Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe
Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
Gulnara Roll*, Peipsi Center for Transboundary Cooperation, Tartu, Estonia, gulnara.roll@ctc.ee
Aija Kosk, Peipsi Center for Transboundary Cooperation, Tartu, Estonia
Natalia Alexeeva, Peipsi Center for Transboundary Cooperation, Tartu, Estonia
Peeter Unt, Peipsi Center for Transboundary Cooperation, Tartu, Estonia
* Corresponding author
1. Description
Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe-Pskov-
skoe, sometimes called Peipus
(hereafter, Lake Peipsi/
Chudskoe), is the largest
transboundary European lake,
and Europe's fourth largest
lake overall. Its three names
originated from three lan-
guages historically used in
the region--Peipsi came from
Estonian, Chudskoe-Pskovskoe
or Pskovskoe-Chudskoe from
Russian, and Peipus from
German. Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe
belongs to the water basin of
the Narva (or Narova) River,
a 77-km long watercourse
which connects Lake Peipsi/
Chudskoe with the Gulf of
Finland of the Baltic Sea (Figure
1). Estonia and the Russian
Federation (hereafter, Russia)
share Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe
and three countries, including
Estonia, Russia and Latvia,
share the Narva River basin.
Latvia has only 5% of the basin,
and pollution from its territory
is very small in the overall
pollution load in the basin.
What makes Lake Peipsi/
Chudskoe specifi c and different
from other great lakes of the
world is that it is located on
the European Union border
with Russia and is shared by
countries in transition. Estonia
regained its independence from
the Soviet Union in 1991. Before
that, Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe Figure 1. The Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe Basin.
was a large, internal lake in the

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northwest of the Soviet Union, where the same legislation,
water discharge via the Narva River into the Gulf of Finland of
procedures, environmental standards were applied for the the Baltic Sea is 12.6 km3 (approximately 50% of the average
whole lake basin. Therefore, it is a new transboundary lake.
volume of Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe). Morphometric data on Lake
With these radical political changes at the beginning of the
Peipsi/Chudskoe for the water level of 30 m above sea level is
1990s, the socio-economic context of water management given in the Table 1.
also changed drastically, and the main challenge for the
future development in the Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe basin is 2.1
Socio-economic and Political Context
the growing gap in socioeconomic development as well as in
formal frameworks, including norms and standards, as well as
The lake has been a natural border between people who
differences in practices and information on the two sides of the
inhabited territories around Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe and
border.
resulted in the different cultural composition of the eastern
(Russian) and western (Estonian) peripheries of the Lake
Estonia joined the supranational European Union (EU) in Peipsi/Chudskoe basin. The majority of the population on
2004 thereby making Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe a transboundary
the Russian side of the border is Russian, and on the Estonian
lake shared by Russia and the European Union. Estonian side of the border two cultural minority groups reside. Russian
legislation and environmental management system have been
Old-Believers, a distinct cultural minority group among the
adjusted to incorporate requirements of the EU legislative and
majority of the Estonian population, live in the central part of
institutional framework. In the fi eld of water management, the basin in shoreline rural communities; and in the southern
requirements of the EU Water Framework Directive as well as
part of the basin live the Setu people, who speak a language
of other relevant EU directives are being incorporated into the
that is very close to Estonian, but unlike Estonians, their
Estonian framework for water management. The EU legislation,
religion is Christian Orthodox, like Russians. These minorities
norms and standards are different than those of Russia. There
contributed a lot to the cultural heritage of the region and
is great work to be done in managing the Estonian-Russian
traditionally used the lake as a source of income.
transboundary waters in a manner that will harmonize the
methodological approaches, procedures, and standards In terms of economic development in the region, the
across the border, as well as to ensure a more balanced social
commercial fi shery and agriculture are the most important
and economic development of the whole basin.
sources of income for the local population in the region.
The Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe area is mostly located in rural
2. Physical
Geography
agricultural periphery of the two countries but it exceeds all
other large lakes in northern Europe as a fi shery resource
Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe is a part of the Narva River basin, which
(Noges 1996).
is located in the central part of the southeast coast of the
Baltic Sea and has an area around 56,200 km2, which is 3.6%
Land use in the Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe basin is as follows:
of the total area of the Baltic Sea basin. Three countries share
agricultural land (42%), forest (40%), wetlands (6%), open
the Narva River/Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe basin: Russia (36,100
water (2%), and other uses including urban areas and roads
km2; 64.3%), Estonia (17,000 km2; 30%) and Latvia (3,100 (10%). A substantial fraction of the agricultural land is today
km2; 5.5%). The water basin area of the Narva River itself is
unused or fallow land. For example, 40% of the agricultural
877 km2 (only 15% of the total basin area). The mean annual
land in the Velikaya River basin is of non-arable character.
Table 1. Morphometric Data on Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe at Water Level of 30 m asl.
L. Peipsi s.s./
L.Lämmijärv/
L.Pihkva/
The whole Lake Peipsi/
Chudskoe
Teploe
Pskovskoe
Chudskoe-Pskovskoe
Area (km2)
2,611
236
708
3,555
Water area in Estonia/Russia (km2)
1,387/1,224
118/118
25/683
1,564/1,991
Percentage of surface area
73
7
20
100
Volume (km3)
21.79
0.6
2.68
25.07
Percentage of total volume
87
2
11
100
Medium depth (m)
8.3
2.5
3.8
7.1
Maximum depth (m)
12.9
15.3
5.3
15.3
Length (km)
81
30
41
152
Medium width (km)
32
7.9
17
23
Maximum width (km)
47
8.1
20
47
Length of shoreline (km)
260
83
177
520
Percentage of total length (km)
50
16
34
100
Source: Janni
(2001).
336 Lake
Peipsi/Chudskoe

