Kariba Reservoir
Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
Christopher H.D. Magadza*, University of Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimbabwe, cmagadza@mweb.co.zw
* Corresponding author
1. Introduction
protectorates of Nyasaland (Malawi) and Barotseland would
likely be unable to sustain.
In post-World War II, Britain had large areas of infl uence in
Africa, including southern Africa. Other than Portuguese East
A key requirement for the development agenda in the
Africa (now Mozambique) and South West Africa (Namibia),
Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland was the availability
the rest of southern Africa comprised a cluster of countries
of bulk energy. Each territory operated small thermal power
under British authority. Rather than implementing separate stations, fuelled by coal from the Wankie Colliery in Southern
development agendas for each of its territories, Britain Rhodesia. The obvious choice of bulk electrical energy at that
proposed a federal structure for the territories north of the
time, however, was hydroelectric power. Three large rivers
Limpopo River. Under this arrangement, some facilities (e.g.,
were prime candidates for this purpose, including the Shire
secondary and tertiary education; key medical facilities) could
River in Malawi, the Kafue River in Zambia and the Zambezi
be strategically developed under the federal umbrella, thereby
River, now a boundary river between Zambia and Zimbabwe.
avoiding duplicating facilities which the less developed At that time, the power demand would have been greatest in
Figure 1. The Kariba Reservoir Basin.

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the copper mining area of Zambia, the industrialized urban
The issue of the safety of Kariba dam wall is of constant
areas of Southern Rhodesia along the railroad line, and the
concern, with the safety issues and maintenance activities to
growing commercial farming industry of Southern Rhodesia.
ensure its integrity discussed by Tapfuma et al. (2000). Major
The benefi t to Malawi would be the repatriation of earnings
concerns include the geological heterogeneity of the south
from exported labor, mainly to Southern Rhodesia.
bank abutment (gneisses, biotites and micacious quartzites),
and the behavior of concrete maturing under wetted
The failure of the British colonial offi ce to appreciate the depth
conditions, which result in the Kariba dam wall not being a
of the political anxiety of the northern territories was a grave
static structure. Another potential threat to the complex is the
political error, leading to dissolution of the federation within
unstable weathered material sitting on clay seams downstream
a decade of its formation. As a result, Kariba Reservoir (Figure
of the wall; if hydraulically loaded, it could result in subsidence
1; also referred to as Lake Kariba), which was planned under
that would dam the river downstream of the tailraces and fl ood
a unifying political environment, subsequently became a the power plants.
transboundary facility. Amenities for construction workers had
been largely developed on the Southern Rhodesia side, and
In addition, the Zambezi Valley is part of the southern end of
the headquarters of the Central African Company was placed
the East Africa Rift Valley and is therefore prone to seismic
in Salisbury (Harare). Thus, the only visible development activity. The construction of the reservoir, with a total mass of
that took place in Zambia was construction of the power approximately 180 billion metric tons, has increased the valley's
transmission lines to the Copperbelt mining area of northern
seismic activity, with earth tremors increasing substantially
Rhodesia (Zambia), with the load control system in Southern
after the fi lling of the lake. Figure 2 illustrates the incidence of
Rhodesia. In the perspective of the emerging nation of Zambia,
seismic activity in the Zambezi valley and surrounding areas.
their development agenda would be predicated by the political
It is noted that the highest concentration of seismicity is
wishes of Southern Rhodesia.
around the dam wall; in contrast, no similar enhanced activity
is evident at Cahora Bassa, a reservoir further downstream on
2. The
Dam
the Zambezi River (partially depicted in Figure 1). There were
20 earthquakes between 1963-1983 that exceeded 5.0 on the
The Lake Kariba dam is a concrete double curvature arch dam,
Richter scale, 6 (including the largest) occurring in 1963, the
128 m crest height and 627 m crest length, of mass concrete
year the lake fi lled. The period of 1990-1995 contrasts with the
construction reinforced only around the spillway gate area period of 1964-1969 in illustrating relatively few incidences
(Table 1). The dam wall is located at the former Kariwa (Kariba)
for seismic activity, as well as lower magnitudes. The period
gorge.
represents a dry episode in the region, when the lake water
levels were low.
The south bank power station has staggered turbine intake
levels, ranging from 459-466 m asl to 451-444 m asl, with an
3. Basin
Description
average of 447.5 m asl (Balon and Coche 1974). Although the
dam was designed with four spillway gates, the 1958 fl ood
The Lake Kariba's drainage basin area is approximately
(which exceeded the 1:10000 probability) necessitated the 663,848 km2 (Figure 1), lying in the territories of Angola,
addition of two more spillway gates in the design.
Zambia, Namibia, Botswana and Zimbabwe. However, the
main basin, depicted in darker color/shade in Figure 1,
contribute more than 95% of the lake's hydrological income.
The Okavango River basin (the sub-basin depicted in lighter
Table 1. Physical Characteristics of Kariba Reservoir and
color/shade) becomes directly connected with the Zambezi
its Basin.
River only when the region experiences extensive fl ooding, at
Parameter
Value
which point the sub-basin either discharges into the Zambezi,
Basin area (km2)
687,049
or else receives backfl ow from the Zambezi, depending on the
relative fl ood strength of the two basins. The Zambezi basin
Length (km)
280
is traditionally divided into the Upper Zambezi (upstream of
Mean breath (km)
19.4
Victoria Falls), Middle Zambezi (from the Falls to Cahora Bassa
Area at full capacity (km2)
5,580
Dam) and Lower Zambezi (downstream of Cahora Bassa to the
Shoreline development
953.8
Indian Ocean). The Upper Zambezi portion of the Lake Kariba
catchment has extensive fl ood plains and wetlands, notably
Islands
293
the Barotse Flood Plain, and the Chobe swamps and Caprivi
Volume (km3)
185
wetlands in Botswana and Namibia, respectively, which are
Mean depth (m)
29.18
important biodiversity conservation areas.
Max depth (m)
97
The main soil type in the area of the main basin (as in Figure
Volume development
2.1
1) north of the reservoir and in the Okavango basin is low ion-
Water retention period (yr)
3.3
exchange, deep Kalahari sand formation, which can be as deep
Installed power capacity (MW)
1,350
as 300 m (Bingham 2000), and water easily percolates into it.
206 Kariba
Reservoir

---

Rainfall is highly seasonal, with the mean
recorded rainfall ranging from over 1,000
mm in the northern part of main basin,
to about 600 mm in the Middle Zambezi
Valley. The water conductivity ranges
between 20-75 µS/cm, depending on the
fl ood regime.
The main human activity in this same
area is subsistence agriculture and
livestock tending. While Lake Kariba
was being built, these fl ood plains were
sparsely populated, with the population
of Zambia numbering scarcely more
than three million. The Lozi people of
western Zambia traditionally are cattle
herders. The human population density
in the Western Province of Zambia has Figure 2. Earthquake Magnitude and Incidence around Kariba Reservoir, 1964-
increased from 3.3 persons/km2 in 1969
1969 and 1990-1995.
to 5.5 /persons km2 in 1990 (Bingham
2000). The population densities in the
fl ood plains are considerably higher than these provincial therefore, is much larger than those from the other sub-
averages. Similarly, the annual growth rate has risen from 1.6
basins.
to 2.8 over the same period. The Zambian urban population in
the main basin is about 80,000, out of a provincial total of just
Although the northern watersheds of Zimbabwe were sparsely
over 600,000. Overall, the fl ood plain is preferred to the dry
populated when Lake Kariba was constructed, they now have a
lands away from the fl ood plain. In the early-1970s, irrigated
mean population density of 20.2 persons/km2. This translates
agriculture was attempted on the Zambian side of the Gwembe
to 30 livestock units/km2 or 0.3 livestock units/ha for an area
valley. However, the venture proved unprofi table, due to the
with a recommended carrying capacity of 3 -5 ha per livestock
extreme heat and poor, easily-erodable soils.
unit.
The only major urban areas in this same part of the catchment
Since establishment of Lake Kariba, the Gokwe area, drained
are Livingstone and Victoria Falls, with a combined population
by the Sanyati River, has become a major cotton-producing
of about 132,000. These urban centers are the only signifi cant
area, with wide use of agrochemicals for weed and pest
source of organic pollution. Masundire (1998) reported that
control. The impacts of agrochemicals will be discussed further
the bulk of untreated wastewater from Livingstone (population
in later sections.
100,000; annual growth rate of 2.6% in 1990) and Victoria
Falls (32,000; annual growth rate of 14% in 1990) is largely
4.
Economic and Social Signifi cance of Lake
discharged into the Zambezi with little or no treatment.
Kariba
Feresu and Van Sickle (1990) traced a plume of faecal coliform
bacteria for a distance of over 20 km along the Zambezi River
4.1 Power
Supply
downstream of Victoria Falls.
Lake Kariba is one of the large hydroelectric dams in southern
The part of the main basin south of the reservoir is located
Africa. Prior to installation of the Kafue Dam Hydroelectric
wholly in Zimbabwe. It consists of a mixture of communal facility and the Cahora Bassa plant in Mozambique, Kariba was
lands, former commercial agricultural lands, major industrial
the only bulk supplier of hydropower to Zambia and Zimbabwe.
urban centers, and mining centers. It also contains a major
The plant's generating capacity constitutes nearly 60% of the
coal-fi red thermal power station at Hwange. The major hydropower outputs for Zambia and Zimbabwe.
tributaries draining into Lake Kariba from this sub-catchment
are the Gwai/Shangaan, Sengwa, Sanyati and Nyaodza Rivers,
Being the fi rst major post-World War II energy development
along with many smaller rivers arising either in the valley or
project, Lake Kariba can be said to have powered the post-
from the escarpment.
World War II development of Zambia and Zimbabwe. Further,
through the then Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland,
The Zimbabwe Lake Kariba catchment has the highest slope
the economic benefi ts of Lake Kariba extended to Malawi
factor of all its sub-catchments. While the mean slope of the
by creating employment opportunities in the then-sister
Zambezi from its headwaters to Victoria Falls is 0.94 m/km,
territories.
that of the Sanyati River is 2.3 m/km between its headwaters
and Lake Kariba. The silt load from the Zimbabwe catchment,

