary Strategic
farming practices and deforestation;
Action Program in 1997. The Regional Steering Committee
(RSC) committed to formulating this regional SAP through a
·
Control of Pollution: Urban and industrial pollution;
process of consultation from the national level by National
harbor pollution; pollution from future mining or oil
Working Groups, to the regional level by the Technical Advisory
exploitation; risk of major marine accidents; and,
Committee. After a planning meeting in each country, the
national consultation process consisted of two workshops. The
·
Habitat conservation: Threats to resources in National
fi rst was a National Sectoral Problem Review, and the second
Parks; degradation of key habitats.
a National Environmental Priorities and Strategic Review. With
the completion of these two workshops, each national working
The Strategic Action Program (SAP) is a document that
group came to a national understanding regarding the priority
identifi es the National Actions and key institutions planned to
biodiversity and management concerns and priorities for counteract each of the priority problems identifi ed in the TDA.
intervention.
These actions were defi ned during the same process that led
to the TDA.
Consultations at regional level were conducted through
an expanded Planning Group, whereby each country was The Convention for the Sustainable Management of Lake
represented by a team of members with a range of skills and
Tanganyika. The Convention is a legal agreement, identifying
knowledge of the lake management problems, led by the the rights and duties of the four states concerning Lake
National Coordinators. This consultation developed a draft Tanganyika. It establishes institutional structures for co-
preliminary TDA in November 1998, which was subsequently
operative management, management principles and related
endorsed by the Project Steering Committee in May 1999. matters. Like the SAP, the Convention was developed through a
The same Planning Group met to discuss and adopt the draft
series of regional workshops, bringing together senior lawyers
of the fi rst Strategic Action Program (SAP) in January 2000.
and policymakers from each of the four riparian countries.
In March 2000, the Group issued the fi nal TDA, incorporating
The fi rst of these workshops (February 1998) issued a set of
the conclusions of the special studies programs relevant to
recommendations that included detailed instructions, so that
management needs of Lake Tanganyika and that was proposed
a nominated drafting team could produce the fi rst draft of the
to be included in the fi nal SAP. The Strategic Action Program
Convention. This fi rst draft was discussed at three subsequent
(SAP) was adopted by the Project Steering Committee in July
workshops. The fi rst two brought together participants that
2000 at the closure of the Project.
shared a common language; namely, an Anglophone workshop
(August 1999) and a Francophone workshop (September 1999).
The purpose of the TDA was to defi ne immediate management
The third meeting brought together the participants of the four
objectives within the overall management goal of conserving
countries, resulting in a version of the draft being agreed upon
the biodiversity of Lake Tanganyika. After analysis of the main
regionally (November 1999). This latter draft was adopted
threats and the specifi c problems involved in managing the
by the Steering Committee (July 2000) at the completion the
lake, it established priorities for possible interventions and
UNDP/GEF Lake Tanganyika Biodiversity Project (LTBP), and
ultimately proposed a sequence of management interventions
forwarded to each riparian government for further negotiation
to counteract each specifi c identifi ed problem.
and agreement.
The main threats to biodiversity and sustainable use of Lake
The Convention was signed by the four riparian states on 12
Tanganyika and its resources that were identifi ed include: June 2003, a result of the GEF PDF-B grant, Lake Tanganyika
unsustainable fi sheries; excessive sedimentation; increasing
Management Planning Project (LTMPP). It is now in the process
pollution; and habitat destruction. The general actions to be
of ratifi cation by the different parliaments. Once it enters
used to combat these threats include: reduction of fi shing
into force (after its ratifi cation by at least two countries), the
pressures; control of sedimentation; control of pollution; and
Convention will provide the legal authority for implementing
habitat conservation.
the SAP and revising it on a regular basis.
Of the many identifi ed specifi c problems making up each The Convention defi nes the management principles, as well as
of these major threats, those ranked as the priority for the obligations and specifi c procedures. It particularly defi nes
interventions in the four action areas, based on considering
a Lake Tanganyika Authority (LTA), whose function is to co-
the score of each for such criteria as severity, feasibility, and
ordinate the implementation of the Convention itself, as well
additional benefi ts, are:
as the priority actions planned in the SAP. The LTA organs are:
·
Reduction of fi shing pressure: Excessive fi shing efforts
·
The Conference of Ministers, the supreme body of the
in the littoral zone; excessive fi shing efforts in the
authority;
372 Lake
Tanganyika

