Lake Malawi/Nyasa
Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
Harvey A. Bootsma*, Great Lakes WATER Institute, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, USA, hbootsma@uwm.edu
Sven Erik Jorgensen, Royal Danish University of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Copenhagen, Denmark
* Corresponding author
1. Introduction
Lake Malawi/Nyasa (Figure 1) is the ninth largest, and third
deepest, freshwater lake on Earth (Bootsma and Hecky 2003). In
addition to its great size, it is distinguished by being home to a
greater diversity of fi sh species than any other lake, the majority
being endemic (Fryer and Iles 1972; Ribbink et al. 1983). As a
result of these two qualities--its great size and biodiversity--the
lake is recognized as part of the global heritage. At a time when
both the quantity and quality of freshwater are becoming issues
of concern in many parts of the world, the value of a lake that
contains nearly 7% of the Earth's available surface freshwater is
becoming increasingly obvious.
Within the Lake Malawi/Nyasa catchment, the lake's fi sheries
are seen as its primary asset. The fi sheries are an important
source of protein for riparian populations within Malawi,
Tanzania and Mozambique, and make a signifi cant contribution
to the regional economy, especially within Malawi. Other
benefi ts of the lake include water for irrigation, transportation
and hydroelectric generation.
Formal management activities of one form or another have
been carried out for Lake Malawi/Nyasa since the 1930s,
although local management practices were probably
implemented for centuries before then (Munthali 1994).
Virtually all management activities, and much of the
research, have focused on the lake's fi sheries. Despite these
management activities, total fi sh catches have declined, and
the catch of some fi sh species has been dramatically reduced,
especially in the southern part of the lake (Tweddle and
Magasa 1989; Turner et al. 1995; Banda et al. 1996; Bland and
Donda 1995). Thus, there remains a need to refi ne and better
implement effective fi sheries management strategies.
While fi sh species composition has been altered as a result
of fi shing pressure, Lake Malawi/Nyasa has not experienced
a decline in species numbers, in contrast to some other African
lakes (e.g., Lake Victoria). Nevertheless, continued increasing
fi shing pressures, along with changes in plankton community
structure and water quality, may lead to a decreased
biodiversity, and even losses of species, if preventive action is
Figure 1. The Lake Malawi/Nyasa Basin.
not taken. Sediment core data and historic phytoplankton data
(Hecky et al. 1999) suggest that nutrient inputs to the lake may
be increasing, and possibly causing changes in phytoplankton
species composition.

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The current issues of primary concern for Lake Malawi/
Brachystegia) and agriculture. The southern third is woodland
Nyasa, therefore, are fi sheries management, biodiversity on the Mozambique coast, but almost completely cultivated
conservation, and water quality. This brief provides an overview
land within the Malawi portion of the watershed, with the
of the historic and current management activities related to
exception of the steep hillsides on the western side of the rift
these issues, and, based on lessons learned from previous
valley, which are forest covered.
research and management activities, recommendations
regarding management strategies for promoting sustainable
The largest part of the lake's watershed is within Malawi,
fi sheries management and conservation of biodiversity and followed by Tanzania and Mozambique (Figure 1). The
water quality.
watershed population density is greatest in the southern
Malawian portion, although it is also relatively high at the
It should be noted that the lake is called "Malawi" in Malawi,
northern end, in the Songwe and Kiwira River catchments.
"Niassa" in Mozambique and "Nyasa" in Tanzania. For The watershed is more densely populated than that of Lake
simplicity, this brief refers to the lake as Lake Malawi/Nyasa,
Tanganyika, but less than that of Lake Victoria.
with no preference implicit in the order or exclusion of names;
however, exceptions made for terms such as formal project or
Despite its large size, the lake does not have a high outfl ow
commission names.
water volume (Table 1). Of the approximately 68 km3 of water
that enters the lake annually, only about 16% fl ows out the
2. Background
Shire River, with the remainder being evaporated directly from
the lake surface. Thus, the lake has a very long fl ushing time
2.1 Biophysical
Features
(Table 1). This distillation effect results in the lake water being
more concentrated with regard to conservative ions than are
Lake Malawi ranks among the world's largest lakes, being the
its infl owing rivers. The long fl ushing time also has important
third deepest and ninth largest by surface area. Its geography
water quality ramifi cations. Nutrients or other chemicals
refl ects the fact that it is situated in a rift valley, the lake entering the lake essentially become trapped in the lake, and
being long, relatively narrow, and deep. Its basin consists can only be removed by burial in the sediments, loss to the
of a series of half-grabens (blocks of earth that have tilted
atmosphere (if the chemical has a gaseous phase), or the very
and dropped during rifting). Some parts of the lakeshore slow process of water outfl ow through the Shire River.
are bordered by steep mountains, while the mountains that
defi ne the edges of the rift valley are separated from the The dominance of precipitation and evaporation in the lake's
lake by extensive lakeshore plains in other parts. As a result,
hydrologic cycle means that it also is very susceptible to
nearshore topography varies between gently sloping beaches
changes in climate. A small increase in the precipitation:
and steep, rocky coastline. The lake is underlain by more than
evaporation ratio can result in fl ooding, as occurred in 1979-
4 km of sediment in its deepest regions, refl ecting its great
80; in contrast, a small decrease in the ratio can result in the
age, estimated at several million years (Johnson and Ng'ang'a
basin becoming closed with no outfl ow, as occurred between
1990; Owen et al. 1990).
1915 and 1937 (Kidd 1983). In recent years, the lake level has
again been declining, and the lake nearly became closed at the
Although some of the plateau regions around the lake end of 1997.
contain thick colluvial soils, the drainage basin is dominated
by metamorphic and igneous gneiss, schist and granite The lake is permanently stratifi ed into three layers, separated
(Carter et al. 1973). The northern two-thirds of the watershed
by differences in water density (controlled primarily by
are predominantly a mixture of woodlands (evergreen, temperature). The top, warm layer (epilimnion) varies in
depth between 40-100 m, being deepest during the cool,
windy season (May to September). Most algal growth occurs
Table 1. Physical Characteristics of Lake Malawi/Nyasa.
in this layer, supporting the lake's food web. The middle layer
Surface area (km2)
29,500
(metalimnion) is several degrees cooler than the surface layer,
Maximum depth (m)
700
extending from the bottom of the epilimnion to about 220 m.
Mean depth (m)
264
Within this layer there are strong vertical gradients of dissolved
nutrients and oxygen. The deepest layer (hypolimnion) extends
Volume (km3)
7,775
from about 220 m to the lake bottom. This layer is the coolest
Altitude (m asl)
474
(most dense), and contains high concentrations of dissolved
Drainage area (km2)
100,500
nitrogen, phosphorus and silica. It is completely anoxic (no
River infl ow (km3/yr)
29
dissolved oxygen); thus, virtually no fi sh are found below
220 m.
River outfl ow (km3/yr)
12
Rainfall (km3/yr)
39
Although the lake has never been known to completely
Evaporation (km3/yr)
57
mix vertically, there is a slow exchange of water between
Residence time (years)
114
the three layers. The exchange rate varies with season and
location. Generally, there is a greater upward fl ux of nutrient-
Source: Modifi ed from Bootsma and Hecky (2003).
260 Lake
Malawi/Nyasa