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
207

---

4.2 Fisheries
lacking. Thus, in addition to bioengineering the pelagic habitat
to fi ll an empty niche, other cichlid species from the nearby
The creation of Lake Kariba offered opportunities for an inland
Kafue fi shery also were introduced. They now constitute the
fi shery industry that previously did not exist in southern main catch of the artisan fi shery, which totals about 9,000-
Africa south of the Kafue River Flats river fi shery. During 10,000 metric tons annually (Moyo 1990).
construction of Kariba Dam during the Federation of Rhodesia
and Nyasaland period, only Malawi (Nyasaland) and Zambia
While capture of Limnothrissa on Lake Tanganyika could be
(Northern Rhodesia) had a fi shery tradition, being managed
accomplished by relatively simple and cheap equipment,
by well-developed Departments of Fisheries in the respective
a behavioral change for Lake Kariba demanded a different
countries. Fish taxonomy and biology studies, for example,
technology. Large lift nets and submerged lighting are needed
were well developed in Zambia, with a comprehensive to capture the fi sh at depths below the water surface, which is
taxonomic museum at Chilanga, Zambia. The sole participants
capital-intensive, and was pioneered by white entrepreneurs.
in the fi shery industry in these countries were low-investment
artisan fi shermen, served by middlemen fi sh traders who Further, the political hostilities that emerged between
transported the fi sh products to low-income sectors of urban
Southern Rhodesia and the newly-independent state of
populations. In contrast, there was a small sport fi shery
Zambia deteriorated into military confrontation between the
industry in Southern Rhodesia, based on exotic trout and two neighboring states. While there were no restrictions of
bass. This socioeconomic divergence in the fi shery industry
population movement between the Federation of Rhodesia
development in the former Federation had signifi cant bearing
and Nyasaland, the breakup of the Federation in 1963 led
on the manner the Lake Kariba fi shery would subsequently
to the imposition of strict border controls between Zambia
develop.
and Southern Rhodesia, in which the Rhodesian Navy and
Air Force on Lake Kariba effectively prevented Zambians from
Because the original fi sh species of the former Gwembe valley
developing a pelagic fi shery on their side of the lake.
were lacustrine, only 38% of the lake habitat in the littoral
area was used by native species. Both Brycinus imberi and B.
The net result of this historical development was that:
lateralis, which occupied river pool habitats, were incapable
of utilizing a truly eulimnetic habitat. To maximize the lake's
·
The artisan fi shermen of Zambia could not participate
productivity, therefore, it was necessary to introduce species
in the Lake Kariba fi shery, in spite of having provided
capable of utilizing the pelagic habitat. In 1968/69, therefore,
a fi sheries management post at Sinazongwe, as well as
Limnothrissa miodon, (locally known as kapenta), a pelagic
fi sh storage cold rooms;
clupeid from Lake Tanganyika, was introduced into Lake
Kariba at Sinazongwe, about 150 km upstream and southwest
·
The Tonga people, accustomed to a river fi shery in the
of the dam. Within fi ve years after their introduction, the
Zambezi Gwembe valley, were faced with a fi sh resource
fi sh completely colonized the lake, existing in commercially-
that did not benefi t them because of lack of technology
fi shable stocks in the eastern Sanyati Basin. By the late-1980s,
and the means of taking advantage of the resource;
the annual catch of the kapenta fi shery totaled about 30,000
metric tons, although the post-1990 period has exhibited an
·
The kapenta (Limnothrissa) fi shery, made possible by its
overall trend of declining fi sh landings (Figure 3).
introduction into Lake Kariba by the Zambia Department
of Fisheries, was monopolized by the white Rhodesian
In addition to the introduction of Limnothrissa, it was
business sector;
recognized that the Middle Zambezi River had a limited
number of riverine species. The cichlid species that were the
·
At the normalization of relations between Zambia and
backbone of the artisan fi shery in Zambia were particularly
the newly-independent Zimbabwe, the issue of equity
and access to Lake Kariba's fi sheries resources needed
40 00 0
urgent political redress, in face of the realization that
the lake fi shery was almost fi shed to full capacity by
35 00 0
1980 by a small clique of Zimbabwean entrepreneurs.
30 00 0
This situation was addressed by the formation of
Joint Management Committee between Zambia and
25 00 0
Zimbabwe, with one of its mandates being to ensure
20 00 0
equitable distribution of the lake's fi sh resources; and,
1 5 00 0
·
Within the new Zimbabwe, there were internal political
Total Catch (metric tons) 10000
pressures for black entrepreneurs to participate in
the industry. However, because the industry is capital
50 00
1 9 70
1 9 80
1 9 90
20 00
intensive, the Zimbabwe Government approach was
Year
that black participants would enter the industry as
Figure 3. Growth of the Limnothrissa Fishery on Lake Kariba.
cooperatives, which could be capitalized by state loans.
208 Kariba
Reservoir

---

It also involved some established white enterprises 1960-1990. Records from 10 of the 15 examined stations
having to relinquish some of their fi sh quotas to enable
showed the 1980-1990 decade experienced the lowest means
the participation of state-sponsored black stakeholders
fl ows over the last 40 years, while 15 stations registered the
without causing over-fi shing of the lake.
lowest mean fl ow for the last 30 years in the same decade.
Figure 4 illustrates a 20-year moving average rainfall in the
Recent developments in attempts to empower artisan fi shing
Gwembe valley between 1940-1999. Seventy-seven percent of
communities have included transferring some management the variation in the twenty-year decadal means in the area can
responsibilities to local government institutions (e.g., be explained by a declining mean precipitation over the last
district councils in Zimbabwe; traditional leaders in Zambia),
sixty years.
with the lakeshore being demarcated on the basis of local
administrative areas. Local government authorities undertake
5.1
Climate Variation and Fish Catch
the policing of resource use, after state fi shery management
authorities have determined fi shing quotas. The intention With an annual catch of 30,000 metric tons, the Kariba kapenta
is to spread the administrative costs more widely, thereby fi shery has been valued at US$25 million (ZIMCONSULT, cited
increasing management effi ciency.
in Kaluba and Mukupe 2000). Thus climate-induced declines
in the fi shery output translate to considerable economic
4.3 Tourism
loss to the riparian states. Figure 3 shows that, although
the kapenta fi shery grew continuously between 1974-1990,
Although there were large reservoirs of over 1 million m3
there were periods of depressed catches coinciding with
capacity occupying more than 10 km2 in area in 1960, from a
drought periods in the early-1980s and early-1990s. Figure 5
tourism perspective, Lake Kariba offered the same recreation
illustrates a detrended two-year moving average of fi sh catch
potential as that which holiday makers had traditionally and precipitation in the Lake Kariba basin, indicating the catch
sought at the Mozambican and South African sea coasts. data tended to vary with precipitation variations in the valley.
The tiger fi sh (Hydrocynus vitatus) sport fi shery, for example,
Periods of reduced precipitation also are periods of higher-
became so popular that anglers traveled from as far as the
than-average temperatures, during which blue-green algae
United States, Europe and Australia to take part in the annual
tended to dominate the phytoplankton species (Cronberg
tiger fi sh tournament.
1997). In a separate study on Lake Chivero, Magadza (1994)
adduced experimental evidence of zooplankton population
The provision of ferry transport for motor vehicles linked reduction associated with Microcycstis- and Anabaenopsis-
Kariba-based tourist facilities with other popular resorts of dominated eutrophic conditions, in which zooplankton was
Victoria Falls and the Wankie Wildlife National Park, effectively
unable to utilize the phytoplankton. Chifamba (2000) found
creating a natural resource-based tourism belt stretching from
negative relationships between the Catch-per-Unit Effort (CPU)
the Mana Pools on the lower Middle Zambezi Valley to the
in the pelagic Limnothrissa miodon fi shery of Lake Kariba,
facilities in the Chobe Swamps in Namibia/Botswana to the
while precipitation and river runoff were positively correlated
Okavango Delta or beyond.
with CPU. Although nutrient defi ciency during low riverfl ow
was cited as the probable cause of collapse in fi shery catches
Although not easy to quantify, this industry's economic
benefi ts are estimated as being several billion US dollars,
including hotel industries, wildlife safari industries, banking,
boat building, and international and regional air travel. The
combination of wildlife-based tourism and water leisure sports
made Kariba an important hub in the region's tourist industry.
Kariba Town is probably the only urban settlement where
humans can brush shoulders with wildlife (e.g., elephant,
buffalo, lion). The baboon population has acculturated
itself to the human society of Kariba Town to the extent they
freely roam through residents' properties with impunity.
Nevertheless, the recent downturn related to developments in
Zimbabwe underscores the sensitivity of this industry to good
governance.
5.
Climate Change and Climate Variation
Scudder (1993) pointed out that, in the two decades preceding
1993, the Zambezi River delivered about half its long-term
average fl ow for the preceding period to Victoria Falls.
Mazvidza et al. (2000) grouped precipitation records from Figure 4. Twenty-year Moving Average of Precipitation in
a number of Zambian stations into decadal means between
Gwembe Valley.

