Lake Nakuru
Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
Eric O. Odada*, Department of Geology, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya, pass@uonbi.ac.ke
Jackson Raini, World Wildlife Fund for Nature, Nakuru, Kenya
Robert Ndetei, Wetland Programme, Kenya Wildlife Service, Kitengela, Kenya
* Corresponding author
1.
Introduction
also decreased markedly (Vareschi 1978; Tuite 1979). The
birds declined at Lake Nakuru, for example, from over one
Lake Nakuru (Figure 1) is one of several shallow, alkaline-saline
million to a few thousand after the salinity rose about 25% (20
lakes lying in closed hydrologic basins in the eastern African
to 25 g/L between September 1973 to March 1974; Vareschi
Rift Valley that stretches from northern Tanzania through 1982). The phytoplankton abundance also declined, with the
Kenya to Ethiopia (Livingstone and Melack 1984). Typical of
species switching to those too small for the fl amingoes to fi lter
shallow, saline lakes around the world, climatic variations from the water. Although the sensitivity of these ecosystems
have caused large changes in its depth and salinity on annual,
to modest changes in salinity has been demonstrated, the
decadal and longer time scales, with major consequences for
underlying mechanisms for the multiple responses could only
the lake's ecology. Daily fl uctuations in heating and cooling
be surmised (Melack 1988).
have resulted in strong cycles of stratifi cation and mixing
(Melack and Kilham 1974). High insolation and adequate The Lake Nakuru catchment basin is a closed drainage system
supply of nutrients usually support abundant phytoplankton
of 1,800 km2. The Menengai Crater (8,060-2,040 m asl) lies to
(Peters and MacIntyre 1976; Melack et al. 1982; Vareschi 1982).
the north, Bahati Highlands to the northeast, Mau Escarpment
Supersaturation of dissolved oxygen in the upper waters
during the day often is observed because of the high rates of
photosynthesis (Melack and Kilham 1974; Vareschi 1982).
LAKE NAKURU BASIN
K E N Y A
Drainage Basin Boundary
Alkaline-saline lakes rich in bicarbonate and carbonate
Park Boundary
(usually called soda lakes), such as Lake Nakuru, are among
River
Lake
the world's most productive natural ecosystems (Livingstone
Kabatini
Selected City
1998
and Melack 1984; Melack 1996). A conspicuous feature of
R.
19861970
sur
1930
these lakes often is the presence of enormous numbers of
0

5 km
Ngo
lesser fl amingos (Phoeniconaias minor) grazing on thick
Nakuru
suspensions of phytoplankton. Low species diversity, but
Njoro
abundant populations of aquatic organisms, make soda lakes
Boundary of Lake Nakuru
N
National Park
especially suitable for the study of trophic dynamics and
Larmudiac R.
Lake
ecosystem processes (Vareschi and Jacobs 1985).
R.
Nakuru
Njoro
Naishi
Biological communities in shallow, tropical saline lakes are
R.
R.
ia
susceptible to small variations in water balances and salinities.
Bagaria
Nderit
Paleoecologists have long exploited the salinity-driven shifts
Makal
in aquatic communities of saline lakes as a means of trying
Elementeita
Miti
Mingi
to decipher the climatic history of tropical Africa (Livingstone
Kiptangwanyi
2000). In the 1970s, intensive limnological studies of Kenya's
soda lakes documented striking changes associated with
Mau Narok
Kiambogo
climatic variations (Melack 1996). During a period of low
rainfall and abrupt salinity increase in Lake Elementeita
(Kenya, 0°27' S, 36°15' E) and Lake Nakuru (Kenya, 0°22' S,
36°5' E), the phytoplankton abundance decreased, and the
zooplankton species composition changed (Melack 1979,
1981, 1988; Vareschi 1982; Vareschi and Vareschi 1984).
As species of phytoplankton, such as Spirulina platensis,
Boundaries and locations are approximate
Arthrospira fusiformis (Hindak 1985) were replaced by much
and should not be considered authoritative.
ILEC/0.36S/36.09E/110106
smaller phytoplankton, the abundance of lesser fl amingos
Figure 1. The Lake Nakuru Basin.

---

(3,000 m asl) to the west, Eburru crater to the south, and gentle
The park has a very high wildlife concentration, consisting of 70
grasslands between the Lake Nakuru and Lake Elementeita
mammal species, 400 bird species and over 200 plant species.
basins lie to the east. At the sump of this catchment basin
Lake Nakuru, the centerpiece of this wildlife showcase, is
is the insulated Lake Nakuru National Park, the buffer zone
internationally renowned for the large concentrations of
between human activities and the lake. The geology of Lake
lesser fl amingos that use it for feeding, displaying, and
Nakuru and its catchment area comprises volcanic rocks (lava
occasionally for breeding. The lake's main primary producer is
fl ows and pyroclastics) of the Tertiary-Quaternary age, which
the cyanobacterium, Arthrospira fusiformis, the preferred food
have been affected by a series of faulting. The soil also is
of the lesser fl amingo. The lake and its littoral area support
of volcanic origin and, due to its high porosity, permeability
over 70 species of waterfowl and water-related birds. Each
and loose structure, is highly susceptible to erosion, land year, the park's resident bird life is enriched by the presence
subsidence and fractures during or after heavy rain.
of several species of Palearctic waders that use the lake as
a staging ground during their winter migration down the Rift
Archaeological evidence suggests that between about Valley fl yway. LNNP is the second most frequently-visited park
10,000-30,000 years ago, the lakeshore was occupied by a
in the country, earning the Government of Kenya substantial
hunter-gatherer people known as "Eburran". Neolithic people
revenue for a relatively low management cost. It is a popular
subsequently occupied the area, later giving way to the Maasai
destination for local and international tourists, annually
people, who still occupy some parts of the basin.
receiving approximately 200,000 visitors and grossing over
US$4.5 million from gate collections alone. It is Kenya's fi rst
The catchment basin has two important biodiversity zones;
Ramsar site, Africa's fi rst bird sanctuary and a UNESCO-
namely, the forests shrouding the catchment's upper reaches
designated World Heritage Site. In addition to generating
and the Lake Nakuru National Park (LNNP). Interposed revenue for the Government, the park also has contributed
between these two zones are areas of human habitation to the socio-economic development of Nakuru town and its
with less biodiversity value, but which are dependent either
environs through tourism development, hotel accommodation,
directly or indirectly on the ecological services provided by
food, curio sales and other entrepreneurial activities.
the high biodiversity zones. Conversely, the areas of human
habitation have direct and indirect impacts on the ecological
2. Background
stability of the biodiversity-rich areas. LNNP offers one of
the most exciting concentrations of wildlife in Kenya. The 2.1 Biophysical
Features
park, occupying an area of 188 km2, is endowed with diverse
habitats, each with its characteristic fauna and fl ora. Eleven
2.1.1 The Forests of the Catchment Basin
major ecological habitats are represented, ranging from the
The forested areas of the catchment basin consist of the
lake and the mud fl ats and salt marshes surrounding it, to
Eastern Mau, Eburru and Dondori forests (Figure 2). The Eburru
mosaics of open and wooded grassland, dense forest, bush
forest, composed of indigenous tree species, covers an area of
and cliff habitats.
8,736 ha, while the Dondori forest covers an area of 6,956 ha.
The Eastern Mau forest forms part
of a national watershed (the Mau
Complex), being the largest of these
forest blocks and covering an area of
65,000 ha. It is mainly composed of
plantation and indigenous forests
that have been progressively excised
over the last 10 years to make way
for human settlement. What forest
remains now is restricted to the crest
of the escarpment, and consists of
thickets of bamboo interspersed
with stands of Olea capensis, Prunus
Africana, Albizia gummifera and
Podocarpus latifolius.
The Mau forest contains a rich
bird fauna, having been accorded
Important Birds Area (IBA) status.
Forty-nine of Kenya's 67 Afrotropical
Highland bird species are known to
occur in the Mau Forest Complex,
Figure 2. Changes in Forest Cover in Lake Nakuru Basin, 1930-1998.
including the grey-throated barbet
300 Lake
Nakuru

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(Gymnobucco bonapartei), Luhder's bush shrike (Laniarius
evaporation is 1,800 mm. Isohyetal analyses show a general
leuhderi), equatorial akalat (Sheppardia aequatorialis),
decrease in rainfall from the crest of the catchment towards
red-chested owlet (Glaucidium tephronotum), banded prinia
Lake Nakuru, which is located in a rain shadow. The rainfall
(Prinia bairdii) and black-faced rufous warbler (Bathmocercus
is mainly convective and occurs in the afternoons as heavy
cerviniventris). Of these bird species, 11 are listed in the storms that may last between 10 minutes to one hour and they
globally-threatened (CITES I and II) category, including the are quite erosive, with an energy range among the highest in
Verreaux eagle (Aquila verreauxii), Amani sunbird (Anthreptes
Kenya. Gully erosion is rampant in northwestern part of the
pallidigaster) and Taita thrush (Turdus helleri). Others include
catchment. Areas undergoing serious erosion include newly
regional endemic species, such as Hartlaub's Turacco (Turaco
opened forest zones.
hartlaubi), the restricted range Hunter's Cisticola (Cisticola
hunteri) and Jackson's Francolin (Francolinus jacksoni). There
There has been an increase in water abstraction along the
is little information available on the fauna of this area.
upstream parts of the rivers for irrigation, domestic and factory
use. There are over 350 registered and unregulated water
2.1.2 Hydrology and Water Balance
intakes in the catchment streams. Deforestation, cultivation
At 1,759 m asl, Lake Nakuru is one of the highest lakes in the
and urbanization, individually and collectively exert effects
central Kenya dome of the Rift Valley, and its high elevation
that alter the hydrological regime of an area. The destruction
has hydrological implications on the lake's water balance. of forests poses dire consequences for the biodiversity they
Unlike other low-lying Rift Valley lakes that have copious water
support and also has signifi cant and cumulative impacts
supply through a series of hot and freshwater springs (e.g.,
on the catchment hydrology. Springs that sustained human
Bogoria, Magadi), there is minimal underground infl ow into
populations since their arrival in the area over 3 decades
Lake Nakuru through the axial fault line system. The Baharini
ago have dried up. The hydrological impacts are manifested
Springs, and other springs along the eastern shoreline, are
in higher run-off rates; higher and more destructive peak
perennial, contributing about 0.6 m3/s to the lake. The lake's
discharges in rivers and other water courses, marked
hydrology is dependent on catchment supply through rivers,
seasonality in stream fl ow and signifi cant declines in the stable
demanding catchment integrity in order to sustain the lake
yields of wells and boreholes. As the demand for water grows
water level. It has a mean depth of 2.5 m, maximum depth
and abstraction rates increase, the capability of the catchment
of 4.5 m, and a water volume of about 92 x 106 m3 (long-term
to harvest and hold rainwater appears to be diminishing.
mean of 1925-1979, as cited by Vareschi (1982)). The recent
(1992-2002) monthly mean lake depth is 1.01 m (range cp:
There are 156 registered boreholes in the catchment and a
during the 1997/1998 El Niņo fl oods.
few unregistered. None of these are metered. The Njoro River
watershed has over 41 boreholes in its upper reaches. Nakuru
Its shallow depth, high evaporation rates and seasonal rivers
Municipality has over 55 registered boreholes, of these 35
make the lake a hydrologically-impacted ecosystem, since it
are located in Kabatini aquifer, which recharges the Baharini
does not have any buffering capacity to withstand hydrological
Springs.
impacts driven by catchment processes. Five seasonal rivers
(Makalia, Nderit, Naishi, Njoro and Larmudiac), and treated
2.2
Political and Socio-Economic Features on
wastewater from Nakuru town, drain into the lake. Some
Conservation and Development
of these rivers (Njoro, Ngosur and Naishi) become infl uent,
disappearing along the fault lines to recharge deep aquifers.
2.2.1 Land Use and Settlement Patterns
There is a clear streamfl ow response to precipitation in the
Little is known of the settlement patterns in the lake's catchment
catchment. The fi rst peak fl ow occurs in May, a month after
basin prior to 1889, although the area has been an important
peak rainfall, while the second peak fl ow coincides with that
center for human populations for many years, as evidenced
of rain in August. Lake Nakuru is an enclosed lake, with only
by the prehistoric sites located in the vicinity (Horrobin 1971
evaporation accounting for water loss from the lake. The cited in Mwangi 1994). European travelers visiting the area at
long drought periods of 1993 to mid-1997 have resulted in
the turn of the century provided descriptions of uninhabited
particularly poor hydrological conditions, as evidenced by the
landscapes teeming with wildlife (Elliot 1905; Chapman
excessive lake level decline (see Figure 3 in section 3.2). As
1908; Percival 1928). Local tales describe occupation of the
expected, the salinity (as measured through conductivity) is
area by shifting cultivators and pastoral groups, who used
inversely related to lake level/river infl ow.
the valley fl oors, grasslands and forest glades for cultivation
and wet season grazing practices that continue to this day.
2.1.3 Climate and Rainfall
Landscape modifi cation during this period led to habitat loss
There is considerable variation in climate within the Lake and interference with the migratory routes of endemic wildlife.
Nakuru basin depending on altitude and topography. The Together with uncontrolled hunting, this situation precipitated
climate ranges from cold and humid to arid and semi-
their decimation and dispersal (Kutilek 1974).
arid--typical characteristics of the Rift Valley fl oor. Mean
annual rainfall is 750 mm, with peaks in the months of At Kenya's independence in 1963, pressure to allocate land
November to December and April to May. It is infl uenced by
to the landless led to a new wave of settlement schemes
the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). Mean annual on the existing large farms, which were sub-divided into