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Besides agricultural land, land use in the drainage basin until the 1990s, also vendace. The second rate commercial
of Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe is dominated by 40% of forested fi sh are burbot, whitefi sh and white bream. The total catch is
areas and approximately 8-9% of wetland/bogs. Forestry usually 9,000-11,000 (25-31 kg/ha) metric tons of fi sh a year.
and processing of timber is a rapidly developing branch of
In general, the lake provides generally favorable spawning and
Estonian industry at the moment, making logging and timber
feeding conditions for fi sh. According to the classifi cation used
processing a noteworthy alternative for those who lost their
in fi sheries, the lake was earlier referred to as a smelt-bream
jobs in agriculture in the regions far from cities. On the Russian
type of water body. Since the second half of the 1980s, it has
side, the main impediments to the development of forestry are
acquired some qualities of a pikeperch lake.
the absence of roads in remote forested areas and the general
economic recession of the region.
At the beginning of the 1990s, the possibility to export fi sh to
the European market appeared. The opening of this new and
Large areas of peat deposits are located in the Lake Peipsi/
highly profi table market outlet resulted in rapidly increasing
Chudskoe basin. They are not used intensively because pressure on the fi sh resources, both in terms of the number of
the bigger bogs and marsh areas are in protected areas. fi shermen and in their effort.
Moreover, wetland areas of Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe have been
recognized as wetlands of international importance. Thus, The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 brought massive
Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe and its basin have a great potential for
changes to the region's industry and especially agriculture.
eco-recreation and eco-tourism.
In communist times, the landscape in this northwestern part
of the Soviet Union had always been used more intensively
The main branches of industry in this region are energy than other regions. The collective and state farms were mainly
production, building and civil engineering, chemical industry,
specialized in meat and dairy production and additional
textile manufacture, foodstuff production and timber growing of fodder crops. Because of ineffi cient use of fertilizer
processing.
and the lack of proper manure handling, agriculture caused
high emissions of nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) into
2.2 Water
Use
rivers and lakes, resulting in eutrophication problems (Leisk
and Loigu 1996). After the 1991 political changes, there was an
There is enough of clean ground and surface water in the abrupt drop in the economic development in the lake region,
Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe watershed for the basic needs of the
especially in agriculture, the main source of pollution in the lake
population. The only large settlement using the lake water for
basin. Previous economic activities and cross-lake contacts
drinking is Narva (73,000 inhabitants), which takes its water
for economic production and trade were disrupted after the
from the Narva River, which is the only river fl owing out of the
establishment of the international border, and there began
lake. The part of Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe belonging to Estonia
Estonia's transition in its legal and institutional framework for
constitutes 89% of the surface area and yields 95% of the
economic development, and Russia's introduction of import
freshwater fi sh catch of the country. Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe tariffs for Estonian goods in 1994.
has been considered a potential source of water supply for
northeastern Estonia and the Estonian capital, Tallinn. In According to Stalnacke et al. (2002), at present, the area has
addition to the fact that the water resources of Lake Peipsi/
already been in a period of transition for more than a decade,
Chudskoe can be regarded as practically inexhaustible for and the future is still highly uncertain. Although the economy
Estonia, the lake has also great importance from the point of
will defi nitely grow, especially on the western side of this new
view of the fi shery and for recreation.
EU border, it is not yet clear whether the environment will gain
or loose from that. The decline of agriculture during the 1990s
For the Russian Federation, the lake is not so important as a
actually caused nonpoint-source pollution to decrease and the
source of freshwater and fi sh due to the absence of big cities
quality of river waters to improve. In the future, it is possible
around Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe and the close location of bigger
that water quality will decrease again if agriculture recovers. On
lakes such as Ladoga and Onega. The Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe
the other hand, water quality may benefi t from EU regulation
region is more important from the political point of view as a
and good transboundary cooperation and agreement on farm
border region with Baltic States and the North Atlantic Treaty
mineral balances and better public wastewater treatment.
Organization (NATO), and with the EU. Nevertheless, on the
Thus, nutrient loads and water quality are linked to future
regional level the lake is an essential resource in terms of
economic development in various, sometimes indirect, ways.
fi shery resources, and in the future, for recreation, although at
present tourism is still developing.
3.
Threats to Sustainable Use of the Lake
The lake itself is not used for irrigation purposes; its main use
One of the main problems with water protection is the
from the food production perspective is the fi shery. According
eutrophication of surface waters caused by the increased
to present data, one species of lamprey and 33 fi sh species
load of nutrients of anthropogenic origin. During the last half
permanently inhabit Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe or the lower of this century, ecological conditions of Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe
reaches of its tributaries. The main commercial fi sh catches
have been constantly worsening. In the 1960s the lake was
are lake smelt, perch, pikeperch, ruffe, roach, bream, pike and,
classifi ed as mesotrophic. The eutrophication in 1970-80s