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
209

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(e.g., Marshall et al. 1982), no evidence of nutrient defi ciency
92 drought was estimated to be about US$102 million loss in
in the reservoir was established.
GDP, US$36 million loss in export earnings, and a loss of 3,000
jobs (Benson and Clay 1998). The direct agriculture impacts
5.2
Climate Variation and Power Generation
and associated impacts also were quite severe. These limited
estimates provide an estimate of the possible economic
Using fi rst-generation GFD climate change models, Urbiztondo
impacts of climate change-mediated water resources changes
(1992) suggested that, under double CO2, Lake Kariba normally
in the medium term (i.e., into the middle of this century), a
would fail to meet its generation capacity because of low water
time span within the economic development strategy planning
levels, even in tandem with the proposed Batoka Gorge Dam.
window (Desanker and Magadza 2001).
Magadza (1994) compared the 1991/92 drought cycle with
the Urbiztondo scenario, and found similarities between the
6. Flood
Management
Urbiztondo model and Lake Kariba's response to that drought.
For that same period, Magadza (1996) reported an increase in
Boxes 1 and 2 illustrate the fl ood management issues
Penman evaporation of up to 90% of the long-term mean value
associated with Lake Kariba and the Zambezi River reservoirs
for a temperature increase of some 2°C. Of particular interest
as a whole. Unlike Vaal Dam on the Val River in South Africa,
are the estimates of Arnell (1999) of a 10-20% decline in which has an fl ood-attenuation capacity of 26% of its volume,
precipitation, a 20-25% increase in evaporation, and a 20-40%
no large Zambezi River system impoundments is designed
decrease in runoff.
with a fl ood management capacity. Thus, threats to the dam
structures from large fl oods are automatically passed to
Corroborative evidence of the likely impacts of power downstream communities. While there is no statistical proof of
generation comes from the generating output record. changes in the fl ood frequencies in the last two decades, the
According to Soils Inc. in the World Commission on Dams lower Zambezi River did suffer from previously-unexperienced
Report (2000), the expected power output was 6,720 GWh per
fl ood-related damages to infrastructure and loss of life. An
annum. However, the average output in the 20 years between
emerging reality is that, in the event of sustained cyclonic
1977 - 1997 has been 6,400 GWh per annum (95% of the precipitation in the Shire and upper Zambezi River systems,
expected output), being attributed to prolonged periods of low
the need to protect Lake Kariba and Lake Cahora Bassa will
hydraulic head, due to droughts in the basin.
certainly lead to severe fl ooding in the Lower Zambezi areas,
especially the Zambezia Province of Mozambique. On the other
The economic impacts arising from curtailment of the hand, the need to optimize live water storage as a precaution
hydropower generation from Lake Kariba because of the 1991/
against droughts minimizes the use of the Zambezi River
basin reservoirs as fl ood management facilities. When Lake
1.5
Rain
Kariba was designed, the lower Zambezi River was sparely
2 yr M.A. detrended CPU


populated, with limited infrastructure facilities, and the
1.0
issue of downstream community protection against fl ooding
could be simplifi ed to early warning for evacuation. As the
0.5
Zambezia area becomes more developed, however, fl ood
management will become an increasingly important economic
0.0
and humanitarian issue.
Deviates - 0.5
Overall, the Zambezi River reservoirs have reduced streamfl ow
- 1.0
variation and have reduced the peak fl ooding that would
have occurred without the reservoirs. In years of normal
- 1.5
precipitation, this apparent fl ood amelioration effect has
encouraged villagers to move closer to the river banks, thereby
- 2.0
2 4 - A p r - 76 19 - J an- 79
15- Oct - 8 1
11- J ul- 8 4 0 7- A p r - 8 7 0 1- J an- 9 0
rendering them more vulnerable to fl ooding. The major issue
Figure 5. Detrended, Two-year Moving Average of Catch Per
here, however, is that of managing the risks of extreme fl ood
Unit (CPU) Effort and Precipitation.
events, with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
Box 1. Chronology of Events during Construction of Kariba Dam, Illustrating its Flood Management
Limitations.
Kariba Dam was designed for the safe passage of a 1 in 10,000-year fl ood event. The original design was for a 3-month fl ood,
with a volume of 68 km3, based on the 1924-1955 data series. During its construction in 1957, the highest fl ood on record
occurred, with a peak of 8,200 m3/s, leading to revision of the design fl ood value from 68 to 74 km3. In the following year, a
fl ood with a peak of 16,000 m3/s, and a 3-month volume of 61 km3, occurred; the spillway capacity was again increased, this
time to 92 km3. If the project had been built a number of years earlier with its original design capacity of 68 km3, its spillway
would have been completely under-designed.
Source: Soils, Inc. (2000).
210 Kariba
Reservoir

---

(IPCC 2001) warning that fl ood risk frequency is likely to of 1,500 metric tons is discharged annually into the lake.
increase in the future. Thus, for a system of reservoirs in the
Sampling site L/Bay in Figure 6 is a deepwater sampling site
same basin that have no organic operational coordinating in the Sanyati basin of the lake; although the faecal coliform
protocol, the outcome of an unpredicted extreme fl ooding
counts from this station are much less that those from inshore
event will depend primarily on the nature and circumstances
sites, the data nevertheless indicates measurable levels of
of the event. Against this background, it is prudent to heed
coliform bacteria in the pelagic zone of the lake.
Vas's advice: "The operating rules of all the existing large
dams should be reviewed to check whether they work for fl ood
The Zimbabwe Inland Shipping Act makes it mandatory for
attenuation as much as allowed by the other present uses of
vessels of specifi ed sizes to incorporate a sewage containment
the dams" (Vas 2000).
facility on board. However, there are no harbor facilities to
service such sanitation facilities; therefore, the only legal
7. Environmental
Management
requirement is that sewage tanks not be discharged less than
5 km from the shore. There is no similar regulatory statute for
In planning for Lake Kariba, it never occurred to its developers
the Zambian side of Lake Kariba.
that such a hostile, disease-ridden environment as the Zambezi
valley would be a major tourist attraction. Parts of the original
7.1 Eutrophication?
Kariba Town itself were designed as a temporary village for
construction workers, and were destined for demolition at the
Large amounts of biomass were inundated during Lake
project's completion. Thus, infrastructure facilities for waste
Kariba's fi lling phase. In-lake phosphorus concentrations
and wastewater management were designed as temporary reported for the early period of the lake ranged between
facilities for a small community. However, the Kariba Town 6-66 µg/L (Balon and Coche 1974). At that time, about 25%
population increased from under 5,000 in the early-1960s to
of the lake surface was covered with Salvinia molesta. In
about 30,000 by the end of the 20th century. In the absence
sheltered bays (e.g., Mwenda Bay), the tertiary phenology
of an urban development plan, the town developed in a helter-
skelter manner, with many shore-based facilities discharging
50,000
wastewaters directly to the lake. Figure 8 illustrates faecal
coliform bacteria counts from shoreline areas of Kariba Town,
40,000
compared to an offshore sampling station. Although the
municipality has since constructed large oxidation ponds,
many shoreline properties in the municipality have no access
30,000
to a public sewer. Similarly, other smaller urban areas and
fi shing camps in the lakeshore area do not have adequate
20,000
waste treatment facilities.
Counts/100 mL
10,000
Water pollution also arises from water transport systems.
Mulendema (2000) estimates that fi shing vessels discharge
3.6 metric tons of human waste directly to the lake each night.
0
Further, large public transport ferries ply the lake daily, with
a passenger capacity of about 200 persons who spend an
L/Bay
C/Bay
K.Y.C.
Bagdad
P/Farm
Andora
Kasese
average of 22 hours on the lake. She also reports a fi gure
B/Cutty
Marineld
of 1,900 "house boats" which spend variable times on the
Figure 6. Coliform Counts in Lake Kariba Inshore Waters
lake. Thus, an estimated human waste discharge in the order
(Source: Magadza and Dhlomo (1996)).
Box 2. Lake Kariba Flood Impacts on Cahora Bassa Reservoir.
The largest fl ood in the Zambezi River basin since the area's independence occurred in March 1978. Both Kariba and Cahora
Bassa reservoirs were already almost at full capacity when intense, prolonged precipitation occurred in large areas of the
basin and ultimately caused the largest-ever fl ood to enter Lake Kariba.
Due to the state of war at that time between Mozambique and former Rhodesia, there were no direct communications between
Lakes Kariba and Cahora Bassa. Rather, relevant information was sent from Lake Kariba to the headquarters of "Hidroeléctrica
de Cahora Bassa" in Portugal, which would then send it to Maputo to be conveyed to Tete, and fi nally to the operators of Lake
Cahora Bassa, with a total information relay delay of 1-2 weeks.
Thus, when the Lake Kariba spillway gates were successively opened, relevant Cahora Bassa agencies did not have complete
knowledge about it. Thus, when the Lake Kariba fl ood discharges arrived at Cahora Bassa, the reaction was to almost
immediately open all 4 spillway gates at Cahora Bassa that were still closed, thereby creating an enormous fl ood wave that,
when added to the fl oodwaters of the tributaries located downstream of the dam, completely fl ooded the Lower Zambezi.
Source: Vas (2000).