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rich waters from the hypolimnion and metalimnion to the spp.) have decreased, currently making up less than 20% of
surface during the cool, windy season when the southeast the total catch (Irvine et al. 2002).
trade winds blow (known locally as the mwera). In addition
to vertical entrainment and mixing, upwelling can occur 2.2 Political
Features
in parts of the lake during this season. Due to the lake's
morphometry (shape), upwelling tends to be strongest in the
Lake Malawi/Nyasa is shared by three countries--Malawi,
lake's southeast arm. Thus, plankton production is usually Tanzania and Mozambique (Figure 1). The majority of the lake
greatest in the southeast arm during and shortly after the and its catchment lie within Malawi. The position of the Malawi-
windy season (Bootsma 1993a; Patterson and Kachinjika Tanzania border within the lake is contested; Malawi accepts
1995). Phytoplankton species composition also varies with the border running along the eastern shore of the lake, while
season and location. Diatoms are usually dominant during the
Tanzania accepts it to run through the lake. Approximately
windy season, and can be dominant for much of the year at the
25% of the catchment is within Tanzania (Kidd 1983), although
lake's southern end (Hecky and Kling 1987; Bootsma 1993a;
land use within Tanzania may have a disproportionate effect
Patterson and Kachinjika 1995). Following the windy season,
on the lake since the annual rainfall is greater at the northern
cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) often dominate during end of the lake, with the river inputs therefore being greater.
September to November, with surface blooms of fi lamentous
Approximately 20% of annual river infl ow to the lake comes
blue-green algae (Anabaena spp.) often observed. Between
from the Ruhuhu River in Tanzania (Kidd 1983). About 7% of
December and April, the phytoplankton is often a mixture of
the catchment area is within Mozambique.
small diatoms, blue-green algae, and green algae.
As mentioned above, the population density is greatest in the
On a trophic scale (commonly used to classify lakes according
southern part of the catchment within Malawi. According to the
to productivity), Lake Malawi can be classifi ed as oligotrophic
Malawi National Statistics Offi ce, the population of Malawi was
to mesotrophic (i.e., low to medium productivity). Chlorophyll-a
9.9 million in 1998, with an annual growth rate of 2.0%. The
concentrations (an index of algal abundance) are low--usually
northern and central regions of the country, which make up
below 1 µg/L.
most of the Malawian portion of the lake catchment, contain
12% and 41% of the total population, respectively. However,
Pelagic (offshore) waters of the lake are very clear most of
the population growth rate in the northern region is higher than
the year, due to low concentrations of dissolved organic the national average, at 2.8% per year. Fourteen percent of the
compounds and suspended solids. However, large parts of population lives in urban areas, with the urban population
the lake, particularly near shore, can become turbid during
growth rate being about 4.7% per year. Within the portion of
the rainy season, when rivers bring in large quantities of the population considered "economically active" (68%), 78%
suspended solids.
are subsistence farmers, while 13% are employees. In contrast
to the Malawian portion of the catchment, the eastern and
Lake Malawi is the most species-rich lake in the world, parts of the northwestern shores of the lake have relatively
containing an estimated 500 to 1000 species (Fryer and Iles
pristine vegetation, low population densities, and are lightly
1972; Konings 1995). Eleven families of fi sh exist in the lake,
exploited. These areas are relatively remote from the centers
but one family--the Cichlidae--makes up over 90% of all the
of Tanzanian and Mozambican government and have been
lake's fi sh species, almost all of which are endemic. Diversity
little developed. However, the two governments are making
of the pelagic cichlids is high by any standards, but is greatest
attempts to raise the economic standards of these regions
in the nearshore communities. In the rocky nearshore waters
through tourism and agricultural development.
of Lake Malawi, more than 500 individuals and 22 species
can be found in a 50-m2 area (Ribbink et al. 1983). Not only
Agriculture is the mainstay of Malawi's economy, accounting
are the cichlid species endemic to each lake, but within each
for almost half of the GDP, and for almost all export revenues.
lake local endemicity is common among the nearshore fi shes,
Agriculture also accounts for half of the GDP in Tanzania, and
so that certain species or color forms are confi ned to specifi c
35% of the GDP in Mozambique. Within Malawi, the fi shing
islands or isolated rocky segments of the shoreline (Fryer and
industry contributes between 2 and 4% to the GDP, employing
Iles 1972; Ribbink et al. 1983; Konings 1995).
almost 300,000 people either directly or indirectly. Over 80%
of the total fi sh landings is from small-scale fi shers. In the
The total fi sh catch is diffi cult to estimate, due to the large
southern part of the lake, however, there is a commercial
number of small-scale fi shers and the government's limited
fi shery (MALDECO) that targets fi sh stocks further offshore
capacity to collect suffi cient catch data. Thompson (1995) than do most artisanal fi shers. Within Malawi, fi sh are
estimated that the total annual catch is approximately 30,000
estimated to provide about 70% of dietary animal protein
tonnes, while Lewis and Tweddle (1990) earlier estimated that
(Bland and Donda 1995), with the majority of the fi sh coming
the annual catch of one species alone, Engraulicypris sardella
from Lake Malawi/Nyasa.
("usipa"), may have exceeded 50,000 tonnes. The majority
of the artisanal fi shery yield is made up of Copadichromis
In addition to fi sh and freshwater, other economic benefi ts
spp. ("utaka"), Engraulicypris sardella, and Lethrinops spp.
gained from the lake include electricity, transportation, and
("chisawasawa"). Yields of catfi sh and "chambo" (Oreochromis
an ornamental fi sh trade. The majority of electricity produced

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
261

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in Malawi comes from hydroelectric plants on the Shire only water supply, and have not considered water resources
River, which drains the lake. However, fl uctuations in the management aspects as an integral component.
river discharge, which is controlled by the lake level, make
this power source precarious, particularly since the level of
As part of the development of a water resources management
Lake Malawi/Nyasa is very sensitive to climatic changes. capability, the country has been divided into nine basins,
Between 1915 and 1935, the lake was completely closed, and new water resources management initiatives are being
with no outfl ow. More recently, as a result of low lake levels
developed, using these basins for management units. A
in 1997, electrical power was being rationed in October and
rapid appraisal was completed to rank the issues in order of
November, at the end of the dry season. There currently are
importance for each basin. The basins within the Lake Malawi/
plans to extend power lines from the Matambo power station
Nyasa catchment are not currently prioritized. Further, the
in Mozambique's northwestern Tete province to the southern
responsible government department currently is only able to
region of Malawi.
provide resources for developing two of the basins, based on
the presence of hydropower or irrigation infrastructure. Basin
Large-scale transport on the lake is conducted almost Water Offi ces are being established, and are envisioned to be
exclusively by the government-owned Malawi Lake Services,
self-fi nancing.
which operates passenger and cargo vessels. The business
is currently being operated under a 20-year concession to Experience has shown that fragmented planning and
a private fi rm. Vessel operation is irregular, however, due to
management, lack of integrated sectoral approaches to
frequent breakdowns and concerns about low draught in some
development and confl icting sectoral policies are the main
of the ports.
causes of water use confl icts in Tanzania. These confl icts
highlight the need to manage the available water resources in
Lake Malawi/Nyasa's ornamental fi sh trade consists of two
a comprehensive manner, taking into consideration integrated
businesses, one based in Senga Bay and the other in Chipoka.
plans in cross-sectoral uses of water, land-use, pollution
While some exported species are directly from the lake, others
control, environment and public health considerations on a
are bred in tanks at Senga Bay. The ornamental fi sh trade in
basin-wide basis (World Bank 1996).
1994 was valued at US$276,000 (Msiska 2001).
As part of a sector wide review, a comprehensive Rapid Water
With a population of about ten million people, a growth rate of
Resources Assessment (RWRA), based on existing information,
approximately 3% (Department of Research and Environmental
was completed. The issues specifi cally identifi ed for the
Affairs 1999), and a resultant population density of about 106/
Songwe and Ruhuhu basins include water pollution, impacts
km2, Malawi is one of the most densely-populated countries in
on fi sheries, conservation of sensitive ecosystems (specifi cally
the sub-Saharan Africa. Associated impacts of the burgeoning
wetlands on the Songwe River system), and intensive cattle
human pressure include unsustainable agricultural and grazing in the catchment.
livestock grazing practices, shoreline occupancy for easy
access to fi sh and water, and deforestation (Hecky 1993).
The small portion of the lake's catchment that lies within
Mozambique is in the province of Niassa. Although land in
Malawi is one of the least developed countries in the world,
this province is very fertile, it is the country's most sparsely-
with an estimated per capita income of about US$230. populated province, with a total population of less than one
According to the World Bank, 43% of smallholders do not have
million, despite attempts by the Mozambique Government to
suffi cient income to acquire their most basic needs, while 30%
promote immigration to this province from other provinces.
do not have suffi cient income even to meet their caloric needs.
In an effort to promote development within this region,
It is estimated that poverty is at a 60% level in rural areas,
Mozambique and South Africa signed an agreement in 1996
while it affects 65% of the urban dwellers. The main causes of
to make land within Niassa province available to South African
poverty are low agricultural productivity, low non-farm income,
farmers.
low education, and poor health (UNDP/GOM 1993).
Mozambique's economy has greatly improved since the
The implication of this low income is that farmers are unable
end of the civil war. Between 1996 and 2000, the average
to purchase inputs to improve their agronomic practices. annual infl ation decreased from 47% to 2%, and GDP grew
Secondly, it means that, during the growing season, farmers
by almost 10% per year. In 2002, the economic growth was
have to work as casual laborers on commercial farms, at the
12%--the best on the African continent. Although little of this
expense of managing their own lands in an optimal manner.
development has extended to the Niassa Province, there has
been a recent rapid expansion of tobacco growing and curing
Present experience in Tanzania shows that major sectoral in this province. Ninety-fi ve percent of the cultivated land
water users (e.g., irrigated agriculture, hydropower comprises traditional, family-run farms, with an average size
generation) have independently been implementing parallel
of 2 hectares.
targeted development programs. A coordination mechanism of
implementing projects is required. It has been further realized
that the country's development programs have emphasized
262 Lake
Malawi/Nyasa

