Lake Dianchi
Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
Jin Xiangcan*, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing, China, jinxc@craes.org.cn
Wang Li, Yunnan Environmental Project Offi ce, Kunming, China
He Liping, Yunnan Institute of Environmental Sciences, Kunming, China
* Corresponding author
1. Introduction
by plankton. Introduced species also have had negative effects
on the lake's ecosystem. Additionally, the region as a whole
Lake Dianchi is an ancient tectonic lake (approximately 3.2
has limited water resources, so water scarcity is also an issue.
million years old) located in Yunnan Province in southwestern
China. It is the 6th largest freshwater lake in China and the
The last ten years or so have seen a comprehensive, integrated
largest in Yunnan. The lake and its basin (Figure 1) are located
response from the national, provincial and municipal levels to
wholly within the jurisdiction of Kunming Municipality, which
reduce the pollutant loads to the lake and restore it to a better
contains Kunming City, the largest city in Yunnan Province condition. These efforts include a large World Bank loan for the
(Figure 2; Section 2.2.1 describes the jurisdictional features.
Note that Kunming Municipality is much large than, and
contains the urban area called Kunming City). The lake is
divided into two parts by an artifi cial causeway: the northern,
inner part is called Caohai and has a surface area of 7.5 km2
and average depth of 2.5 m; the southern, outer part is called
Waihai and has a surface area of 292 km2 and average depth of
4.4 m. The volume of the Waihai part accounts for 99% of the
total lake volume (1.56 billion m3). The lake is part of the larger
Jinsha River drainage basin (an upper stream of the Yangtze
River). Water fl ows out of the lake to the west via the Tanglang
River, which in turn joins other rivers in the north before fi nally
heading east until reaching the Pacifi c Ocean.
The lake has been important throughout history for the
development and livelihoods of the people of Kunming and
the basin. The lake's age, combined with other favorable
factors, meant that until recent decades, the lake contained a
large number of endemic species, and an overall high level of
biodiversity. The lake is used for various purposes, including
industrial and agricultural water supply, water storage
regulation, fl ood control, aquaculture, climate regulation,
navigation and tourism and, signifi cantly since 1990, for
drinking water, although high pollution levels in the lake have
necessitated increased reliance on upstream reservoirs.
Unfortunately, rapid population growth in the basin (3.16
million in 2003, compared to 1.5 million in 1980) and economic
development in the drainage basin over the last few decades,
combined with changes in land use, especially the lakeshore
areas, has placed severe pressures on the lake. For example,
the lake's once great biodiversity has been severely damaged.
High levels of organic and nutrient loads to the lake have
resulted in hypereutrophic conditions, especially in the Caohai
part. Lake Dianchi provides a good example of the ecological
shift (hysteresis) common in many stressed shallow lakes,
from a system dominated by macrophytes to one dominated
Figure 1. The Lake Dianchi Basin.

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POLITICAL BOUNDARIES IN
KUNMING MUNICIPALITY
Drainage Basin Boundary
S I C H U A N P R O V I N C E
Province Boundary
Y U N N A N P R O V I N C E
Prefecture or Municipality Boundary
County or District Boundary
Lake
Q u j i n g
P r e f e c t u r e
D o n g c h u a n
D i s t r i c t
L u q u a n
C o u n ty
Xu n d i a n
C o u n ty
C h u x i o n g Y i
A u t o n o m o u s
P r e f e c t u r e
Small part of
Guangdu District
Ku n m i n g
M u n i c i p a l i ty
Small parts of
Lake Dianchi Basin
Xishan District
S o n g m i n g
F u m i n g
C o u n t y
C o u n t y
Highly urbanized
area often referred
to as "Kunming City"
(includes Wuhua and
Panlong Districts)
X i s h a n
D i s t r i c t
Y i l i a n g
G u a n g d u
C o u n t y
D i s t r i c t
Yangzong
A n n i n g
Lake
C o u n t y
C h e n g g o n g
Lake
C o u n t y
Dianchi
S h i l i n
D i s t r i c t
J i n n i n g C o u n ty
Fuxian
Lake
H o n g h a H a n i a n d Y i
A u t o n o m o u s P r e f e c t u r e
Yu x i P r e f e c t u r e
Boundaries and locations are approximate
ILEC/24.85N/102.72E/070206-2
and should not be considered authoritative.
Figure 2. Political Boundaries in Kunming Municipality.
160
Lake Dianchi

---

Yunnan Environment Project, and a smaller GEF co-fi nanced
parts with different tectonic structures, stone properties and
project for restoration of biodiversity in a few lakeshore areas.
geologic agents.
Although early indications are that these comprehensive efforts
are having a positive effect on the lake, restoration of the lake
There are more than 20 major rivers fl owing into Lake Dianchi
to its previous condition will be a long-term challenge.
from the east, south and north, with a cumulative length of
about 359 km. The Panlong River is the longest infl owing river
2. Background
(106 km, with a catchment area of 850 km2). It starts upstream
of the Songhuabe Reservoir in the north, fl owing through
2.1 Biophysical
Features
Kunming City to the south before entering the lake. Most of
the infl owing rivers fl ow through farmlands, towns, villages
2.1.1 Biophysical, Hydrometeorological and
and phosphate mines, bringing water rich in such nutrients
Geophysical Features
as nitrogen and phosphorus to the lake. The lake water fl ows
The Lake Dianchi drainage basin is situated in the central part
out of the lake through the Panglang River at Haikou Town, the
of the Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau, along the watershed of the
only natural outlet at the southwest end of the lake, then fl ows
three water systems comprising the Yangtze River, Pearl River
northwards into the Pudu River and fi nally into the Jinsha River
and Red River, at 24°29' to 25°28' N and 102°29' to 103°01' E,
at upstream end of the Yangtze River.
and an elevation of approximately 1,887 m. To its west are the
Hengduan Mountains, to its east lies the East Yunnan Plateau
2.1.2 Environmental and Natural Resources Features
and to its north are the Wumeng and Liangwang Mountains.
and Values of the Lake
The landform gradually slopes from the north to the south,
Climate. The Lake Dianchi drainage area belongs to the
where hills, subsided plains and the lake itself have an areal
wet monsoon climatic belt of the northern sub-tropic zone,
ratio of 7:2:1, respectively. Kunming City is located to the controlled alternately mainly by the southwest monsoon
north of the lake. The whole area is typical of a natural plateau
and sub-tropic continental air mass. The annual temperature
landscape.
accumulation greater than 10°C is 4,200 to 4,500°C, with an
average annual air temperature of 14.7°C. The average annual
The land in Lake Dianchi's drainage area is composed mainly
rainfall is 797 to 1,007 mm, the annual evaporation 1,870 to
of mountains, terraces and dammed river valleys. The total
2,120 mm, the annual sunshine duration 2,018 to 2,470 h, the
drainage area is 2,920 km2 (including the lake). The three annual sunshine rate 47 to 56%, and the relative humidity 73
types of land (mountain, mesa and fl at) take up 49.36, 25.48
to 74%. The prevailing wind is from the southwest, with an
and 13.62% respectively, of the drainage basin area, while average wind speed of 2.2 to 3.0 m/s. There are 227 frost-free
Lake Dianchi's water surface area makes up 10.22% and urban
days in an average year. The climate of the drainage area is
area of Kunming City and land of other various types make up
typically that of the monsoon region of low latitude and high
1.32%.
altitude. Due in part to the thermal regulation provided by the
lake, the micro-climate of the region is very pleasant, being
The drainage area sits on the Kunming platform fold of the
warm in the winter and cool in the summer, as described in the
west section of the East Yunnan platform fold of the Changjiang
well-known saying about the region, "Flowers of various colors
peneplatform, between the well-known North-South-aligned do not wither in any season and the temperature is pleasant
Xiajiang River and Pudu River faults. The drainage area was
like spring all the year round."
transformed into a plateau in the early Neozoic epoch and
developed into a peneplain in the Mesocene epoch, when red
There is a distinct difference between the dry (winter and
weathering crust developed on the surface. In the late Pliocene
spring) and wet seasons (often in summer). Precipitation is the
epoch, violent faulting and frequent rising and sinking took
only source of water in the lake's drainage basin (i.e., there is
place in the drainage area, and the peneplain disintegrated
no signifi cant groundwater transfer or artifi cial canals bringing
to form parallel North-South-aligned fault valleys and massive
water into the basin), and the available water resources are
swells, entering the process of plateau lake basin formation.
limited. The uneven distribution of rainfall leads to uneven
Differential faulting intensifi ed in the early and middle surface runoff. The rainy season provides 81% of the total
Pleistocene epoch, when the northern part of the basin rose,
annual water resources, with the rainfall during July, August
and the southern part relatively sank, causing the surface of
and September making up 60% of the annual total. August
the lake to recede. The whole landform entered the period
alone contributes 25%, while the driest month (April) has only
of lake and river development, with a plane of denudation
1.2% of the annual total rainfall. The extreme value ratio of
forming. The lake continued to recede to the south in the the runoff of natural rivers in the Lake Dianchi drainage area
late Pleistocene epoch, when the riverbeds extended and the
ranges between 3.87 to 5.14, with a coeffi cient of variation of
whole area entered the period of river valley development.
0.44 to 0.45.
The northern part of the original lake turned into pluvial and
alluvial plains. Terraces of various grades came into shape.
Soil resources. The soil in the drainage basin is complicated
The landforms within the basin varied, to become forms of
due to the topography, the sub-tropic monsoon climate and
solution, erosion, denudation and accumulation at different
the local biological conditions. Red soil, paddy soil and purple
soil have the widest distribution, although brown earth,