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
301

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smaller, individually-owned parcels of land. As demand for of land and, between 1994 to the present, over 30,000 ha of
land increased over the next decade, encroachment into the
natural and plantation forest are estimated to have been clear
forest reserves occurred, gradually eroding the thin mantle of
felled and the land put under the plough. An infl ux of estimated
protection afforded to the lake by the forests. This settlement
30,000 people migrated into the catchment, drawing attention
was characterized by poor land use planning, with little regard
to the willful blindness of politicians to the environmental
for environmental considerations such as slope and soil consequences of their decisions, and also to the apathetic
characteristics, and leading to degradation of soil conservation
response of stakeholders, including the resident communities,
structures constructed during the colonial period. The farmers,
who stood to lose the most. Despite a belated ban on felling
determined to emulate their more progressive counterparts in
imposed by the government in early 1998, illegal felling
other parts of Kenya, invested in hybrid seed, fertilizers and
continues in the Mau and Dondori forests (Figure 2). However,
pesticides to boost crop yields. Between 1967 and 1986, more
the December 2002 general elections brought political change
than 400 km2 of forest and land under natural vegetation in
in Kenya, which undoubtedly induced institutional changes,
the catchment basin were cleared for settlement. During this
and the new regime appears committed to environmental
same period, the area of the catchment under forest and restoration.
natural vegetative cover declined from 47 to 26%. Declines
also occurred in the land area under large-scale farming and
2.2.2 Development of Lake Nakuru National Park
ranching, with small-scale subsistence farming burgeoning The present LNNP resulted from a series of events. In the
from insignifi cant levels in 1970 to over 35% of the catchment
1950s, although the lake was one of the best sites for
area in 1986. The type of farming practiced by the new settlers
observing fl amingos, it also was an ideal site migratory bird
depleted the resources available for restoring or improving soil
sport shooting, raising concern with nature lovers concerned
fertility, or curtailing erosion. Land allocation for farming on
with the fate of the fl amingos and who lobbied the Government
steep slopes, often exceeding the 55% gradient stipulated by
for protection of the lake. The fl amingos were eventually
the Agricultural Act, further exacerbated the erosion problem.
protected under the Royal Game Ordinance 12/51 Section 4,
In combination with other factors, this situation led to a as they faced decimation through commercial exploitation for
progressive decline in environmental quality and crop yields
feathers. In 1952, soda fi sh (Sarotherodon alcalicus grahami)
over the ensuing years.
were introduced into the lake from Lake Magadi, diversifying
the waterfowl species by attracting fi sh-eating birds.
The aggravating factors include insecure land tenure,
inaccessibility of extension services and technological options,
Lake Nakuru was declared a conservation area in 1957, and
low farm prices and disposable income, recurrent droughts,
the southern lakeshore was established as a bird sanctuary
crop pests and, in some cases, wildlife depredation. Large-
to protect the lesser fl amingos in 1960. The southern two-
scale farms (>100 acres), with trained managers and greater
thirds of the lake was designated a bird sanctuary under the
access to capital, were able to modernize their operations in
Kenya Royal National Parks in 1961. During 1964-1972, several
the post-independence era, emerging as the most productive
conservationists (including WWF) undertook to expand the
farms in the country. However, these gains were achieved park, when 14,000 to 50,500 acres of land were purchased
and maintained through heavy investments in agricultural at a cost of US$500,000. People in many parts of the world,
machinery and agro-chemicals.
particularly children, raised signifi cant funds in a matter of
weeks to help "Save Lake Nakuru".
The remaining natural forests in the catchment were gazetted
in 1989, and brought under the management of the Forest In 1990 LNNP was designated as a Ramsar site (site No. 476);
Department, a time when tree felling in Kenya came under
a Wetland of International Importance, especially as Waterfowl
more stringent regulation. In areas bordering the forest, Habitat. Over the years, LNNP has become an island of nature
farmers were still able to buy building poles and harvest surrounded by a sea of humanity. The potential effects of
dead wood from the forests to feed their hearths. In more
this insularization are particularly worrying in regard to the
removed areas, however, where tree planting on farms was
sustainable use of the lake.
equally scarce, fuel wood and building material shortage was
beginning to be felt. In the Mwariki settlement on the outskirts
2.2.3 Development of Nakuru Town
of Nakuru, for example, farmers paid more than 30% of their
Nakuru was founded in 1904 as a railway outpost, 160 km
annual income purchasing fuel wood.
northwest of Nairobi. It is located along the east-west transport
route across the country, linking the Kenyan coast with the
In a highly controversial move, the government de-gazetted
Lake Victoria region and neighboring Uganda. It is situated
over 20,000 ha of the Eastern Mau Forest on the western divide
at an altitude of 1859 m as. on a remarkable, overwhelming
of the catchment basin in 1994, a major national watershed,
setting between the Menengai Crater (second largest crater in
and the source of feeder streams to Lake Nakuru. The decision
Africa) and Lake Nakuru, home of the famous fl amingos.
was ostensibly taken in the interests of "landless" forest
dwellers who had been marginalized and excluded from Within this region, Nakuru occupies a preeminent position as
the mainstream of national development since 1946. Other the administrative capital of the Rift Valley, and as industrial,
individuals took advantage of this situation to secure parcels
commercial and service center for the surrounding agricultural
302 Lake
Nakuru

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hinterland. It is linked with other towns in the region by a rail
·
Urban areas in the district are the main employment
and road network. The town is the Headquarters of Nakuru
centers, contributing to more than half of the jobs in the
District, and a principal town in the hierarchy, with over 300
district;
trade and service centers in the district.
·
Excess capacity in resource utilization within the district
(tourism, farming, etc.);
Nakuru is the fourth largest town in Kenya, supporting a ·
The town contributes signifi cantly to both employment
population of 400,000 people. The urban population has been
and earnings in the district, enhancing its role as a
growing at a rate of 10% per annum over the last 3 decades. To
regional capital;
accommodate this population growth, the town's boundaries
·
Inadequate infrastructure services to meet the
have been progressively extended, presently occupying an
densifi cation trends of commercial activities both in the
area of 290 km2 (See Figure 1). Land use in Nakuru's developed
city center and the new areas (packing, service lines,
area is dominated by housing (70% of the area), followed by
roads, public utilities, etc.);
industry and commerce (18%), and transport (2.5%) (Mbagwa
·
Inadequate appropriate space for growth of informal
et al. 1998). It also is a major hub for the transportation sector,
commercial and industrial activities;
serving as a transit point for vehicles destined for Uganda,
·
The town's declining industrial base has affected the
DR Congo, Sudan, Burundi and Rwanda. Once dubbed "the
contradictory policies of the government (high interest
cleanest town in East Africa", Nakuru's standards of urban
rates, poor infrastructure, poor pricing of agricultural
services and infrastructure have since fallen rapidly, greatly
produce, etc.) and the liberalization of the economy;
compromising the quality of the living environment.
·
The town has lost its location advantage, despite its
centrality and connectivity to other towns through
Because Nakuru is squeezed between the crater to the north
regional, national and international railway; and,
and the lake to the south, the urban area develops toward the
·
Lack of municipal policy on urban economic growth
west, which is geologically unstable, and to the east, an area of
and development, especially industrial and commercial
rich agricultural value. The confl ict between the need for urban
growth (Nakuru Strategic Structure Plan 1999)
expansion and the need to protect the fragile nature results
in a complexity posing major challenge for sustainable urban
Housing is provided by the 3 sectors (government, private,
development and lake management.
council) in Nakuru, with the private sector being the largest
provider. Most structures are unplanned, however, and
Like most cities, Nakuru is a large resource consumer and a
lack essential amenities (roads, water, sewer, electricity,
prodigious waste producer. Although only 19% of the town is
etc.). Nakuru also faces acute water shortages, with the
covered by sewerage, about 9,000 m3 of sewage is generated
water demand being 45,000-50,000 m3/day, resulting in a
each day. It is being processed in two treatment plants before
shortfall of about 1,000 m3/day. The population increase is
being discharged into the lake. The town also generates an
putting pressure on the water supply, which partly comes
estimated 240 tons of domestic solid waste per day, with about
from boreholes, and is likely having repercussions on the
60% being moved to approved dumping sites. The remainder
underground water supply on which Lake Nakuru partially
accumulates in the environment, being eventually deposited in
depends.
the lake by stormwater and wind. Pre-treatment of industrial
waste is the exception rather than the rule, and stormwater is
The main health providers in Nakuru are government, municipal
discharged into the lake without prior treatment.
council, private sector and churches. Like other services,
health services are concentrated in high and middle-income
In terms of lake management concerns, the most signifi cant
areas and the central business district. The low-income areas
development in recent years was urban sprawl, with lack these facilities even though they are where the residents
encroachment into farmlands, forest and wildlife habitats at
live in unsanitary conditions and with inadequate clean water,
the town's periphery, and the growing waste burden. These
leading to health risks. The Poverty Reduction Strategic Paper
developments have adversely affected the water balance and
(PRSP) 2001-2003 indicated that water provision in Kenya is
water quality of Lake Nakuru and its feeder streams.
a necessity that has either been done free-of-charge or at a
very subsidized level, ensuring that sustaining this policy
2.2.4 Economic, Social and Health Issues
has been a very illusive goal. In 1999 and 2002, there was a
The major economic sectors in Nakuru are agriculture, cholera outbreak in some of the Nakuru settlements, resulting
commerce, industry, mining, tourism and tertiary services. The
from contaminated water, and outbreaks of typhoid and other
main socioeconomic issues include:
waterborne diseases are common.
·
Declining employment trends in the district, against a
The HIV/AIDS epidemic is the single most important
background of increasing population and labor force;
health challenge facing Kenya in its post independence
·
Low employment levels and growth in the main history, causing an estimated 500 deaths each day. Over
complementary towns, compared to population and 2 million people are infected with HIV (about 13% of the
labor force growth;
adult population; according to the Government), and the
Government declared HIV/AIDS a national disaster in