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
211

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of the mat facilitated growth of other wetland plants (e.g.,
allocated for "African resettlement", the relative expenditures
sages, Typha, Ludvigiat) from compacted fl oating rafts. As the
were about £968 per animal and £50 per person. Resentment
nutrient input from inundated biomass decreased, the in-lake
of this disparity continues to the present time, with ordinary
phosphorus concentrations also decreased, with Salvinia Zambezi Valley rural inhabitants still exhibiting a resentful
virtually disappearing from the lake by the early-1990s. It attitude toward wildlife today.
was then assumed the lake had become oligotrophic, thereby
being unable to further stimulate growth of the exotic weed.
The Tonga had evolved an agricultural strategy that gave them
However, after the lake fi lled, following the 1991/92 drought
a number of options for coping with their food needs in the
period, it was suddenly invaded by Eichhornia crassipes, which
valley. Using both seasonal rains and the fl ood patterns of the
developed into large fl oating mats.
Zambezi River, they were able to raise crops throughout the
year, mainly cultivating the alluvial soils of the fl oodplain. With
The phosphorus concentrations along the lake between 1987-
the inundation of the valley, however, they were translocated
1992 suggest levels are above the threshold concentration to semi-arid lands, with a high risk of crop failure. As a
between a eutrophic and oligotrophic state in most of the result, the Tonga subsequently became a food-defi cit people.
lake. The total phosphorus concentration is highest (almost
Further, the presence of the tsetse fl y made it impossible for
40 µg/L) in the area where the Zambezi enters the lake, them to rear livestock. Accordingly, there were indications of
decreases towards the middle (15 µg/L or lower) and again
widespread famine in the early days of the Tonga resettlement
rises with proximity to the outlet near Kariba Town (between
efforts (Magadza 1994).
20-30 µg/L). The mean phosphorus and nitrogen infl ows from
the Zimbabwean rivers, witch constitute 15% of Lake Kariba's
There also was a policy divergence between the British
infl ows, also indicate that these rivers now carry high nutrient
Colonial Offi ce, which was more directly involved in the
levels. Thus, the appearance of Eichhornia can be interpreted
Northern Rhodesian part of the Tonga, and the Southern
as an indication of a developing eutrophic state in some of the
Rhodesia Government, which had some autonomy in the way it
lakes sub-basins.
managed the natives. While Northern Rhodesia administrators
attempted to itemize compensation benefi ts (hut replacement;
In addition to river nutrient infl ows into the lake, the internal
harvest loss; cost of land preparation; etc.), the Rhodesian
nutrient sources from boat usage were previously noted. authorities had the view that the Tonga should not view the
Another potential nutrient source is the cage culture industry.
relocation exercise as an opportunity for fi nancial gains. Thus,
Although still a relatively small enterprise, data gathered from
they offered no compensation packages, with the relocated
cage culture sites already indicate nutrient enrichment from
victims simply offered alternative land and, in some cases,
excess fi sh feed and fi sh faeces.
transportation to it.
8.
Land Use and Involuntary Resettlement
8.1.2 Lack of Awareness Campaign
In the preparatory stages of the relocation, there were no
The Tonga are the native inhabitants of what was the Gwembe
attempts to educate the Tonga on the Lake Kariba project.
valley of the Middle Zambezi River. They were a relatively Rather, less than a year before the valley was to be fl ooded,
isolated community because of a lack of infrastructure the Tonga were simply told they would have to move from their
development in the valley. Although little is known of their
homes. Accustomed to the annual fl oods of the Zambezi River,
lifestyle before construction of Lake Kariba, some workers the villagers failed to comprehend the concept of permanent,
(e.g., Scudder 1962, 1973; Colson 1971; Scudder and Colson
extensive inundation, with some therefore resisting the
1971) have attempted a reconstruction of the Tonga life style
order to move, and resulting in the use of fi rearms by police
and ecological culture before the Lake Kariba project. These
authorities.
various studies have been summarized by Magadza (1994).
8.1.3 Limited or Lack of Infrastructure
8.1 The
Tonga
Relocation
Although some planning was undertaken on the Northern
Rhodesian side to provide basic infrastructure (roads;
8.1.1 Perceptions Regarding the Tonga
administrative facilities; etc.), the mid-project decision to
It is noted that, while the project set aside £4 million for raise the height of the dam wall by 5 m effectively nullifi ed
resettlement of the Tonga, a much larger sum raised from these plans. Because the reservoir had already started to
international sources concerned about the plight of wild fi ll, the translocation of the Tonga thereby became a hurried
animals was used in the Operation Noah animal rescue project.
exercise in moving the population to areas with little or no
Some 5,274 animals were captured in this project, with a net
infrastructure or civic amenities.
4,129 being saved, nearly 50% of which were the ubiquitous
impala, Aepyceros elampus. Land was set aside as national
8.1.4 Social
disruption
parks for the translocated animals.
By Colson's (1971) account, the Tonga lived in closely-knit
families. Girls married early, thereby needing peer support
In contrast, about 80,000 Tonga were relocated, in what some
from their elder female relations on how to manage their
characterized as a litany of failures. Compared to the funds
household, as well as in the schooling of skills to map out
212 Kariba
Reservoir