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3. Biophysical
Environment
shore of the lake, with toxic algae being a possible cause for
this kill.
3.1
Temporal Trends: Past and Current Conditions
The most likely cause of the apparent increase in phosphorus
Because of its large volume and long hydraulic residence time
input to the lake appears to be land use changes. The majority
(the annual river infl ow to the lake is only 0.4% of the lake's
of the Lake Malawi/Nyasa catchment is in Malawi, where the
total volume), Lake Malawi/Nyasa may respond very slowly
population has doubled in the past 25 years. Most of the
to increased inputs of certain contaminants and, therefore,
population relies directly on subsistence agriculture for food,
the detection of changes over time may be diffi cult if only
with the high population density resulting in the expansion of
the lake water is monitored. Although monitoring rivers and
subsistence agriculture to marginal lands, including wetlands
atmospheric inputs will provide a more sensitive analysis and steep hill slopes. Because application of fertilizers
of temporal change, historic data on river water quality is to agricultural land is minimal, it is unlikely that fertilizer
very sparse, with the earliest measurements of atmospheric
application is causing in increased river loads of phosphorus.
nutrient deposition made in 1990-91 (Bootsma et al. 1996).
Rather, erosion of phosphorus-containing soils is the most
Nevertheless, historic limnological data suggest the lake may
likely cause of increased phosphorus loading to the lake.
be responding to changes in land use within its catchment.
An indication of the extent of erosion in the lake catchment
is provided by a comparison of dissolved organic carbon
Because nutrient concentrations are low in Lake Malawi/
(DOC) and particulate organic carbon (POC) concentrations in
Nyasa, phytoplankton concentrations also are low. The surface
tributary rivers. In undisturbed rivers, the DOC concentration
water concentrations of dissolved nitrogen and phosphorus
is generally about 10 times the POC concentration. In contrast,
typically are below 0.4 µmol/L and 0.1 µmol/L respectively,
in many Lake Malawi/Nyasa tributaries, the POC concentration
and the chlorophyll-a concentrations (used as an index of is much higher than the DOC concentration (Ramlal et al.
phytoplankton abundance) are below 1 µg/L. There is no 2003), suggesting exceptionally high erosion rates within the
evidence that current nutrient concentrations are greater catchment. Not only do these erosion rates result in accelerated
than in earlier years. However, the nutrient concentration is
nutrient inputs to the lake, the high suspended sediment loads
a poor indicator of the rate at which nutrients are delivered
in rivers increase the turbidity of nearshore waters. Data
to a lake, primarily because nutrients are rapidly assimilated
collected by Duponchelle et al. (2000) indicate that greater
by phytoplankton. Thus, their concentration may remain low
turbidity leads to decreased body condition in rock-dwelling
even when nutrient delivery rates have increased. While there
cichlids in Lake Malawi/Nyasa, and the work of Seehausen et
is insuffi cient historic data on nutrient inputs from rivers to
al. (1997) on Lake Victoria has shown that increased turbidity
determine if inputs to the lake have increased, analysis of can lead to loss of biodiversity among cichlids.
sediments in the lake provides an alternative method of
examining the lake's history. Recent sediment cores suggest
In addition to catchment erosion, a large proportion of the
that phosphorus inputs to the southern half of the lake have
nitrogen and phosphorus entering the lake originates from
steadily increased over the past half century (Hecky et al.
the atmosphere. There are no historic data for comparing
1999). A similar trend is not apparent for the northern half of
recent measurements, but a global comparison indicates that
the lake, although there is some uncertainty as to whether
atmospheric deposition rates of nitrogen and phosphorus in
the core data for this region adequately represents recent the Lake Malawi/Nyasa region (Bootsma et al. 1996, 1999) are
conditions.
among the highest in the published literature. There are several
possible causes of these high deposition rates, including the
Because phosphorus appears to be an important nutrient large extent of biomass burning that occurs in this part of
controlling phytoplankton production in the lake (Guildford et
Africa (Andreae 1993), and increased exposure of soil to wind
al. 2003), increased inputs of this nutrient might be expected
erosion, promoted by burning, deforestation and over-grazing
to produce increased phytoplankton abundance. Although of land. Because measurements of atmospheric deposition
there is no strong evidence for this having occurred, a are usually made over land, it is diffi cult to determine how
comparison of phytoplankton species composition in sediment
accurately these measurements refl ect deposition rates on
cores, and among various studies conducted over the past
the lake. Based on sampling location relative to wind direction,
several decades, suggests there has been a shift in species
Bootsma et al. (1996, 1999) argue that the rates measured near
dominance. In the southern part of the lake, the previously-
Monkey Bay and Senga Bay are probably applicable to the lake
common Planktolyngbya nyassensis has been replaced by surface. While further measurements at different locations
Planktolyngbya tallingi, a species more commonly seen under
directly over the lake will result in a better understanding of
conditions of higher nutrient concentrations and lower light
the magnitude of these inputs and their potential sources,
availability (Hecky et al. 1999). In addition, the potentially toxic
they are unlikely to alter the conclusion that the atmosphere is
species Cylindrospermopsis raciborski was recently reported.
a major source of nitrogen and phosphorus for the lake.
Understanding of the lower food web structure in the lake is
insuffi cient to determine whether or not such changes may
Changes in land use not only affect erosion and nutrient inputs
affect the zooplankton and fi sh production. In October 1999,
to the lake, they also appear to have had a signifi cant effect
however, a massive fi sh kill occurred along the entire western
on the hydrology within the catchment. A review of historic

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
263

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lake levels, rainfall records, and land use changes by Calder et
lake nutrient cycles, plankton production and fi sh production
al. (1995) indicates that between 1967 and 1990, forest cover
depend on whether the surface waters have warmed more or
in the lake catchment decreased from 64% to 51%, resulting
less than the deep waters. If the surface has warmed more
in an increased water input to the lake, due to a decrease in
than the deep water, vertical mixing will be reduced, resulting
terrestrial evapotranspiration rates. As a result, early-1990s
in less nutrient supply and lower plankton production. While
lake levels were approximately 1 m higher than they would
the current effect of climate warming on the lake is uncertain,
have been in the absence of this deforestation. While this air temperatures in this part of Africa are predicted to increase
may appear to be a benefi t to the lake, the implications are
by approximately 4°C over the next century, and will likely alter
probably negative for terrestrial systems and for streams and
lake levels, lake hydrodynamics and biogeochemical cycles.
rivers, since stream fl ow tends to be less stable in deforested
catchments.
While fi shery catches have remained relatively stable in
Lake Malawi/Nyasa, the catches of a number of larger, more
Lake Malawi/Nyasa has not experienced exotic fi sh species
economically-valuable species have declined dramatically,
introductions, such as those that have drastically altered the
especially in the lake's southern arms of the lake where fi sh
fi sh communities of Lake Victoria. However, water hyacinth
catches have historically been the greatest. These include
(Eichornia crassipes) was fi rst introduced to Malawi in catfi sh (Bagrus and Bathyclarias species), mpasa (Opsaridium
the 1960s, and is now present in the lake and many of its
microlepis), nchila (Labeo mesops and L. cylindricus), and
tributaries. Although the plant is not abundant within the chambo (Oreochromis species) (FAO 1993; Turner 1994,
lake, probably due to the low nutrient concentrations, there is
1995; Irvine et al. 2002). The reduction in numbers of catfi sh
potential for water hyacinth to become a problem in the lake
and chambo is due to overfi shing, while the decline of
if nutrient inputs increase. This may have serious implications
potamodromous fi shes (mpasa and nchila) is likely due to a
for biodiversity, since the lake's richest fi sh communities combination of overfi shing and river and nearshore habitat
are found in the nearshore zone. Most of the water hyacinth
degradation. The persistence of relatively constant catch rates,
currently found in the lake originates in its tributaries, and
despite the declines in several species, is due to increasing
dies out in the lake. However, within the tributaries, and fi shing pressure and a reduction in net mesh sizes. As a
in the out-fl owing Shire River, water hyacinth is abundant, result, the catch per unit effort has declined, as has per capita
having resulted in problems at the Liwonde barrage and at
income (Bulirani 2003). Fish consumption has declined from
the Shire River hydro-electricity generating plants. The Malawi
14 kg/person/year in the 1970s to less than 6 kg/person/year
government initiated a biological control program in 1995, (Malawi State of the Environment Report, 2002).
using the weevil Neochetina spp., which appears to have some
success (Phiri et al. 2001), although water hyacinth remains a
To identify potential new fi sheries, an ODA/SADC project,
problem.
Fishery Potential and Productivity of the Pelagic Zone of
Lake Malawi/Niassa, was implemented between 1987 and
Because there are few large cities in the immediate vicinity
1994 (fi eld work commenced in 1992). This project identifi ed
of Lake Malawi/Nyasa, industrial and urban infl uences on untouched, deepwater pelagic fi sh stocks, consisting primarily
the lake appear to have been moderate to date. PCB and DDT
of Diplotaxodon spp. and Rhamphochromis spp. (Menz 1995).
levels in the lake are similar to, or slightly lower than, those
These stocks have not yet been targeted, however, due to
measured in the Laurentian Great Lakes of North America the logistic diffi culties associated with the development of a
(Kidd et al. 1999). However, measured concentrations of some
pelagic, deepwater fi shery.
organochlorines, lindane and dieldrin in air and water indicate
that their concentrations will continue to rise in the lake, since
Lake Malawi/Nyasa supports an ornamental fi sh trade, which
they are not yet at equilibrium with the atmosphere. Further,
targets nearshore cichlids, primarily in rocky habitats. This
although concentrations of pesticides, PCBs and mercury in
trade provides foreign exchange for Malawi, although its
most fi sh from Lake Malawi are low, mercury levels in some
economic signifi cance is probably very minor, relative to the
larger fi sh species, such as mpasa (Opsaridium microlepis)
artisanal fi shery. There are few data to determine the impacts
and ncheni (Rhamphochromis spp.) are suffi ciently high to be
of this trade on the abundance and diversity of nearshore fi sh.
of potential concern to pregnant women and children (Kidd et
As a result of escapes and dumping, however, some species
al. 1999).
have been introduced to parts of the lake in which they were
not indigenous, resulting in disruptions of the structure of
Even though it has been given little attention to date, climate
local fi sh communities (Ribbink et al. 1983).
change has occurred within the Lake Malawi/Nyasa region over
the past century, and it will likely be more dramatic over the
Based on historic trends of fi sheries, water quality, and
next century. Vollmer (2002) has meticulously reconstructed
hydrology, and recent data on river water quality, the main
historic deep water temperatures for the lake, showing threats to the Lake Malawi/Nyasa ecosystem are:
that the hypolimnion has warmed from 22.02°C to 22.74°C
between 1939 to 1999. While this increase appears small, it
· overfi shing in some areas (nearshore, especially
is signifi cant when one considers that the lake is very weakly
southern end of lake);
stratifi ed during the cold, windy season. The implications for
264 Lake
Malawi/Nyasa