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
337

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has caused the higher vegetation (mainly reeds) to spread 3.1
Scenarios of the Environmental State and
and grow thicker. The nutrient content in the rivers of the
Regional Development
Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe basin was high at the end of the 1980s
causing eutrophication of water bodies. At the beginning of
Researchers in the MANTRA East project elaborated integrated
the 1990s, with the dissolution of all collective agricultural scenarios for the development and environment in the Lake
farms on the Estonian side and an economic depression on
Peipsi/Chudskoe basin for the period of 15-20 years based
the Russian side of the lake, where the collective farms did
on which they formulated their statement on the major
not receive any more subsidies to use fertilizers on the fi elds
environmental issues in the lake basin and what should be
or to keep large cattle stocks, the nutrient load to the lake has
done to improve the environmental situation.
decreased considerably. Research results indicate that the
nitrogen and phosphorus loads decreased by 53% and 44%,
The scenarios were developed using the story-line
respectively, between the late 1980s and the mid 1990s. This
methodological approach and using qualitative as well as
has also noticeably improved the water quality of Lake Peipsi.
quantitative information as input into the scenarios. Points
The division of nutrient loads between Estonia and Russia as
of entry of the scenarios' development are the transboundary
well as between different types of sources is presented in Table
aspects and regional development (international cooperation
2.
and economical development) and their consequences for
nutrient discharge/riverine loads and lake water and ecological
The majority of phosphorus and nitrogen compounds are quality. The driving force variables included population,
carried into the lake by two rivers. The Estonian river Emajogi
wastewater treatment connection rate, fertilizer use, livestock
and the Russian river Velikaya account for approximately amount, crop yields, atmospheric deposition and amount of
80% of the total nitrogen load and almost 85% of the total
agricultural lands. The following scenarios were elaborated
phosphorus load into Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe. It is interesting
(Gooch et al. 2002):
to compare the studies done in the middle of 1980s and
1990s showing great decrease in pollution loads, especially
I.
Business as usual (BAU) scenario, that includes
concerning agriculture.
continuation of present trends where it is expected
that the economic situation will remain the same and
Diffuse pollution is increasing in recent years which is partially
pollution loads remain at the end-of-1990s level;
caused by drastic changes in economy. Industry is not so
polluting any more due to sharply decreased production. II.
"Target/fast development scenario" where Estonia is
Another factor infl uencing nonpoint-source pollution is forest
described in this scenario by a fast adaptation to the
cutting that contributes to additional dissolved and fi xed
EU and Russia by domestic fast economic and social
nutrient pollution. At present, the drainage system built
development;
in Soviet times is not working, so previously ameliorated
territories are becoming swamps again.
III.
"Crisis scenario" where conditions radically deteriorate
into "crisis" in both countries;
One additional problem is pollution caused by two large
thermal power stations (Baltic and Estonian), which use the
IV. "Isolation scenario" where Estonia has a slow
Narva Reservoir for cooling of steam machines (RSRIWM
and unwilling adaptation to the EU and Russia is
2000). Waters from ash dumps having high alkalinity are
characterized by the isolation from Europe and a growth
also being discharged into the reservoir. Finally, the potential
of nationalist sentiments; and,
danger of overfi shing is one of the main challenges to be
addressed in the lake basin. Peipsi is one of the best lakes in
V.
A combination of scenarios II and III where Estonia is
Europe for commercial fi shing.
expected to have fast development and Russia remains
in a crisis.
Results of the studies of the environmental state in and
development of the scenarios for the Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe
Table 2. Nitrogen and Phosphorus Load Division between Countries and Sources.
Agriculture
Other diffuse sources
Point sources
Total
Total-N
Estonia
21.1%
13.7%
2.4%
37.2%
Russia
49.8%
8.4%
4.6%
62.8%
Total-P
Estonia
12.7%
9.6%
9.5%
31.8%
Russia
48.2%
6.2%
13.7%
68.2%
Source:
Stalnacke et al. (2002)
338 Lake
Peipsi/Chudskoe

---

basin showed that given the fi ve scenarios of the future
of the Intergovernmental Commission on Fishery in Lake
regional development, the riverine nutrient loads into the lake
Peipsi, Lake Pihkva and Lake Lämmijärv;
is expected to generally decrease (Mourad et al. 2003). The
target/fast development scenario (II) results in a substantial
·
The Agreement between the Government of the
larger total nitrogen input to the lake. The crisis scenario (III)
Republic of Estonia and the Government of the Russian
yields the largest total phosphorus load. No scenario predicts
Federation on Environmental Protection was signed in
larger nutrient loads than in the communist period. Based on
Pihkva on 11 January 1996. According to the Agreement,
this scenario development, scientists developed the following
the parties shall develop cooperation in environmental
assessment of the environmental state in the lake basin and
protection on the basis of mutual interests and equality.
policy recommendations (Mourad et al. 2003):
The cooperation is going on in the following spheres:
joint research and project development; exchange of
·
Eutrophication due to signifi cant nutrient loads in Lake
scientifi c and technical information, documentation and
Peipsi/Chudskoe represents a major threat for the water
research results; exchange of environmental information
quality of the lake; the present ecological state of the
and information on fulfi llment of the parties' obligations;
lake is moderate;
exchange of environmental management experience;
joint conferences, symposia, seminars and exhibitions;
·
Change in the amount of land under cultivation is a
exchange of delegations and experts; participation of
major factor controlling nutrient loads to Lake Peipsi/
experts of one party in international environmental
Chudskoe; and,
conferences, symposiums and exhibitions held by the
other party; and other mutually agreed activities;
·
Although connection to wastewater treatment plants
and larger removal effi ciencies for these installations ·
The Agreement between the Government of the
can solve hygienic problems locally, strategies for
Republic of Estonia and the Government of the
nutrient load reduction should mainly focus on
Russian Federation on Cooperation in Protection and
agricultural nutrient runoff, especially in the Russian
Sustainable Use of Transboundary Waters, signed on
part of the drainage basin.
20 August 1997 in Moscow. This Agreement is aimed to
organize cooperation between the Russian Federation
4. Institutional
Framework
and Estonia in the sphere of protection and sustainable
use of transboundary waters and their ecosystems. The
4.1
Political Setup and Border Issues
Agreement deals with transboundary water basins such
as the Narva River basin, including the Lake Peipsi/
Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe belongs to the Republic of Estonia
Chudskoe basin.
and the Russian Federation, who are responsible for the
management and monitoring of the lake. The total length of the
4.3 Transboundary
Commissions
Estonian-Russian border is 333.8 km of which approximately
two-thirds runs along Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe and the Narva
The Estonian-Russian Transboundary Water Commission
River.
(hereafter, the Commission) was established in 1997 after
the signing of the intergovernmental agreement on the
4.2
Legal Basis for the Transboundary Water
protection and sustainable use of transboundary water
Cooperation
bodies between the Republic of Estonia and the Russian
Federation. The responsible authorities for implementation
Each country has its own legislation dealing with water of the agreement--the Estonian Ministry of the Environment
management, but in order to provide sustainable use of the
and the Russian Ministry of Natural Resources--develop
whole lake water basin taking into account basin approach,
joint policies for management of the transboundary waters
several bilateral agreements were signed between the through the Commission. The Commission is the main actor
Governments of Estonia and the Russian Federation. There are
in managing Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe. It organizes exchange of
three bilateral agreements concerning water use and water
monitoring data between the parties in accordance with the
protection in the region:
agreed monitoring program; defi nes priority directions and
programs of scientifi c studies on protection and sustainable
·
The Agreement between the Government of the use of transboundary waters; agrees on common indicators
Republic of Estonia and the Government of the of quality for transboundary waters and methods of water
Russian Federation on Cooperation in Protection and testing and conducting analyses; facilitates cooperation
Use of Fish Resources of Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe, Lake between agencies of executive power, local governments,
Pihkva/Pskovskoe and Lake Lämmijärv/Teploe signed
scientifi c and public interest organizations, as well as other
in Moscow on 4 May 1994. The goal of the Agreement
institutions in the fi eld of sustainable development and
is to develop cooperation in protection and joint use
protection of transboundary waters; ensures publicity of
of fi sh resources in Lake Peipsi, Lake Pihkva and Lake
discussions of questions related to the use and protection of
Lämmijärv. The Agreement required the establishment
the transboundary waters. The Commission adopts its working