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
161

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yellow-brown earth, alluvial soil and bog soil also are common.
re-use, with its quality deteriorating well below the national
The natural soils of the hills are mountain red soil and purple
minimum standard for potable water supply (Grade III).
soil, with places of higher elevation having red-brown and
brown soil, and the plains and terraces with cultivated soil,
In average years (and particularly dry years), the water supply
refl ecting agricultural land use.
cannot meet the water demand. The water balance in the
drainage basin has to depend heavily on the irrigation return
Water resources. The available water resources of the fl ows and the indirect re-use of domestic sewage. Plans for
catchment are not only scarce, but vary widely from 242 million
diversion of water from another river basin into the Lake
m3/yr (dry year) to over 900 million m3/yr (wet year). Figure 3
Dianchi basin are discussed in Section 4.1.
shows the average water balance in the basin in the mid-1990s.
The water supply for domestic, industrial and agricultural Vegetation resources. The basin's climate makes it suitable for
uses depends heavily on storage in various reservoirs in the
the growth of various plants. The land use in the basin is given
basin. The most important reservoir is Songhuabe Reservoir
in Table 1. Forests occupy almost 1,200 km2, making up 46%
(located on the Panlong River), from which most of Kunming's
of the total land area. The natural vegetation is dominated by
water supply is abstracted. Lake Dianchi is the second most
broad-leaved evergreen forests, and the secondary vegetation
important "reservoir", providing water supply for domestic use
by burma pine and china armand pine. Artifi cial farmland
(most importantly in dry years), and industrial and agricultural
vegetation includes rotation of rice, wheat and corn, with two
uses. However, the lake receives sewage, industrial effl uents,
crops often being harvested in a year. Since the mid-1990s, rice
irrigation return fl ows and storm runoff for repeated water fi elds have been increasingly converted into more profi table
cut fl owers and vegetable crops.
Aquatic resources. Until the 1950s,
macrophyte coverage was extensive. It
Precipitation
Evaporation
provided both a rich food source and a
27.5338
22.08
good fi sh habitat. Fisheries biologists
identifi ed 24 indigenous fi sh species
as originally having been present in the
lake, with at least 11 being endemic to
Precipitation
Precipitation
Evaporation
Evaporation
over land
over the lake
over land
over the lake
Lake Dianchi. In addition, a further 31
24.7618
2.772
17.8006
4.2794
exotic species have been stocked into
the lake since the late-1950s, for a total
of 51 fi sh species by the late-1950s/
early-1960s. However, competition
Surface runoff of the drainage area = 5.4538
for food and living space, along with
increasing fi shing efforts and escalating
Discharge
Change in
Industrial
Agricultural
Drinking and
pollution from infl owing river waters
through
water
consumption
consumption
domestic
that has accompanied development of
Haikou
storage
consumption
4.0713
0.0378
0.0457
1.3497
0.0249
the Lake Dianchi drainage basin, has
resulted in the extinction of many of
Figure 3. Average Annual Water Balance of Lake Dianchi (expressed as 108 m3;
the endemic and indigenous species.
Source: Jin (1995)).
Table 1. Land Use Changes in the Lake Dianchi Basin.
1988
1999
Land use type
Area (km2)
(%)
Area (km2)
(%)
Natural landscape
Forest
1,075.8
42.2
1,196.6
45.7
Bare land
499.0
19.6
135.2
5.2
Garden plot
10.7
0.6
138.5
5.3
Agricultural land
Wet paddy fi eld
374.5
14.7
405.3
15.5
Non-irrigated farmland
219.2
8.6
359.4
13.7
Residential area
96.5
3.8
117.8
4.5
Transportation area
80.2
3.2
59.9
2.3
Industrial and mining area, etc.
188.6
7.4
208.3
7.9
Source:
He and An (2001).
162 Lake
Dianchi

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Recent surveys have confi rmed 7 of the endemic fi sh species
is known as the "Number One Bath in the World" as well as
as extant: Anabarilius alburnops, Pseudobagrus medianalis,
the Caoxi Temple scenic region, in which are well-preserved
Sinocyclocheilus grahami, Schizothorax grahami, Triplophysa
architecture of the Ming Dynasty.
grahami, Yunnanilus discoloris, and Yunnanilus sp. (GEF
2002). In addition to the decline in fi sh biodiversity, the fi sh
2.2. Political and Socio-economic Features
catches and stocks in Lake Dianchi are also generally on
the decline. The catches of six commercially important fi sh
2.2.1 Jurisdictional
Features
declined from 3,500 tons in 1984 to only 200 tons in 1994.
The Lake Dianchi basin is under the jurisdiction of the
The lake also contains many endemic mollusk and crustacean
Municipality of Kunming, Yunnan Province, China. In China,
species including Caridina nilotica gracilipes and Caridina
political jurisdictions from the national level down follow the
dianchiensis. Catches of mollusks also have decreased over
following ranking: nation > province > prefecture/municipality >
the same period, from more than 1,000 tons per year in 1984
county/district > township > village > natural village > household.
to 300 tons in 1994.
As shown in Figure 2, the Lake Dianchi basin lies wholly within
Kunming Municipality, which itself is part of Yunnan Province.
Up to the 1990s, there were about 2 ha of fl oating, anchored
Within Kunming Municipality, there are 14 counties/districts, 7
net cages on the lake, which are used to intensively raise carp.
of which cover part of the lake's basin. The highly urbanized
The yield was about 1,800 tons of fi sh per year. In addition,
area to the north of the lake is called Kunming City. Although
there was a further 3.5 ha of semi-intensive fenced or caged
not depicted in Figure 2, there are 38 townships in basin. The
enclosures, some being located along the western side of the
total registered population in the basin was 2.2 million in
Caohai part of the lake, which were reported to yield a total
2000 and 3.16 million in 2003, showing the tremendous rate
of 250 tons of fi sh per year. The caged or semi-caged fi sh
of growth. The population in the area is highly urbanized, with
activities have been eliminated since mid-1990s, because the
a density of 23,600 persons/km2 in the urban part, 34 times
application of artifi cial foodstuffs to the cages was increasing
higher than the province's average.
the nutrient load into the lake water, and this is deemed
unfavorable, in view of the efforts to control eutrophication of
2.2.2 The Political Signifi cance
the lake (see Section 4.1).
Kunming City, the provincial capital and a major industrial
center, lies on the "upstream" northern shore of Lake Dianchi. It
Mineral resources. There are 14 kinds of mineral ore within the
is by far the largest city, dominating the economy of ethnically-
lake drainage basin, with prospected reserves in 41 localities,
diverse Yunnan Province. The city serves as a gateway to
of which phosphate ranks fi rst, with a total reserve of 1,477
neighboring countries such as Vietnam, Laos and Myanmar.
million tons. A total of 698 million tons out of the total reserve
In addition, Kunming City often hosts dialogues between the
has been prospected at six localities. It is mostly high-grade,
nations of the Great Mekong Sub-region and ASEAN Meetings,
easily-extractable ore. There also are many kinds of non-metal
and hosting the Kunming International Commodities Fair
ore with considerable reserves.
once a year. Overall, compared to other places in the Yunnan
Province, the Lake Dianchi drainage basin is the area where
Tourist resources. Despite the challenging current the population density is highest, where human activity is
environmental conditions described above and in the following
strongest, and where the economy is the most developed.
sections, Lake Dianchi is quite scenic. Mountain cliffs rise
steeply from parts of the lake shore, contributing to the lake's
As a center for economic development and a gateway to
nickname, "bright pearl in green mountains". There are 11 neighboring countries, and in order to follow the national
designated tourist attractions and scenic resorts of unique drive to build a prosperous, well-rounded society, the area
landscape around the lake. The Lake Dianchi region has now
is undergoing economic restructuring and further urban
become a large tourist region, combining scenes of mountains,
expansion, while also trying to avoid high-energy consumption
water, parks, forests, spectacular rocks, caves and amusement
and highly-polluting projects. Meanwhile, tourism is
parks, in which people can enjoy swimming, navigation, encouraged as a precursor for other service industries,
fi shing, sightseeing and appreciation of ancient Chinese accelerating the formation of a more integrated socialist
culture. To the north of Lake Dianchi are the Grand View Park,
market economy. This initiative will greatly depend on the
the Haigeng Holiday Village; on the steep mountain peaks to
environmental conditions and water resources available in
the south of the lake is the Xishan Forest Park and to the south
Kunming Municipality which, in turn, depends on Lake Dianchi,
of the lake are the provincial and city workers' sanatoriums.
the foundation for maintaining the area's ecological balance
The town of Kunyang is the hometown of the great Chinese
and prosperity.
navigator Zheng He. Not far from Lake Dianchi are the Jingdian
(golden temple) scenic region, the Heilongtan (black dragon
2.2.3 The Past Social and Economic Development
pool) scenic region, which is famous for its Pearl Spring, plum
History
blossom of the Tang Dynasty, cypress of the Song Dynasty
The economy of the Lake Dianchi basin plays an important
and tea of the Ming Dynasty; the Kunming Botanical Garden;
part in the economy of the entire province. Its agricultural
the Banboo Temple Park, which is famous for clay statues of
output value and industrial output value, for example, account
the 500 arhats of the Qing Dynasty; and a Hot Spring, which
for 32.05 and 44.35%, respectively, of the province's total