---

·
increased nutrient inputs and changes in phytoplankton
to promote transportation between Tanzania's Indian Ocean
composition;
port in Mtwara and the northeast lakeshore region (southwest
Tanzania), and to expand industrial activities (including natural
· sediment
loading;
resource extraction) within this region.
·
loss of biodiversity due to fi shing and nearshore water
Poor Agriculture Practices. The vast majority of people (80%)
quality impacts; and,
living within the Lake Malawi/Nyasa catchment rely directly on
agriculture for subsistence. As a result of increasing population
·
water levels (re: electricity).
density, as well as land tenure reform allocating land to large
estates and conservation areas, the amount of land available
The ultimate causes of these threats, in addition to overfi shing,
to rural populations has been decreasing, forcing people to
are:
cultivate in marginal areas (wetlands, steep hill slopes, poor
soils, etc.) that were previously untouched, with negative
· deforestation;
social, economic and environmental consequences that
will become more severe over time. The governments of the
·
sub-optimal agricultural practices;
riparian countries will inevitably need to promote economic
diversifi cation in order to lessen the direct dependence on
·
biomass burning; and,
land access, although current emphasis is on maximizing
agricultural production. A signifi cant proportion of the land in
· climate
change.
Malawi occupied by tobacco estates remains wooded because
the land is being held by owners for future use. Because of the
3.2
Lake and Drainage Basin Resource Confl icts
great need for land by smallholders, mechanisms to promote
the agricultural utilization of this land are being considered.
Almost all resource confl icts within the Lake Malawi/Nyasa
However, while this may promote agricultural production in the
basin fall within four categories: (a) overfi shing; (b) poor short term, it will have negative consequences with regard to
agricultural practices; (c) deforestation; (d) biomass burning.
soil erosion, water quality, and fuel wood supply.
Overfi shing. As outlined above, overfi shing is the result of In most developed countries, confl icts arise between
increased fi shing activity and use of illegal gear to catch smaller
agriculture and water management sectors because the
fi sh. This is primarily an issue in the southern part of the lake,
excessive application of pesticides and fertilizers has
as well as in Lake Malombe downstream from Lake Malawi.
negative impacts on the water quality and ecology of rivers
The problem is largely confi ned to Malawi, with overfi shing
and lakes. In the Lake Malawi/Nyasa catchment, soil erosion
not being a major concern in Tanzania or Mozambique. Within
is the primary means through which agricultural activities
some parts of Malawi, the Fisheries Department is unable affect the rivers and the lake. The impacts of fertilizers
to collect suffi cient data to allow estimates of maximum and pesticides are relatively small on a whole lake basis,
sustainable yield, or to develop management strategies (e.g.,
although there is potential for localized impacts, particularly
see Sipawe et al. 2001). Within the southern part of the lake,
in cotton-growing regions and near large sugar plantations.
moderately good data on catch statistics are collected through
Because soil erosion is detrimental to both water quality and
trawl surveys and beach monitoring programs. Although crop production, there is no inherent confl ict between the
these data are used to develop legislation and management
agricultural water management sectors, and improved soil
strategies for the fi shery, the government does not have the
and water conservation will benefi t both sectors. The current
necessary fi nancial resources to enforce fi sheries regulations.
challenge is to identify areas within the catchment where soil
Based on current patterns, the nearshore fi sheries of Lake erosion is the greatest, and to implement feasible strategies
Malawi/Nyasa will continue to deteriorate.
to reduce erosion in those areas. Signifi cant progress in this
area has been made within the Lake Victoria catchment as a
Although the lake is shared among three countries, there result of extension work conducted through the Lake Victoria
presently is minimal confl ict related to fi sh catches within the
Environmental Management Project (LVEMP), and lessons
lake. The Mozambican coast has a low population density and,
from that project would likely benefi t managers within the
therefore, fi shing pressure is low in this region. The dispute
Lake Malawi/Nyasa catchment.
over the border location between Malawi and Tanzania at the
northern end of the lake is primarily a political one, resulting
Deforestation. As in the fi sheries sector, the governments
in minimal confl icts between fi shers of the two countries. of the three countries have been unable to enforce forest
This is because the fi sheries are confi ned to nearshore management regulations, or to adequately monitor and
regions, and few Malawians have access to the east side of
inventory forest resources. Consequently, much of the forest
the lake. However, if efforts are made to exploit the recently-
and woodland resources are openly accessible to the public.
identifi ed pelagic fi sh stocks, the potential for confl icts will
The great reliance on wood as a fuel source and building
increase. This may become an even more contentious issue
material, combined with high population densities, is causing
with the development of the Mtwara corridor, the goal being
a rapid net loss of forests. While some of this loss is due to

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
265

---

slash and burn activities associated with clearance of new the causes of biomass burning on a large, regional scale.
land for agriculture, recent analysis of time-series satellite Such an effort will only be successful if implemented from an
imagery reveals that much of the loss is via gradual attrition
agricultural perspective, since farmers and rural populations
(2 to 3% per year) within forest reserves, conservation areas
responsible for much of the burning have little incentive to
and national parks (Eastman and Toledano 1996). Some efforts
change their practices for the betterment of the lake.
have been made to promote forest and wildlife conservation
in these areas through education and sustainable utilization
4. Management
Environment
(e.g., beekeeping and honey production). As with agriculture,
however, the heavy, direct reliance on natural resources for
4.1 Government
Management
sustenance and income, along with high population density,
makes it impossible to both preserve woodlands and ensure
Within each of the three riparian countries, lake research and
the basic needs of people are met. This is perhaps most management activities carried out by government institutions
evident in Lake Malawi National Park, which includes fi ve
have been limited almost exclusively to fi sheries, with
enclave villages almost completely dependent on trees within
the focus being on catch per unit effort (CPUE) data to set
the park as a source of fuel and building materials. Regarding
fi shing restrictions. This work is carried out by the Fisheries
lake management, there is a huge disconnect between forest
Department and the Institute for Fisheries Research (Instituto
management and water quality management. Although water
de Investegaçăo Pesqueira), respectively, in Malawi and
conservation is recognized by managers as a benefi t of forests,
Mozambique. In Tanzania, the Tanzania Fisheries Research
catchment hydrology, water quality and fi sheries production
Institute (TAFIRI) is responsible for fi sheries research, with
are not used to measure the success of forest management
results being provided to the Fisheries Department. While some
programs. Indeed, to forest managers, the ecosystem is the
of these departments have recruited staff with training in areas
forest, not the larger catchment.
such as water chemistry and plankton ecology, the relationship
between fi sheries and water quality, plankton ecology, and
Biomass Burning. The fi nal resource confl ict, biomass burning,
land use is given very little attention. Although the importance
is one whose impacts on Lake Malawi/Nyasa have been under-
of biodiversity is recognized, the only management action to
appreciated. Although extensive measurements have not been
address biodiversity conservation has been the establishment
made in many parts of East Africa, as previously noted, several
of Lake Malawi National Park.
studies (Bootsma et al. 1996, 1999; Langenberg et al. 2003)
indicate a large portion of nitrogen and phosphorus entering
Within the larger catchment, management of natural resources
the African Great Lakes originates from the atmosphere, with
is done on a sector basis. Government institutions directly
atmospheric nutrient deposition rates being greater in this involved with management of the lake and its resources are
region than in many other parts of the world. There is strong
listed in Table 2. With the exception of Lake Malawi National
evidence that these high atmospheric nutrient loads are due
Park, all lake management activities are focused exclusively
directly and indirectly to burning (Bootsma et al. 1996). In on fi sheries.
fact, the region surrounding Lake Malawi/Nyasa is among
the most frequently-burned regions of Africa. Although not In addition to being strongly sectoral, natural resource
well documented, there are probably multiple reasons for management in the three countries is characterized by
the burning, including the preparation of fi elds for cultivation,
top-down management models, with minimal stakeholder
burning of woodlands to open up agricultural areas, promotion
involvement. While recent development programs have
of early growth of grass for grazing animals, hunting, accidental
attempted to foster greater stakeholder input, ironically the
fi res, and traditions. Although it is evident that burning results
lack of stakeholder involvement may be due to the large role
in increased nutrient inputs to the lake, the impacts on lake
that development organizations have played in managing
nutrient cycles and plankton production requires further natural resources within the region. Although management
study. If this input is considered undesirable, reducing activities in the lake have been heavily supported by external
the atmospheric inputs to the lake will be an even greater
development agencies, these agencies also have had a strong
challenge than reducing river inputs, because the former hand in directing of management activities as well, with the
originate from a much larger area than the lake catchment,
input of government agencies sometimes being post factum.
and their management will require a large effort to address
Similarly, these donor initiatives may actually inhibit inter-
Table 2. Government Departments in Tanzania, Malawi and Mozambique Directly Involved in Managing Lake Malawi/Nyasa
and Its Resources.
Tanzania
Malawi
Mozambique
Tanzania Fisheries Research Institute
Department of Fisheries
Institute of Fisheries Research
(TAFIRI)
Tanzania Department of Fisheries
Department of National Parks and
Institute for Development of Small Scale
Wildlife (Lake Malawi National Park)
Fisheries
National Directorate for Fisheries
266 Lake
Malawi/Nyasa