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
303

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November 1999. Awareness campaigns have resulted in a railway station and the lake. (Meinertzhagen 1957 cited in
drop in infection rates by about 3%. The impact of HIV/AIDS
Mwangi 1994). In the 1960's, long after the area's mammalian
is nevertheless being experienced in many spheres, including
life was considerably decimated and dispersed, Peter Scott
lake management, because community time, efforts and other
and Roger Tory Peterson still considered Lake Nakuru and its
resources originally designated for improving livelihoods, and
environs to be the "world's greatest ornithological spectacle".
for providing water services and conservation planning, are
now spent for HIV/AIDS-related activities. Research in the The fate of Lake Nakuru and its environs was to change forever
development of appropriate treatment regimen and vaccines
from the beginning of the 20th century, as outsiders fl ocked
has been encouraged, however, and Voluntary Counseling and
in from many areas to hunt, establish farms, build businesses
Testing (VCTs) is being popularized.
and create modern towns and communication infrastructure.
During the past 30 years, the basin was transformed from a
In the rural areas, there is a large disparity between annual
sparsely-populated, densely-forested expanse, to a region that
farm income among households (minimum US$0; maximum
is heavily settled, extensively cultivated and rapidly urbanizing.
US$4,000), with detrimental impacts on conservation efforts
This transformation was accompanied by a precipitous decline
in the basin. A high percentage of households (36%) have
in the area's biodiversity. Wildlife also has been obliterated
no off-farm income, implying a high rate of exploitation and
from most parts of the catchment area over the last 3 decades,
dependence on the basin's natural resources, which could with the clear felling of vast tracts of natural and plantation
accelerate basin degradation (Aboud et al. 2001).
forest eliminating wildlife habitat and causing their decimation
and dispersal. The only remaining bastions of biodiversity are
2.2.5 Financing Lake Management
the forests and the National Park, and even these areas are
Although fi nancing management and conservation initiatives
under threat from conversion to human settlements and the
in the lake basin can be classifi ed into various categories, resulting alterations to the catchment's hydrology.
the system adopted here is consistent with the land tenure
system that can be categorized into Government or public The extent of the Eastern Mau Forest was reduced by
land and private land. Government/public conservation land
28% between 1967-1989, largely due to excisions human
includes the National Park and the catchment forests, where
settlements. Further degazettement of about 30,000 hectares
conservation activities are Government-funded. Other funding
of plantation forest followed in 1994, with illegal felling and
mechanisms include bi/multilateral donor support and private
burning within the gazetted reserve making further inroads
donors. The specifi c area's managing authority is accountable
into the forest thereafter.
to the Government for any of these funding mechanisms:
The recent decision by the government to de-gazette a
·
Private land where the Government provides extension
further 35,000 ha of the Eastern Mau Forest will reduce its
conservation activities or goes in partnership with NGO/
present area by 50%, resulting in the loss of a large portion
CBOs, or where donors directly fund communities; and,
of natural forest, the main repository of this ecosystem's
·
Individual developers and local community fi nance
biodiversity. A similar situation prevails in Eburru and Dondori
conservation efforts on their land.
forests. A recent survey revealed that large-scale cultivation is
occurring within the Eburru forest, and charcoal burning and
3. Biophysical
Environment
illegal logging and cultivation is rampant in both Eburru and
Dondori forests. Farmers living adjacent to these forests have
3.1
Past and Present Conditions
abandoned exhausted farms to cultivate within the forest.
Although humans have occupied the catchment basin for tens
The Nakuru township was opened to industrialization in the
of thousands of years, and established permanent settlements
early 1970's, with little thought being given to the impacts
since the turn of the last century, the most dramatic changes
of industry on the ecology of the land or the lake, and no
(from an environmental and biodiversity standpoint) have conscious effort being made to exclude industries that might
occurred over the last 30 years. The Scottish explorer Joseph
present serious environmental problems. A fungicide (copper
Thompson journeyed from Naivasha to Lake Nakuru in 1884
oxychloride) factory was constructed in the town and operated
and, upon arrival, stood at a high vantage point overlooking the
for a whole year before its impacts on the environment and its
lake, observing the splendor and awesome sight of thousands
potential for polluting the lake were realized. The factory was
of lesser fl amingos, densely packed along its brilliant white,
relocated to another part of the country at a great cost to the
soda-encrusted shoreline, and creating the unforgettable government. Further, the town's fi rst solid waste landfi ll was
impression of a surging pink surf. Other outsiders following
sited 0.5 km from the northern lake shore, remaining there
Thompson, Eliot (1905), Chapman (1908) and Percival (1924,
for several years before the Park was extended to include this
1928) were to remark that such an impressive assemblage of
area and the landfi ll was relocated. Leachate from the landfi ll
game could not be seen anywhere else in East Africa.
drained into the lake and the groundwater table during this
period, as it does to this day long after being abandoned.
In 1904, Meinertzhagen reported seeing large herds of Nakuru's fi rst sewage treatment plant began operation in 1953,
Jackson's hartebeest (now extinct) in the area between Nakuru
and began discharging sewage into the lake soon thereafter.
304 Lake
Nakuru

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All these changes in the catchment and development in Nakuru
a variety of clinical signs, among which neurological signs
have had impacts on the lake.
predominated. Although a comprehensive report has yet
to be produced, the data collected thus far provides some
Recent analysis of river water and lake bottom sediments information on the present health status of the lesser fl amingo
revealed enrichment with heavy metals and pesticide residues.
population. Liver and kidney lesions were predominant in
A pesticide use survey in the basin revealed farmers are the sampled birds and, since these organs are associated
still using banned or restricted organochlorine pesticides with the detoxifi cation and elimination of toxic substances,
(e.g., DDT, endosulfan, aldrin, dieldrin). Surveys of benthic it is tentatively suggested that exposure to toxicants may be
macroinvertebrate communities in catchment streams indicate
occurring or that some disease may be the cause.
a progressive simplifi cation in community structure from the
river headwaters to their discharge points in the lake, being
Finally, dissolved oxygen levels (Figure 3) vary from
attributed to several factors, including streamfl ow alterations,
supersaturation to near anoxia as a function of stratifi cation
alterations to the river bed substrate as a result of siltation,
and high biological activity of the productive, natural
loss of canopy cover, and the toxic effects of pesticide residues
community living in the lake. It is unclear how much more
and heavy metals. Waterfowl counts carried out at Lake Nakuru
biological oxidation demand is added by the sewage and
show a progressive decline in species diversity and numbers
stormwater inputs.
over the last 8 years, attributed to the frequent, protracted
dryouts that have occurred in the lake over the last decade.
3.2
Lake and Drainage Basin Resource Confl icts
(Further information on toxic and other forms of contamination
can be found in WWF-LNCDP (1998)).
Issues regarding equitable access to natural resources and
sustainable environmental conservation and economic
In view of these threats to the area's biodiversity, the main
development have arisen in the Lake Nakuru drainage basin.
challenges confronting lake management including:
The ever-increasing human population, poor enforcement of
environmental regulations, and unsustainable exploitation
·
Maintaining the vitality and integrity of the catchment;
of natural resources are root causes for human-resource
·
Restoring groundcover in the catchment to the maximum
confl ict. Denudation and degradation of forestlands, clearing
extent under existing land use regimes;
of riverbanks, lack of regulation of the mining industry, poor
·
Restoring the water balance and water quality of the
land use planning and urban development, the prevalence of
catchment through better land use practices and poverty, and human-wildlife confl icts around LNNP exemplify
sustainable water management;
the confl ict between the catchment's natural resources and
·
Entrenching the conservation ethic among catchment human population.
residents, and promoting sustained conservation effort
by capacity-building and linking conservation with The communities in the catchment area are from different
achievement of development aspirations; and,
ethnic groups, having co-existed peacefully for over 30 years
·
Monitoring trends in biodiversity and environmental until 1992, when politically-instigated ethnic clashes erupted,
conservation, in order to evaluate progress and identify
resulting in many deaths, property destruction and population
new threats.
displacements. For months following the clashes, farming
activities were abandoned and conservation activities came
Major indications of a stressed Lake Nakuru ecosystem to a halt. The inter-ethnic fi ghting recurred at the beginning
date back to 1990, when mass fi sh deaths were followed of 1998 with the same disastrous results, with land as the
by the 1993 fl amingo mortalities, and the 1994 lake drying,
underlying issue of contention.
a likely response to the cumulative effects of disastrous
negative impacts on the catchment that translated into lake
The human-wildlife confl ict between the LNNP administration
environmental degradation. Since 1995, the Arthrospira
and its immediate neighbors has continued, with wild animals
fusiformis population in the lake has made only occasional,
damaging crops and property in adjacent farms, while the
and very transient, appearances (Figure 3).
basin inhabitants have continued environmental degradation
activities.
Replacing Arthrospira fusiformis, the lake's algal composition
has been dominated largely by undesirable species of blue-
The confl ict between the need for urban expansion and the
green algae (e.g., Microcystis sp., Anabaena sp.). Both species
need to protect the lake has resulted in a complex situation
are known to fl ourish in nutrient-rich waters with high organic
posing vast challenges to sustainable urban development. The
content, and both are capable of elaborating potent hepatic
city's fragile ecological setting induces severe constraints and
and neurotoxins to which birds and fi sh are susceptible.
calls for limiting its growth. Conversely, the population growth
and economic potential calls for enhanced urban development,
Over 20,000 lesser fl amingos died at both Lakes Nakuru and
and appropriate planning strategies. Thus, the views of all
Bogoria in 1993. The deaths recurred in 1995 in both lakes,
stakeholders in the development process are vital to achieve
and have since become a regular phenomenon. Affected birds
desirable future outcomes.
appeared to be in good physical condition, but exhibited