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
163

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economic output. Additionally, the output value of large- and
Caohai part of Lake Dianchi declined from Class II in the 1960s,
medium-sized enterprises of the area accounts for 81.4% of
to worse than Class V in the 1990s. The situation in the Waihai
the total output. The total industrial area in Kunming City and
part also has deteriorated from Class II in the 1960s to Class IV
its suburbs is 69 km2, with 168 major industrial enterprises
in the 1990s.
and mines and approximately a dozen newly-built inhabitant
quarters. The city now has a fairly complete industrial system,
These changes are documented in the following sub-sections.
comprising industries of machine building, metallurgy, textile,
The discussion focuses on eutrophication, loss of biodiversity,
food processing, chemicals and building material, whose enhanced sedimentation and water scarcity. However, because
technical equipment has been improved continuously. The area
all these problems are interrelated to varying degrees, this
has established its position as one of the production bases
division is somewhat arbitrary.
for precision machine tools, optical instruments, phosphate
chemical products, natural condiments, brand cigarettes, 3.1 Eutrophication
and non-ferrous metal processing in China. The industry of
machine building earns more foreign exchange than any other
One of the classic indicators of a shift from oligotrophic (low
industry, with many products meeting advanced international
productivity) conditions to eutrophic (high productivity)
standards. The electrolytic copper and electrolytic aluminum
conditions in a shallow lake such as Lake Dianchi is a shift
produced by Kunming and Yunnan Smelters not only rank in the lake's ecosystem from macrophyte dominance to
second in output in the whole country, but are also of high
phytoplankton dominance. This shift has occurred dramatically
quality. Products of the phosphate industry are exported to
in Lake Dianchi within the last few decades. The water of Lake
many countries in Southeast Asia.
Dianchi, especially in the Caohai part, has a pea-soup green
color, with a water transparency of generally less than 0.5 m
The rural areas under the jurisdiction of Kunming Municipality
over much of the lake. The water transparency in the Caohai
have developed agriculture for many crops, such as grain, part was over 2 m deep in the 1950s, when the water was clean
oil-bearing crops, tobacco, vegetables and fruits. The Lake and macrophytes were dominant. Eutrophication of the lake
Dianchi drainage basin has the largest fresh fl ower production
accelerated in the 1960s, with water quality deterioration and
basin, as well as the largest national "high-class" fl ower
greatly decreased water transparency.
trading market. The basin has 11.24 million ha of farmland
and fruit orchards. The area's agricultural structure is now Concentrations of organic matter (CODCr) and nutrients, such
turning to one of comprehensive development of diversifi ed
as total phosphorus (TP) and total nitrogen (TN), have been
management, with township-run enterprises becoming the documented since 1988, all showing high values. Figures
new mainstay of the rural economy.
4a, 4b and 4c show the CODCr concentration has somewhat
leveled off and even decreased, while concentrations of TN
3. Biophysical
Environment
and TP seem to be increasing, at least through 2001. All values
are undoubtedly much higher than they were in the 1960s and
Before rapid growth and urbanization in its drainage basin,
before.
along with increased modern industrial and agricultural
activity, Lake Dianchi was a natural, clean freshwater lake Estimates of the COD, TN and TP loadings during 1988 to
with high biodiversity. In early 1950s, Lake Dianchi was in 2000 are given in Table 2. Lake Dianchi received around 240
an oligo- to mesotrophic state, being known as "The Pearl
million m3 of wastewater in 2000, including about 50 million
of the Plateau". Bottom sediments of this shallow lake were
m3 of industrial wastewater and 190 million m3 of domestic
largely covered by macrophytes, with Charophytes being wastewater, both deemed point sources. It also receives
dominant. The fi sh community consisted largely of indigenous
signifi cant nonpoint source runoff. The proportion of the
species, while phytoplankton was dominated by green algae
nonpoint sources of the total pollutant loads is increasing as
and diatoms. Some blue-green algae also were present. the point source loads come under greater control. Table 2
Under these conditions of low to moderate productivity, illustrates the COD, TN and TP loads to the lake over the 1988-
the zooplankton were apparently successful in suppressing 2000 period.
excessive algal growth. Shorelines were sloping, resulting in
different ecological zones of littoral macrophyte communities,
This high nutrient loading has led to hypereutrophic conditions
contributing to a large biodiversity. The lake's biological in parts of the lake. As discussed below, chlorophyll-a
communities were characterized by high diversity, but low to
concentration in the Caohai part of Lake Dianchi was up to
moderate numbers of individuals of each species.
320 mg/m3 in 2000, an extremely high level. This algal growth
and the resulting by-products have translated into reduced
Although detailed monitoring data on the lake's conditions functioning or diffi culties with water treatment operation
prior to the 1980s are not available, the general status of the
processes at water treatment plants. The Kunming No. 3 Water
lake can be indirectly derived from records of the classifi cation
Treatment Plant was shut down in the early 1990s, for example,
of its water quality. China uses a system of fi ve classes, ranging
because of this problem.
from Class I (near pristine) to Class V (suitable for agricultural
use, but not fi shable or swimmable), to classify lakes. The
164 Lake
Dianchi

---

20
3.2. Loss of Biodiversity
18
16
Waihai
A number of factors, such as the introduction of exotic species,
Caohai
14
destruction of natural habitats, and eutrophication of the lake
have led to a remarkable decline in the diversity of fl ora and
12
fauna in the once high biodiversity in this lake. Surveys on
10
(mg/L)
species diversity indicate that all taxonomic groups (listed in
D Cr
8
Table 3) have declined over the last 30-40 years. The decline
CO
6
is most signifi cant in regard to the endemic fi sh species, since
4
this represents an irreversible loss of genetic material. Some of
2
the specifi c changes that have occurred are discussed below.
0
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000 2002
Changes in macrophytes. The coverage area of macrophytes in
Year
Lake Dianchi has declined from 90% of the total surface area
to only 2% in recent years. The main original macrophytes
that have disappeared are Ottelia acuminata, Potamogeton
maackianus,
Myriophyllum verticillatum,
Phraqmitis
communis, Ceratophyllum demersum, and Limnophylla
sessilifl ora. The main macrophytes at present are water
hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), Potamogeton pectinatus, and
10
Myriophyllum spicatum.
8
Waihai
Changes in phytoplankton. The phytoplankton biomass
Caohai
has greatly increased, although the number of species has
6
decreased. The number of individuals per liter of water
increased from a few thousand in the 1950s, to around a
ogen (mg/L)
hundred million in the 1980s, up to several billion in the
4
1990s. The chlorophyll-a concentration, an indicator of primary
production, was reported in 2000 to be 320 mg/m3 in the
2
T
otal Nitr
Caohai part and 80 mg/m3 in the Waihai part, highlighting
the general eutrophy of the lake and the hypereutrophic
0
condition of the Caohai part. The number of phytoplankton
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000 2002
species declined from 186 in the 1950s, to 126 in recent years.
Year
Furthermore, the main alga in the 1950s were diatoms, but are
now blue-green algae, such as Microcystis aueruginosa and
Aphanizmenon fl os-aquae.
Changes in zooplankton. Similar to the phytoplankton changes,
the zooplankton biomass has increased dramatically, while the
number of species has fallen. Counts of individual zooplankton
1.0
per liter in the 1950s indicated around 1,800 individuals/L
0.9
(including rotifera, cladocera, copepoda and protozoa). That
0.8
number increased to almost 23,000 individuals/L by the 1990s.
0.7
At the same time, the number of zooplankton species has
0.6
dropped by about 40%.
0.5
Waihai
0.4
Changes in fi sh communities. The loss of macrophytes, the
Caohai
0.3
introduction of exotic species, and the general changes in
water quality have had profound effects on the fi shes of Lake
0.2
T
otal Phosphorus (mg/L)
Dianchi. The general trend is that endemic species are facing
0.1
extinction/extirpation, and introduced species are developing
0.0
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
into dominant ones, with the structure of fi sh communities
becoming more simplifi ed. As noted earlier, only 7 of the
Year
endemic species have been confi rmed extant (GEF 2002).
Since the 1950s, there have been over 30 different species
introduced to the lake in the hopes of increasing the output
Figures 4a, 4b and 4c. Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), Total
of the lake's fi sheries. Some of these introductions have not
Nitrogen (TN) and Total Phosphorus (TP) Concentrations in
Lake Dianchi (Source: He and An (2001)).
been successful. Others, however, such as the blue carp