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
339

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plans and decisions at its annual meeting. Four expert working
are sometimes delayed; there was a year-long period in which
groups were created under the Commission: monitoring and
the Commission's website was not updated. The Russian
research; water management; water quality; and cooperation
side of the Commission has long-term work experience in a
with local authorities, NGOs and international organizations.
transboundary water commission with Finland, as well as with
The Working Groups include Estonian and Russian experts who
China and other countries on the eastern borders of Russia. It
conduct studies and prepare background information for the
seems that this experience is being well used to develop better
decisions to be made by the Commission.
cooperation in the Estonian-Russian transboundary water area
also.
The management of fi sh resources of the whole lake is
regulated by the bilateral intergovernmental Estonian-Russian
The Commission established a formal mechanism for
agreement about cooperation in the fi eld of use and protection
development of cooperation with local authorities, NGOs and
of fi sh resources in Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe, Lake Pihkva/
stakeholders, which allows NGOs and local stakeholders in
Pskovskoe and Lake Lämmijärv/Teploe concluded on 4 May
the region to communicate their issues and interests directly
1994. According to this agreement, the Inter-governmental to the intergovernmental commission. However, only a few
Estonian-Russian Fisheries Commission was formed in 1995.
regional NGOs are involved in the work of the Commission;
The functions of the Fisheries Commission are to develop the capacity of most local NGOs and stakeholder groups is low
recommendations for coordinated actions in fi sh resource (although growing) and external fi nancial support is necessary
management; coordination of research in fi sh resource to promote development of capacity of local NGOs and
assessment; possibilities and procedures for one party to fi sh
stakeholders to enable them to get involved in management
in the waters of the other party; exchange of fi shing quotas
of transboundary waters shared by countries in transition.
based on mutual interests and legislation of both parties; Regional NGOs, such as the Peipsi Center for Transboundary
establishment of the maximum common catch for various Co-operation (Peipsi CTC) and the Council for Co-operation
fi sh species and its distribution between the two parties; of Border Regions, cooperate with the local authorities and
regulation of allowable fi shing gear and methods; minimum
stakeholders on regional development projects as well as on
permissible size of commercial fi sh; allowable share of fry educational, research and social projects in the region. Peipsi
catch; seasonal and territorial limitations; improvement and
CTC is also actively involved in the work of the Commission.
effi cient reproduction of fi sh resources including fi sh-breeding;
Involving small NGOs, local and regional authorities and
procedures to resolve fi shing disputes and incidents; access to
businesses in the Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe region into the
fi shing of the third parties' persons and organizations; control
work of the Commission remains one of the challenges to be
over the fulfi llment of the approved measures; and other addressed in the future.
activities in protection and sustainable use of fi sh resources of
Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe.
4.4.2 State/Federal Levels
On the state/federal level, governments implement national
4.4
Transboundary Water Policies and Stakeholder
legislation and plans that promote sustainable use of natural
Involvement
resources in the Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe Basin. Russian Water
Code was adopted in 1995 that provides legal basis for water
4.4.1 International
Basin
Level
Policies
protection measures in the Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe Basin and in
The Estonian and Russian governments are signatories to Russia as a whole. Estonian Water Act was adopted in 2000.
the UN ECE Transboundary Water Convention (1992). The
two governments have signed a bilateral intergovernmental
4.4.3 Implementation of the EU Water Framework
agreement on the use and protection of their transboundary
Directive in Estonia
waters in 1997. According to the agreement, the Estonian-
Estonia's wish to quickly accede to the EU brought about the
Russian Transboundary Water Commission (the Commission)
need to adapt the Estonian legislative and administrative
was established. The Commission is an important institution
systems to EU requirements. Within this process, the
that can effectively coordinate implementation of integrated
Estonian Water Act also has been harmonized with the EU
water management approaches organized by the riparian Water Framework Directive. In accordance with the EU Water
parties: Estonia and Russia.
Framework Directive, since 1 April 2001 Estonia has 8 sub-
catchment areas and one nitrate-sensitive area. In each one of
Regarding the effectiveness of existing institutional these, a responsible catchment administration will be set up.
arrangements for transboundary water management in
the Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe basin, it is noteworthy that the 4.4.4 European Water Policy and Russia
Commission lacks capacity to implement integrated water The Water Framework Directive (WFD) of the European
management approaches in the basin. Due to a lack of fi nancial
Union does not have a mandate for Russia because the EU
and human resources, the working groups do not meet more
WFD is compulsory only for the members of the EU and is
often than once a year; information on the working groups'
recommended for accession-countries. Nevertheless, it could
meetings is not disseminated widely (the minutes are available
be used for transboundary basins located on the territory
on request but no active dissemination of the Commission of Russian Federation because it deals with question of
materials is taking place); implementation of working plans
joint water management in the case of EU and third-country
340 Lake
Peipsi/Chudskoe