---

·
The Management Committee, made up of 3 members
·
An Interim Lake Tanganyika Management Authority
appointed by each contracting State; and,
(ILTMA), which has the same institutional organs as the
Authorities, except the Council of Ministers;
·
The Secretariat, under the direction of an Executive
Director assisted by a Deputy Executive Director.
·
A Lake Monitoring Program;
It is planned that the Management Committee will be assisted
·
Lake Pollution Control in Bujumbura, Burundi;
in the performance of its functions by:
·
Lake Catchment Management in Uvira Region, DR
·
A Socio-economic Technical Committee;
Congo;
·
A Fisheries Management Technical Committee;
·
A Lake Catchment Management project in the Kigoma
and Kasulu regions, and a Lake Pollution Control project
·
A Biological Diversity Technical Committee; and,
in the cities of Kigoma and Ujiji, Tanzania; and,
·
A Water Quality/Pollution Control Technical Committee.
·
A Lake Catchment Management project in the Mpulungu
Region, Zambia.
The fi nancial resources of the Authority will come from
contributions of the contracting states in equal proportions.
5. Lessons
Learned
The Authority also will seek funds for its operations and
projects from donors and other sources.
Management of Lake Tanganyika and its drainage basin is
the responsibility of the "owners" of the resource; namely,
The TDA and SAP documents, as well as the Convention, the governments and people of Burundi, DR Congo, Tanzania
produced through an in-depth consultation process, and Zambia. These riparian countries alone could not
probably contain some of the elements proposed by the LTBP
have established coordinated sustainable management
Coordination staff in the draft SAP of 1997. The main difference
mechanisms for this shared resource. Important inputs to this
is that their ownership is now accepted nationally and goal have come through regional projects outputs, the most
regionally. This is one of the lessons learned from the Project;
important being: (a) FAO projects working at national levels
namely, the participation of all the partners in all the phases
and coordinated by the FAO Committee for Inland Fisheries
of the Project, from conception to implementation of agreed
for Africa (CIFA); (b) FAO/FINNIDA Lake Tanganyika Research
actions, is essential to facilitate its success.
Project (LTR); and (c) UNDP/GEF Lake Tanganyika Biodiversity
Project (LTBP). FAO projects focused on fi sheries management,
4.2.3 Towards Implementation of Conventions and
while LTBP focused mainly on biological diversity conservation,
Programs
water quality and pollution control, and habitat protection.
The implementation of the LTBP's SAP, which will begin with the
ratifi cation of the Convention and the effective establishment
The main lessons learned from the involvement of each of the
of the Lake Management Authority, will be something very riparian countries and their institutions is that:
important for the region, and a great hope for the future of
Lake Tanganyika and a better sharing of its resources. Although
·
There is a need for a national institution (body) that
these regional mechanisms have not yet been implemented,
should coordinate all activities related to the lake and
donors such as UNDP/GEF, African Development Bank (AFDB),
management of its drainage basin; within each country,
FAO, IUCN and other partners are interested in being part of a
responsibilities for lake resources management, water
Lake Tanganyika Integrated Regional Program (LTIP). A number
quality protection, land management and soil protection
of projects directed to meeting the priority actions proposed
in the watershed, and tourism organizations currently
by the UNDP/GEF Project SAP and the FAO/FINNIDA Project
are fragmented in independent sectoral institutions;
FFMP are planned. AFDB and GEF, for example, have agreed
to work together and harmonize their initiatives under the ·
The sectoral institutions must establish clear programs
Lake Management Authority, including being willing to fund
incorporating better management of the lake's resources
some of the projects proposed in the areas of pollution control,
and its watershed;
catchment management, and monitoring programs in Lake
Tanganyika riparian countries.
·
These institutions require more fi nancial and human
resources; and,
A meeting of the Lake Tanganyika Partners (UNDP/GEF, African
development Bank, FAO and IUCN) was held in June 2003. ·
There is a need for more regional cooperation among
The following projects are components of an Integrated Lake
the riparian states.
Tanganyika Regional Program (LTIRP) agreed upon during this
meeting:
The main lessons learned from the regional initiatives can be
summarized as follows.