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
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4. Management
Environment
with other institutions, particularly in addressing threats to the
lake originating outside the National Park boundaries.
4.1
Lake Management Programs and Processes
The target states for healthy ecosystems in the lake catchment
Lake Nakuru is a protected National Park under the Wildlife Act.
include:
Although the Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS) is entrusted with
managing the lake environment, KWS works in collaboration
·
Highly livable cities and rural areas;
·
Productive farms and forests; and,
Figure 3. Njoro River Gauge Height, Lake Nakuru Level, Dissolved Oxygen, Conductivity and Lesser Flamingo Population,
January 1994-June 2000 (Source: Offi cial Monitoring Data).
306 Lake
Nakuru

---

·
Clean streams, and a lake in which its inherent potential
the lake basin should have a poverty alleviation component,
is realized, its capacity for self-repair when perturbed
whose implementation should involve local communities.
is preserved, and minimal external support for
management is needed.
Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS). KWS is a government institution
mandated to conserve and manage Lake Nakuru under the
The fi rst major lake management action took place in 1961,
Wildlife Act, its mission being "on behalf of the Government
when the lake was declared a protected site, with subsequent
of Kenya hold in trust for the present and future generations
expansion of a buffer zone. Only the southern two-thirds of
locally, nationally and globally the biological diversity
the lake and a narrow littoral strip were initially accorded represented by its extraordinary variety of animals, plants and
protection. The area under protection was increased to include
ecosystems ranging from coral reefs to deserts and forests."
the entire lake in 1968. In 1974, land was purchased to create
To this end, KWS, in collaboration with other stakeholders and
a buffer zone around the lake, thereby increasing the park area
funding from the Royal Dutch Embassy, developed the Lake
to its present size of 188 km2.
Nakuru Ecosystem Integrated Management Plan (LNEIMP)
2002-2012. This ecosystem plan addresses poverty alleviation,
In 1970, WWF supported the establishment of the Baharini
and focuses on reducing the challenges and threats facing
Wildlife Research Station in LNNP, the aim of the initiative the lake, and providing an ecosystem-based approach for
being to generate information that would facilitate the effective
managing environmental problems and rehabilitation of
management of the lake. Many sentinel ornithological and degraded sites.
ecological studies were carried out at Lake Nakuru between
1970-1980.
Although KWS is actively involved in developing and executing
management-orientated research, community and stakeholder
The Wildlife Clubs of Kenya (WCK) opened its youth hostel in
mobilization, resource mobilization and administrative issues
LNNP in 1972, initiating the fi rst wildlife education program in
within the lake environment, it nevertheless has several major
the area. This program, primarily for school children, and other
constraints in carrying out its mission, including:
subsequent education and awareness initiatives, increased
appreciation of the lake and its attributes, and increased local
·
Inadequate resources, funds and equipment;
visitation between 1985-1997 by 70%.
·
Inadequate man power and capacity;
· Political
interference;
The relocation of a fungicide factory operated in Nakuru ·
Inadequate support from collaborators; and,
was a major contribution to the lake's management. Further,
· Donor
dependency.
establishment of a Black Rhino (Dinecous bicopris) sanctuary,
and the subsequent international designation of Lake Nakuru
Municipal Council of Nakuru (MCN). Under the Local
under various conventions, boosted tourism and revenue Government Act, MCN is in charge of urban development,
generation for the lake's conservation.
setting trade effl uent standards. and monitoring. Its major
funders for development activities include JICA, World Bank
Lake management programs are based on Government and ADB. MCN has the capacity to collect wastes from
legislation and polices, and also linked to such programs as
established receptacles and make disposal at designated
the National Action Plan on Desertifi cation, Poverty Reduction
sites. MCN has recently expressed the intention in its strategic
Strategy Paper and National Biodiversity Action Plan. However,
plan to privatize waste collection and disposal in some areas
the institutions responsible for lake environment management
of the town, It also has a well-equipped water testing quality
are not devoid of constraints, some examples being:
laboratory within LNNP, with plans for its joint operation by
KWS, MCN and the Water Department.
·
Inadequate resources (e.g., manpower, equipment,
funds);
Localising Agenda 21 in Nakuru. The Municipal Council has
·
Inadequate political support and confl ict of interest;
adopted Agenda 21, the Programme of Action agreed to by 179
·
Weak institutional linkages;
nations at the 1992 Earth Summit (UNCED), refl ecting a global
·
Inadequate capacity; and,
consensus towards more integrated policymaking concerning
·
Poverty prevalence and poor living standards of the environment and development. Chapter 28 of Agenda 21
local communities.
calls on local authorities to undertake consultative process
with their populations, to achieve a consensus on a "Local
4.2 Institutions
Agenda 21" for and with their communities. The Local Agenda
21 framework has been reconfi rmed as a valuable approach
The main constraints to lake basin management are in the Habitat Agenda to harmonize urban development and
social, economic and institutional in nature. National lake the environment, with core funding provided by the Belgian
management systems already exist, and many development
Administration for Development (BADC), and the Post Graduate
partners have demonstrated a willingness to help Kenya Center for Human Settlements (PGHS) of the K.U. Leuven
address problems of rural poverty through sustainable being the convener of a consortium of Belgian Universities,
environmental conservation. All conservation initiatives in municipalities, consultancy fi rms and NGOs providing support

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
307

---

to Programme activities. Nakuru was the fi rst African City to
for establishing best estimates of the quantities of pollutants
benefi t from the Programme, through which the MCN adopted
released by local industry into the environment in their liquid
a resolution to develop a strategic structural plan for Nakuru
and solid waste streams. Highly-experienced personnel also
(NSSP 1999). It was completed in 1999 and describes the have devoted time and expertise to sensitizing the industrial
existing spatial structure of the town, identifi es key planning
community to initiate waste reduction programs, and
sectors and offers a vision of the intended spatial structure,
collecting and managing data, with a database containing all
including the institutional mechanisms for its implementation.
the information collected from participating industries being
maintained at this offi ce.
Production of the NSSP represents an important fi rst step in
organizing the town's different needs and requirements into
National Universities. The mandate of the national universities
a coherent plan of future development. Partnerships between
is to train professionals in various fi elds, and conduct relevant
the MCN and NGOs (e.g., International Council for Local research work that can lead to the country's development.
Environmental Initiatives (ICLEI); Intermediate Technology These institutions have been instrumental in capacity building
Development Group (ITDG)) have enabled access to clean and applied research, with university staff carrying out specifi c
water and good housing, respectively, by various sections of
surveys to identify and provide solutions to environmental
the local community. However, the constraints to the MCN's
problems and sustainable management of natural resources.
effi ciency, include:
Information and data collected by these institutions have
contributed signifi cantly to developing the integrated
·
Inadequate manpower, capacity and commitment;
management plan for the lake environment, therefore
· Political
infl uence and interference; and,
infl uencing the management regimes of the lake environment.
·
Inadequate resources and equipment.
The University of Nairobi, in collaboration with KWS, undertook
an elaborate study on invasive plant species in LNNP, and a
Ministry of Water Resources Development. This ministry detailed study that has shed light on the inter-lake movements
operates within the lake basin under the Water Act, and and management needs of lesser fl amingos. Although the
is responsible for catchment water conservation, water public universities have a strong human resource capacity
apportionment, pollution control and monitoring, and resource
and expertise in various fi elds relevant to lake management
mobilization for water resource development. Constraints to
(e.g., research, Participatory Rural Appraisal, ecological
its activities include:
monitoring), they lack fi nancial and material resources to
enable them to effectively participate in their areas of strength,
·
Inadequate resources and equipment;
as well as lacking vehicles and other required equipment.
·
Inadequate manpower, capacity and commitment; and,
The universities also do not have coordinated networking
·
Wide coverage and mandate.
mechanisms and linkages that would make their research
work useful for lake management, and the research in many
Forest Department. This department operates in the catchment
cases is not management driven. On the other hand, most of
under the Forest Act, being responsible for forest resource the institutions involved in natural resource management also
development, extension services and resource mobilization.
do not make full use of research fi ndings from both local and
Constraints to its activities include the same as above.
foreign universities.
Ministry of Agriculture. This ministry operates in the Egerton University, in collaboration with KWS, Fisheries
catchment under the Agriculture Act, providing extension Department and Moi University is implementing a component
services on sustainable agriculture. Constraints to its activities
of the LNEIMP on the River Njoro watershed under the
include the same as above.
Sustainable Watershed Management (SUMAWA) project .
Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI). This agricultural-
Egerton University. This university, located in the Lake
based research institute is responsible for research, capacity
Nakuru catchment basin, is crucial center for information
building and extension. KARI has been active in reducing and instruction. Egerton University is less than 25 years old,
agrochemical pollution and siltation, and poverty alleviation,
but has been addressing agricultural biodiversity issues for
in the catchment.
approximately 30 years while being essentially a training
institution for agriculture, forestry and range management
Provincial Administration. The Provincial Administration is students. Since it was upgraded to university status, research
responsible for policy enforcement and creating an enabling
in the genetic resources of indigenous crops and conservation
environment for sustainable lake environment management.
of biological resources has expanded considerably. The
Constraints to its activities include the same as above.
scope of its training and research activities remains national,
however, being less focused on Lake Nakuru's management
Directorate of Occupational Health and Safety (DOHSS).
needs. Nevertheless, the institution actively participated
The DOHSS operates from the Provincial Labor Offi ce, having
in development of the NSSP, LNEIMP, PRTR and Water
taken the lead in implementation of Pollution Release and Development Plan for Nakuru. Although the university has
Transfer Registers (PRTR) in Nakuru. The PRTR is a strategy
not offi cially adopted the Nakuru catchment as a focal
308 Lake
Nakuru