---

transboundary waters. In fact Russian water authorities reports and publications that are actively used in preparation
started to test joint approaches based on the principles of the
of management plans of the Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe basin.
EU WFD on the transboundary Finnish-Russian waters. There is
The MANTRA-East project also produced a transboundary
willingness on the Russian side to harmonize approaches with
GIS system as a central instrument for the information
the Estonian water authorities and implement jointly principles
dissemination on the lake basin environmental issues and
of the European water legislation also on the Estonian-Russian
a regional Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe web portal that shall exist
transboundary waters.
principally for the collection, processing and dissemination
of information pertaining to the Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe
4.4.5 Stakeholder Involvement
region. The portal (available in Estonian, Russian and English
Major stakeholders are local authorities and farmers. There
languages at www.peipsi.org), with the aid of innovative
are a growing number of grass-root non-profi t organizations
web technologies, has the potential to tailor otherwise
in both Estonia and Russia that deal with environmental highly-specialized environmental information pertaining
protection and sustainable development issues in the to the Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe region to individual needs of
Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe basin. However, still most of the any stakeholder, including municipal government offi cials,
small organizations in the region are weak and do not have
businessmen, schools, NGOs and the local public.
suffi cient capacity for large-scale activities. The major NGO
that deals with transboundary cooperation in the Lake Peipsi/
4.4.7 International Organizations
Chudskoe basin is an international non-profi t Peipsi Center for
The transboundary cooperation on Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe
Transboundary Cooperation (Peipsi CTC) (www.ctc.ee). The became possible thanks to the assistance of international
Peipsi CTC was formed on the basis of Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe
donor organizations and governments of the Nordic countries,
Project. Established in 1993, the Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe Project
Denmark, the European Union, the US government and
was an informal network of researchers who were interested in
GEF/UNDP. The international funding possibilities are
studies of environmental issues in the Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe
discussed at annual meetings of the Commission and are
basin. Today Peipsi CTC is an international, non-governmental
used to implement priority activities under its working plan.
organization that works to promote sustainable development
For example, support for the Commission's work was coming
and transboundary cooperation in the border areas of the from the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
Baltic States and the New Independent States. Peipsi CTC through Peipsi CTC, with implementation units on both sides
main programs are Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe Water Management,
of the lake, to develop coordinated environmental monitoring
NGOs and Civil Society, and Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe Ecotourism
programs and to promote information dissemination in the
Program. Peipsi CTC organizes every year the "Lake Peipsi/
Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe region. With the support of the Danish
Chudskoe Forum", an international conference that brings Environmental Protection Agency, a strategy for pollution load
together representatives of the governments of Estonia and
reduction (phosphorus and organic pollution) was prepared
Russia, international organizations working in the region, and cooperation with local authorities and businesses. The
municipalities, businesses, and NGOs around the lake basin.
European Union and the Global Environmental Facility through
There are more and more smaller NGOs get involved in the
United Nations Development Programme provided fi nancial
transboundary water projects but there is a need for additional
support to the Estonian and Russian governments to develop
capacity building measures and fi nancial support to promote
and start implementation of water management plans in the
their involvement in water management in the transboundary
Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe basin (www.peipsi.org/gef ). In 2002,
water basin.
EU LIFE-Environment Programme approved funding to the
Estonian government to prepare the Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe
4.4.6 Scientists and Educators
Catchment Management Plan for the Estonian side of
Estonian and Russian universities started their cooperation transboundary water basin that is to implement requirements
through joint seminars, research, and educational projects and
of the Estonian national legislation and the EU WFD. In 2003,
students' exchanges in the 1990s. Since 1996, every year more
EU TACIS Programme supported preparation of the Lake
than 5,000 schoolchildren from the region participate in an
Peipsi/Chudskoe Basin Management Plan on the Russian side
international children's creative works contest called "World of
of the lake basin in accord to the Russian Water Code as well as
Water Through the Eyes of Children".
the EU water legislation.
There are a number of multilateral large-scale research 4.5
Major Challenges Facing Transboundary Water
projects where universities and other organizations from
Management
the Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe area participate. Thirteen
research institutions from six countries in Europe, including
Some of the major problems associated with management of
organizations from Estonia and Russia, are involved in a the Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe basin are as follows:
three-year research project "Integrated Strategies for the
Management of Transboundary Waters on the European · Interrelations between Estonian and Russian
fringe--the pilot study of Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe and its
stakeholders are not so strong and effi cient;
drainage basin" (MANTRA-East; www.mantraeast.org)
supported by the EU. This project produces multiple research