---

sectoral collaboration because they are often developed with
policy, and defi nes the institutional structures to implement
predetermined objectives and agendas dealing with specifi c
the policy and enforce the laws.
sectoral problems but ignoring larger, ecosystem-scale
issues. In addition, externally-funded programs may demand
The effi cacy of these agencies has been limited to date.
a great deal of time from senior government staff, detracting
Although NEMC has had some success in getting various
from longer-term initiatives that the government is pursuing
sectoral agencies within Tanzania to adopt a more collaborative,
independently (Bulirani 2003).
holistic approach to environmental management, little progress
has been made in Malawi and Mozambique. There is not only a
Although there currently is little integrated management of
need to improve communication among departments, but also
natural resources within the catchment and the lake, each to have a central body responsible for the overall gathering,
government has structures in place to facilitate a transition
processing, and dissemination of environmental information
to ecosystem-based management. In Malawi, a National at the ecosystem level, this lesson being emphasized in the
Environmental Policy was approved by the Cabinet in 1996,
fi nal report of the Malawi Environmental Monitoring Program.
being implemented through the Environment Management In each country, signifi cant progress recently has been made
Act. It establishes a National Council for the Environment, in defi ning long-term environmental management strategies.
with powers to mediate confl icts, and gives the Environmental
It is now imperative that these strategies be used to ensure
Affairs Department responsibility for coordinating that externally-funded development programs address the
environmental monitoring, investments in natural resource identifi ed priority issues, that they mesh with government
sectors, and environmental education. Collaboration within programs and agendas, and that they are coordinated with
Malawi and, to some degree, among Malawi and the other
each other.
two countries, also has been promoted by the National
Aquatic Resource Management Programme (NARMAP), Until recently, there was virtually no coordination among
implemented through the Department of Fisheries, funded by
the three countries regarding research and management
GTZ (Germany), and completed in 2003. While this program
in the lake and its catchment. In recognition of the need
does not consider the terrestrial part of the ecosystem, it does
for such coordination, however, the three countries, with
attempt to promote collaboration and information sharing support from FAO, have recently (in 2003) developed a draft
among various government and non-government agencies convention on the sustainable development of the lake and
working on the lake, and a research approach that goes its basin. This draft convention proposes the establishment
beyond the conventional focus on fi sheries.
of a Lake Malawi/Niassa/Nyasa Basin Commission, which
would be made up of a Council of Ministers, a Steering
In Tanzania, the National Environmental Management Council
Committee, a Permanent Secretary, and a number of Standing
(NEMC) has proposed a National Conservation Strategy Committees dealing with fi sheries management, water
for Sustainable Development (NCSDD), which includes an resources management, and catchment management. Each
Environmental Action Plan that prioritizes natural resource country also is to establish a National Committee made up
problems, recommends actions, and identifi es lead agencies
of representatives of various natural resource management
for the actions. The environmental legislation to support this
institutions, academic institutions, private sector, and local
strategy is expected to be completed in 2004. As part of its
community representatives. The Commission's proposed
National Environmental Action Plan, Tanzania has identifi ed six
mandate would include data dissemination, promotion of
priority environmental concerns, including land degradation,
training, public education and research related to the lake and
deforestation, water supply and water quality, pollution, to water resources, monitoring of environmental conditions
deterioration of aquatic systems, loss of wildlife habitat in the lake basin, and enhancement of cooperation among
and biodiversity. Overall coordination of natural resource various governmental and non-governmental agencies
management policy within Tanzania is the responsibility of the
involved in activities related to natural resource management
Department of Environment, within the Vice President's Offi ce.
in the lake basin.
Within Mozambique, oversight of natural resource 4.2 Development
Programs
management is the responsibility of the Ministry for the
Coordination of Environmental Affairs (MICOA). Management
Due to extremely limited fi nancial resources for research and
is guided by a number of sectoral policies, those most relevant
management within each of the three countries, activities
to the lake being the National Policy on Environment (1995),
supported directly by the governments have been confi ned
the National Water Policy (1995), and the National Policy on
almost exclusively to monitoring fi sh catches, and the use
Fisheries (1996). These policies were developed within sectors,
of catch data to develop fi sheries regulations. Even these
with drafts being circulated among sectors for comment before
activities are limited, however, due to lack of adequate
submission to the Cabinet. In 2003, Mozambique completed
research vessels and frequent breakdowns of available
the development of a National Environmental Management vessels. As a result, most of the research carried out on
Programme (NEMP), which defi nes Mozambique's the lake over the past four decades has been implemented
environmental policy, establishes the legal framework for this
through donor agencies, usually in collaboration with regional
fi sheries departments. A list of some of the major projects is

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
267

---

given in Table 3. Although this list is not exhaustive, it provides
The working strategy of most development projects has been:
a large enough basis from which an assessment of the benefi ts
(a) to carry out some form of research or survey to obtain
of such projects can be made.
data; (b) to use these data to better understand the various
aspects of the Lake Malawi/Nyasa ecosystem, including social
The general objective of many of these projects has been and economic conditions; and (c) to apply this understanding
to assess the status of various fi sheries in Lake Malawi/
to the development of management strategies to maintain
Nyasa, and promote better management of these fi sheries.
or improve the status of the system with regard to natural
Exceptions are the Malawi Environmental Monitoring Program,
resource (especially fi sh) production, water quality/quantity
which focused more specifi cally on monitoring of terrestrial
management, biodiversity conservation, and economic welfare
resources within the lake catchment, and the SADC/GEF of the riparian populations. Most projects also included
Lake Malawi/Nyasa Biodiversity Conservation Project, which
training components and outreach components. Most projects
focused on biodiversity conservation (one of the six focus have been reasonably successful in regard to points (a) and
areas of the GEF) and, like the MEMP program, took a broad
(b). Much more is know about the Lake Malawi/Nyasa basin
ecosystem approach.
ecosystem today than 30 years ago, primarily because of the
work carried out by the projects above listed in Table 3, as well
as work carried out within various government departments.
Table 3. Selected Development Projects on Lake Malawi/Nyasa between 1970 and 2003.
Project Title
Dates
Organization
Objective
Fishery Expansion Project
1977-1981
UNDP/FAO; Malawi
Quantify potential yield of pelagic fi sh stocks
government
in Lake Malawi/Nyasa.
Chambo Project
1988-1992
UNDP/FAO; Malawi
Develop management plan for Chambo
government
(Oreochromis spp.) in southeast arm of
Lake Malawi, upper Shire River, and Lake
Malombe.
UK/SADC Fisheries Project
1987-1994
UK DfID/SADC, governments
Assess offshore fi shery potential of Lake
of Malawi, Tanzania,
Malawi/Nyasa.
Mozambique
Lake Malawi Fisheries
1991-2000
World Bank
Facilitate access to offshore fi shery
Development Project
through privatization of boat construction
industry, construction of plank boats, and
establishment of credit facilities for fi shers.
Malawi Environmental
1993-1999
USAID; University of Arizona;
Assess current environmental status and
Monitoring Program
Clark University, Malawi
rates of change, and improve capacity to
government
assess environmental impact of specifi c
policies.
SADC/GEF Lake Malawi/
1995-1999
SADC; GEF (implemented by
Map diversity and identify threats to
Nyasa Biodiversity
World Bank), CIDA; UNDP; UK lake's biodiversity; propose conservation
Conservation Project
DfID, DANIDA, FAO
management strategies; educate public
with regard to conservations need; assess
environmental legislation and recommend
revisions with regard to biodiversity
conservation.
Ncheni Project
1996-2001
University of Hull;
Determine diversity of pelagic cichlids and
UK DfID, governments of
provide advice on sustainable exploitation.
Malawi and Tanzania
Comprehensive Study on
1998-2001
JICA; Chancellor College
Develop research facilities at Chancellor
Lake Malawi Ecology for
(Malawi)
College; conduct research on fi sh genetics.
Sustainable Utilization
Preparation of a Preliminary
1999-2000
World Bank; University of
Develop initial hydrodynamic, water quality,
Physical Processes and
Waterloo; Delft Hydraulics;
and catchment models for Lake Malawi/
Water Quality Model for Lake
UNU/INWEH
Nyasa, and provide training in model use.
Malawi/Nyasa
National Aquatic Resource
1997-2003
GTZ (Germany)
Develop inland fi sheries and aquaculture;
Management Programme
conceptualization of participatory community
(NARMAP)
fi sheries management.
Lake Malawi Artisanal
2003-2008
African Development Bank
Enhance management and utilization of
Fisheries Development
fi sheries resources, and protect tributary
Project
watersheds.
268 Lake
Malawi/Nyasa

---

The information and understanding resulting from this work
utilization of the environment for sustainable development.
is absolutely essential to managing the ecosystem and its In Malawi, decentralization was promoted through the
resources. This lesson has been learned repeatedly in various
1998 Local Government Act. In Mozambique, the process of
parts of the world, an example being the North American decentralization was initiated in the late 1980s, and has gone
Great Lakes, which offer valuable lessons regarding the through a number of phases in the past 25 years. Mozambique
need for high-quality scientifi c data for effectively managing
conducted its fi rst local government elections in 1998. In all
large aquatic ecosystems. Only after research indicated three countries, the actual implementation of decentralization
which nutrients were responsible for eutrophication, and has been very slow and, although accepted in principle by
where these nutrients were coming from, was it possible to
many citizens, it is not always welcome by offi cials at regional
develop and implement management strategies to reduce or district levels, who may be unwilling or unable to assume
the impacts of eutrophication on the North American Great
increased responsibilities caused by decentralization. In
Lakes. In like manner, fi sheries cannot be managed without
Malawi, the process of decentralization, along with a series
adequate data on catch trends, fi shing effort, and fi sh ecology.
of frequent changes in government budgeting and accounting
Biodiversity cannot be conserved in the face of intensive systems, has created confusion with the public service
resource exploitation without understanding the mechanisms
(Bulirani 2003).
by which human activities may threaten it. Conservation
of water quality and quantity, critical for fi sh production, One of the objectives of decentralization is to give communities
biodiversity conservation, electric power generation, and greater control over managing local resources. While this
human consumption, also requires a thorough understanding
has not been done with regard to terrestrial resources in the
of hydrology at the ecosystem scale, and the biogeochemical
lake catchment, a large number of Beach Village Committees
processes infl uencing water quality. Research on the Lake (BVCs) have been established in Malawi, both on Lake
Malawi/Nyasa ecosystem, including its drainage basin, has Malawi/Nyasa and on Lake Malombe, with the objective
been a critical prerequisite to effective management, and will
of promoting local management of artisanal fi sheries. This
continue to be essential.
was fi rst initiated through the GTZ-funded National Aquatic
Resources Management Program, with the initiative formally
In regard to point (c) on the implementation of management
recognized by the government with the enactment of the
strategies based on data and understanding, most Fisheries Conservation and Management Act in 1997. The
development projects have had limited success. Despite the
success of these committees has been equivocal to date.
fact that our understanding of the lake ecosystem is better
Problems include internal confl ict within BVCs, corruption,
today than it was 30 years ago, total fi sh catches in Lake inadequate education of committee members, disparities
Malawi/Nyasa have declined by approximately 25% (Malawi
between regulations for artisanal versus commercial fi shers,
2002 State of the Environment Report), with the catch of some
and the apparent unwillingness of the Fisheries Department to
species, such as Chambo (Oreochromis spp.) declining even
transfer authority to the local level (Dobson and Lynch 2003).
more. Although there are no reported species extinctions in
the lake, the diversity of fi sh catches has greatly declined 5. Lessons
Learned
in some areas, some evidence that land use may be having
a deleterious effect on water quality (Bootsma and Hecky 5.1
The Need for an Ecosystem Approach
1999). There is clearly a need to more effectively translate the
results of research into effective management strategies. This
Although the fi sheries departments in the three countries
implementation is inhibited partly by economic constraints.
recognize that fi sh production and biodiversity conservation
In the case of fi sheries management, strategies require are linked to plankton ecology, nutrient cycling, physical
enforcement, but the governments of the riparian countries
limnology, and land-lake interaction, fi nancial constraints
do not have the fi nancial resources to enforce regulations. One
restrict their activities to the most pressing concerns of fi sh
potential solution to this problem is increased involvement
production and fi sh catches. This approach has suffi ced in the
of the community in fi sheries management, an approach past, when external impacts on the lake were minimal, and
currently being tested in parts of Lake Malawi/Nyasa, and that
fi shing was the primary impact humans had on the lake. But
has achieved some success for Lake Victoria through the Lake
as the population density has increased, so has the variety
Victoria Environmental Management Project, as discussed of ways in which human activities are affecting the lake, with
further below.
signs that fi sh production and biodiversity in the African
Great Lakes are now being infl uenced by factors other than
4.3