---

research area, several academicians are conducting research
Like many sewage treatment projects in Kenya, the NSREP was
in the catchment basin, thereby being a potential source of
patterned on models employed in the developed world, which
advice for lake managers and the government on the basin's
are not useful in assessing the impacts of shock volumes of
development options. Egerton University also has developed
stormwater generated during tropical rain storms, which are
a narrative slide package for training farmers on soil and water
discharged untreated into the receiving waterbody. The quality
conservation, carried out a land use and hydrology study of the
of stormwater generated in Kenyan towns, however, is of poorer
catchment basin, and an assessment of erosion hazard areas
quality than that generated in developed world towns and
to develop soil conservation management plans. Further, the
cities, primarily because street-cleansing services in Kenyan
WWF is carrying out a joint study to establish the cause of
towns are less effi cient and environmental legislation directed
fl amingo mortalities in Lakes Nakuru and Bogoria in 1993 and
to littering and waste disposal less stringently enforced. Thus,
1995.
it is imperative that Nakuru stormwater be given some form of
treatment before being discharged into the lake. Unfortunately,
4.3 Specifi c Projects
because of lack of technical know-how, low budgetary
allocations, frequent equipment failure, poor maintenance of
Multi-and bi-lateral donors (Royal Netherlands Government the detention ponds, institutional confl icts, etc, the effi cacy of
(RNG), UNCHS and BADC, AFD, EU, DANIDA, FINNIDA, these structures has been steadily declining.
DFID, JICA/JBIC, ADB, etc.) and several international non-
governmental organizations (e.g., WWF, Earth Watch, World JICA/JBIC Special Assistance for Project Sustainability (SAPS
Conservation Union (IUCN)) have supported natural resource
I & II). The GNWSP and NSREP were evaluated jointly by
management programs in the Lake Nakuru basin. All have JICA/JBIC in November 2000, confi rming that the rehabilitated
different objectives, conservation approaches, and operate and expanded STWs contributed to conservation of water
under different funding regimes, resulting in a fragmented quality of Lake Nakuru. The evaluation also identifi ed various
decision-making structure that disperses environmental environmental concerns, however, including discharges of
management responsibilities among many organizations and
industrial effl uents, solid wastes, contamination from the
agencies. Further, most of the donor-driven projects cease abandoned dumping site in the park, and agro-chemical
operation upon project completion due to poor coordination,
pollution from agricultural activities.
networking and the inability of lead agencies to sustainably
implement these lake management programs.
The overall goal of SAPS II, therefore, is "Harmonizing
Development and Environmental Conservation in the Lake
Greater Nakuru Water Supply Project and Nakuru Sewerage
Nakuru Basin through Water Management". However, similar
Rehabilitation and Expansion Project (GNWSP and NSREP).
to many plans developed by key stakeholders, the consensus-
The GNWSP was signed in 1987, and initiated in 1992 with
based lake management and ecosystem-monitoring plan
fi nancial support from Overseas Economic Co-operation Fund
developed under SAPS II still is awaiting implementation.
(OECF; now the Japan Bank for International Co-operation A weak commitment from the Government regarding its
(JBIC)), and implemented by the Ministry of Water and Natural
obligations (District Environmental Action Plan and the
Resources (MENR). The project was meant to supply water to
concept of protected areas), lack of capacity, funding, and
the towns of Nakuru and Gilgil from the Turasha River near
institutional disputes regarding key project components, put
Gilgil and development of a treatment plant with a capacity of
the long-term sustainability of the initiative into question (JBIC
18,000 m3/day (13,300 m3 for Nakuru and 4700 m3 for Gilgil).
2002a and 2003 b).
On completion of the GNWSP in 1992, the water supply was
WWF Lake Nakuru Conservation and Development Project
increased by 13%, with further unexploited potential. Although
(LNCDP). Operating under the Non-Governmental Organisations
increased water supply was good news to urban residents,
Coordination Act, the WWF Lake Nakuru Conservation and
there also was a need to consider the implications of the Development Project (LNCDP) was the pioneer Integrated
GNWSP on Lake Nakuru's ecology, and incorporate measures
Conservation and Development Project (ICDP) in the Nakuru
in its design that would mitigate the anticipated adverse basin and the second largest African WWF project. It was
impacts, given that the sewage treatment plants were already
supported by the EU, ODA (DFID) and WWF International.
overloaded and discharging poorly-treated sewage into the The 1988-1992 pilot phase identifi ed conservation issues
lake. The additional water supplies would increase per capita
and challenges in the catchment area, and demonstrated that
consumption in Nakuru, further aggravating the problem. This
improvements in farming practice could be achieved through
situation eventually led to rehabilitation of the Njoro Sewage
education and the provision of material and technical support
Treatment Works (NSTW; capacity of 9,600 m3 /day) and the
for conservation actions. The project objectives included (a) a
Town Sewage Treatment Works (TSTW; capacity of 6,600 m3 /
resident population sensitive to local environmental issues,
day), part of a JICA loan and grant aid to address the increased
as refl ected in their decisions and actions; (b) a population
wastewater volume associated with the increased water committed to, and benefi ting from, integrated and sustainable
supply. To monitor the plant's effl uent quality, a state-of-the-
land use; (c) an institutionalized program for monitoring
art water quality-testing laboratory was established.
and evaluating environmental health; and (d) development
planning promoting the maintenance of environmental

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
309

---

health. Key project features included its catchment approach
submits feedback reports to the participating industries. Eight
to conservation, establishment of strategic partnerships with
front-runner industries have assessed their waste practices
local communities and organizations, building on existing thus far, identifying priority waste products and developing
resources and skills, and demonstrating how conservation can
Waste Reduction Action Plans (WRAPs) for implementation.
generate economic benefi ts.
The remaining 14 industries are at various points along this
continuum, with this strategy now being mandatory under the
Project achievements include defi ning the environmental Environmental Coordination and Management Act (EMCA) of
issues in the catchment basin, establishing linkages between
1999.
land use practices and environmental degradation, and
drawing public attention to the threats to Lake Nakuru and
An environmental monitoring program for Lake Nakuru and
the area's natural resources, with school children and urban
its feeder rivers also has been developed, with infrastructure
residents actively involved in environmental awareness for measuring precipitation and stream fl ow in the catchment
campaigns. The wider Kenyan public was informed through 22
basin being put in place. Community monitors have been
newspaper articles in the local press, preaching environmental
trained in monitoring rainfall, riverfl ow and some aspects of
awareness to all strata of society within the catchment basin.
water quality. A 10-year database has been established at the
Further, 38 industries in Nakuru committed themselves in KWS headquarters in Nakuru, including basic water quality
1994 to instituting measures to control wasteful consumption
parameters, sediment loads, nutrient fl uxes, algal succession,
of natural resources and reduce waste emissions to the benthic macro-invertebrate community structure, and basic
environment. Finally, the MCN has declared its intention to
hydrological parameters. Environmental contaminant baseline
develop Nakuru town into an "Eco-City" in its 15-year Strategic
levels have been established and tracked at 5-year intervals,
Structural Plan.
with their portals of entry also being identifi ed.
Over 2,000 contact farmers, 41 unemployed youth and 14 chiefs
Further, investigations related to the lesser fl amingo deaths
and sub-chiefs have received intensive training in sustainable
in 1993, 1995 and 1997-2000 were conducted, confi rming the
agriculture and transferred these skills to more than 40,000
fl amingos were exposed to several environmental toxins of
other farmers. This voluntary community action laid the natural and anthropogenic origin. Valuable information on
foundation for the emergence of village-based extension normal health parameters for this species also will aid future
services, with villagers in 90 villages organizing themselves
diagnosis of death and debility.
under the leadership of popularly-elected Village Environment
Committees (VECs) who received training in leadership Studies were conducted to evaluate the lake's status with
and conservation skills. They also have been engaged in a
regard to organochlorine and heavy metal contamination,
participatory process to articulate a village-based Natural as well as a survey to identify benthic macroinvertebrates
Resource Management Plan (NRM), currently implemented in
at established sites along the major rivers, including their
48 villages. Data collected by Village Environment Committees
potential use as pollution bioindicators in the river water. The
(VECs) indicate that:
fi rst study results confi rmed the presence of pesticides and
heavy metals and helped identify areas of the catchment in
·
56% of the farms in the survey area had initiated or
which the chemicals originated. The second survey identifi ed
completed soil conservation measures;
organisms suitable for use as pollution indicators, as well as
·
63% of the farms had embarked on integrating trees
development of an identifi cation key.
with crops;
·
66% of the farms with a river frontage had no-cropping
These various achievements represent a start in the long
buffer strips along their riverbanks;
journey towards environmental restoration, sustainable lake
·
31% of the homesteads had installed energy effi cient
management and biodiversity conservation in the catchment
cooking devices, reducing their fuel wood consumption
basin. Activities initiated by local communities in the urban
by 30-50%; and,
and rural parts of the catchment are particularly encouraging,
·
16% of the farms had constructed small earthen dams to
and deserving of continued support.
contain water runoff.
An independent mid-term evaluation in 1997, and an end-of-
Further, residents in 12 residential estates have formed term evaluation in 2001 identifi ed several features that made
Environmental Health Committees (EHCs) which, with the project, "if not unique, then somewhat different from many
assistance from the MCN conduct public education campaigns,
conservation projects." Not only has it been running for nearly
monitor waste disposal practices and organize regular clean-
10 years, but also has had the same Project Coordinator since
up activities, with KWS, religious and youth groups recently
its commencement in 1988. Although not without its problems,
joining in these activities.
this longevity and continuity are considered important factors
in the project's many achievements and overall successful
Pollution control measures have been initiated by 22 implementation.
industries in Nakuru with the full backing of the DOHSS,
which maintains the relevant database and prepares and
310 Lake
Nakuru

---

Another LNCDP feature is that, although initiated as an NGO
· Equitable sharing of responsibilities among
project, it has become similar to an offi cial or government
stakeholders, including those not normally involved in
project, as evidenced by its substantial budget, number of
environmental conservation; and,
employees, multiple functions, extensive project area (1,800
·
Enthusiastic participation in conservation efforts by the
km2), and dependence on the cooperation and participation
target community.
of government institutions. It obviously differs in its relative
freedom from bureaucratic procedures and constraints, Against this background, NGO/CBO strengths include
informal modus operandi and absence of hierarchy, fl exibility
the ability to work at the grassroots level; experience in
of project management, and its adequate, readily-available participatory approaches; and possession of important
funds, which gives considerable strength. Further, its cultural, indigenous and local knowledge. NGOs and CBOs
project area is on an ecosystem basis; namely, the entire also generally operate in less-bureaucratic, more-fl exible and
Lake Nakuru water catchment area, rather than the more cost-effective ways, thereby facilitating a faster mobilization
common administrative basis (e.g., district), facilitating of resources. NGO/CBO weaknesses include an often-
ecological problem identifi cation and project interventions. unarticulated mission, strategic plan and/or clear focus; a
Further, although increasingly common today, the linking of
discrepancy between ambitions and available resources and
environmental conservation and development for the resident
skills; and donor dependency. Some organizations also are
population promotes a balanced programme of activities over-territorial, leading to duplication of efforts and lack of
(Wass et al. 1998).
collaboration.
The project currently has developed a proposal for supporting
4.4
Reduction of Lake Stresses
community initiatives that have emerged after several years
of raising environmental awareness, providing training in Lake Nakuru's location in an enclosed catchment basin subject
conservation skills, testing interventions and demonstrating
it to myriad threats that increase stress on it. These stresses,
working models of conservation.
however, have been reduced through various initiatives,
including:
The initiatives proposed by rural communities address water
conservation through improvements in soil management, ·
Implementation of the JICA sewage rehabilitation and
runoff control, water harvesting and riverbank stabilization.
expansion project in 1996 greatly reduced the pollutant
The project approach is participatory and fl exible, based on
load, thereby contributing signifi cantly to the lake's
the belief that local people must be partners in decision-
long-term conservation (Table 1);
making, and recognizes there are diverse community interests
·
Some industries are deriving benefi ts from the PRTR
that must be identifi ed and incorporated into catchment
(e.g., Spin Knit (K), Ltd., a textile industry for the local
management activities.
and export market, after estimating and valuing the
costs of oil discharged from the factory, the management
Social empowerment is regarded as important as economic
introduced an improvisation cutting its energy costs by
benefi ts and, in fact, real economic empowerment requires
5%, translating into a monthly saving of US$5,000);
social empowerment. The direct involvement of communities in
·
Soil loss from conserved farms has been dramatically
managing their resources also emphasizes the basic principle
curtailed, resulting in stabilizing crop yields and
that people must take responsibility for the resource--and
improved soil quality. Planting more than 200,000 trees
therefore are accountable--before benefi ts fl ow.
each year is steadily improving ground cover, and is
expected to alleviate the fuel wood crisis and have a
Other key stakeholders in this process include the Forest
positive effect on the catchment's water balance. Failure
Action Network, Friends of Mau Watershed, Forestry Action,
to document comprehensive baseline data on people's
and Catholic Diocese. The fi rst two focus particularly on the
attitudes and the state of the environment prior to the
protection and rehabilitation of gazetted forest, especially in
onset of project activities, however, has sometimes
the Mau Escarpment, while the third focuses on protection and
made it diffi cult to demonstrate how the project has led
rehabilitation of forests in both gazetted and trust land, and
to improvements in the lake's environmental status;
the last on promoting sustainable agriculture and supporting
self-help groups and water supply.
Table 1. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD; ton/year) of
All these stakeholders conducted and participated in 5 joint
Effl uent Entering Lake Nakuru.
planning workshops between 1992-2002 in order to coordinate
1995
1997
lake management efforts, achieving the following:
Pollution load sources
(before
(upon project
project)
completion)
·
A shared stakeholder vision of what can be achieved;
Njoro Sewage Works
1,843
53
·
Pooling of available resources to achieve maximum
Town Sewage Works
1121
36
effi ciency;
Urban stormwater
161
113