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
165

---

Table 2. Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), Total Nitrogen (TN) and Total Phosphorus (TP) Loads to Lake Dianchi.
1988
1995
1998
2000
Domestic
12,509
25,364
30,331
32,494
Industrial
5,928
13,782
9,994
6,944
Generated Load
COD (t)
Diversion
10,976
17,303
24,275
22,840
Total
29,413
56,449
64,600
62,278
Discharged load
29,413
41,674
52,930
43,957
Domestic
2,443
5,255
5,924
9,767
Industrial
791
955
1,024
566
Generated Load
TN (t)
Diversion
1,469
2,955
4,101
3,822
Total
4,703
9,165
11,049
14,155
Discharged load
4,703
8,981
8,956
10,939
Domestic
175
466
529
803
Industrial
76
148
180
30
Generated Load
TP (t)
Diversion
205
417
542
654
Total
456
1,031
1,251
1,487
Discharged load
456
1,021
1,133
1,321
Source:
Kunming Environmental Protection Bureau and Kunming Institute of Environmental Science (2002).
Table 3. Total Species Numbers of Major Taxa in Lake Dianchi from 1950s to 1996.
Year
Taxon
1958-
1981-
1992-
1994-
Pre-1957
1977
1989
1996
1966
1984
1993
1995
Phytoplankton
154
175
93
Zooplankton
157
92
Crustacea (endemic)
1
1
2
Crustacea (indigenous)
3
2
2
2
2
Crustacea (introduced)
1
3
3
3
3
Macrophytes
34
31
21
19
19
Molluscs
69
29
Fish (endemic)
10
10
1
2
2
Fish (indigenous)
14
15
6
6
7
Fish (introduced)
1
26
24
25
19
Source:
Lake Dianchi Aquatic Ecology Study and Survey (1996).
Note:
Empty cells in the table indicate lack of survey for a given period.
(Mylopharyngodon piceus), grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon
lake's ecoenvironment has impaired or destroyed many of
idellus), silver carp (Hypophthalmichithys molitrix) and big the spawning grounds and habitats for fi sh. In particular,
head carp (Aristichithys nobilis) became dominant in the 1950s,
the region along the east shore of Lake Dianchi has a high
resulting in a dramatic decline in endemic and native fi shes by
human population density, with intensive productive activities
the 1960s. Other species subsequently introduced, such as
bringing much damage to the lakeside vegetation. There are
the goldfi sh carp (Carassius auratus auratus), the salangid still some areas, such as Huiwan Bay in the west of the Waihai
fi sh Neosalanx taihuensis and the minnow (Cultrichthys
part of Lake Dianchi, where a great number of macrophytes
erythropterus) have, in turn, become dominant.
exist. Restoration activities in this area are described in
Section 4.1.
Changes to littoral habitats. A number of activities have
had a negative impact on the littoral areas of Lake Dianchi.
3.3 Enhanced
Sedimentation
Examples include construction of a perimeter dyke around
the lake, as well as reclamation of lakeside land for various
When it was formed around 3 million or so years ago, Lake
human uses. Additionally, dredging for bivalve mollusks has
Dianchi was much larger, with an surface area of about 1,000
damaged the macrophyte beds. Overall, the change in the km2 and a depth of more than 50 m. Although natural changes
166 Lake
Dianchi

---

led to a gradual decrease in area and volume, changes in 4. Management
Environment
land use over the last half century have increased the rate of
erosion in the basin. Since the 1950s, the total sedimentation
4.1
Lake Management Programs and Process
in the lake has been more than 50 million m3, with the storage
capacity decreasing by 210 million m3. The annual loss of The severe problems outlined above in Section 3 have
erosion materials averages about 0.377 million tons. The soil
drawn much attention from the local, provincial and national
erosion on the mountains facing the lake directly results in
governments, as well as from international organizations. At
sedimentation and reduction in the water area of the lake.
the national level, Lake Dianchi has been selected as one of
Nitrogen and phosphorus carried by the sediments contributes
the "Three Lakes, Three Rivers" targeted for special efforts.
to eutrophication of the lake.
With the establishment of the Yunnan Research Institute
of Environmental Sciences in 1978, more systematic and
3.4 Water
Scarcity
comprehensive studies of the lake have been carried out on
a regular basis. It has been realized that no single approach
Water scarcity also is a major issue. The annual per capita
or project can help prevent the problems of Lake Dianchi.
water resources in the Lake Dianchi drainage basin have In a feasibility study conducted in the early 1990s on the
decreased from 900 m3 in the 1950s, to less than 300 m3 now.
comprehensive renovation of Lake Dianchi's water quality, it
In the basin, the gap between water demand and supply is
was recognized that an integrated approach, including legal,
about 100 million m3 in average years and 200 million m3 in
administrative, and engineering interventions with increased
dry years. This gap has to be balanced by the use of storm
funds (not only from the government, but also enterprises
runoff and the reuse of wastewater and return fl ows from and all benefi ciaries of Lake Dianchi) would be necessary to
farmland. The current water demand is increasing, due to manage the Lake Dianchi drainage basin as a whole. An outline
the expanding urbanization and rapid social and economic of this integrated approach is presented in Figure 5.
development. The rate of development and utilization of water
resources has reached 60% in the drainage basin, exceeding
This integrated approach is a long-term, arduous, and
the internationally accepted limit of 40%, which is the point
complicated program, which must be implemented in phases.
at which excess water use is thought to cause destruction of
It provides the basis for the World Bank-fi nanced Yunnan
the ecological environment. Decreasing water quality due to
Environment Project, which is dominated by Lake Dianchi
increasing pollution inputs also represents a form of water
Basin Management, and incorporated in the Five-Year Plans for
scarcity in the basin, in that the range of potential water uses
Water Pollution Control of the Lake Dianchi Basin.
decreases as the water becomes increasingly polluted, without
pre-treatment of the water resources, which is typically time-
A discussion on some of the specifi c programs/projects
consuming and expensive.
undertaken up to the present time is presented below. Again,
In-lake pollution
Dredging contaminated sediments
source controls
Clamping down on fish cages
Water
Urban sewerage system and STPs
pollution
Point source controls
and soil
Industrial pollution control
erosion
Hillside afforestation
controls
Sub-catchment renovation
Non-point source controls
Sand-trap pre-reservoir
Eco-agriculture; rural sanitation
High quality water for high value use
Optimized regulation
River course harnessing
Opening an artificial outlet
Water
resource
Water treatment works; raw water
Water supply
regulation
pipeline; distribution pipelines
Water importation from
outside the Lake Dianchi Basin
Integrated Approach for Lake Dianchi Renovation
Research, environmental
monitoring/supervision
Capacity
building
Enforcement of laws
and regulations
Figure 5. Integrated Approach for Water Pollution Control of Lake Dianchi.

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
167

---

many of the programs/projects detailed below are related to
and regulations, and investment. By the end of 2003, a total
each other, so that the division between the programs given
of 3.536 billion Yuan (including part of the World Bank loan
below should not necessarily be considered an indication of a
described below) was spent in support of the completion of
lack of integration.
a series of projects planned for the various fi ve-year plan
periods, as described in Table 4.
4.1.1 Local and National Projects
Since the National Government gave its commitment to clean
The implementation of projects described in Table 4 has
up Lake Dianchi, the lake management has been increasingly
resulted in the following:
strengthened, in terms of administration, enforcement of laws
Table 4. Cumulative Investment in Restoring Lake Dianchi (to the end of 2003).
No.
Project Name
Investment
(100 x 106 Yuan)
I
Completed Projects by the End of 2000
1
Point sources control and others
1.1 4 sewage treatment plant (365,000 m3/d), all secondary treatment process with high effi ciency in removing

4.2
nitrogen and phosphorus
1.2 Sewage interception along middle section of Panlong River bank and north bank of Lake Dianchi (300,000

1.105
m3/d)
1.3 Domestic solid waste sanitary landfi ll (1,500 t/d)

1.2
1.4 Xiyuan tunnel (an artifi cial outlet)

2.43
1.5 River course diversion

1.5
1.6 "2258"water supply raw water transmission project inside lake basin

2.68
1.7 Interception of sewage along Daguan River and urban section of Panlong River; contaminated sediment

0.3124
dredging of Daguan River
1.8 Industrial effl uents compliance with discharging standard

1.845
2
Nonpoint source control
2.1 Hillside afforestation, upland conservation, pilot eco-agriculture project covering 118,000 mu of farmland

3.05
3
Internal source control
3.1 Harvesting of water hyacinth, removal of fi sh cages

0.25
3.2 Contaminated sediment dredging in the Caohai part (fi rst phase)

2.5
4
Scientifi c research
4.1 Demonstrative projects carried out in the scientifi c research program during the seventh and eighth fi ve-year