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
341

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·
Interstate co-ordination in the lake basin is not enough
·
More human and fi nancial resources to support
especially in the environmental monitoring; and,
transboundary communication and building trust
are needed. Water management in a transboundary
· Complicated border issues impede effective
context is much more complex and multifaceted than
collaboration.
water management within one nation-state. In the
situation where there is no one government to manage
There is a problem affecting ecosystems, as well. As far as the
the transboundary waters and there are different states
lake itself, it has remarkable characteristics, and the wetlands
with their distinct political and economic interests,
around it are Ramsar sites: the lake basin could be regarded
different histories, cultures, all water management
as a huge natural complex having its own unique conditions.
aspects become very political. This political dimension
Hence these ecosystems are precious in their undisturbed
should not be underestimated in the planning of water
state and the loss of any component will mean the change of
protection measures and many more resources should
the whole system.
be planned in transboundary water management
projects (to compare to the projects in water
Nevertheless, there are some strong points connected with
basins located within one nation state) to support
water management in the basin:
transboundary communication, confl ict resolution
and prevention through trust building measures
·
Good will to cooperate in the region;
across borders and development of institutions for
transboundary cooperation. This is to ensure parties
·
Developed legislative base;
can achieve agreements on water protection measures
to be taken. In the Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe basin,
· Existing institutional arrangements for water
the UNDP/GEF project that supports transboundary
management on the both sides;
cooperation, information exchange and development
of a transboundary water management program is
·
Signed bilateral agreements;
important as it facilitates information exchange and
cooperation between national Estonian and Russian
·
Working intergovernmental Commission; and,
authorities and international water management
projects that are implemented separately, namely, the
·
Existing monitoring facilities on both sides.
EU TACIS project in Russia and the EU LIFE project in
Estonia.
As Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe is a relatively new transboundary
water basin, the procedures of international coordination ·
Communication and information activities are also very
of water management have to be elaborated in the context
important in the transboundary water management
of Estonian entry into the European Union for which it has
context as information is exchanged across different
adopted EU standards and norms that are different from
legal and institutional frameworks, cultures and
those of Russia. This task in the context of an international
languages. Along with the specifi c technical information,
lake shared by transition countries is not easy to achieve--
contextual information is to be communicated to
development of cooperative integrated water management
the parties on the other side of the border. In this
is a long process, and along with water management issues,
context, the role of regional transboundary groups
economic and social development problems should be
(research cooperative groups, businesses or NGOs)
resolved. The most important planning and development
as translators of this type of information is critical to
issue concerning Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe is the preparation
ensure transboundary communication takes place and
work for Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe Management Programme. In
is effective.
co-operation with the Estonian and Russian governments,
regional and local authorities, private companies and public,
·
The political will from the governments of the
this is to be completed by 2005 with the support from the
riparian countries is a prerequisite for the start of
Global Environmental Facility/United Nations Development
successful transboundary cooperation. The Lake
Programme, and a contribution from the EU LIFE and TACIS
Peipsi/Chudskoe basin shared by Estonia and Russia
programs.
became transboundary again (after re-establishment of
Estonia's independence) at the beginning of the 1990s;
5.
Lessons Learned and Recommended
the transboundary water management agreement was
Initiatives
signed and a joint transboundary water commission
was established in 1997. Signing the agreement
Based on the experiences of the transboundary cooperation
and establishment of the commission were critically
in the Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe basin, the following lessons
important events in the process of development of the
learned and recommendations for effective management of
transboundary cooperation in the Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe
transboundary waters could be formulated.
basin.
342 Lake
Peipsi/Chudskoe

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·
At the initial stage of establishment of transboundary
example, it has proved effective for example, for the
cooperation, special attention is to be paid to
Estonian-Russian Transboundary Water Commission to
elaborating an appropriate design of cooperative
have in the Commission not only the representatives
institutions; also detailed procedures of work of
of ministries of the environment and foreign affairs,
joint bodies should be developed. For instance, it is
but also border guards, regional and local authorities.
necessary to ensure that the design of cooperative
This composition of members of the joint bodies
institutions is done in a way that all interest groups in
creates conditions for adopting the most viable working
a specifi c water basin have possibilities to get involved
solutions to problems.
in the process of making decisions on issues of use
and protection of the transboundary water resources.
·
Involving local stakeholders into the work of joint
This could be done through creating a possibility for
bodies and preparation and implementation of
representatives of diverse interest groups to participate
transboundary water management plans as well as
in the work of joint bodies as observers to these bodies
other strategic documents is critically important to
(commissions) or otherwise creating special expert
ensure that inter-municipal cooperation is included
groups under joint bodies dealing with stakeholder
into the transboundary water cooperation process.
and public participation. In the Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe
Involving municipalities and local stakeholders allows
basin, a working group dealing with cooperation with
for including the interests of the local population into
local authorities and NGOs was set up. Unfortunately,
implementation of transboundary water regimes. When
no specifi c procedures of work of the Estonian-Russian
implementing the proposals of joint bodies and riparian
Transboundary Water Commission were developed and
governments, ownership of the local population and the
this, of course, decreases the level of effectiveness of
decision-making ministries is essential. Involving local
the work of the Commission in addressing issues of
stakeholders in transboundary water management is
water protection and use in the basin.
not a luxury but a necessary condition for the long-term
sustainable development by developing social capital,
·
An important instrument to ensure communication
promoting social learning, and developing capacity
and coordination of measures across borders is
through networking in the region and with experts and
establishment of institutional arrangements for
organizations in other transboundary water regions.
management of transboundary waters. This includes
Such instruments will also contribute to the overall
establishment of joint bodies (commissions or
sustainability of the results produced by numerous
secretariats) for coordination of implementation of
international/national projects and programs through
transboundary water agreements. The joint bodies
attracting local/regional funds which will help to provide
may vary as to format, structure or functions according
effi cient use of achieved results and implementation of
the specifi c circumstances in question. The value of
the strategic documents.
joint bodies comes from providing a forum for working
together and for addressing and resolving common ·
In a transboundary water basin, with considerable
problems. Often joint bodies deal with diffi cult issues,
differences in legislation as well as gaps in the socio-
some of which have large-scale environmental and
economic development, etc. between the different sides,
economic impacts and some joint plans take a long time
both national water management plans on different
to resolve, but the process of working on those plans is
sides of a border and an umbrella transboundary
important, and as a rule, the result of these cooperative
water management program should be developed;
processes is the resolution of diffi cult plans and issues.
a mechanism to coordinate water measures planning
activities on different scales--transboundary, national
·
The political as well as social and economic context
and local--should be set up. This model of water
and environmental challenges in transboundary water
planning (combination of development of an umbrella
basins change with time in every lake basin; and
transboundary water management program with the
institutional arrangements should be established to
development of national water management plans)
be fl exible to accommodate the changes in the socio-
worked well in the Danube River basin and is being
economic and political context in the region. Structures
effectively implemented in the Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe
that are too rigid are often unable to demonstrate quick
basin within the UNDP/GEF project during the project
response to changing situation and provide appropriate
period, 2003-2005. The process of planning of water
administrative and fi nancial support to transboundary
protection measures on different scales should be
cooperation.
organized interactively providing communication
between teams developing national water management
·
To ensure an integrated approach to managing
plans and transboundary water management strategies.
transboundary waters, it is important that members
of joint bodies represent the different organizations
·
Parallel to the process of developing cooperation on
involved in water management on different levels
the intergovernmental level between nation-states,
so that different perspectives are represented: for
it is important to provide support to transboundary