---

their resource base so as to cope with seasonal changes and
opportunities. These new opportunities required skills and
impacts of climate variation impacts on it. Further, the Zambezi
formal education portfolios lacking by the Tonga. Thus, as one
River was a common resource, not a state boundary, with elder remarked during a World Commission on Dams hearing,
families regularly commuting across the river.
they watched while other ethnic groups exploited the resources
of the valley that used to be their home. Further, while Lake
The fl ooding of the Gwembe valley sundered a once unitary
Kariba could boast of a multi-million fi shing industry, the
ethnic group into Zambian (Northern Rhodesian) and Tonga remained a food aid-dependant group, even well after
Zimbabwean (Southern Rhodesian) subjects, with normal majority rule had been attained in both countries. The author
international laws of transboundary travel applying. Further,
also recalls married Tonga men attending primary education
except for the Kariba border post, there were (and still are)
classes in the mid-1980s in order to improve their marketability
no border post facilities along the 300-km length of the lake.
on the employment market.
Separated families, if they wish or need to visit, now have to
travel hundreds of kilometers to fi nd legal crossing points, and
8.1.7 What Has Been Learned?
at a great cost to them, rather than simply canoeing across the
Although the Tonga case study is well documented, developers
river.
appear to have learned little from this experience. As in the
Lake Kariba case, disputes between displaced communities
The second type of social disruption regarding the Tonga was
and developers led to loss of life in the Lesotho Highlands
that family groups were not necessarily relocated in the same
project. In the case of the Zimbabwean Osborne Dam,
areas. This broke down the peer support system, as mentioned
villagers were simply moved to new areas, with no regard for
above, that was needed by young families. Colson (1971) even
the investments the villagers had previously made, in terms
cites cases of suicide among young wives attributed to sheer
of fruit trees, etc. Further, in the Pungwe pipeline project in
desperation.
Zimbabwe, villagers were falsely promised piped water at their
homesteads. Only 7 years after the Lake Kariba experience,
8.1.5 Ecological
Disruption
Cahora Bassa caused another forced migration syndrome.
The Tonga were adapted to a combination of fl oodplain and
The manner in which forced resettlement resulting from water
rain-fed agriculture, while also being quite adept at a hunter-
resource development is managed is a matter of ethics, which
gatherer mode of subsistence, the latter being an important
are only subscribed to in varying degrees by governments and
skill in times of drought.
development lobbyists.
The resettlement areas were radically different from the 8.2 Remedial
Measures
accustomed habitat of the Tonga. The hunter-gatherer
options no longer existed, since the terrain consisted Following the consultative process initiated in the Lake
largely of Colophospermum mopane and Combretaceae.
Kariba Case Study stakeholder discussions of the World
Further, hunting wild animals was strictly controlled by the
Commission on Dams, there are moves to bring some of the
Wildlife Management authorities in each territory. Little of Lake Kariba economic benefi ts back to the valley, in the form
the herbaceous vegetation components of vegetation, such
of improved infrastructure development and social services
as senkenene (Paspalum paspaloides), was present in the (e.g., education, health services). However, these efforts are
vegetation of the resettlement areas. Furthermore, it was no
being funded from donor sources, rather than from direct
longer possible to use the fertile fl oodplain during the dry
revenues from the Lake Kariba operations, thereby making
season for a second crop over the year. Instead, the Tonga had
their sustainability tenuous. In fact, no formula has yet been
been reduced to one option; namely, hand-tilling semi-arid developed by the contracting states to address the Tonga
mopane woodlands in an area of highly erratic rainfall for only
resettlement issue.
one harvest a year.
8.3
The Kariba Household Energy Anomaly
Magadza (1993) examined the food production and
consumption patterns in Omay communal resettlement As indicated above, the Lake Kariba developers did not
areas, determining that food consumption was below the envisage a permanent post-project settlement at Kariba.
recommended nutritional level, with . He further noted that
Hawkes and Magadza (1988) conducted a survey of energy
attempts by agricultural experts to improve food security by
usage in the post-project Kariba Town, more than 20 years
introducing high-yield maize varieties made the communities
after completion of the dam. They found that every household
more vulnerable to droughts, as they shifted from mixed in Kariba Heights, where white workers lived during the
cropping of drought-resistant crops to the new maize cultivars
construction phase, was served by a 13.2-KW power supply,
(Magadza 1993).
while the original black workers compound only had suffi cient
power for three 60-W light bulbs. In recognition of the post-
8.1.6 Economic
Alienation
project continuation of urban settlement, the Town Council
As noted above, creation of Lake Kariba gave rise to new established a township residence in 1978 called Nymhunga,
entrepreneurial opportunities in the fi shery, tourism, and with the fi rst housing units not being electrifi ed. Table 2
wildlife safari sectors, as well as public sector employment
summarizes the electrifi cation status of the various suburbs

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
213

---

in Kariba Town. Apart from the middle class suburb of Kariba
8.5
Tertiary Social Impacts
Heights, all other sampled households either had no electricity
or could not run heating appliances or refrigeration (including
An example of a tertiary social impact is the dramatic rise
the Police Compound). Consequently, wood fuel was the in sexually-transmitted diseases (STD) in the Lake Kariba
main source of household energy, even though virtually all
environs. During the lake construction phase, the contractors
interviewees preferred electricity. At the time of the survey,
supplied single quarter accommodation for laborers. At the
the cost of legally-procured fuel wood was similar to that of
end of the construction project, these one-room units became
electricity.
family homes. In a survey on energy usage, for example, the
author observed a 15-member family living in one these small
On the other hand, Kariba Town is tightly surrounded by a
rooms.
wildlife management area, to an extent that the Park boundary
in Nyamhunga is only a few meters from the peripheral houses.
The creation of a comparatively well-paid male workforce
Collecting any material from the Parks estates is a statutory
invariably attracted the attention of impoverished females in
offence, resulting in constant confl ict between urban residents
the area and further afi eld. Similarly, the creation of an artisan
and wildlife management personnel, as well as frequent fi shery resulted in the establishment of isolated "fi shing
attacks of fuel wood poachers by wild animals, some being
camps" where the majority of fi sher folk were male migrants
fatal.
from the hinterland villages. Of the fi shermen in these camps,
Wilson et al. (1995) wrote: "Because they receive income each
8.4
Secondary Social impacts
week they are often visited by prostitutes from Kariba and even
larger cities like Harare and Bulawayo, between pay days,
There also are secondary impacts from facilitating human when clients elsewhere have no money." Of Kariba Town itself,
migration onto the lake environs or vicinities. Infrastructure
he noted: "It is an SDT treatment center for the town, lake
provision has enabled the penetration and settlement of shore and rural hinterland."
once-remote areas at an unprecedented rate, and without
due regard to the ecological consequences of such human Figure 7 illustrates the trends in SDT and, by proxy, HIV,
transmigrations. Magadza (1993) noted that the population prevalent among antenatal clinic patients at Kariba Hospital.
growth rate in the Omay Communal lands was 114%, due It also shows how much can be achieved by community
largely to migrants to the valley. Inappropriate land use by
education in HIV prevention. The data are from a collaborative
these migrants (namely maize production and livestock project between the Canadian CIDA and the University of
holding) has led to accelerated land degradation in the Zimbabwe Lake Kariba Research Station to address some
surrounds of the Zambezi Valley without the benefi ts of of the impacts of hydropower development in the basin. In
improved nutritional status, while also creating resource use
hindsight, it is now evident that if the project had factored in
confl icts in the valley (Magadza 1986, 1993). These have led to
the issues of sexuality and provided family housing units for
increased erosion, with streams that used to store dry season
the construction workers, and the Department of Parks and
water in pools no longer able to do so because of siltation of
Wildlife Management, through project funds, had planned
the rivers (e.g., all the former pools in the Nyaodza River are
structured fi shing villages with necessary amenities, the Lake
now fi lled with sand).
Kariba lakeshore settlements might not have become the
highest STD risk area of Zimbabwe.
Table 2. Electrifi cation Status of Surveyed Households in Kariba Town, 1988 (Units: Number of Households).
Area
Electric service
Kariba
Mahombe-
Nyamhunga
Police camp
Total
Heights
kombe
Not wired
0
33
15
0
48
No electricity
Not connected
0
1
8
1
10
Metered
1
4
0
0
5
Paid by employer
Load-limited
0
22
0
29
51
Metered
9
1
3
0
13
Unspecifi ed load-limit
0
9
0
0
9
Paid by resident
7.5 amp
0
7
34
0
41
1 - 2.5 amp
0
3
19
0
22
Total
10
80
79
30
199
Source: Hawkes and Magadza (1988).
214 Kariba
Reservoir

---

9.1
Environmental Impacts of Pest Control
Magadza (1995) summarizes the impacts of tsetse fl y control on
terrestrial ecosystems, including levels of impacts in sprayed
and unsprayed areas. The impacts are classifi ed into presence
of DDT, observed mortalities during application, changes in
species abundances, and species' loss. These impact levels are
examined for numerous ecological categories, including soil,
invertebrates, lizards, birds, mammals and fi sh communities. It
is clear that the program had signifi cant impacts on terrestrial
ecosystems surrounding the lake during the assessment
period. Magadza (1995) estimated that as much as 20 species
insectivorous of bats were missing in the operation area. An
assessment of the DDT impacts by the Natural Resources
Institute (Douthwaite et al. 1994) revealed that bat puppies
were intoxicated by the DDT in their mother's milk, leading to
Figure 7. Trend in Reduction of Sexually-transmitted
reproductive failure.
Disease, Kariba.
9.2
Impacts on Aquatic Ecosystems
9. Pest
Control
The pest control program has facilitated accumulation of
A major land use issue associated with Lake Kariba is pest
persistent pesticide pollutants in aquatic ecosystems. Studies
control for vector-borne diseases. The issue arose out of (e.g., Berg et al. 1992; Berg and Kautsky 1994), show that, by
the need to clear the Tonga resettlements of insect disease
the mid-1990s, there were measurable levels of persistent
vectors. Although the resettlement areas were climatically organochloride pollutants in Lake Kariba ecosystem organisms,
unsuited for rainfed subsistence agriculture, it was assumed
including birds of prey and diving birds. Further, Douthwaite
by administrators that the cause of the chronic food shortages
(1992) found suffi cient DDT in Lake Kariba cormorants to cause
was the inability of the resettled peasants to cultivate suffi cient
egg thinning and reproductive failure.
land to feed themselves because of lack of drought power. This
was believed due to their inability to rear cattle because of
The impacts of DDT on fi sh populations have not been fully
Trypanosomaisis transmitted by Glossina morsitans. For over
assessed. Although DDT levels in various fi sh species have
30 years, therefore, some part of the Lake Kariba environment
been made, no assessment of the biological impacts of
were sprayed with DDT and other insecticides to control the
these levels have been made. However, studies by Sanyanga
pest, with the intensity and frequency of spraying dependant
(1996) on Synodontis zambeziensis showed a much smaller
on the tenacity of the fl y to re-invade sprayed areas.
proportion of reproductively active males than previously
existed, even though the juvenile sex ratio was almost equal.
As access to the area improved over time, new areas opened
for resettling other plateau farmers from congested Tribal Trust
9.3
Impacts on Human Health
Land areas in the then-Southern Rhodesia, especially in the
Gokwe area. In addition to cultivating food crops, these more
There are no direct studies of the impacts of the pest control
entrepreneurial farmers started producing cotton, which also
program on human health. The data in Table 3, however,
requires large quantities of pesticides to control pests. The
suggests that, based on known impacts of DDT elsewhere, it
need to control vector diseases in the resettlement areas led
is likely there are pest control impacts on human health that
to prolonged use of residual and topical pesticides (e.g., DDT,
simply not have been monitored. The paradox of DDT usage in
dieldrin, endrin, endosulfan). While advances in research led
the Lake Kariba environments is that, although the pesticide
to development of more environmentally-friendly methods for
is banned for agricultural use, Zimbabwean health authorities
controlling the tsetse fl y (e.g., odor-baited fl y-trap; Torr et al.
maintain that DDT is still the most effective answer to malaria
1997), DDT remains the cornerstone of malaria vector control.
control.
Table 3. Comparison of DDT, DDT Derivatives and PCB in Mother's Milk (Concentration in ng/g milk fat).
Mean age
Ratio
Area
Land use characteristics
Sum PCB
pp-DDE
pp-DDT
Sum DDT
of mothers
DDT/DDE
Kariba
DDT for vector control
23
2.78
13,606
9,080
25,259