0.17
phases
Sub Total
21.2424
II
Continuation of Uncompleted Projects Planned for the Ninth-Five-Year Plan Period
1
Pollution control
1.1 Rehabilitation of Kunming central urban area

1.61
1.2 Kunming western suburban sewer system

1.07
1.3 Upgrading and extension of No.1 Kunming sewage treatment plant and its sewers (up to 120,000 m3/d)
1.00
1.4 Kunming eastern suburban sewage treatment plant and its sewers (50,000 m3/d)
1.68
1.5 Kunming northern suburban sewage treatment plant and its sewers (75,000 m3/d)
2.11
1.6 Chenggong small town sewage treatment plant and its sewers (15,000 m3/d)
0.33
1.7 Jinning small town sewage treatment plant and its sewers (15,000 m3/d)
0.35
1.8 Kunming domestic solid waste management

0.78
2
Ecological restoration
2.1 Follow-up dredging of contaminated Caohai sediment
3
Environmental supervision and management
3.1 Lake Dianchi basin environmental monitoring system

0.23
4
Research pilot projects
4.1 Rural sanitation pilot works

0.32
4.2 Technological research on the control of Cyanobacteria in Dianchi Lake and the control of nonpoint pollution

0.20
sources in Lake Dianchi drainage basin
Sub-total 11.01
III
Implementation of the Project Planned for the Tenth-Five-Year Plan Period
1
Pollution control
1.1 Cailian River diversion

1.78
1.2 Interceptor along upper stream of Panlong River

0.308
1.3 Interceptor along western bank of Dianchi Lake

0.305
2
Ecological restoration
2.1 Return fi sh pond to lake body (phase I)

0.098
3
Environmental supervision and management

0.053
4
Survey and studies

0.60
Sub-total 3.155
I+II+III
Grand Total
35.36
Source:
Dianchi Administration Bureau.
168 Lake
Dianchi

---

·
All the industrial polluters in the Lake Dianchi drainage
early 2000s, non-phosphorus detergent products had nearly
basin have basically complied with the discharging replaced traditional ones. Therefore, this ban was included
standard;
as one of the clauses in "Dianchi Protection Ordinance" which
was approved by the Standing Committee of the People's
·
Water pollutant discharge licenses were issued to 777
Congress of Yunnan Province on 21 January 2002 and was
industrial enterprises;
announced to be effective by the Standing Committee of the
People's Congress of Kunming Municipality on 8 February
·
Eight sewage treatment plants, with treatment capacity
2002. There is a law enforcement team under Kunming's
of 585,000 m3/d, have been put into operation;
Dianchi Management Bureau who is implementing this ban by
inspecting market products.
·
A mixed sewerage system in the urban area, comprising
trunk/main sewers and connections, has been Until the Xiyuan tunnel project, all the water in Caohai fl owed
established to bring the sewage treatment plants into
into Waihai via a lock and the water of Waihai fl owed out
proper functioning;
through Haikou the Tanglang River near Haikou. The water
quality of Caohai is inferior to that of Waihai, aggravating
·
The urban sewage treatment ratio in the dry season the pollution of Waihai. At the foot of the Xishan Hill to the
increased from 60% in 2000 to 80% in 2004;
southwest of Caohai, the Xiyuan Tunnel was built near the
lock to divert some of the fl ow of Lake Dianchi. The water
·
A number of the polluted rivers passing through from Caohai and part of the Waihai water were discharged
Kunming City into the lake were diverted as sewage into the Jinsha River after being treated after passing through
delivery systems;
the tunnel. The project was completed in 1996. The Xiyuan
Tunnel now acts as an additional exit of Lake Dianchi and has
·
The interceptor at the north bank of Lake Dianchi can
improved the fl ood buffering capacity and has led to better
intercept 300,000 m3/d of polluted river water from the
water quality in Waihai.
urban area;
The "2258" project was conceived due to the deterioration of
·
Forest coverage in the drainage basin is up to 50.6%;
the water quality of the lake and the corresponding cost and
diffi culties in purifying water in waterworks which threatened
·
More than 4 million m3 of contaminated sediment were
the water quality of production and domestic use in Kunming
dredged, removing 8,230 tons of total nitrogen (TN), City. Over 200 million Yuan were invested to channel 50
1,885 tons of total phosphorus (TP) and 4,431 tons of
million m3 of unpolluted water from the Songhuaba Reservoir
heavy metals from the lake; and,
to provide drinking water for 800,000 people in the east, west
and south suburbs of Kunming City. The project was completed
·
There is a ban on phosphate-containing detergents in
in 1998, after which the proportion of drinking water taken from
the basin.
the lake decreased from 30% to 17.5%. This project reduced
the supply from Lake Dianchi and alleviated the contradiction
Fish cages were ban was made in early 1990s by taking the
of supply and demand of drinking water in Kunming City.
recommendations made by scientists who were conducting
research on eutrophication mechanisms of Lake Dianchi On the basis of these efforts, achievements and lessons
and found that fi sh fodder added to fi sh cages would learned, the Tenth Five-Year (2001-2005) Plan for Water
release nutrients into the lake and might be one of the Pollution Control in Lake Dianchi Basin, approved by the
causes eutrophication. The ban was made as a Government
State Council early this year, following the guideline of
Decree (Kunming Municipality), and was supervised by the "pollution control, ecological restoration, optimization of
Fishery Administration Division (which is now under Dianchi
resources allocation, supervisory management and scientifi c
Management Bureau). At the beginning of the implementation
demonstration", established the framework shown in Figure
of this ban, no fi sh cages could be seen, but some operators
6. Under this framework, 26 projects with an estimated cost
were still maintaining the cages underneath water surface. It
of nearly 8 billion RMB (nearly US$ 1 billion) were identifi ed,
took a certain period of time (about 3-4 years) for the Fishery
aiming at reducing the total pollution load to Lake Dianchi by
Administration Division to fi nd and remove all the cages.
more than 20% of that entering the lake in 2000. In addition to
controlling pollution sources, and other interventions similar
The ban on the use of phosphorus detergent was fi rst issued
to the previous plans, ecological restoration is particularly
also as a Kunming Government Decree in early 1990s. It addressed in this plan, with the goal of returning water ponds,
was not easy to implement this ban at that time because fi sh ponds and fl oodplain area to the lake body and restoring
non-phosphorus detergent product were not available on the lake shoreline ecosystem and aquatic ecology in parts of
the market, but the ban infl uenced domestic detergent the lake water area.
manufacturers who started to shift from phosphorus detergent
production to non-phosphorus detergent production. By Restoration of the lake's biodiversity is in the beginning
the time that "Dianchi Protection Ordinance" was revised in
stages. The fi rst step will be based on achieving a reduction

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
169

---

in the pollution load to the lake, and then trying to restore the
It is recognized that the second objective must be based on
biophysical condition that was previously destroyed, in order
the substantial reduction of pollution abatement. The rationale
to provide a foundation for the future biodiversity restoration.
for the second objective is that more water from outside will
For the Tenth Five-Year Plan for Dianchi water pollution control,
be useful in altering the lake water cycling, and shorten the
it was planned to return fi sh ponds, fl oodplains (about 4.5
water retention time (which is currently around 1,000 days), to
km3) and reclaimed farmland (about 15.3 km3) to the lake, in
benefi t the recovery of the lake's water quality. It is a massive
order to re-establish the natural wetlands and constructed water engineering project, however, and would cost about
wetlands as a pilot project (for nutrient removal) along the
30-40 billion Yuan to divert water from 400 km away in the
lake shoreline. Other major activities are likely to be included
Jinsha River basin across a number of prefectures and river
in the Eleventh Five-Year Plan, which is now being developed.
basins within Yunnan Province. Thus, there is some debate
The GEF co-fi nanced Lake Dianchi Freshwater Biodiversity among experts regarding the merits of this scheme. Only the
Restoration Project (described below) is also contributing preparation activities for this latter scheme are budgeted
to the restoration of biodiversity in certain areas along the
in the Tenth Five-Year Plan. The Eleventh Five-Year Plan will
shoreline.
probably provide a clearer picture on the development of this
idea, which has so far eluded a consensus.
Finally, on the local and national level, there have been
schemes to import water from external drainage basins into
4.1.2 World Bank Co-fi nanced Yunnan Environment
the Lake Dianchi basin. One water diversion scheme to bring
Project (YEP)
water from the Zhangjiuhe River (a tributary of the Jinsha The YEP was begun in March 1997 and concluded in 2004.
River) is already under construction (begun in 1999; expected
The total project cost was around US$242 million, with
completion in 2005/6), fi nanced on the order of 4.0 billion
approximately US$175 million for actions estimated to have
Yuan from the Japanese Bank for International Cooperation
positive effects related to the lake. The main project objective
(JBIC). Once completed, the project will bring in about 245
was "to provide a sustainable environmental framework for the
million m3 of water into the basin for drinking water supply.
longer-term economic and social development of the Province,
Kunming City will then no longer be dependent on using while providing a foundation for competitive industrial
water directly from the lake. Another plan, larger in scale, to
growth." Specifi c components of the project included "Lake
bring in water from the Jinsha River, has had preparatory work
Dianchi Basin Water Quality Recovery" to improve catchment
incorporated in the Tenth Five-Year Plan to import water from
management by controlling both point and nonpoint pollution
outside the Lake Dianchi basin. Its long-term considerations
(including major investments in water and wastewater
have two objectives: One is to meet the demand for increased
treatment infrastructure and solid waste management),
city water supply (particularly if urban development around
"Industrial Pollution Control" with direct investment to abate
the lake basin continues as predicted), while the other is to
pollution from the most threatening sources, "Environmental
use the diverted clean water as so-called "ecological water"
and Water Quality Monitoring" and "Institutional Development,
to "fl ush" the lake.
Training and Construction Management". The Yunnan
Environment Project Offi ce (YEPO), established under the
Further industrial pollution control
Urban pollution control
Pollution control
Rural non-point source control
Internal pollution control
Hillside afforestation
Soil erosion control
Ecological restoration
Proposals for shoreline ecological restoration
Aquatic ecological restoration in Caohai part of lake
Water importation from outside watershed
Resources regulation
Save water and reclaim treated sewage
Joint regulation of water resources
Legal system improvement
Assign responsibilities to concerned agencies
Supervision and management
Improved supervision and administration system
Framework of the Tenth Five-Year Plan for
Water Pollution Control in Lake Dianchi Basin
Publicity, education, information system improvement
Engineering plan/design
Scientific demonstration
Investigation and research
Scientific demonstration works
Figure 6. Framework of the Tenth 5-Year Plan.
170 Lake
Dianchi