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
343

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networks of local authorities and stakeholders
·
To ensure that the institutional arrangements are
specifi cally in communication within the networks and in
updated to refl ect changes in the cooperation
developing their shared vision of the future for the whole
context and environmental issues, a mechanism for
water basin. In the Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe basin, there
regular evaluation of effectiveness of institutional
are still weak but already existing cooperative networks
arrangements should be set up. Having an evaluation
between municipalities, schools, NGOs and commercial
mechanism would ensure the institutional arrangements
companies. The local transboundary cooperation in
address priority environmental issues in a transboundary
the region should be supported by the nation-states
water region. Results of such independent evaluation
involved in the transboundary cooperation.
should be open as much as possible for providing the
base for changes in the system.
·
To promote interactive planning of water management
measures in transboundary water basins, innovative ·
Implementation of water protection measures requires
tools and instruments for information exchange
considerable fi nancial resources, usually much higher
and communication, including the Information and
than are usually available in the transboundary water
Communication Technologies, should be elaborated.
region. Implementation of water protection measures
Possibilities to use ICT to promote communication and
requires utilization of matching fi nances from the
cooperation across borders are growing as there is a
respective governments as well as from regional and
growing number of people in the Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe
local authorities and the private sector. It is important
region who use the Internet and as travel across the
to take into account that transboundary areas shared by
border remains diffi cult and expensive for local people.
countries in transition consist of peripheral and usually
In the Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe basin, a communication
less economically-developed regions of neighboring
and information strategy has been developed as a
countries. Therefore, the budgets of local authorities
part of the transboundary lake basin management
are poor and few private entrepreneurs in those border
program and special tools for information exchange
areas would be willing to put their resources into water
and communication were elaborated with the aim
protection. The market for businessmen is much wider
to facilitate effective management of transboundary
in capital areas where most of the wealth of countries
waters. One important tool is a regional Lake Peipsi/
is concentrated. In this context, it is an imperative
Chudskoe Internet portal at www.peipsi.org that uses
especially in transboundary water basins shared by
knowledge management technological solutions to
countries in transition to bring together environmental
provide comprehensive information on environmental
objectives with economic development priorities of
issues and management of the lake basin. The portal
the border regions within the water management basin
exists in Estonian, Russian and English languages.
plans that refl ects priority interests of people living in
transboundary water regions. This is the only way to
·
Research and educational transboundary cooperation
ensure availability in the long term of fi nancial resources
projects play an important role in elaborating visions,
for implementation of water protection measures.
developing scenarios for transboundary water
basins as well as helping to develop expertise and ·
Incorporating the unique history and cultural
capacity of water experts in the region. Cooperation
context of transboundary water regions into the water
between research and educational organizations in
management is important. All transboundary lakes
the water basin is also important to produce shared
and rivers have unique histories and cultural heritage
and reliable information that can be further used
related to the water itself and in many cases this is
to make management decisions. Coordination of
refl ected in the music, art, poetry, legends, architecture
information on research projects by the transboundary
and other forms of cultural expression. Different
commission allows more effi cient use of results of the
cultural contexts need to be factored in to the design
research projects in preparation and implementation
of lake basin management plans. Transboundary water
of water basin management plans. More independent
organizations can capitalize on people's interest in the
research has to be encouraged to produce new ideas
cultural heritage of the region to fi nd common ground
and approaches for more effective work of handing
and break down barriers to cooperation that had come
transboundary water management challenges. Many
about in more recent history.
of the scientists working with water research work as
experts for joint water bodies. It is important to have
·
Effectiveness of the transboundary water cooperation
a broad base of expertise among experts involved in
depends on a range of differences in the levels of social
transboundary water management. The role of experts
and economic development on different sides of the
is important in developing common ground for the
borders. Studies showed that when these differences are
environmental protection strategies to overcome
not great, the differences could promote cooperation;
existing differences in environmental standards, norms,
if a gap in socio-economic development and political
and legal and institutional frameworks.
organization is as great as to prohibit partners on
different sides of the border to understanding each
344 Lake
Peipsi/Chudskoe