0.6
Kadoma
Cotton
22
59.55
5,049
1,254
7,047
0.2
Esigodini
Subsistence farming
25
13.27
1,176
250
1,607

0.22
Source: Adapted from Chikuni et al. (1997), as cited in Magadza (2002).

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
215

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10.
Governance and Institutional Arrangements
b)
in consultation with the National Electricity Undertakings,
investigate the desirability of constructing new dams on
The Zambezi River Authority has its historical origins in the
the Zambezi River and make recommendations thereon
Central African Power Corporation (CAPCO), which was set
to the Council;
up as a jointly-owned company by Southern and Northern
Rhodesia. The corporation was dissolved in 1987, due to the
c)
subject to the approval of the Council, construct,
politically-inequitable distribution of assets, and the political
operate, monitor and maintain any other dams on the
culture in which it operated before the Zimbabwean elections.
Zambezi River;
The CAPCO mandate was primarily engineering in nature, d)
collect, accumulate and process hydrological and
including the following:
environmental data of the Zambezi River for the better
performance of its functions and for any other purpose
·
Monitoring the hydrology of the basin with respect to
benefi cial to the Contracting States;
lake level management and fl ood control;
·
Monitoring and recommending remedial measures in e) in consultation with the National Electricity
regard to dam wall safety; and,
Undertakings, regulate the water level in the Kariba
·
Generating bulk electricity and selling it to territorial
reservoir and in any other reservoirs owned by the
energy authorities.
Authority;
Figure 8 illustrates the institutional governance structure f )
make such recommendations to the Council as will
of Lake Kariba and its catchment. Central to this structure
ensure the effective use of the waters and other
is the role of the Zambezi River Authority (ZRA). The ZRA
resources of the Zambezi River;
operates under the mandate of an Operational Charter given
it by the Intergovernmental Ministerial Council composed of
g)
liaise with the National Electricity Undertakings in
representative ministries from Zambia and Zimbabwe. The
the performance of its functions that may affect the
functions of the Council are governed by the Interministerial
generation and transmission of electricity to the
Council Bilateral Treaty between the contracting parties, with
Contracting States;
the ministers from the respective countries reporting to their
Parliaments.
h)
subject to the provisions of Article 13, recruit, employ
and provide for the training of such staff as may be
The Interministerial Council Bilateral Treaty provides for
necessary for the performance of its functions under this
establishing a Board whose composition must refl ect
Agreement;
representational equity between the contracting states, as
well as relevant expertise in engineering and fi nancial skills,
i)
from time to time and subject to the approval of the
with the duties and obligations of the Zambezi River Authority
Council, make such revisions of salaries, wages and
set out in Article 9 of the agreement. The agreement states
other remuneration to its employees as it considers
"The functions of the Authority shall be to:
appropriate;
a)
operate, monitor and maintain the Kariba Complex;
j)
submit development plans and programmes to the
Council for approval;
k)
give effect to such directions as may,
Sadc
Protocol on shared river courses
from time to time, be given to it by the
Council;
l)
carry out such other functions as are
Zambia
Interministerial Council
Zimbabwe
provided for in this Agreement or are
Bilateral Treaty
incidental or conducive to the better
performance for its functions."
Zambezi River Authority Operational Charter
Although these arrangements have been
derived via bilateral negotiations between
Lake Kariba
Zambia and Zimbabwe, in their sovereign
Interest
Interest
rights as members of the Southern African
Ministries
Ministries
Development Council (SADC), management of
the entire Zambezi River basin also is under the
Riparian Governments
Riparian Governments
purview of the SADC Protocol on Shared Water
Figure 8. Institutional Structures of the Lake Kariba Management Process.
Courses, with the SADC general principles
216 Kariba
Reservoir

---

enunciated in Article 2 (see (http://www.thewaterpage.com/
facilities in Zambia are only weakly developed. Further,
SADC). This protocol, whose jurisdictional powers and legal
departmental authorities within the riparian states often
status, although framed in compelling language as "Member
proceed with activities directed by their respective authorities,
States shall...", are not explicit, sets the framework for water
sometimes in contradiction to the overall ZACPLAN. One
resource development and water quality management.
reason for this hiatus is that most state institutions and their
relevant legislations predate the bilateral agreement between
Refl ecting its bilateral nature, the Interministerial Council Zambia and Zimbabwe, with no subsequent facilitation for
Bilateral Treaty defi nes the Zambezi River as "that part of harmonization between institutional operations.
the Zambezi River common to the borders of the two States"
(Article 1). This designation covers only some 700 km of A further weakness of Lake Kariba governance is the virtual
the river between Kazungula and Villa do Gumbo. Thus, for
non-existence of interagency cooperation, both at territorial
integrated, basin-wide management of Lake Kariba, ZRA relies
and transboundary levels. This refl ects the governance style of
on other international instruments and initiatives, including the
the respective governments, which provides little opportunity
SADC Protocol on Shared Water Courses, SADC Zambezi River
for non-governmental institutions to be directly involved in the
Action Plan (ZACPLAN), and territorial legislation in relevant
management process. As an example, before ZRA established
states. ZACPLAN identifi es management issues at the drainage
its water quality monitoring facility, the University of Zimbabwe
basin level, and makes recommendations to the riparian states
had established a research facility dating back to the early days
on methods for addressing the identifi ed issues.
of the lake. Similarly, the United Nations Food and Agriculture
Organisation (FAO) established a fi sheries research laboratory
To rationalize the hitherto-uncontrolled development activity in
to study the lake's limnology and fi sheries development. This
the Lake Kariba environs, the Zimbabwe Government, through
facility is now called the "Lake Kariba Fisheries Research
its Department of Physical Planning, produced the Kariba Institute" and is administered by the Zimbabwean Department
Combination Master Plan 1998 (Kariba Lakeshore Combination
of National Parks and Wildlife Management. No existing
Master Plan Preparation Authority 1998), which covers the mechanism either recognizes or provides for the close
Administrative districts surrounding the lake. The plan sets out
cooperation between these institutions and the ZRA, the latter
guidelines for the development and utilization of such natural
left to the discretion of relevant offi cers. As a result, the overall
resource-related components as agriculture, fi shing, wildlife,
performance of the institutions is somewhat below optimum
forestry and tourism.
achievement.
The plan also attempts to establish guidelines for developing
One of the outcomes of lack of cohesive interagency
infrastructure and clarifying administrative jurisdictional cooperation is the virtual absence of any vestiges of integrated
interests and boundaries. This concept has since been water resource management in the basin. As a result, resource
extended to the Zambian foreshore. Finally, the plan attempts
use and management activities within the basin are poorly
to outline implementation strategies and identify appropriate
coordinated, including for the following reasons:
agencies and institutions for its various aspects. This
combination master plan is the nearest semblance to public
·
Low level of awareness of integrated water resources
participation of lake and lakeshore users in the Lake Kariba
management among the basin communities. Even
management process. Lakeside users, through their local
where basin catchment management authorities have
authorities, can provide inputs into resource management
been established according to SADC requirements, the
issues and, where appropriate, levy resource users to fund the
main concern is water supply;
management costs.
·
Poor connectivity and communality of management
Historically, ZRA and its predecessor is probably one of
concerns among basin communities. Cotton growers in
the fully-functional binominal management institutions.
the Gokwe areas, for example, have little in common
The essence of its success is in the committed funding of
with the fl oodplain communities of the Upper Zambezi
its operations with revenues from the energy-generating
Barotse fl ood plain; and,
authorities in the riparian states, with only specifi c projects
being funded through donor funds.
·
Inadequate infrastructure and institutional development
for basin-wide integrated water resource management.
There are, however, a number of existing ground-level
At the level of economic and human development,
operational contradictions. That portion of Lake Kariba in
the infrastructure and institutional resources required
Zimbabwe territorial waters is administered as a national
to implement a basin-wide integrated management
park, to control user activities on the lake and regulate the
program, such as the kind seen at the North American
fi shery industry. Further, there are areas adjacent to the lake
Great Lakes, simply are not yet readily available in the
on the Zimbabwean side dedicated to wildlife conservation
Lake Kariba basin.
and tourism. No such facilities, however, exist on the Zambian
side. On the Zimbabwe side, various departmental agencies
regulate urban development and planning, while similar