---

leadership of a Yunnan Provincial Government Leading Group,
established, regular monitoring undertaken, and
coordinated the project. The effects of the YEP on the Waihai
recovery plans written for selected species;
part of the lake are depicted in Figure 7.
·
Component 3. Capacity Building and Training: Suitable
4.1.3 GEF
Co-fi nanced Lake Dianchi Freshwater
trainees identifi ed and provided with appropriate,
Biodiversity Restoration Project
wetland management-oriented training in-country and
Building on the results of the Yunnan Environmental Project,
overseas; and,
as well as the many other actions being taken in the Lake
Dianchi basin, the GEF approved co-fi nancing for the Lake ·
Component 4. Public Awareness and Environmental
Dianchi Freshwater Biodiversity Restoration Project. Begun
Education: Knowledge, attitudes and behavior surveys
in March 2003, this project is expected to last four years. The
undertaken and awareness messages identifi ed and
World Bank serves as the GEF implementing agency and the
disseminated, and lakeside Visitor Center with displays
project is executed by the Kunming Institute of Zoology, which
established.
maintains most of the biological collections from the lake. The
objective of the GEF project is "to restore and manage habitats
Given the early stage of this project, it is diffi cult to speculate
around the lake in order to secure the conservation of the
about the effects it may have on the lake, although all
remaining endemic species of Lake Dianchi and its immediate
indications are that it will defi nitely be positive. One of
tributaries." To achieve this goal, the project has four main
the key risks for the project is that any benefi ts related to
components, with the following indicators of success (taken
biodiversity conservation and restoration will be overwhelmed
directly from Project's proposal document):
by continued deterioration of Lake Dianchi's environment. The
GEF project assumes that the "tide" has been turned for Lake
·
Component 1. Wetland Management and Restoration: At
Dianchi (in part because of the major YEP project and other
least three lengths of shoreline remodeled, planted with
actions described above) and that now is an opportune time
macrophytes, and re-populated with bivalve mollusks;
to act.
·
Component 2. Surveys, Monitoring and Species
Conservation: Rigorous monitoring protocols
0 . 5
Worst Case:
Do Nothing More
Danger Zone for
0 . 4
Water Treatment
0 . 3
Case with
Yunnan
0 . 2
Environment
Increasing Difficulties
Program
with Water Treatment
Total Phosphorus (mg/L)
Case wih Zero
0 . 1
Phosophorus
Load from 1996
0
1 9 3 0
1 9 4 0
1 9 5 0
1 9 6 0
1 9 7 0
1 9 8 0
1 9 9 0
2 0 0 0
2 0 1 0
2 0 2 0
Y e a r
Figure 7. Scenarios for Total Phosphorus in the Waihai Part of Lake Dianchi.

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
171

---

4.2
Reduction of Lake Stresses
removal nutrients from the water column; however, this
suggestion has not been put into practice because of the fi nal
Table 2 in Section 3.1 clearly shows the very positive signs
disposal or re-utilization of harvested hyacinth is a problem.
of a growing difference between the quantity of COD, TN and
TP generated versus the actual pollutant load that makes it
4.4 Enabling
Environment
to the lake. In 1988, when virtually no pollution control was
carried out, all of the generated pollutant load was assumed
4.4.1 Political
Commitment
to make it to the lake. By 2000, approximately 30% of the COD
As urban areas such as Kunming City developed, prospered
load, 23% of the TN load, and 14% of the TP load were being
and are now expanding around Lake Dianchi, their existence,
"captured" before making it into the lake. The fact that over
economic development and future are very dependent on
the same period the COD loading to the lake increased by
the lake. The lake's degradation increasing has become a key
approximately 50%, the TN load by 233% and the TP load by
constraint for sustainable socio-economic development. Being
290% illustrates the tremendous pressure that has developed
aware of the importance of the lake, the Government of Yunnan
in recent years. This pressure obviously would have been Province, after having a conference and consultation with
worse without the actions described in Section 4.1; it also scientifi c researchers and experts, made a commitment in 1992
is reasonable to expect that, in the future, the percentage to undertake comprehensive efforts with stronger government
of pollutant load that receives treatment will substantially fi nancing to renovate the environment of the Lake Dianchi
increase. The future of Lake Dianchi depends on how these
drainage basin. The National Government includes Lake
factors manifest themselves.
Dianchi as one of the "three targeted lakes" for water pollution
control. The preparation of water pollution control plans for the
4.3 Environmental
Status
Lake Dianchi drainage basin is required once every fi ve years,
and must be approved by the State Council (national level).
Because of the nature of lake ecosystems, it is diffi cult to These have become an important basis for local governments
observe the effects of management actions over the short term.
and government sector agencies to take actions to control
Given that many of the problems and attempted solutions for
water pollution in the Lake Dianchi drainage basin.
Lake Dianchi have been recently addressed, it is not possible
to predict the potential effects on the lake with certainty. 4.4.2 Institutional Framework
Figures 4a, 4b and 4c on COD, TN and TP concentrations (up
Increasingly, more attention has been paid to strengthening
to 2001) indicate that the COD concentration has perhaps the institutional framework for Lake Dianchi protection since
been decreasing, but that the TN and TP concentrations the 1980s. It was not until 1988, when the Dianchi Protection
are still increasing. This is consistent with the loading data
Ordinance was promulgated, that a watershed management
presented in Table 2; however, given the nature of shallow lake
authority, namely the Dianchi Protection Committee in
ecosystems and the long lag time for lake response, it is not
Kunming Municipality, become established. At that time,
possible to say with certainty whether or not the situation for
this committee functioned as a coordinator to deal with the
Lake Dianchi is improving vis-à-vis COD and nutrients.
Municipal authorities (bureaus of water resource, forestry,
EPB, agriculture, planning, economy & trade, etc.) and
It can be noted that pollution of the Caohai part from arsenic
was responsible only for enforcing the Dianchi Protection
and heavy metals has been effectively controlled, with the Ordinance. In 2001, this committee was further strengthened
arsenic level improving from its previously "worse than grade
to become the leading agency responsible for decision
V" to "better than grade III". There are also reports that the
making on major issues related to Lake Dianchi protection and
malodorous condition in the Caohai part of Lake Dianchi has
treatment, under which the "Dianchi Administration Bureau",
signifi cantly improved.
an executive administration body, was established. The Bureau
has the following major responsibilities:
Water hyacinth used to be a major problem as it covered a
large lake water surface area. This supported many fl ies and
·
Publicizing the national laws, regulations and
mosquitoes, had a seriously impact on the lake landscape, and
enforcement of Dianchi Protection Ordinance, and
blocked navigation routes as well as prevented the sunlight
coordinating, inspecting and urging relevant counties/
from reaching into the water column. Furthermore, water
districts to protect Lake Dianchi legally;
hyacinth it released nutrients into the water column when it
died. Since the late 1990s, many efforts have been made to
·
Organizing the formulation, implementation and
control it including a government-initiated citizen's movement
supervision of plans, and comprehensive cleaning-up
to harvest the hyacinth, and later on, actions under the Dianchi
programs for Lake Dianchi protection and utilization;
Fishery Administration Division of the Dianchi Administration
Bureau to hire local farmers to continuously harvest the plant
·
Setting up objective responsibility for cleaning up
when it reappears on the lake. Consequently, water hyacinth
Lake Dianchi and for inspecting, urging and examining
became less of a problem. There have even been suggestions
county/district sectors agencies' performance in
to plant water hyacinth on the enclosed water area and to
achieving the targeted objectives;
regularly harvest this hyacinth in order to use the plant to
172 Lake
Dianchi