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other's problems and issues, this could create mistrust
7. References
and serious impediments to effective cooperation. If no
arrangements are adopted to manage and overcome Gooch, G.D., P. Hoglund, G. Roll and N. Alekseeva. 2002. Review
disparities, the growing gap in socio-economic of Existing Structures, Models and Practices for Transboundary
development and living standards on different sides of
Water Management. MANTRA East Report D1b.
the border, including norms, standards, practices, and
information, is likely to become the main bottleneck Jaani, A. 2001. "The Location, Size and General Characterization
to implementation of integrated water management of Lake Peipsi." In T. Noges (ed.). 2001. Lake Peipsi: Hydrology,
strategies. The Estonian-Russian border area is an Meteorology, Hydrochemistry. Sulemees Publishers: Tallinn.
example of where a growing disparity in socio-economic
development is a worrying feature that may become Leisk, U. and E. Loigu. 2001. "Water quality and pollution load
an impediment to the transboundary cooperation. It is
of the rivers of Lake Peipsi basin." In T. Noges (ed.). 2001. Lake
obvious that the disparity will be the case as Estonia
Peipsi: Hydrology, Meteorology, Hydrochemistry. Sulemees
has become a member of the European Union and Publishers: Tallinn.
Russia is now on the external border of the EU. However,
this gap should be manageable and would still allow
Mourad, D.S.J., M. van der Perk, G.D. Gooch, E. Loigu, K.
understanding, trust and cooperation with Estonia; Piirimae, P. Stalnacke. 2003. "GIS-based quantifi cation
Estonian businesses should be still willing to invest of future nutrient loads into Lake Peipsi /Chudskoe using
on the Russian side of the border and Western tourists
qualitative regional development scenarios." In the
would be willing to visit the Russian side of the border
Proceedings of the 7th International Specialised Conference
region. To ensure this balance, it is important to provide
on Diffuse Pollution and Basin Management, Dublin, Ireland,
more international, mostly EU, as well as Estonian 17-22 August 2003.
government funding, to the Russian side of the border
for the infrastructure and building administrative and
Noges, T. et al. 1996. "General Description of Lake Peipsi-
institutional capacity of stakeholders.
Pihkva". Hydrobiologia 338: 1­9.
· Finally,
coordination of international water initiatives Noges, T. (ed.). 2001. Lake Peipsi: Hydrology, Meteorology,
on the water basin level is of utmost importance Hydrochemistry. Sulemees Publishers: Tallinn.
and there is a positive experience of the coordinated
implementation of international projects in the Lake Pihu, E. and J. Habermann. 2001. Lake Peipsi: Flora and Fauna.
Peipsi/Chudskoe basin. Coordination in preparing Sulemees Publishers: Tallinn.
the Estonian and Russian national plans of water
protection measures and the Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe RSRIWM (Russian Scientifi c Research Institute of Water
transboundary water management program is organized
Management). 2000. Assessment of Transboundary Water
through the development of detailed joint plans of work
Pollution from Emissions of the Estonian and Baltic Thermal
between the relevant authorities and their projects' Power Stations. St. Petersburg, Russia. (In Russian).
implementation units, regular consultations between
the project managers and establishment of shared Stalnacke, P., U. Sults, A. Vasiliev, B. Skakalsky, A. Botina, G.
projects' steering committees that include the same Roll, K. Pachel, and T. Maltsman. 2002. "An assessment of
representatives from the Estonian and Russian relevant
riverine loads of nutrients to Lake Peipsi, 1995-1998." Large
authorities who oversee implementation of all the major
Rivers 13: 3-4. (Archiv fur Hydrobiol. Suppl. 141/3-4: 437-457.)
projects in the water basin.
Timmerman, J.G., K. Kipper, A. Meiner, S. Mol, D. Nieuwenhuis,
6. Acknowledgments
G. Roll, M. Sare, U. Sults, and P. Unt. 2002. The use and valuing
of environmental information in the decision making process:
For description of the Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe Basin in this an experimental study. Workshop report. RIZA report no.
report, the materials of the following projects were used: 2002.069X. RIZA: Lelystad, The Netherlands.
the EU FP5 research project "Integrated strategies for the
management of transboundary waters on the Eastern European
UN/WWAP (United Nations/World Water Assessment
fringe--the pilot study of Lake Peipsi and its drainage basin"
Programme). 2003. UN World Water Development Report:
(website: www.mantraeast.org); the Peipsi/Chudskoe case Water for People, Water for Life. UNESCO (United Nations
study report prepared for the UN World Water Development
Educational, Scientifi c and Cultural Organization) and
Report (2003) and Peipsi/Chudskoe case report for the Global
Berghahn Books: Paris, New York and Oxford.
Water Partnership Toolbox (www.gwpforum.org).

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
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Disclaimer
The fi ndings, interpretations and conclusions expressed
in this report are the views of the authors and do not
necessarily represent the views of The World Bank and its
Board of Directors, or the countries they represent, nor do
they necessarily represent the view of the organizations,
agencies or governments to which any of the authors are
associated. Also, the colors, boundaries, denominations, and
classifi cations in this report do not imply, on the part of The
World Bank and its Board of Directors, or the countries they
represent, and the organizations, agencies or governments to
which any of the authors are associated, any judgment on the
legal or other status of any territory, or any endorsement or
acceptance of any boundary.
346 Lake
Peipsi/Chudskoe

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