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
217

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11. Research
garnished from the construction of the Lake Kariba Dam and its
subsequent maintenance.
The established facilities that do research on Lake Kariba
include:
12. Analysis
·
University Lake Kariba Research Station (formerly 12.1
The Legal and Institutional Framework
Nuffi eld Kariba Research Station);
·
Aquatic Division, Department of National Parks and The legal and institutional framework for the management
Wildlife Management, Government of Zimbabwe; and,
of Lake Kariba and its resources is discussed by Syampangu
·
Zambezi River Authority.
(1998), and summarized by Nyambe (2001). Nyambe lists
18 separate legislative items in Zambia applicable to Lake
There also are various other institutions, both local and Kariba and hinterland administration, while he lists 9 for
overseas, that have done research on the lake, including:
Zimbabwe. This legislation has overlapping jurisdictions
whose applications are not always coordinated, since there are
·
Zimbabwe Government Ministry of Health Blair vertical ministerial command structures. None of this territorial
Laboratory;
legislation provides for lateral links with the Zambezi River
·
The Danish Bilharzia Laboratory, Charlottenlund;
Authority, one reason for this legislative and administrative
·
University of Lund, Sweden;
multiplicity being that much of it predates the Zambezi River
·
University of Colorado, USA;
Authority Act.
·
Various British technical colleges;
·
University of the Witwatersrand (until 1980);
Recognizing the limitations imposed on the Zambezi
·
University of Zimbabwe, Faculty of Agriculture;
River Authority, moves are underway to form a basin-wide
·
University of Zimbabwe, Centre for Applied Social commission, the Zambezi River Commission (ZAMCOM).
Studies; and,
The provisions of the proposed commission are not yet
·
University of Zambia.
known. However, unless issues of territorial sovereignty are
adequately addressed, and territorial legislations revisited to
More than 200 publications have been produced on Lake ensure a workable dovetailing of the commission's jurisdiction
Kariba and its environment, including nearly 20 post-graduate
and those of participating states, there is a danger the
dissertations and theses.
commission would be constrained in addressing basin-wide
watershed management issues, in much the same way as the
While the local institutions have met the basic expenditures of
SADC protocol has limited, if any, jurisdictional authority. What
salaries and services, the research costs have essentially been
is needed are legal documents that are more than framework
funded by donor agencies. Although this has provided essential
agreements; rather, they must be instruments in which the
funding, at times it has also lead to donor hegemony, in which
issue of sovereignty, paramount in the SADC Protocol on
the propensity of guest participants to advance their research
Shared Waters, takes cognizance of shared interests in the
interests has marred project performance. Furthermore, donor-
water resources of the basin as a whole.
driven programs tend to be exclusive, resulting in diminished
cooperation between local organizations working in the same
The lack of a framework in which stakeholders and non-
area, as well as uncoordinated, sometimes competing efforts.
governmental organizations can participate in resource
Finally, donor initiatives often are predicated by undertakings
management issues is a severe curtailment to the evolution
by benefi ciary institutions and governments to subsume of community responsibility in environmental management
responsibilities for continued funded of activities at the end
and resource stewardship. On the Zambian side of the lake
of the donor-funding period, which unfortunately are rarely
basin, the fi sheries resource local management was under the
honored.
jurisdiction of local chiefs (Siyampaku 1998), while resource
management of the lake on the Zimbabwe side was fi rmly in
In spite of such diffi culties, however, research efforts on the hands of the central government. Siyampaku (1998) notes
Lake Kariba have resulted in signifi cant insights over the that, in the early period of the Lake Kariba fi shery in Zambia,
years into the implications of water resource development of
the chiefs enforced closed seasons during the breeding period,
the magnitude of the lake. Useful knowledge on ecosystem
ensuring that nurseries were not fi shed. As local communities
evolution and management of large reservoirs has been authority diminished, however, the fi shery suffered from over-
acquired, as well as insights into the social consequences of
fi shing and disregard for conservation measures. The recently-
development projects that result in large-scale involuntary adopted Kariba Combination Plan, which purports to reinvest
resettlement. Other useful information exists on the impacts
local responsibility in local lakeshore communities through
of pesticide use in vector control, as well as a working model
local authorities, may help address this issue.
of the likely impacts of climate change, and the level of
economic impacts of such climate-induced perturbations on
the Lake Kariba system. There also are engineering lessons
218 Kariba
Reservoir

---

12.2 The Climate Issue
downstream impacts of the Kariba project, in both ecological
and human terms, was never considered. The Tonga led a
Although observational data on climate trends for the area
riverine livelihood and culture, and their resettlement resulted
are exploratory, global trends and experimental modeling in physical, economic and cultural displacement. Although
data strongly suggest the need for a precautionary approach.
the severity of the impacts of this displacement was little
The past two decades have seen shifts in the frequencies of
understood at the time, even when the predicament of the
extreme events, and therefore, the management of Lake Kariba,
Tonga came to be known, they lacked the necessary advocacy
as well as planning for future reservoirs on the Zambezi River,
skills to be able to respond appropriately. In fact, for more than
must take the climate trends into consideration. As previously
a half-century now, they have remained the least-developed
noted, the power generation from Lake Kariba has fallen below
communities in both Zambia and Zimbabwe.
the design capacity, with analysts suggesting long periods
of low lake water levels are part of the explanation (e.g., see
As noted by the World Commission on Dams, communities that
Hulme 1996). Conversely, the watershed can experience fl ush
do not own land or other visible assets are often marginalized
fl oods during wet years, as those discussed by Vas (2000),
by projects such as the construction of Lake Kariba.
and which illustrate the important role large reservoirs can
Ownership in this case is defi ned within the Western culture
play in fl ood management. In 1978, neither Lakes Kariba context, which has limited understanding of traditional law
or Cahora Bassa had suffi cient water storage capacity to ownership in an overall communal ownership setting (e.g. the
control the fl ooding; in contrast, Cahora Bassa, more by good
formalized communal lands tenure of southern African states).
fortune than design, had suffi cient storage capacity in 1997 to
However, there are clearly defi ned individual and communal
attenuate downstream fl ooding. In the 1978 fl ood, Vas (2000)
property rights in these communities which are lost when
cited poor communication as a major contributing factor in the
the communities are displaced. In the case of Lake Kariba,
failure to warn downstream communities in time. Fortunately,
although the displaced Tonga were allocated alternative land,
telecommunications and satellite fl ood warning facilities it could not replace their ecological and cultural ties with the
are now well developed. What is now needed is a joint fl ood
Gwembe valley fl ood plain ecosystem. It is this loss, which is
management protocol among the basin states to coordinate
not measurable in material terms, that has caused long lasting
fl ood management, as well as established community trauma in the Tonga community.
responses to fl ood threats.
In the project planning phase of large reservoirs like Lake
12.3 Environmental
Issues
Kariba, therefore, it is necessary that the ecology of the
communities to be displaced is understood, and that any
The most problematic area in managing Lake Kariba and its
defi cits arising from relocation be fully appraised. It also must
watershed probably is that of environmental management be appreciated that, although the land that they occupy might
(i.e. managing land use in the basin; water quality of infl ow
be state land, the tenure and ownership perceptions of the
rivers; invasive species; etc.). As previously noted, other concerned community might be at variance with those of the
than for the main Zambezi River, these issues are managed
state and, as in the case of Lake Kariba, may predate the state
by various territorial institutions and riparian states. The itself.
capacity of each riparian state to implement the provisions
of the relevant statutes, however, is relatively weak. Further,
The Tonga appreciate how the sacrifi ce of their land has
the Zambezi River Authority Act restricts ZRA jurisdiction to
benefi ted the sub-region, as exemplifi ed by the bright lights
that segment of the Zambezi River where it forms the Zambia-
of Kariba and Siyavonga Towns; luxury cruises on the lake;
Zimbabwe common boundary, thereby restricting ZRA to deal
and expensive holiday cottages by the lakeshore. At the same
only with water-related environmental issues of the lake itself.
time, however, the Tonga resettlement areas have sparse
With appropriate statutory authority, however, it is hoped the
education, health and other benefi ts related to development of
proposed ZAMCOM can address these issues at the drainage
Lake Kariba. Such basic services also would have been made
basin level. Nevertheless, whatever institutional structures available to them if the Tonga had been given a share in the
are eventually adopted, the riparian states must be prepared
Kariba benefi ts via levying the power producers a development
to provide substantial funds to guarantee the success of the
levy for the resettlement area, even if only for a limited number
commission's programs. The current riparian programs depend
of years.
largely on donor-funded initiatives, through the Zambezi River
Action Plan (ZACPLAN).
12.5 Integrated Watershed Management and Public
Participation
12.4 Displacement
Integrated watershed management is now the key approach in
Because there was no Environmental Impact Assessment the developed world to managing water resources within river
conducted prior to implementation of the Kariba Dam or lake basins. The land user is ultimately the key player in
construction project, not only was there limited knowledge of
implementation of integrated watershed management in this
the area's animal and plant ecology, but also little knowledge
approach, thereby also being the key participant.
of the Tonga population of the Gwembe valley. Further, the