Community-Based Natural Resource
fi shing pressure, including the atmospheric deposition of
Management
nutrients (Bootsma et al. 1996), increased inputs of nutrients
and sediments from the catchment basin (Hecky et al. 2003),
All three countries are currently implementing government changes in plankton community composition (Bootsma
"decentralization". In Tanzania, decentralization policy is and Hecky 1999), climate change (Verburg et al. 2003) and
enacted through the Regional Administration Act (1997). alteration of habitat, including siltation and altered hydrology
A 1999 revision of the Local Government Act states that of rivers and streams (Calder et al. 1995). Thus, effective lake
local authorities are to provide for protection and proper management will require an expansion, from the focus on

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
269

---

fi shing activities, to an ecosystem approach accounting for the
requires an ecosystem approach. Unfortunately, this approach
relationship between fi sh, water quality, and hydrology, and
is currently very weak in all three riparian countries.
the ways in which human activities are affecting them.
Because there was not a great need for an ecosystem
There is currently no government agency in any of the three
approach until relatively recently, it would be incorrect to state
countries responsible for monitoring or managing water that recognition of the need for this approach is the result
quality in Lake Malawi/Nyasa. Although there are departments
of a "lesson learned" in the Lake Malawi/Nyasa ecosystem.
in each country responsible for overseeing water supply, these
However, this lesson has been learned in other systems,
agencies deal primarily with domestic water supply, and do
including Lake Victoria and the North American Great Lakes.
very little monitoring of water quality in the lake. The fact that
Thus, the Lake Malawi/Nyasa community of stakeholders
no agencies are responsible for monitoring or managing water
has the opportunity to learn from these other systems, and
quality in the lake refl ects the narrow focus of each of the
develop an integrated management strategy that will prevent
natural resource management agencies.
ecosystem alteration from becoming as extreme as it has in
other large lakes around the world.
As a natural resource, water is much more mobile than most.
It is a medium that connects almost all natural resource The need for a catchment-wide, international organization,
management sectors, including forestry, agriculture, water such as the proposed Lake Basin Commission mentioned in
supply, national parks and fi sheries, with the lake and the section 4.1, is primarily a result of the need for an ecosystem
fi sheries being at the bottom (i.e., receiving end) of the approach. Until recently, there was not a strong need for
hydraulic gradient. Until recently (i.e., the beginning of coordination among the three countries in regard to lake
the last century), the impacts of various types of land use
management. Although fi shing was the main activity affecting
on hydrology and water quality in the Lake Malawi/Nyasa the lake, the impact of Mozambique on the fi shery has been
catchment were not great. When population densities were
negligible, and there have been no signifi cant disputes
low, and urban/industrial development minimal, human between Malawi and Tanzania regarding the fi sheries at the
activities in the terrestrial part of the catchment had little northern end of the lake. Unlike Lake Victoria, where three
impact on water quality, biodiversity and fi sh production in
countries each have had a signifi cant stake in, and impact on,
the lake. However, it became apparent several decades ago
the lake's fi sheries, Lake Malawi has experienced no real need
that habitat degradation might be responsible for the declining
for a fi sheries management organization. But, as population
riverine cyprinid fi sheries, especially Labeo species (Alimoso
density and land use intensity continue to increase in the
et al. 1990), suggesting that the rivers and lake could not be
Tanzanian and Mozambican portions of the catchment, and
managed in isolation. Due to its mobility, and its potential to
as exploitation of pelagic fi sh stocks in the northern part of
be altered between the location of rainfall and the point of
the lake becomes more feasible (e.g., through development
entry to the lake, water quality cannot be managed within a
of the Mtwara corridor), the need for a coordinated ecosystem
sector, or within geographic boundaries that ignore hydrologic
management approach also continues to increase. While
boundaries. Thus, water quality/quantity problems in Lake this need was acknowledged in two recent projects on the
Malawi/Nyasa cannot be managed within the lake; rather, they
lake (UK/SADC Fisheries Project; SADC/GEF Biodiversity
must be addressed upstream, in the forests, farmland, parks,
Project), these projects had limited success in promoting
and cities. Water quality management (and lake management)
collaboration among the three countries. As pointed out
Table 4. National Agencies in the Lake Malawi/Nyasa Catchment That May Potentially Play a Role in Development of an
Ecosystem Management Strategy (Note: This list is not exhaustive).
Malawi
Tanzania
Mozambique
Land Resources and Conservation
Ministry of Water, Water Resources
Institute of Fisheries Research
Department
Department
Department of Forestry
Department of Forestry
Institute for Development of Small Scale
Fisheries
Department of Agriculture
Department of Wildlife
National Directorate for Fisheries
Department of National Parks and
Department of Fisheries
National Directorate for Water
Wildlife
Fisheries Department
Tanzania Fisheries Research Institute
Ministry for the Coordination of
Environmental Affairs (MICOA)
Department of Environmental Affairs
National Environment Management
Ministry of Agriculture and Rural
(DEA)
Council (NEMC)
Development
National Research Council
University of Dar Es Salaam
National Directorate of Forestry and
Wildlife
University of Malawi
Niassa Provincial Deptartment of Water
and Sanitation
270 Lake
Malawi/Nyasa

---

in the Implementation Completion Report for the second need is for establishment of a regional organization devoted
project, creating an organization in which equitable treatment
to the harmonization of management strategies within the
is maintained, while at the same time ensuring the benefi ts
Lake Malawi/Nyasa catchment. As pointed out above, this
and responsibilities of each country are proportional to their
process recently was initiated through the proposal of a Lake
impacts on the ecosystem, is a sensitive task. This is especially
Malawi/Niassa/Nyasa Basin Commission. Establishment of
the case for Lake Malawi/Nyasa, which is impacted largely
a lake basin commission, with suffi cient clout to promote
by activities within the country of Malawi, and minimally by
better communication and collaboration within and between
Mozambique. Based on experiences in the above two projects,
countries, will be a major step forward in managing the Lake
it will be critical during development of any tri-national lake
Malawi/Nyasa ecosystem.
basin organization to be very specifi c from the outset about
the relative roles and responsibilities of each country within
One potential pitfall of the ecosystem approach is that it is
the organization. Agreement on the initial defi nition of these
so large scale that objectives may seem out of reach. In many
roles may be a challenge, since there is potential for confl ict
cases, although problems are identifi ed and management
between political agendas, and the realities of management
strategies designed, and even though general objectives are
priorities within the basin. But an agreement that is specifi c,
defi ned (e.g., improved water quality or reduced soil erosion),
with regard to details of organizational structure, membership,
these objectives are not well quantifi ed and timelines not set.
funding, management and country obligations, will help to In implementing management strategies, it is critical that
secure the long-term viability of this approach.
quantitative, realistic goals are defi ned, and target dates for
achieving these goals are set. This has rarely been done in
By defi nition, the ecosystem approach is multidisciplinary, natural resource management plans within the Lake Malawi/
requiring involvement of a number of different environmental
Nyasa ecosystem. Examples of quantitative goals include
sectors, including fi sheries, hydrology, agriculture and forestry.
the specifi cation of suspended solids loads in key rivers,
Various government agencies that might be involved in an specifi cation of nutrient concentrations in rivers, or a targeted
ecosystem management approach for Lake Malawi/Nyasa are
catch for a given fi sh species. These goals and schedules must
listed in Table 4.
be agreed to by all relevant management agencies in each
riparian country. By setting specifi c goals and timelines, it
At a Lake Malawi/Nyasa modeling workshop held in Lilongwe,
becomes possible to determine the degree of success. Without
Malawi in 2000, representatives from a number of these some quantifi cation of success, the management strategies
agencies discussed the need for an ecosystem approach for
become an end in themselves, with a loss of interest and
natural resource management in the Lake Malawi/Nyasa motivation over time. Critical to this process is the monitoring
catchment. There was unanimous agreement on the need of environmental conditions, since data collected through
for such an approach (the workshop results are presented as
monitoring is the yardstick by which success is measured.
an appendix in the Final Report: Preparation of a Preliminary
Physical Processes and Water Quality Model for Lake Malawi/
5.2