---

·
Organizing the formulation of adjunctive management
·
Being involved in reviewing any development projects
for Lake Dianchi protection, and urging enforcement of
to be located in the Lake Dianchi drainage basin and
the management;
developing review comments;
· Partially
offi ciating administrative punishment of water
·
Being responsible for collecting, managing and utilizing
resources, fi shery, navigation, and water environmental
Lake Dianchi clean-up funds; and,
protection plan violations; establishing a special
administrative team to enforce comprehensively ·
Undertaking other works assigned by the People's
relevant laws and regulations;
Republic of China and Dianchi Protection Committee.
· Offi ciating inspection of the enforcement of laws and
Special management sub-agencies in counties and urban
regulations related to Lake Dianchi protection;
districts located within the Lake Dianchi basin also are
established. Under the unifi ed coordination, direction and
·
Being responsible for initial review of Lake Dianchi supervision of Dianchi Administration Bureau, they will be
pollution clean-up projects and being involved in responsible for the protection, management and enforcement
identifi cation of project clients and supervising of laws and regulations in their respective administration
implementation of the projects;
regions. Figure 8 provides a schematic view of the institutional
framework.
Compared to other lake basins around the world, it may be fair
to say that there has not been
very much confl ict between
local, provincial, and national
institutions with an interest
in Lake Dianchi. One reason
may be that the lake basin lies
wholly within the jurisdiction
of Kunming Municipality,
thereby avoiding any debate
or confl ict over the boundaries
(although, of course, there
are several counties/districts
which share the lake basin).
Additionally, at the national
level, Lake Dianchi has been
selected as one of the "Three
Rivers, Three Lakes" program,
so all interventions are guided
by the Five-Year Plans, which is
approved by the State Council.
Among local institutions,
there naturally has been
competition for authority over
various management issues,
with a reluctance to share
responsibility for problems. It
is not thought, however, that
this "sectoralism" has led to
any serious impediments to
managing the lake basin.
4.4.3 Legal Framework
Figure 9 provides an overview
of the national and local laws
and regulations comprising the
legal basis for management
in the Lake Dianchi drainage
Figure 8. Institutional Framework.
basin.

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
173

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4.4.4 Involvement of Stakeholders
participation and consultation are encouraged. When
Involvement of Citizens. Citizens can easily access a developing the environmental assessment for plans and
governmental website, on which the monthly water quality construction projects, public consultation is practiced.
monitoring data and daily air quality monitoring data are
available. Public dissemination programs and news are often
Before making decisions that may affect local residents' daily
shown on television and radio, as well as being published in
lives (e.g., charging/increasing tariff for water, wastewater
newspapers.
and/or solid wastes; new ideas for the city master plan),
the government will organize a public hearing. When the
According to the provisions of the Environmental Impact government banned the use of phosphorus in detergents,
Assessment Law of the People's Republic of China, public for example, informational brochures were widely circulated,
Constitution of the People's Republic of China; The fundamental law
Water Law of P.R.C.
Environmental Protection Law of P.R.C.
Forest Law of P.R.C.
Environmental Assessment Law of P.R.C.
s
Land Administration Law of P.R.C.
Law on Water Pollution
a
nt Law
Mineral Resources Law of P.R.C.
Major Laws
Prevention and Control of P.R.C.
lev
Fishery Law of P.R.C.
Re
City Planning Law of P.R.C.
Water & Soil Conservation Law of P.R.C., etc.
State Council's Resolution on Environmental

Protection Works
Ordinance of Environmental Management

for the Construction Project
Management Provisions on Water Pollution
Control in Drinking Water Sources
Protection Region
National
Environmental quality standard for surface
Supervision for the Sewage Treatment

water
Facility
Integrated wastewater discharge standard
Circular of the Possible Fund Resources
Used for the Environmental Protection
Hygiene standard for drinking water
Examination System of the Environmental
Standards for irrigation water quality
Protection for the Enterprise (Temporary)
Standards
Ordinances
Quality standard for ground water
Ordinance of Urban Water Supply
Water quality standard for fisheries, etc.
Management for Water Pollutants
Discharging Permits (Temporary)
Approval of the State Council on the Tenth
Five-Year Plan for Water Pollution Control in
Dianchi Lake Basin
Kunming Ordinance on Water Saving and
Utilization
Ordinance of Environmental Protection of Yunnan Province
Local
Dianchi Protection Ordinance

Local environmental
quality standards, etc.
Management Provisions of Songhuabe


Water Sources Protection

Management of Kunming Ground Water
Kunming Sewerage Ordinance, etc.


Figure 9. Legal Framework.
174 Lake
Dianchi

---

and labeling of non-phosphorus detergents products sold in
industrial polluters are charged a pollution levy if their effl uent
stores was carried out. Gradually, residents voluntarily bought
exceeds the discharging standard. As required by "The
detergents free from phosphorus.
Approval on the `Ninth-Five-Year Plan and the Tenth-Five-Year
Program for Dianchi Basin Water Pollution Prevention and
Environmental Protection Bureaus at the provincial and Treatment' by the State Council", the Environmental Protection
municipal levels are now initiating a campaign to promote Departments at the Provincial and Municipal levels jointly
"green schools" in primary and middle schools, whereby basin
carried out a "Zero O'clock Action" to force 253 major polluters
environmental knowledge and the importance of Lake Dianchi
located in the Lake Dianchi basin to bring their polluting
are part of the teaching curriculum.
activities under control before 1 May 1999. In this action, 249
polluters achieved their pollution control requirements under
Involvement of NGOs. A number of academic and social the National Discharging Standard. Four polluters ceased
associations/societies have long been involved in operation by shutting down or relocating. This achievement
consultations between Government and NGOs. Every year, has provided a solid foundation for all industrial polluters in
during the People's Congresses at either the provincial, Kunming Municipality to comply with the National Discharging
Kunming Municipal or even urban district levels, many bills
Standard in 2000. The industries, when taking actions to
and proposals related to Lake Dianchi are proposed, some
control discharging pollution, were provided with loans from
becoming formal government decisions.
government generated from the collection of pollution levies,
plus governmental special funds for environmental protection.
There also are some NGOs (e.g., Green Watershed, Dianchi
If subsequent evidence proves that industries' actions enabled
Research Society) actively engaged in promoting the Dianchi
them to comply with the discharging standard, their loan(s)
Forum, a discussion between government agencies, scientists
could became a grant without payment.
and lay citizens.
5. Lessons
Learned
Involvement of Industries. According to the Dianchi Protection
Ordinance promulgated in 1988, no new industries that 5.1
Lack of Sustainable Development Strategy
consume large volumes of water or discharge excess pollutant
loads are allowed within the Lake Dianchi basin. Existing For a long period, the eco-environment and economic
development of the Lake Dianchi drainage
basin were not properly harmonized;
development was vigorously pursued,
while environmental protection was
nearly neglected in the past. In short,
economic growth occurred at the cost of
environmental quality and sustainability.
Thus, the pollution and eutrophication of
Lake Dianchi refl ects the confl icts between
resources, ecology and socio-economic
development. To fundamentally solve this
pollution problem, there should be more
comprehensive mitigation measures,
combined with the implementation of plans
for urban development, land use, and
industrial restructuring on the basis of a
sustainable development strategy. Figure 10
shows the interactions between the causes
and effects of Lake Dianchi's degradation.
5.2 Insuffi cient Awareness of
the Long-term, Arduous and
Complicated Task
Due to the weakness in such fundamental
elements as scientifi c data, monitoring
programs and research, the diagnosis of
the environmental issues of Lake Dianchi is
insuffi cient to provide a scientifi c basis for
Figure 10. Interactions between Cause and Effect in Lake Dianchi's
establishing realistic protection goals. The
Degradation.
phased objectives set forth in the Ninth Five-