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
219

---

In integrated watershed management case studies (e.g., Lake
·
Safeguarding the safety of the dam wall; and,
Biwa; Lake Champlain), specifi c attributes of basin citizens ·
Monitoring water quality in regard to eutrophication
include the following:
threats (e.g., noxious weeds).
·
High literacy rate;
The management issues do not consider the needs of
·
High Human Development Index (HDI);
watershed users. Thus, upstream basin users have no
·
Good access to lake basin information;
incentives to cooperate in ZRA management interests. Thus,
·
High level of community concern about lake basin no communality of interest exists in regard to integrated
issues;
watershed management, a syndrome that Sheng (2001)
·
Shared values in the environmental health of the lake
depicts as a typical problem regarding integrated watershed
and its basin;
management efforts in developing countries. This represents a
·
Citizen-driven environmental policies and programs;
crucial fi nding in planning integrated watershed management
·
High per capita income;
efforts in the Lake Kariba drainage basin.
·
Low dependence on use of primary natural resources
(e.g., fuel wood); and,
13. Lessons
Learned
· Adequate
fi nancial resources in the basin to support
citizen-driven management programs (e.g., the tourist
The lessons learned in the case of Lake Kariba include the
industry in the Lake Champlain basin generated US$3.8
following:
billion in the 1999 fi nancial year).
·
A detailed investigation of the dam site geology is
Developing country lake basins (e.g., Lake Kariba), have
essential, since non-conforming geological features can
few, if any, of these attributes available to them. Thus,
lead to expensive, recurrent maintenance costs in the
public participation in lake basin management programs is
post-project phase;
generally lacking, with management activities being left to
state institutions, whose main approach is to enforce state
·
Large reservoirs located on, or near, geologic fault lines
regulations, even though basin citizens often have limited
can cause signifi cant, recurrent seismic activity, leading
knowledge of the lake management issues.
in some cases to loss of human life and signifi cant
property damage;
Schramm and Rubin (1999) outlined a protocol for establishing
an integrated watershed management process, which assumes
·
The creation of large, relatively deep reservoirs can
some of the above-outlined basin community attributes. They
generate new ecological niches, which may require
cite the following management principles as common to all
ecological manipulations to optimize ecosystem
Environmental Management Systems:
functioning;
·
A policy articulating a commitment to a specifi c level of
·
Reservoirs can create new opportunities that indigenous
environmental performance;
people may not share in without assistance;
·
Measurable quantity and quality objectives and
performance targets;
·
Forced relocation of poor communities in the course of
·
A planning process and strategy to meet the
water resource development, can lead to long-lasting,
commitments;
trans-generational social traumas; accordingly, reservoir
·
An organized institutional structure to execute the
planning must be explicit in addressing community
strategy;
needs, with equity issues in the sharing water resource
·
Implementation programs and support tools to meet
development benefi ts being explicitly considered;
objectives;
·
Communications and training programs; and,
·
Although decisions concerning the welfare of the Tonga
·
A measurement and review process to monitor
people, and indeed any politically-weak community, may
progress.
appear to have been infl uenced by perceptions of race,
these perceptions were basically class prejudices; thus,
It is clear, however, that the Lake Kariba drainage basin
there is a need for honest dialogue between developers
does not measure up to their assumptions. On the other
and those likely to be affected by the development
hand, Sheng (2001) outlined some issues in integrated
including, if necessary, appropriate facilitation by
watershed management in developing countries. Based on
neutral parties;
his analysis, the Lake Kariba watershed management process,
as encapsulated in the ZRA mandate, is that of protecting ·
New opportunities offered by reservoir environments can
"downstream investments", including:
raise issues of equity in resource access; accordingly,
reservoir developers should anticipate this situation
·
Ensuring adequate water supply for hydroelectric
by identifying community sectors requiring education,
operations;
fi nances and skills to compete with better-advantaged
220 Kariba
Reservoir

---

communities in regard to new reservoir resources and
The development of the lake's hinterland, including changes
opportunities;
in population density and land use intensifi cation, as well
as upstream discharges of inadequately-treated wastes,
·
Reservoir watersheds undergo constant change, some
especially in Zimbabwe, has generated increasing loads of
of which may be triggered by establishment of the eutrophicating chemicals, with the lake showing incipient
reservoir itself; thus, post-project integrated watershed
signs of eutrophication with the invasion of the lake by
management efforts must be part of reservoir planning;
water hyacinth. The control of veterinary and human pests
has resulted in pesticide accumulation in the lake, as well as
·
Successful management of trans-boundary reservoirs indications of heavy metal accumulation. The growth of Kariba
with international watersheds is predicated on peaceful
Town and Siyavonga, and the establishment of many fi shing
coexistence and international cooperation;
camps with minimum town planning directives, as well as a
growing tourism industry, has resulted in localised offshore
·
There is need for greater coordination of research microbial pollution, as well as waterborne disease vectors,
activities by relevant institutions, in order to maximize
including bilhartzia transmitting snails. Further, the geological
research results;
response of the basin to the lake's establishment has been
the reactivation of seismic activity in the valley, although the
·
There is a signifi cant need for information dissemination
frequency and intensity of the tremors has declined with time.
on issues pertaining to Lake Kariba and its environments;
and,
In summary, the Lake Kariba project was conceived in an
unstable political environment, involving racially- and
·
There is need for the development of strategies politically-polarised communities. The contracting parties
applicable to integrated watershed management (Governments of Zambia and Southern Rhodesia) were on
concepts in developing countries that recognize hostile terms for one-and-one decades, with the border
special circumstances in the socioeconomic and human
between the two countries closed. Although management of
development status of watershed user communities in
the facility was in the hands of a company jointly owned by the
developing countries.
two governments, CAPCO in Zambia was seen by many largely
as a Rhodesian entity. Zimbabwe perceived itself in a "minority
14. Conclusions
shareholder" position at its independence, necessitating
renegotiation of a new equitable distribution of the Lake
Lake Kariba has a complex socio-political history. Envisaged
Kariba facility assets, together with establishment of a new
as an engine of economic development, the location of the
management institution.
Lake Kariba dam was a result of both technical and political
considerations; technical in that it was thought more Another noteworthy observation is that the relocation of the
hydrologically stable than the competing Kafue Gorge site in
Tonga community occurred at a time when issues of human
Zambia; political in that it assuaged the apprehensions of a
rights, equity and racial equality were poorly developed. Even
minority white government in Southern Rhodesia of investing
though the Tonga case study is now well documented, the
a strategic development facility in a country that could so-called impacts assessments were conducted at that time
conceivably be governed by a majority black government. more as a means of satisfying funding conditions, than in
Further, the reservoir was designed during a period when consideration of the welfare of the affected communities. As
human rights, social justice and equity in relation to colonial
a result, translocation of the Tonga, with no acclimatization
subjects were secondary concerns, as well as a period when
program in their new habitat, had both environmental and
environmental management was an emerging discipline in an
sociological impacts. The need to combat pathogen vectors, for
era when engineers were an awesome community capable example, resulted in environmental contamination processes
of harnessing nature's energy potential for the development
with measurable adverse ecological impacts.
of central southern Africa. Consequently there was little
assessment of the potential environmental and social impacts
Therefore, although a clear governance structure is now in
of the proposed reservoir.
place in regard to Lake Kariba, there still is an overriding need
for better coordination of lake management activities.
Only sparsely populated during the planning and construction
period, the portion of the Lake Kariba catchment has been
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