The Need for Integration of Research Findings
Nyasa, available at http://www.uwm.edu/People/hbootsma/
into Management Strategies
Lake%20Malawi/Model%20Report/Mdlind.htm).
In addition to the need for more inter-sectoral collaboration,
It also was recognized that changes may be necessary in a number of agencies stated a need for better communication
the approach that the various agencies take to natural between researchers and managers/policymakers within
resource management. In particular, it was pointed out that
departments, between departments (e.g., TAFIRI and the
implementation of an ecosystem approach requires improved
Fisheries Department in Tanzania), and among countries.
communication among the various sectors, and among the There appear to be two causes of this problem. In some cases,
three countries. Agriculture and Forestry managers need researchers are not proactive about providing their results to
to hear from Fisheries managers/researchers about how managers and policymakers and, therefore, thereby hindering
deforestation, soil erosion, chemical use, and biomass an effective decision-making process. This can be solved
burning affect the lake and its biota. Fisheries managers need
by setting schedules for regular dissemination of research
to know which parts of the catchment are most impacted by
reports, and organizing regular workshops. Further, it appears
deforestation and poor agricultural practices. Based on this
that researchers often assume their results will be understood
communication, these agencies, ideally under the umbrella and applied by managers, and they typically do not follow
of an overseeing environmental agency, need to identify and
through to determine how the results of their work are used.
prioritize problems and develop coordinated management
strategies. It was recommended that this could be facilitated
This problem also is common in development projects, which
partly by regional workshops focusing on the theme of water
tend to last long enough to gather and analyze information,
quality conservation, by development of a Lake Malawi/Nyasa
but not long enough to follow through with the implementation
internet site, and by a "mini monograph" on Lake Malawi of results. This is partly because implementation is usually
and its catchment, providing all relevant agencies with an viewed as the responsibility of governments. As mentioned
overview of current management issues within the lake and its
above, however, many projects do not produce highly
surrounding terrestrial catchment. However, the most urgent
trained researchers and managers capable of independently

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
271

---

continuing research initiated by a project, or determining ·
Research results must be better disseminated and
how the research results should be applied to management
explained to communities.
strategies. As a result, projects often end with the convening of
a fi nal workshop, at which fi nal reports are provided, but little
In addition to these recommendations, the workshop
momentum is carried forward. This problem can be exacerbated
concluded there was insuffi cient information on fi sh marketing
by the lack of interest or political will by government agencies to
at local and regional levels, and that the economic links
follow through on project recommendations. Only government
between fi shing and local non-fi shing communities are not
agencies, and the individuals within those agencies that have
well-understood. In a survey of fi shers, for example, Donda
heavily invested in the design and implementation of a project
and Bell (1993) found that, while fi shers are open to measures
will be committed to following through with the application of
that will improve fi shery income, they often are often reluctant
the project results.
to adopt such measures if they involve short-term sacrifi ces
and social disruption.
Recognizing the need for better communication, a recent
NARMAP workshop was held in Malawi, with the objective of
Although co-management may resolve some fi sheries
defi ning the structure for a network for fi sheries and aquatic
management problems, it will not solve two basic problems:
research (with the proposed acronym of NETFISHAR). The (a) the demands for natural resources exceeds the supply,
objective is to promote communication and dissemination and (b) continued access to fi sheries as a "commons" will
of information among network members, and provision of always result in over-exploitation (Brox 1992). Real relief will
information to the general public. While some progress has
only come when the economic base of rural communities
been made in defi ning the structure and membership of this
is diversifi ed, with a decreased direct reliance on natural
network, the mechanisms for communication and information
resources for sustenance and income (Hara 2001).
dissemination are still not well defi ned.
5.4
The Need for Knowledge and Education
5.3
The Potential for Community-Based Management
Most development projects related to Lake Malawi/Nyasa
A community-based management approach seems very have included some type of educational component (usually
appealing, because it places more power in the hands of referred to as "capacity building"). In many cases, the capacity
resource users, and offers a potential solution to the problem
building takes the form of counterpart positions, in which one
of governments' inability to enforce regulations. As pointed
or more national trainees are assigned to work with an expert
out above, however, efforts to promote community-based during the course of a project. In some cases, training also
management of fi sheries by establishing Beach Village has included provision of formal education at the Master's
Committees on Lake Malombe and Lake Malawi/Nyasa have
or Ph.D. level. This education is generally obtained at a
met with limited success (Dobson and Lynch 2003).
foreign institution, usually in Europe or North America, but
is occasionally facilitated through a university in Malawi or
A number of recommendations were made in a recent another African country.
workshop (NARMAP 2001) to improve the success rate of this
approach, including:
Training and education of qualifi ed professionals are primary
prerequisites for effective lake basin management. For example,
·
The "community" must be well-defi ned;
educated scientists must monitor water quality and the health
of fi sh stocks, and determine the processes that affect these
·
There is a need to distinguish between land-based and
properties. Educated managers must determine the strategic
lake-based communities;
actions necessary to maintain high water quality and fi shery
yields. Both scientists and managers must advise policy-
·
A community-based management approach must build
makers on appropriate strategies to facilitate conservation
on existing management systems in communities (e.g.,
of water quality, fi sh production, and biodiversity. Indeed,
traditional authorities);
the education of highly qualifi ed researchers and managers
is probably the single most important contribution that
·
There is a need to assess the commitment of migrant
development projects can make to the sustained management
fi shers to this approach;
of the Lake Malawi/Nyasa basin, and the economic welfare of
the region as a whole. Osita Ogbu of the African Technology
·
There is no single model that can be applied to all Policy Studies Network has pointed out that, "With knowledge
communities, with different fi sheries perhaps needing
you create your own wealth, with aid you create dependency."
different management models;
Nevertheless, the numerous development projects conducted
in the Lake Malawi/Nyasa basin over the past four decades
·
There is a need to better defi ne the role of the have met with limited success in this regard, due primarily to
Department of Fisheries in this new paradigm; and,
four major impediments that currently limit the effectiveness
of training within development projects:
272 Lake
Malawi/Nyasa

---

The lack of proper training in the aquatic sciences at the implementation. Departmental motivation/political will also
undergraduate level. The goal of most development projects
is an impediment; unless department heads are seriously
with regard to education is to produce professionals capable of
committed to the objectives of a development program,
working independently in doing scientifi c research, ecosystem
logistic support for achieving them will disappear soon after
management, and environmental policy-making. Professionals
external support ceases.
with this capacity generally require a Ph.D. or, at least a
Master's degree, in their respective fi eld. Completion of these
Logistic and intellectual support also will help maintain
degrees usually requires two to fi ve years, which is similar
motivation in trained scientists and managers, which can be
to or longer than the lifespan of most development projects.
facilitated to a large degree through regional and international
Thus, these projects require recruits adequately trained at the
collaboration. For example, the development of long-term
undergraduate level, and ready to enter directly into a Master's
relationships between research institutions in the Lake
or Ph.D. program in aquatic sciences. Identifying such recruits
Malawi/Nyasa region and those in developed countries and
within East Africa is diffi cult, particularly within Malawi, this
in other parts of Africa will allow regional scientists and
problem being specifi cally highlighted in both the SADC/GEF
managers to conduct their work in a more global context,
Lake Malawi/Nyasa Biodiversity Conservation Project, and thereby allowing them to more easily stay abreast of current
the USAID-funded Malawi Environmental Monitoring Program.
knowledge, and to be part of a larger community that fosters
As a result, there is stiff competition among natural resource
intellectual excellence.
management development projects for education counterpart
staff with adequate undergraduate training. Many projects end
The loss of highly trained professionals to other countries.
up recruiting under-qualifi ed counterparts. Although valuable
A relatively large number of professionals trained through
training is still received, it is typically at the technical, rather
development projects eventually leave their home countries.
than senior level. As a result, these projects fail to produce
Some do not return after receiving their degrees, while
national leaders in the areas of research and management.
others may return, but eventually fi nd positions in other
countries. Although this problem is ultimately the result of
There are two possible solutions to this problem in the economic conditions in the home country, there are actions
Lake Malawi/Nyasa region. The fi rst is to have development
that development projects, along with national governments,
programs include more training at the undergraduate level.
can take to improve the retention of trained professionals,
However, there are two impediments to this approach: (a) including: (a) The working environment must be improved so
the required educational programs are often not available in
that good work is rewarded. In many government positions,
regional universities, making it necessary to send trainees out
promotion is based more on length of service (seniority)
of the country, and (b) the requirement for a 6-10 year training
than on performance; thus, there is little motivation for
program, if the goal is to ultimately produce professionals at
professionals to perform to standards of excellence, as well
the Master's and Ph.D. level, which is beyond the lifespan of
as frustration for those who do; (b) Trained professionals must
most development projects.
have continued fi nancial and intellectual support following
the termination of a project. This can take the form of a
The second solution is to work with regional post-secondary
commitment by their government department or institution for
educational institutions to develop undergraduate programs
a minimal amount of support, or a commitment by the funding
that more directly address aquatic sciences. Areas in which
agency for a continued, moderate amount of fi nancial support
educational capacity can be strengthened include natural following the end of a project's main initial phases. Some
resource management, limnology (aquatic chemistry, efforts have been made to provide continued funding sources
hydrology, hydrodynamics, plankton ecology), and fi sh
for African scientists on a competitive basis (e.g., the Wildlife
biology/ecology.
Conservation Society's Africa Program; the Environmental
Change Program of START (System for Analysis, Research and
The lack of a suitable post-project environment in which Training)), and increased support through such programs will
trained professionals can apply their skills toward research
likely increase the probability of retaining professionals in
and management. In many cases, although trainees conduct
their home countries.
their work in a highly goal-oriented and logistically well-
supported project environment, this direction and support The high turnover rate of government positions. In all three
are quickly lost upon completion of a project. Although this
Lake Malawi/Nyasa riparian countries (Malawi, Tanzania,
lesson has been learned repeatedly over four decades of Mozambique), government positions tend to be transient,
development projects, many projects are still designed with
with government employees frequently re-located within, and
the assumption that trainees will ensure continued research
occasionally between, departments. Thus, many staff receiving
and implementation of results after formal project completion.
specialized training in the context of a development project fi nd
This generally does not happen, however, for several reasons.
themselves in positions where there is no need or motivation
Lack of funds prevents continued work in many cases, to apply the training they received. For example, staff in the
including funds for equipment operation (including boats and
Malawi Department of National Parks and Wildlife, who work
ships), equipment maintenance, and expendable supplies and
in Lake Malawi National Park, will require specialized training
on-going expenses associated with research and management
in fi sh identifi cation, SCUBA diving, and aquatic ecology. If