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
175

---

Year Plan for Water Pollution Control in the Lake Dianchi Basin
and treated (e.g., the total phosphorus concentration of 1.0
were too ambitious to achieve. Although the efforts made mg/L in the treated effl uent from secondary sewage treatment
during 1995-2000 slowed down the tendency to continuous
plants is much higher than 0.05 mg/L, the standard for grade
deterioration, the hyper-eutrophication of the lake and the III, the minimum grade for a drinking water source).
related ecological devastation has not yet been substantially
reversed.
5.5
Delays in Some Key Project Activities
5.3 Insuffi cient Awareness on the Ecological Fragility
The construction of some key engineering projects, including
of Lake Dianchi
sewage treatment plants, Kunming central urban sewage
rehabilitation, harness of river courses, have been delayed
The principal socio-economic developments believed to have
much longer than initially anticipated, further exacerbating
had the most signifi cant impacts include:
the situation whereby pollution controls cannot keep up with
pollution generation.
·
The expansion of the urban population and industry in
the drainage basin;
5.6
The Impacts of Resource Development: Mining
and Processing were Not Signifi cantly Addressed
·
The reclamation of lakeside land and fl oodplain areas
for urban and agricultural use;
Although some efforts were made in afforestation, the newly-
established forestlands are covered with small trees with lower
·
Construction of the lake perimeter dykes;
shadows. Mining operations, particularly phosphorus ore at
the southern end of the lake, done via top-soil stripping and
·
The ever-increasing human intervention in the natural
open-cast methods, have caused serious soil erosion. The
water cycle;
eroded soil, containing high phosphorus levels, fl ushed with
runoff through infl owing rivers has become a major nonpoint
·
Water pollution from industrial, domestic and pollutant load to Lake Dianchi. Further, the processing of
agricultural sources;
phosphorus ore by small townships and village enterprises is
still not well controlled by government agencies.
·
Deforestation for fuelling increasing production, and
problems of forestry management control and land 5.7 Insuffi cient Scientifi c Research
allocation;
Few data are available on the ecology of Lake Dianchi. Most
· Overfi shing of Lake Dianchi fi sh stocks; and,
biological data are from the 1950s and 1988-1989, and focus
on macrophytes, plankton, fi sh and benthos. The spatial and
·
Introduction of exotic fi sh, shrimp and plant species.
temporal variation of these organisms is usually unknown
because most have been summarized only in regard to their
These adverse impacts have resulted mainly from the quantity. It is also unfortunate that adequate water quality and
expansion of the urban population in the drainage basin ecological data from the 1960s and 1970s is lacking. As a result,
and ever-increasing human control and intervention in the the historic sequence of events leading to the present poor
natural water cycle. These developments in the lake basin water quality and degraded ecology of Lake Dianchi cannot
have drastically and, in some instances, irreversibly, altered
be well reconstructed. This is especially unfortunate because
the natural lake ecosystem. Lake Dianchi has become more
this historic perspective could have been helpful in deriving
comparable over time to a man-made regulated reservoir measures for restoration or for assessing the feasibility of
than a natural lake. The loss of wetlands along the shoreline
these measures. In addition, there is a lack of information-
because of intensifi ed economic development activities and
sharing among the concerned agencies/institutes.
over-reclamation of lakeside and fl oodplain have caused the
loss of the lake's natural barrier, resulting in extreme fragility
5.8
The Financing Mechanism and Subsidies for
of the lake's ecology.
Management Activities Focusing on Sustainable
Lake Use
5.4
Increased Pressure from Population Growth
Co-fi nancing is the most important fi nancing mechanism for
Domestic sewage is still the major pollution source to Lake
cleaning up Lake Dianchi. The sources of funds contributed in
Dianchi. While the constructed urban area in Kunming the past, and for the future, include:
occupies only 5% of the Lake Dianchi drainage basin area,
the pollution loads from the city make up half the total load
·
Funds allocated from the Chinese Central Government;
to the lake. Furthermore, the population growth in the city
is booming. Without appropriate control measures, the · Funds allocated from the Yunnan Provincial
increasing population will impose stronger pollution pressures
Government;
on Lake Dianchi, even if all the urban sewage were collected
176 Lake
Dianchi

---

·
Funds allocated from the Kunming Municipal ·
There should be incentives to encourage developers to
Government;
build up ecological residential gardens and ecological
residential quarters.
·
Funds from World Bank loans/credits;
·
There is a need to have technical directives to encourage
·
Funds from the Global Environment Facility (GEF);
the promotion of clean production, the application of
advanced treatment technology, the reuse of treated
·
Funds from bilateral confessional loans;
wastewater, the economic use of water resource, and
the replication of ecological restoration technology.
·
Loans from the State Development Bank of China;
·
There is a need to restructure and optimize the industrial
·
Loans from local commercial banks;
sectors in the Lake Dianchi drainage basin.
·
National treasury bonds;
·
There should be some restrictions on the rights to
approve and manage phosphorus mining.
·
Yunnan Government special funds for environmental
protection; and,
·
Efforts to recover vegetation on mining sites should be
compensated and inspected.
·
Funds raised by companies/enterprises and real estate
development fi rms.
6. Acknowledgements
To sustain the operation and maintenance of the environmental
The authors would particularly like to thank the participants
infrastructure, and the repayment of debt services incurred
of the "Lake Dianchi team" at the regional review workshop in
from the World Bank and bilateral loans, the Governments of
Manila, including Du Juan of Yunnan Environmental Consulting
Yunnan Province and Kunming Municipality, under the guidance
Service, Yu Xiaogang of Green Watershed NGO, and Zhou Bo of
of the Central Government, have begun to charge a tariff for
Yunnan Provincial Environmental Protection Bureau.
water resources, centralized water supply, wastewater, and
domestic solid waste at a level that could generate revenues
7. References
to cover at least the operation and maintenance costs and,
hopefully, even the loan interest and principal. The utility Much of the information in this brief has been based on original
companies are asked to make fi nancial projections, based on
sources written in Chinese; therefore, it is somewhat diffi cult
audited fi nancial statements. If the fi nancial projections show
to classify them in English according to common bibliographic
any substantial defi cit that may threaten the fi nancial viability
style. Overall, the report relied most heavily on:
of management activities, the government will consider
adjusting the level of tariff or taking actions to reduce costs.
GEF (Global Environment Facility). 2002. Medium-sized Project
Brief for Lake Dianchi Freshwater Biodiversity Restoration
5.9 Some
Recommendations
Project. GEF: Washington, DC.
·
There is a need to formulate relevant policies or He, L. and J. An. 2001. Case study on comprehensive control of
regulations to harmonize resources, population growth
water pollution in catchment of Dianchi Lake. Yunnan Institute
and environmental protection, because the Kunming City
of Environmental Science: Kunming, China.
has been, and will be, growing without full consideration
of the constraints of the Lake Dianchi drainage basin
Jin, X. 1995. Lakes in China: Research of their Environment II.
environment (in terms of the carrying capacity of land
China Ocean Press: Beijing, China
resources, water resources and pollution load capacity).
KEPB (Kunming Environmental Protection Bureau) and KIES
·
The farmland along the lake's shoreline has been (Kunming Institute of Environmental Science). 2002. The 10th
defi ned as the "fundamental farmland" that should be
Five-Year Plan on Water Pollution Control in Catchment of
protected. Returning the farmland to the lake body for
Dianchi Lake. KEPB/KIES: Kunming, China.
the purpose of lake shoreline ecological restoration,
however, seems to be in confl ict with the policy for the
World Bank. 1996. Summary of China-Yunnan Environment
protection of fundamental farmland.
Project (Available at http://www.worldbank.org.cn/English/
content/637r1175532.shtml).
·
Water tariffs (including water and wastewater) should
be market-oriented to promote the movement of Additional information sources, as well as other unpublished
wastewater management business towards the market
reports in Chinese, include:
(the World Bank has promoted this approach in
implementing the YEP project).

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
177

---

Kunming Municipal Government, Implementation of Overall associated. Also, the colors, boundaries, denominations, and
Plan for the Development of New Economic Superiority with
classifi cations in this report do not imply, on the part of The
Dianchi Characteristics.
World Bank and its Board of Directors, or the countries they
represent, and the organizations, agencies or governments to
The Ninth Five-year Plan and Year 2010 Long-term Target which any of the authors are associated, any judgment on the
Outline for Prevention and Control of Lake Dianchi.
legal or other status of any territory, or any endorsement or
acceptance of any boundary.
Yunnan Biological Resource Development Institute of Yunnan
University, Lake Dianchi Aquatic Ecology Study and Survey.
Kunming Municipal Government, Environmental Management
Measure for Lake Dianchi Natural Reserve.
Yunnan Province Institute of Planning and Designing,
Specifi cations for the Plan for Lake Dianchi Lakeshore Holiday
Zone.
Kunming Municipal Minerals Agency, the Ninth Five-Year
Plan and Year 2010 Long-Term Plan for Mineral Resource
Exploitation and Geological Prospecting of Kunming City.
Yunnan Provincial Environmental Protection Agency, Plan for
Construction of Eco-demonstration Zone in Kunming City of
Yunnan Province.
Kunming Municipal Economic and Trade Committee,
Construction of Industrial Economic Superiority and
Acceleration of Industrial Economic Development.
Kunming Municipal Agricultural Committee, the Ninth Five-
Year Plan and the Long-Term Plan for Agricultural Industrial
Development of Kunming City.
Report of Ecological Control Engineering of a Small Valley in
Lake Dianchi Drainage Basin.
Report of Nonpoint Phosphorus Control in Lake Dianchi.
Report of Pre-reservoir Field Experiment in
Chenggongqianweiying.
Projects of Environmental Dredging in Caohai.
Pollution Prevention and Control Techniques of Drinking Water
Source in Lake Dianchi.
Report of Eco-engineering in Littoral Zone of Lake Dianchi.
Technology of Macrophyte Systemic Restoration in Caohai.
Disclaimer
The fi ndings, interpretations and conclusions expressed
in this report are the views of the authors and do not
necessarily represent the views of The World Bank and its
Board of Directors, or the countries they represent, nor do
they necessarily represent the view of the organizations,
agencies or governments to which any of the authors are
178 Lake
Dianchi

---