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
373

---

From an early stage, clear common goals and objectives, Long-term planning, although indispensable, must
planning of activities, and good communication and nevertheless incorporate fl exibility, in order to allow
transparency between the primary implementing agencies, the
consideration of unexpected situations in the fi eld, on the
partner countries and the executing agencies, are essential in
regional (or international) scene, or in funding realities. Thus,
multi-country projects. An initial phase (pre-project phase) to
the best ways to adjust to new situations must be agreed-
undertake these preparatory activities also is needed.
to regularly between the local and regional (international)
partners.
Ownership of the Convention for the Sustainable Management
of Lake Tanganyika, which resulted from the LTBP, is highly
In the Lake Tanganyika region, the security situation can
accepted nationally and regionally because the Convention deteriorate suddenly, as well as rapidly improve thereafter.
was produced through an in-depth consultation process, Thus, the creation of security plans is recommended,
mainly between technical experts of the four riparian States.
in coordination with local and international security
A good indication for this conclusion is that the Ministers in
organizations. Projects should be fl exible enough to adjust
all the riparian countries have readily signed the document.
programs to take account of such unexpected situations in the
The experts in the different countries have been effective fi eld. Past projects involving Lake Tanganyika have shown that
in informing the decision-makers (politicians). The general national staff (scientifi c, technical, local teams in villages, etc.)
lessons learned from these experiences are that:
may accomplish valuable goals in places where international
staff are not offi cially allowed to work, or when there are
·
The process is time- and budget-consuming for meeting
sensitivities to the interest of the project by countries and their
at the national and regional levels; and the project communities.
design must be prepared for many, sometimes lengthy,
consultations; and
Because the ultimate success of an action plan is strongly
dependent on the participation of the entire population, it is
·
The human dimension is very important for the success
important to strengthen local citizen's participation in lake
of such long-term programs. When experts meet and
management projects. This requires regular public hearings
discuss important issues on multiple occasions, they about lake management, whereby the citizens are informed
are better prepared to work effectively on the programs
about the progress of the project and have occasion to give
they have jointly developed; a limitation in the region is
advice and direction on the best ways to proceed.
that personnel in key positions (technical and political)
in most of the countries often do not occupy their Inadequate communication is a major hindrance to effective
positions long. Thus, it is important that such programs
lake management. Thus, appropriate facilities (transport,
be implemented as quickly as possible, while the communication links, etc.) and budgets should be provided for
"designers" are still there, and local populations should
any institutions, projects, or program with a regional scope.
be empowered for action in the fi eld. Because the latter
do not change, they often are the only groups available
For lakes shared by riparian countries in which two offi cial
to better ensure the long-term viability of proposed languages are used, budget time and translation must
actions.
be allocated to address this issue. In such situations, it is
generally proposed that the key personnel in the projects
Participation and commitment of political authorities at be bilingual, although this condition is often diffi cult to
the highest level is extremely important for multinational meet. A good alternative solution is that, within the project,
environmental management projects. Thus, it is recommended
an equivalent number of the key personnel should use the
that awareness-raising at the highest political level be two languages to ensure that the needs of the participating
undertaken. In this context, a formal assessment of countries are equitably met.
institutional mandates and capacities should be conducted
before implementation of projects, and be sanctioned by the
6. References
highest levels of government. Because poverty reduction has a
high political priority, it is important that the linkages between
Coulter, G.W., J.J. Tiercelin, A. Mondegeur, R.E. Hecky and R.H.
sustainable lake management and poverty reduction be made
Spigel. 1991. Lake Tanganyika and its Life. Oxford University
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Press: London.
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Coulter, G.W. and R.H. Spigel. 1991. "Hydrodynamics." In:
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the countries, and tailor work plans to capitalize on the FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization). 1999. Lake
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Mölsä, H., J.E. Reynolds, E.J. Coenen and O.V. Lindqvist. 1999.
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Disclaimer
The fi ndings, interpretations and conclusions expressed
in this report are the views of the authors and do not
necessarily represent the views of The World Bank and its
Board of Directors, or the countries they represent, nor do
they necessarily represent the view of the organizations,
agencies or governments to which any of the authors are

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
375

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