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
273

---

these staff are re-located to a terrestrial park, however, they
5.5

Summary of Lessons Learned and
have little opportunity to apply their specialized skills, with the
Recommendations
staff that replace them perhaps not having the required special
training to carry out research and management in an aquatic
·
There is a need for a regional (tri-national) plan for
park. An assessment of staff at the various fi sheries research
management of the lake and its catchment;
stations in the three countries around the lake would likely
reveal that there is very little overlap between the current staff,
·
Management of the lake and catchment must be carried
and the staff that occupied these stations 10 years ago. Thus,
out with an ecosystem perspective, rather than the
insuffi cient time is allowed for many to develop a thorough
current fractured sectoral approach;
expertise in one area.
·
Internationally-funded development programs must use
In addition to training professionals, public education often is
national and regional plans as guides for developing
seen as critical for successful natural resource management
agendas and priorities for externally funded projects;
programs. It is critical for compliance with management
better dovetailing of these projects with national and
programs, and also prerequisite to the development of
regional agendas will promote collaboration, and
any community-based management programs, which have
minimize disruptions of on-going government programs
become more popular in the past decade. The approach
and the excessive work loads on government staff;
of many projects to public education has been somewhat
naďve, however, in that it often is assumed that, if the public
·
An ecosystem approach will require better collaboration
is educated about the need for management, they will simply
and communication among sectors within and between
comply. There are several reasons, though, why compliance
countries. Government infrastructure within each
is uncommon. First, a mentality has been established in
country already exists to facilitate this goal. The nascent
which local communities have come to rely on donor-funded
Lake Malawi/Niassa/Nyasa Basin Commission may be
initiatives to solve local problems. Indeed, the effectiveness
the best mechanism to promote regional collaboration;
of local communities in managing their resources has
decreased in some cases as a result of donor and government
·
Goals and timelines, with specifi c targets, are required
intervention, mainly because the interventions fostered an
to guide the ecosystem approach and assess its success
attitude among the local community that it should be rewarded
over time;
for its involvement in management activities. Second, political
displacement of local authorities has left local communities
·
Although internationally-funded development programs
with a sense of helplessness, and a loss of natural resource
have greatly improved our understanding of the
ownership. Returning a sense of confi dence and self-control
Lake Malawi/Nyasa ecosystem, implementation of
to communities requires a concerted effort by government
recommendations arising from this understanding have
agencies. In Malawi, this has been initiated through the
not been well implemented. Lessons-learned include: (a)
process of government decentralization, put into place in 1998.
National and local governments must be more involved in
To date, however, local communities have seen few benefi ts
the design of development programs; (b) Communication
from this process.
between researchers and managers/policy makers must
be improved; (c) Governments are often unable to carry
Within some development projects and government extension
out implementation of recommendations because of both
programs, it is assumed that education in itself will lead to
fi nancial and human capacity limitations. While there is a
better natural resource management (i.e., if people know
continuing need for research and monitoring, the leap
that their actions are harming the environment and leading
from research fi ndings to applied management cannot
to long-term negative impacts, they will change their
be made by governments alone. Rather, development
behavior). However, the behavior of individuals is generally
projects must also assist with the implementation of
determined by the magnitude of the benefi ts derived by
natural resource management programs; (d) There
the individual, not the benefi t to the overall community.
is lack of coordination among numerous related
Farmers told that soil erosion is bad for fi sh are unlikely to
development programs. Thus, one of the main tasks of a
be concerned about soil erosion. In contrast, farmers told
lake basin organization should be to defi ne research and
that soil erosion is bad for crop production will be concerned.
management priorities, which can then be used as the
Further, in some cases, management strategies benefi cial for
basis for new development programs;
the ecosystem as a whole may not be benefi cial locally (e.g.,
forest conservation on potential agricultural land). Thus, an
·
Although there is potential for community-based
ecosystem management approach cannot completely rely on
management, it is not a panacea, and the relative roles of
education and community-based management. Rather, some
communities and government institutions must be defi ned;
level of government intervention is still required to prevent the
"Tragedy of the Commons" (Hardin 1968).
·
Fishers and other stakeholders must be better informed
of research fi ndings and implications, and must have
more say in developing management plans;
274 Lake
Malawi/Nyasa

---

·
There is an immediate need for better enforcement of
Bootsma, H.A., J. Mwita, B. Mwichande, R.E. Hecky, J. Kihedu,
fi shery regulations in the southern part of the lake;
and J. Mwambungu. 1999. "The atmospheric deposition of
nutrients on Lake Malawi/Nyasa". In Bootsma, H.A., and
·
Although research in previous projects has improved R.E. Hecky (eds.), Water Quality Report, Lake Malawi/Nyasa
understanding of fi sheries, fi sh ecology, biodiversity, Biodiversity Conservation Project, SADC/GEF. pp. 85-111.
hydrology, hydrodynamics and nutrient cycles in the lake
and its catchment, there remains a need for monitoring
Brox, O. 1990. "The common property theory: Epistemological
fi sheries and water quality, and further research into
status and analytical utility." Human Organisation 49(3).
current pressing issues, including the causes and
consequences of atmospheric nutrient deposition, Bulirani, A.E. 2003. "The challenges of developing an
linkages between water quality and fi sh production/
integrated approach to the management of Lake Malawi/
biodiversity, mechanisms to ensure biodiversity Niassa and its catchment resources." In Wright, A. and J.
conservation, impacts of continuing climate change, and
Chafota (eds.), Lake Malawi/Niassa/Nyasa Ecoregion, Report
prioritization of management areas both within the lake
on Donors and Partners Meeting, Annex C, WWF Ecoregion
and drainage basin;
Conservation Programme.
·
Ultimate relaxation of fi sheries pressure and land use Calder, I.R., Hall, R.L., Bastable, H.G., Gunston, H.M., Shela,
pressure will require diversifi cation of the economic base;
O., Chirwa, A., and Kafundu, R. 1995. "The impact of land use
change on water resources in sub-Saharan Africa: a modeling
·
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study of Lake Malawi." J. Hydrol. 170: 123-135.
education of scientists and managers in the fi eld of
aquatic natural resources. This will require an increase in
Carter, G.S., H.W. Haslam, and S.H. Smith. 1973. Regional
the capacity of regional universities to provide education
geochemical reconnaissance of Malawi. Malawi Government
in aquatic sciences at the undergraduate level; and,
Printer, Zomba.
·
Regional and international collaborative relationships Dobson, T.A., and K.D. Lynch. 2003. "As nearshore stocks drop,
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managers within the three riparian countries.
Donda, S.J., and R. Bell. 1993. Community Participation Consultancy
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Disclaimer
Lake Malawi's Ecology. Report to the Department of National
Parks and Wildlife, Malawi. pp. 1-36.
The fi ndings, interpretations and conclusions expressed
in this report are the views of the authors and do not
NARMAP (National Aquatic Resource Management Program). necessarily represent the views of The World Bank and its
2001. Lake Malawi Fisheries Management Symposium. Lilongwe,
Board of Directors, or the countries they represent, nor do
5th-9th June, 2001. Malawi Department of Fisheries, and GTZ
they necessarily represent the view of the organizations,
(Deutsche Gessellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit.
agencies or governments to which any of the authors are
associated. Also, the colors, boundaries, denominations, and
Owen, R.B., R. Crossley, T.C. Johnson, D. Twedle, I. Kornfi eld,
classifi cations in this report do not imply, on the part of The
S. Davison, D.H. Eccles, and D.E. Engstrom. 1990. "Major low
World Bank and its Board of Directors, or the countries they
levels of Lake Malawi and their implications for speciation represent, and the organizations, agencies or governments to
rates in cichlid fi shes." Proc. R. Soc. Lond. 240: 519-553.
which any of the authors are associated, any judgment on the
legal or other status of any territory, or any endorsement or
Phiri, P.M., R.K. Day, S. Chimatiro, M.P. Hill, M.J.W. Cock, M.G. Hill,
acceptance of any boundary.
and E. Nyando. 2001. "Progress with biological control of water
hyacinth in Malawi." In: Julien, M.H., M.P. Hill, T.D. Center, and
D. Jianqing (eds.), Biological and Integrated Control of Water
Hyacinth, Eichornia crassipes, ACIAR Proceedings 102. pp. 47-52.
276 Lake
Malawi/Nyasa

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