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
311

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·
The LNEIMP has identifi ed critical habitats in the lake
4.6 Environmental
status
basin and prescribed management actions for each
zone, including species-critical habitats designated as
Although basin-wide continuous data and information
no-use zones, areas for research, areas for recreation,
regarding Lake Nakuru's natural conditions (i.e., topography,
and specifi c sites where development can occur; and,
geology, meteorology, hydrology, etc.) are available in reports,
·
The government has attempted to harmonize they are not systematically and comprehensively analyzed to
environmental conservation efforts by establishing allow the study of relationships among them. Deforestation
EMCA as the environment-coordinating institution.
and human settlements have been the most signifi cant
change factors in the watershed's ecological and hydrological
4.5
Traditional and Gender Roles in Basin Resource
balances since the 1970s. Some of the environmental impacts
Management
are summarized as follows:
Most of the residents in the catchment have no long-term ·
Alterations in the catchment's hydrological regime,
knowledge of the local environment, with many hailing from
resulting in increased streamfl ow seasonality, declining
pastoralist backgrounds with no experience in sedentary
water yields from wells and bore holes, and frequent,
farming. Some communities still rely on traditional methods
prolonged dryouts of the lake, as occurred in 1993,
of survival, and are generally slow to adopt new practices,
1994, 1995 and 1996;
even when obviously benefi cial. Previously, pastoral ethnic ·
Loss of biological diversity and the capacity for
groups that now fi nd themselves on small land parcels that
disturbance regulation, resulting from catchment basin
cannot support large livestock herds provide an example,
deforestation;
clinging to the idea of keeping larger herds despite the land
·
Accelerated soil erosion, resulting in loss of farm
restrictions and being slow to accept the need to trim herd
productivity and income and, in turn, leading to over-
sizes. The resultant environmental degradation seems to affect
exploitation of the natural resource base.
women most in the basin, with many spending signifi cant time
·
Water quality deterioration of streams, and exposure of
looking for water, fuel wood and food. In fact, government
human and livestock populations to pesticide residues
statistics indicate that women contribute over 70% of farm
and other potentially-dangerous leachates;
labor requirements, but they generally do not own the land
·
Contamination of the lake with pesticide residues, heavy
and cannot decide to carry out certain developments on such
metals and possibly PCBs, dioxins and furans;
land (including activities such as planting tree seedlings, ·
Contamination of the lake bottom sediments with lead,
constructing terraces, and replacing slow-growing native
copper, mercury, zinc, cadmium, chromium, nickel, DDT,
cattle with better-breeding and milk producing hybrids), even
dieldrin, and gamma BHC;
though the majority of participants in conservation education
·
Nutrient enrichment of the lake, resulting in reduced
are women.
productivity of the lake's natural primary producer
(Arthrospira fusiformis) and frequent occurrence of
Women play important roles in environmental conservation
toxic blue-green algae (Microcystis sp. and Anabaena
at the farm level, with gender training of lake managers
sp.) blooms, leading to desertion of the lake by fl agship
and extension staff being needed to enable them to better
species such as the lesser fl amingo;
understand and address gender realities, and empowering ·
Fish and waterfowl die-offs; and,
them to address some of the complex gender-related issues via
·
Disappearance of aquatic species, such as the clawless
participatory approaches. Although women are an important
otter (Aonyx capensis) last reported in LNNP in the
target group for conservation training, they typically have busy
1970s.
schedules, with many unable to attend sustainable agriculture
courses. Thus, special on-site training, conducted at the village
4.7 Enabling
Environment
level, is needed to meet their needs. The training must be
practical, with lessons delivered in the local language.
4.7.1. Legislative Framework
Developing environmental conservation strategies and
Such environmental education programs can change attitudes
enactment of Environmental Management and Coordination
toward resource use, from a purely utilitarian one to one Act (EMCA) provides an enabling environment for the
embodying a sense of responsible stewardship, including conservation and management of lakes, rivers and wetlands.
greater public responsibility toward environmental protection
In Kenya, before enactment of EMCA in 2000, environmental
and sustainable development of the areas' natural resources.
issues were dealt with at sectoral level, with policies and
To this end, gender roles and responsibilities are now being
legislation based on institutional mandates and programs,
positively accredited to committed and resourceful men and
and resulting in 77 confl icting statutes relating to water,
women, with women beginning to acquire leadership positions,
lakes, wetlands and environment. In developing the EMCA, all
as well as an increasing number of female participants in environmental policies were harmonized with environmental
seminars, workshops, park tours and residential training.
management institutionalized under NEMA. Within the
framework of Lake Nakuru environment, a District Environment
Management Committee (DEMC), the authority responsible
312 Lake
Nakuru

---

for environmental complaints, was institutionalized, with Other government environmental and development policies or
participation of government institutions, local community, legislation relating to managing the Nakuru catchment include
NGOs, CBOs, local authorities, and politicians.
EMCA, Water Act, Agriculture Act, Forest Act, Fisheries Act,
Land Planning Act, Physical Planning Act, Land Control Act,
4.7.2 Institutional Roles in Lake Management
Local Government Act, Kenya Tourist Development Corporation
Because various institutions have varied roles and Act, Tourist Industry Licensing Act, and Registrar of Societies
responsibilities related to lake environment conservation, Act.
there is a need for harmonized institutional collaboration with
clearly-defi ned institutional roles. The various responsible 4.8
Monitoring and Research Capacity
institutions in Lake Nakuru basin management are discussed
in Section 4.2.
In 1992, the KWS, WWF and the Kenya Wetlands Working
Group (KWWG) convened a workshop in Nakuru to review
4.7.3 Formal Plans
research fi ndings related to the lake and its basin. It also was
The formal plans in the LNCB include:
intended to coordinate research and monitoring efforts in
the Nakuru catchment, facilitate information exchange, and
·
Water Master Plan developed by Ministry of Water focus efforts on the needs of the lake managers, including
Resource Development;
identifying immediate priorities and long-term requirements
·
Forest Master Plan developed by Forest Department;
for environmental research, monitoring and management
·
Nakuru Town Strategic Structure Plan;
of Lake Nakuru. Research institutions at the national level
·
Lake Nakuru Ecosystem Integrated Management Plan;
(e.g., Kenya Agricultural Research Institute; Kenya Bureau
·
Nakuru Action Plan currently under preparation by of Standards) and institutions of higher learning also have
the various institutions in Nakuru dealing with the adequate laboratory and research capacity.
environment; and,
·
Government Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper.
Nakuru-related research capacity has developed gradually
over the years, including the following:
4.7.4 Government Policy Framework on Environment
and Development
·
WWF supported establishment of the Baharini Wildlife
A National Policy on Environment and Development was
Research Station in LNNP in 1970, with the goal of
passed by the government as the Environment Management
generating information contributing toward effective
Coordination Act 2000, with the plan's overall goal being
lake management (subsequently destroyed by bush fi re
to achieve socially-, economically- and environmentally-
in the Park in the late-1980s);
sustainable national development agendas that ensure a clean
·
JICA installed autographic recorders and new staff
environment for all.
gauges on the Makalia and Enderit Rivers in 1992; WWF-
LNCDP installed a similar recording station on the Njoro
4.7.5 Legislative and Administrative Framework
River and Baharini Spring in 1993. Over 12 more stations
Various legislation and international conventions provide
have been established, with LNCDP maintaining them in
frameworks that guide sustainable management of the lake
collaboration with KWS and MOWD;
environment. As an example, the KWS is guided by the Ramsar
·
KWS, Kenya Wetlands Working Group (KWWG) and
Convention, World Heritage, CMS, CBD guidelines and Wildlife
WWF organized a workshop in May 1993 to coordinate
Conservation and Management Act Cap 376 of 1976 and 1989
research and monitoring efforts in the Nakuru
Amendment. The Act promotes sustainable development, wise
catchment, facilitate information exchange, and
wetland use, and implementation of management plans for
focus future research efforts on the National Park's
biodiversity conservation, wetland conservation and National
management needs; and,
Parks and National Reserves, and the display of fauna and fl ora
·
KWS organized a stakeholder's workshop in December
in their natural state for promoting tourism for the benefi t of
1995 to evaluate the application of conservation and
the inhabitants of Kenya. The Director may delegate or assign
biodiversity management research fi ndings, with
any of his functions under the Act to any offi cer in the Forestry
particular reference to LNNP. Disputes regarding joint
or Fisheries Department or any public offi cer approved by the
ownership by KWS, MOWD and MCN of the Nakuru
Minister (honorary warden). Other than the National Parks
Water Quality Testing Laboratory constructed by JICA in
and Reserves, the Minister may also declare and gazette an
the same year, however, has led to its under-utilization,
area not exceeding 2,600 acres as a local sanctuary where
as has low budgetary allocations for service and
extraordinary measures of protection are taken over species
maintenance.
being nurtured for replenishment of stocks. Because the
Lake Nakuru ecosystem encompasses the entire Lake Nakuru
catchment, the entire catchment integrated Management Plan
can also rely on provisions of the Wildlife Act in regard to
wildlife conservation and habitat management.

