Lake Cocibolca/Nicaragua
Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
Salvador Montenegro-Guillén*, Research Center for Inland Waters of Nicaragua (CIRA/UNAN), Managua, Nicaragua,
salmon@cablenet.com.ni
* Corresponding author
1. Introduction
and foreigners who sought to grasp the geopolitical assets of
the Nicaraguan freshwater inland sea and its connection to
Lake Cocibolca (Figure 1), also know as Lake Nicaragua, is the Caribbean through the San Juan River. This magnifi cent
the largest freshwater lake in Central America and one of the
lake occupies the middle section of the tectonic valley shared
largest in the Americas. The history of Nicaragua and Central
with two other watersheds: Lake Xolotlán (Managua) is the
America has developed linked to the interests of conquerors
upper watershed, Lake Cocibolca (Nicaragua) is the middle
Figure 1. The Lake Cocibolca-San Juan River Basin.

---

watershed and the San Juan River is the lower watershed. This
power in 1979. Nicaraguan alleged sympathy to leftist rebels
area forms the largest international drainage basin in Central
in El Salvador caused the United States to sponsor anti-
America, with a total area of 41,600 km2, of which 70% or
Sandinista Contra guerrillas through much of the 1980s. Free
29,000 km2 are in Nicaraguan territory and 30% or 12,600 km2
elections in 1990, 1996, and again in 2001 saw the Sandinistas
in Costa Rica.
defeated. The country has slowly rebuilt its economy during
the 1990s, but was hard hit by Hurricane Mitch in 1998.
1.1 Background
Important information on Nicaragua, which covers the majority
1.1.1 The
Country
of the lake basin, include the following:
The Pacifi c Coast of Nicaragua was settled as a Spanish
colony in the early 16th century. Independence from Spain ·
The economy is based on natural resources: gold, silver,
was declared in 1821 and the country became an independent
timber, fi sh, and agriculture; and money shipments
republic in 1838. Britain occupied the Caribbean Coast in the
from relatives abroad to their families remaining in the
fi rst half of the 19th century, but gradually ceded control of
country;
the region in subsequent decades. Governments were formed
with people of the higher classes belonging to two parties
·
Industries are based in food processing, chemicals,
which successively gained power by force, weakening and
machinery and metal products, textiles, clothing,
impoverishing the country in a long struggle that lasted more
petroleum refi ning and distribution, beverages,
than three centuries. As part of a war in 1850, and in connection
footwear, and wood;
with the interest of the Transit Company (which carried
passengers during the California Gold Rush from San Juan del
·
Industrial production growth rate: 4.4% (2000 est.);
Norte Port in the Caribbean, through the San Juan River and
Lake Cocibolca, to Port San Juan del Sur on the Pacifi c Ocean
·
Electricity production: 2,233 billion kWh (2000);
coast), a fi libuster invaded Nicaragua, became President and
destroyed the capital, Granada. After ousting him, a brief ·
Electricity production by source: fossil fuel (82%),
calm period arrived but later foreign interventions backed a
hydroelectric (9%) and other (9%) (2000);
military regime which governed from 1936 until 1979. Violent
opposition to governmental manipulation and corruption ·
Agriculture products include coffee, bananas, sugarcane,
spread to all classes by 1978 and resulted in a short-lived civil
cotton, rice, corn, tobacco, sesame, soy, beans; beef,
war that brought the Sandinista Liberation Front guerrillas to
veal, pork, poultry, and dairy products;
·
Exports are mainly commodities such as coffee, shrimp
Table 1. Demographic Statistics for Nicaragua (based on
2002 data).
and lobster, cotton, tobacco, beef, sugar, bananas and
gold totaling $609.5 million (2001 est.);
Total Population
5,023,818 people
0-14 years: 38.3%
·
Imports are fi nished goods and commodities like
Age structure
15-64 years: 58.7%
machinery and equipment, petroleum products and
65 years and over: 3%
consumer goods totaling $1.6 billion (2001 est.); and,
Population growth rate
2.09% (2002 est.)
26.98 births/1,000
·
Demography: Table 1 shows estimations based on 2002
Birth rate
population
data.
4.76 deaths/1,000
Death rate
population
32.52 deaths/1,000 live
Infant mortality rate
births
Table 2. Physical Information on Lake Cocibolca.
Life expectancy at birth
69.37 yrs
Parameter
Value
Total fertility rate
3.09 children born/woman
Total surface area
8,000 km2 at 31.40 m asl
Literacy
total population: 68.2%
Total volume
104 km3
GDP per capita
US$507
Length along major axis
160 km
GDP
US$2.398 billion
Maximum width
70 km
GDP growth
5.5%
Maximum depth
Approx. 45 m
Infl ation
11.5%
Mean depth
Approx. 13 m
Population under poverty
Minimum historical water
47.9% (1998)
29.57 m (May 1886)
line
level
Population under extreme
Maximum historical water
17.3% (1998)
33.84 m (November 1861)
poverty line
level
134 Lake
Cocibolca/Nicaragua