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
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5. Lessons
Learned
crop yields and shortage of fuel-wood. To this end, women as a
group suffer from some of the following:
5.1
Emergence of Political Interests and
Commitments
·
Heavy workloads, including farm-work, marketing,
household chores and casual labor to meet household
The Government of Kenya has, for decades, pursued
consumption needs. Their economic responsibilities
conservation-friendly policies aimed at providing favorable
also have increased as more men migrate from farms in
conditions and support for local initiatives in natural resource
search of employment;
management. Land is a scarce resource in the Nakuru and the
·
Limited access to land and property, thereby making it
Park area, and the latter would have been converted into other
more diffi cult to secure loans, and ensuring they have a
uses if not gazetted as a protected area by the government.
lower fi nancial status than men;
Conservation of this park in its natural state has facilitated the
·
Limited access to appropriate services and resources,
availability of a beautiful, educational and recreational area
including health, literacy, training, capital, shelter and
right in the middle of Nakuru town. Environmental conservation
food; and,
enjoys political legitimacy, having been incorporated into the
·
Limited access to the technology that could alleviate
educational system. At both individual and institutional levels,
their tasks as farmers, mothers and community workers;
however, there remains a glaring gap between acceptance of
further, women's tasks are arduous and time consuming,
concepts such as sustainable development, and the task of
with little monetary remuneration.
actually putting the concept into practice.
A major challenge in lake basin management, therefore,
The need for land in the area and in Kenya as a whole is such
is to take the plight of women in account. Experience also
that, unless vigilance is maintained by conservationists, indicates that community-training programs yield better
pressures to de-gazette some of the park land and protected
results when husbands and wives train together. Although
forests in the Lake Nakuru catchment area for human habitation
this can represent a problem at institutional training, it can
and use may prevail over conservation concerns. Further, in the
be achieved at fi eld training sessions. Such training also can
Localizing Agenda 21 in Nakuru, the power and revenue of local
include gender sensitization, which would help overcome the
authorities is often too weak to champion an the process on its
reluctance of men to allow their wives and daughters to attend
own. Rather, the national government also has an important
training. Further, women are also better at passing on what
role to play in creating a climate favorable to the Local Agenda
they have learned to others.
21. Above all, the government could remove all legal and
administrative barriers hindering effective implementation of
As with men, there are no universal answers in regard to how
Municipal Local Agenda 21 initiatives, enabling Associations of
to best work with women in pursuit of lake management and
Local Government Authorities to assume their role.
sustainable development. Rather, there are differences in
their positions and the conditions that they face and in the
5.2
Attempts to Establish Sustainable Institutions
opportunities open to them. The following provide some
guidance in some general ways that can help this situation:
5.2.1 Written Agreements are Useful in Guiding
Collaboration between Agencies
·
Conduct a community-based needs assessment, seeking
It is fundamental in any partnership that collaborating
women's knowledge, experiences and skills in natural
organizations have a good understanding of each other (their
resource management, allowing them to prioritize these
legal structure, method of operation, expertise, limitations,
needs;
strengths, weaknesses, etc.). An incomplete or incorrect ·
Project activities should recognize the different interests
understanding of the nature of one's collaborating partner
and responsibilities in different lake management
can lead to tensions and diffi culties in the pursuit of joint
activities by gender, age class and status of different
activities, causing a failed partnership. Thus, partnerships
members of the rural households;
need to be guided by written agreements, commonly known
·
Make a conscious poverty focus by linking poverty
as Memoranda of Understanding, to regulate relationships
and gender priorities, including ensuring that the
between partners on both sides. The LNCDP Project had such
management activities do favor wealthy and progressive
a written agreement with KWS. It was very useful overall in
women at the expense of others; recognizing the need to
minimizing confl icts between the project and KWS staff.
eliminate the disadvantages of, and prejudices against,
the poorer and powerless households; and seeking to
5.2.2 Culture and Gender Roles in Conservation and
provide equal opportunities and access to resources
Development
and benefi ts to all; and,
There is a well-established linkage between the activities of
·
Adopt an inclusive approach that works for the
women and environmental degradation, mainly because their
involvement of women, men, and children in households
livelihoods and responsibilities make them more dependent
and communities, rather than provoking confrontations
on natural resources than men. The constraints and pressures
between them.
they face leave them more vulnerable to lack of water, declining
314 Lake
Nakuru

---

5.2.3 NGOs and CBOs Roles as Conservation Catalysts
various activities they have implemented, as required by
NGO and CBO projects will be more effective and sustainable
the Government, with the main constraint to this format of
in the long term if they play facilitating, rather than programs and activity implementation being poor coordination
implementing, roles. Projects should facilitate the operations
and evaluation.
of key existing stakeholders, rather than implementing
activities and, in the process, establishing temporary parallel
Subsidy provisions to the local community include:
structures to already-existing ones. Experience indicates that
NGOs and CBOs have great potential to act as catalysts to,
·
Community access to the park at subsidized rates
and motivators of, government institutions/organizations, and
that include provision of transport and gate entrance
local NGOS and CBOS by providing information/data, capacity
concessions;
building, fi nancial resources, applying gentle pressure and ·
Support to community natural resource and
initiating convincing activities. The Local Agenda 21 project,
environmental conservation initiatives;
for example, acted as a catalyst to leverage additional funding
·
Community capacity building through training and
(e.g., from international organizations, bilateral development
extension;
aid agencies, national ministries, international and local NGOs,
·
Support to community development projects and
CBOs and municipalities from developed countries). However,
programs (water supply, health provision, agricultural
this leveraging of resources to implement action plans is only
development, etc.); and,
possible by virtue of a catalytic multiplier effect of the core
·
Development of projects assisting villagers to prioritize
funding, enabling local teams to formulate well-prepared
problems, identify solutions and prepare viable
action plans.
proposals fi tting project mandate; the design of projects
and responsibility for implementation will continue
Further, while ICDPs have proven effective in delivery, it is
to rest in the villages, thereby shifting the emphasis
vital to re-evaluate some of the underlying assumptions.
from the Project telling communities what to do, to the
ICDP projects, for example, should only support livelihood
communities making considered choices regarding what
initiatives that are feasible, that contribute to and result from
needs to be done.
natural resource conservation, and that are made sustainable
over the long term by the benefi ciaries themselves.
The Government of Kenya retrenched its agricultural extension
personnel, following introduction of World Bank-sponsored
However, a single ICDP approach has several limitations, retrenchment policies. Thus, the partnerships with some of
including a limited coverage scope that can miss important
the most affected institutions (e.g., MOA; MENR) have been
habitats, an uncoordinated approach to conserving species considerably weakened in the fi eld, since the government
and their habitats, and limited impacts on national policies
extension staff were an integral part of conservation efforts.
(especially for migratory species). While Lake Nakuru and Further, the danger of relying on multiple agencies to carry
Bogoria are the most important feeding sites for fl amingos,
out conservation in an uncoordinated, piece-meal fashion is
for example, they breed in Lake Natron, which is seriously obvious. Thus, a coordinating body to orchestrate participation
threatened and not protected by a major conservation project.
of all stakeholders in ensuring environmental health for the
Thus, the conservation and management work in Lakes benefi t of all is needed, as well as ensuring long-term funding
Bogoria and Nakuru will not ensure sustainable conservation
is available to support lake basin management initiatives. With
of fl amingos and other migratory species.
available funds, it also is desirable that a Village Environmental
Fund be established to which villages could make requests
5.2.4 Making Maximum Use of Lake Conservation
for assistance, with decisions on what to do lying within the
Networks
villages and their environmental committees.
Institutions have differing abilities to manage lake
environments in regard to facilities, expertise and funding 5.4
Legislative Frameworks and Policies for Lake
levels. Modern technologies (e.g., Internet access) have
Management
contributed signifi cantly in providing new ideas on lake
environment management efforts without necessarily requiring
Although effective legislation and by-laws already exist, they
that managers physically visit the sites. Such possibilities did
generally are poorly enforced, resulting in a high frequency
not exist in the past and, as a result, different projects have
of illegal environmental activities (e.g., uncontrolled sand
remained rather isolated from each other.
harvesting and quarrying along river channels; illegal diversion
and damming of streams and rivers; dumping industrial
5.3
Financing Mechanism and Subsidies for Lake
wastes in unapproved areas; cultivation along river bank
Management
buffers; illegal conversion of public utility land for private
use). The situation is further aggravated by lack of harmonized
The Government of Kenya has funded Lake Nakuru basin legislation and community involvement in policy enforcement.
environmental conservation activities through various The government's policy implementation efforts are
departments and institutions, consistent with the budgetary
increasingly undermined by structural adjustment programs,
allocations. Each institution and department document the diminishing aid, and worsening trade terms, highlighting

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
315

---

the need to evolve a new conservation and development ·
Partners should be treated equally, involved in decision
paradigm emphasizing the subsistence values of protected
making, and informed/sensitized on issues relating to
areas and natural resources. Enacting EMCA 2000, however,
legislation and management decisions.
transferred environmental legislation enforcement to the local
community by establishing various environment management
5.6.2 Community Mobilization Effectiveness
committees and public complain committees, geared toward
Community response to mobilization is infl uenced by tradition,
law enforcement.
ethnic backgrounds, attitudes and perceptions. While some
communities quickly develop and implement ideas, others
5.5 Infl uence of Politics on Resource Management
are slow to respond. The biggest hindrance is the fact that
many communities cannot immediately identify the potential
Local parliamentary and civic general elections are held every
benefi ts to them of particular activities. Thus, projects should
5 years. Political change undoubtedly induces some delays
undertake a process of re-ordering the sequence of activities
in implementing certain activities, particularly regarding to be introduced to communities, starting with the quickly-
institutional changes and government resources. The political
maturing ones, and followed by those that take longer periods
factor is an integral part of formulating and implementing for results to be observed.
projects, both at national and local levels. This factor can
be handled constructively by familiarizing newly-elected Communities can more readily adopt conservation messages
politicians to environmental legislation, ongoing conservation
and activities using this approach, with quickly-adopted
initiatives, and long-term vision and actions already achieved,
activities being those affecting their livelihoods (e.g., energy-
while also providing the opportunity to consider the priorities
saving cookers whose wood saving results are immediate;
of the new leadership. Since the local community elects these
planting quickly-growing trees, in contrast to those taking
politicians, community involvement and commitment to several years to mature; the promotion of vegetable growing
environmental conservation can positively infl uence resource
through "double-digging," an intensive cultivation method
management.
that signifi cantly raises crop yields).
5.6 Stakeholder
Participation
5.6.3 Working with Loosely-Organized Community
Groups as Opposed to Formally-Organized Ones
5.6.1 Partnerships
in
General
Most conservation activities such as training, school education
The following lessons were learned in regard to partnerships
conservation activities and tree planting are done in groups.
in general:
Thus, it is easier to reach large numbers of people through
community group, in contrast to targeting individuals
·
Although partnerships can be highly benefi cial, they separately. Formally-organized community groups tend to
also must clearly be more than just another name for
become more cohesive and generate a wider diversity of their
donor relationship;
own ideas, as well as becoming more quickly self-driven for
·
Partnerships are particularly valuable when dealing independent action and, therefore, more sustainable.
with complex interdisciplinary, crosscutting issues, such
as the tasks required under the CBD, ICDPs, etc. The
5.6.4 Quick Results versus Long-term Benefi ts
development of the Nakuru Strategic Structure Plan and
Donor-driven projects are under pressure by both donors and
the Nakuru Integrated Management Plan, for example,
partners to show results. Whereas it has been easy to quantify
required considerable coordination to keep time, quality
certain results (number of trees planted; meters of terraces
and resources on schedule, and further build synergies
constructed; number of people trained, etc.), it is not always
on the need to conserve;
easy to demonstrate the impacts of many other activities
·
Partnerships are not ends in themselves, but rather (e.g., education; training). In fact, community mobilization
must be clearly directed toward achievement of a and education is a long-term, people-intensive process, and
common purpose which each organization could not do
all stakeholders, including donors, must have patience and
on its own, and where each provides added value to the
not necessarily expect quick results. In implementing Local
other;
Agenda 21, for example, it was realized that, although external
·
Partnerships are a tool that should always be considered
initiatives can be catalytic in putting Local Agenda 21 processes
in implementing any project, in order to increase the
in place, patience was needed to see the results materialize.
effectiveness and effi ciency of the activity;
Thus, considerable time fl exibility is required to allow local
·
Practically none of the partners are suffi ciently
actors to fully support politically- or socially-sensitive action
empowered to carry out the work, and although some
plan components.
momentum has been built at the grassroots level,
community organization and creation of awareness has
5.6.5 Capacities to Carry Out Social Analysis and Being
not yet reached a suffi ciently critical mass to become
Prepared to Manage Effects of Social Confl icts
self-sustaining;
Progress in lake environment management is clearly best seen
·
Partnerships build consensus on sustainable lake where peace prevails. The overall effect of the instability in
environment conservation initiatives; and,
the Lake Nakuru basin, for example, was a virtual cessation
316 Lake
Nakuru

---

of conservation activities in some cases, undermining work
resource base and the environment will improve as a result of
done over the years. Many farmers have abandoned their commitment to national and regional efforts, and involvement
farms in fear, with the conservation structures created of all stakeholders. Given the transboundary nature of the Rift
through their hard work being destroyed. Extension staff Valley saline lakes that are habitat to the fl amingos and other
from different ethnic communities also often face distrustful
migratory bird species, it is essential that all countries with
communities, making their operation in the area more diffi cult
saline fl amingo lakes become members of the African-Eurasian
and hazardous.
Waterbird Agreement (AEWA) and other relevant international
and regional conventions. The following plans also should be
The economic position of people in the affected areas considered where they pertain to fl amingo lakes:
suffered major setbacks due to the loss of livestock and
crops. Many families were strained by food shortages and ·
Ethiopia accedes to becoming a Ramsar signatory;
high reconstruction costs. Those living in Nakuru peri-urban
·
Trade in fl amingos in Tanzania is governed by the known
areas were forced to move and establish homes in the
population numbers across the fl amingo home range;
town, where the cost of living is prohibitive. Further, home-
·
The economic value of fl amingos in relation to tourism
based income-generating activities, such as communal and
and trade in all countries is determined;
individual tree nurseries, disintegrated, resulting in the loss
·
Enable communities to maximize benefi ts from
of thousands of tree seedlings. Of the 30 community rainfall
key fl amingo lakes via responsible community
stations established in 1994, 15 stopped operating and 9
management;
gauges were completely destroyed. Although most have been
·
Facilitate formation of wildlife protocols between
replaced, huge gaps in the records remain, posing diffi culties
countries where needed;
in analyzing the data.
·
Develop and integrate water resource and wetland
policies; and,
5.6.6 Replicability of Experiences
·
Any major development in fl amingo lakes be assessed
The Rift Valley saline lakes are ecologically linked and
through proper environmental impact assessments
fl amingos use all the saline lakes in the Valley. Many of the
(EIA).
lessons learned at Lake Nakuru can be replicated in the other
Rift Valley saline lakes. Although the results of piecemeal work
5.8
Integration of Relevant Plans and Programs in
at single sites have less impact on regional policy formulation,
Lake Nakuru Basin
the collective results of such work stand a better chance of
achieving positive regional and global effects on policies and
Apparent contradictions between sectoral development plans
joint actions. Further, trends in the conservation development
exist in national development plans, thereby confusing fi eld
circles are being more directed toward "the big picture", which
practitioners. Kenya's current 5-year development plan, for
might make fundraising easier. Strategies for achieving this
example, emphasizes development of the industrial sector and
transformation could include the following:
modernization of the agricultural sector through intensifi cation
of land use. The same plan reiterates the government's
·
Gathering lessons from Lake Nakuru;
commitment to environmental conservation. However, new
·
Creating a small steering committee to spearhead the
clear-cut policy guidelines have been formulated to harmonize
future direction;
the industrial, agricultural and environmental development
·
Recruiting a small core secretariat to implement ideas
policies, which should be harmonized at the planning stage.
generated by the steering committee;
Further, although many environmental management plans
·
Securing donor support for the organizational design
and programs of government institutions or NGOs and church
work;
organizations have been developed in the basin, many have
·
Securing commitment and collaboration of the region's
not been implemented because of a failure to secure funding,
governments; and,
or have simply been suspended. The few completed programs
·
Making plans for, and implementing a phase out of, have been traditionally supported by multi-and bi-lateral
some project activities.
donors, such as the Royal Netherlands Government (RNG),
UNCHS and BADC, AFD, EU, DANIDA, FINNIDA, DFID, JICA/
5.7
Linkages with Other National and Regional
JBIC, etc. These situations result in a fragmented decision-
Efforts
making structure that disperses environmental management
responsibilities among many organizations and agencies.
Basic concepts of governmental policy on the environmental
Thus, integration of relevant plans and programs into an
management of Lake Nakuru is evident from the fact that Lake
umbrella whole basin master plan in the Lake Nakuru basin is
Nakuru has been designated a Ramsar site, a National Park,
essential. There also is a need to harmonize the relationship
and a World Heritage site. In addition, MENR has considered
between the MCN and all stakeholders (KWS, private sector,
the possibility of gazetting the Lake Nakuru basin as a special
NGOs, CBOs, District Development and Planning Liaison,
conservation area (SCA), because of its environmental etc.) to ensure more effi cient utilization of available scarce
signifi cance. The policy direction of environmental management
resources and effective participation.
is to reduce threats facing the lake and the park. The natural

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
317

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5.9
Incorporation of Scientifi c Information and
of Kenya. Japan Bank for International Cooperation: Tokyo,
Research
Japan.
Although expensive, applied science in the form of research
JBIC. 2002b. Final report for special assistance for project
and monitoring is fundamental for managing lakes. Several
sustainability (SAPS II) for Greater Nakuru water supply
scientifi c studies in Lake Nakuru, for example, provided project in the republic of Kenya. Japan Bank for International
information for better understanding ecosystem functions Cooperation: Tokyo, Japan.
and guiding appropriate actions (e.g., relocating the dumping
site and fungicide factory). When data interpretation is done
Kutilek, M.J. 1974. "The Density and Biomass of Large Mammals
poorly, however, considerable resources can be wasted in Lake Nakuru National Park." E.A. Wild. J. 12: 201-212.
before the real issues are identifi ed. Involving various
disciplines in investigating ecosystem issues provides Livingstone, D.A. 2000. "Historical geochemistry of tropical
in-depth and better understanding of ecosystem issues. Africa." Verh. Internat. Verein. Limnol. 27: 27-34.
Scientifi c information was instrumental in formulation of
the Lake Nakuru Ecosystem Integrated Management Plan, Livingstone, D.A. and J.M. Melack. 1984. "Some lakes of
for example, proposing appropriate actions to be taken for
subsaharan Africa." In F.B. Taub. (ed.). Lake and Reservoir
sustainable lake environment management. The main gaps Ecosystems. pp. 467-497. Elsevier Science Publishers:
have been identifi ed as (a) lack of information dissemination
Amsterdam.
to managers on research fi ndings; (b) inconclusive research
fi ndings; and (c) lack of collaboration between researchers Mbagwa, R.K., H. Musoga, J. Michoma, L. Esho, M.J. Mwau,
and research projects. Other gaps include lack of a central
N.Githire, M. Lateste, M. Ng'ayu, R. Musyoka, P. Mutai and
research database, inadequate research facilities, need for F. Swallah. 1998. Strategic Structure Plan: Action Plan for
simplifi ed research indicators, and the need to translate Sustainable Urban Development. Vol. 1. Municipal Council of
research fi ndings into simplifi ed language that lake managers
Nakuru: Nakuru, Kenya.
and resource users can understand.
Melack, J.M. 1979. "Temporal variability of phytoplankton in
In conclusion, the concept of sustainable development in a
tropical lakes." Oecologia 44: 1-7.
lake basin such as Lake Nakuru must be perused in principle
and in practice and must be applied equally in politics, as well
Melack, J.M. 1981. "Photosynthetic activity of phytoplankton in
as in farming for many more years, or at least until the idea
tropical African soda lakes." Hydrobiologia 81: 71-85.
becomes accepted and integrated in our collective thinking
and wisdom. Experience is that sustainable development Melack, J.M. 1988. "Primary producer dynamics associated
requires more than just an attitude, a commitment or a set
with evaporative concentration in a shallow, equatorial soda
of new skills. It also requires the right environment in which
lake (Lake Elmenteita, Kenya)." Hydrobiologia 158: 1-14.
to take root and fulfi ll its promise and vision. Modifi cations in
political, economic, social and cultural practices will need to
Melack, J.M. 1996. "Saline and freshwater lakes of the Kenyan
be effected to ensure such an environment exists. All these
rift valley." In T.R. McClanahan and T.P. Young (eds). East
changes call for concerted efforts over many years, across African Ecosystems and their Conservation. pp. 171-190. Oxford
many disciplines and at many levels of governance. In the University Press: New York.
light of this reality, the recommendation that a permanent
Lake Nakuru Catchment Management Center be established
Melack, J.M. and P. Kilham. 1974. "Photosynthetic rates
appears both attractive and realistic.
of phytoplankton in East African alkaline, saline lakes."
Limnology and Oceanography 19: 743-755.
6. References
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Aboud A.A., G. Obweyere, M. Mutinda and J. Raini. 2001. phytoplankton to experimental fertilization with ammonium
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JBIC (Japan Bank for International Cooperation). 2002a. Final
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Disclaimer
The fi ndings, interpretations and conclusions expressed
in this report are the views of the authors and do not
necessarily represent the views of The World Bank and its
Board of Directors, or the countries they represent, nor do
they necessarily represent the view of the organizations,
agencies or governments to which any of the authors are
associated. Also, the colors, boundaries, denominations, and
classifi cations in this report do not imply, on the part of The
World Bank and its Board of Directors, or the countries they
represent, and the organizations, agencies or governments to
which any of the authors are associated, any judgment on the
legal or other status of any territory, or any endorsement or
acceptance of any boundary.

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