---

Additionally, Nicaragua is extremely susceptible to natural There are thirty-two municipalities on the Nicaraguan side of
hazards such as hurricanes, destructive earthquakes, the watershed and ten on the Costa Rican side of the border.
volcanoes, and landslides. Slash and burn agriculture There are differences between both social and economic
of subsistence not only destroys forests but also causes conditions of the two countries, which can be seen from the
destruction of soils which erode and lose fertility, and is a
indicators shown in Tables 4 and 5.
major cause of environmental fragility.
For many years, transportation on the San Juan River and Lake
1.1.2 The
Watershed
Cocibolca has been an important factor in the socioeconomic
There are three subsystems or component basins in the larger
and political development of Nicaragua. Interest in the
catchment: the Lake Xolotlán (Managua) watershed (6,669 construction of an inter-oceanic route tapping the potential of
km2), the Lake Cocibolca (Nicaragua) watershed (23,844 the San Juan River and Lake Cocibolca dates back to Spanish
km2) and the San Juan River watershed (11,125 km2). Of the
colonial times. The fi rst historical data records that the San
23,844 km2 of the Lake Cocibolca basin, 19,693 km2 (83%)
Juan River and Lake Cocibolca were used to transport the
are in Nicaragua and 4,151 km2 (17%) are in Costa Rica. Other
riches discovered on the western coasts of South America
information on the lake and its basin is given in Table 2.
Table 5. Indicators of Health and Education in Lake
Rainfall in the watershed varies from an average of 1,200
Cocibolca-San Juan River Basin, Costa Rican Side.
mm/yr in the northwest at Malacatoya, to an average of 4,000
mm/yr at the upper watershed of Rio Frío in southeast in Costa
Indicators
Average
Rica. The water balance for Lake Cocibolca over a 40-year
Illiteracy (%)

15.37
period is given in Table 3.
Birth rate (per 1000)

31.26
Mortality (general; per 1000)

3.33
Infant mortality (per 1000)

14.48
Table 3. Water Balance for Lake Cocibolca (40-year average).
Neonatal (per 1000)

8.6
Quantity
Type of fl ow
(in m3/s)
Unemployment (%)

5.77
Direct precipitation

401
Water supply
Infl ow from rivers

268
Piped water (%)
71
Groundwater
196
River water (%)
25
Seepage from Lake Xolotlán

5
Rain water (%)
4
Total Infl ow

870
Sewerage
Evaporation from surface (calculated)

399
Septic tanks (%)
61
Outfl ow (at San Carlos through San Juan
Latrines (%)
38.5

476.6
River)
Bush (%)
0.5
Total Outfl ow

875.6
Source:
PROCUENA San Juan project.
Table 4. Indicators of Health and Education in Lake Cocibolca-San Juan River Basin, Nicaraguan Side.
Indicators
Rivas
Granada
Masaya
Boaco
Chontales
San Juan
Total
School enrollment (%)
Preschool 20.1
25.1
28.1
10.85
10.9
16.8
18.2
Primary 86.7
87.3
99.6
73.7
61.6
76.0
80.4
Secondary 21.1
18.9
38.8
16.6
16.4
7.0
25.0
Technical
n.a.
1.3
0.05
0.2
0.5
0.4
0.7
Health (%)

Malnutrition 27.8
26.6
31.8
31.4
23.2
18.1
26.0
Sewerage (%)
Urban 41
20
41
53
n.a.
1
31.2
Rural
86
64
85
69
77
17
66.3
Pipe-borne water (%)
Urban 92
100
92
92
75
64
86.3
Rural
31
44
59
25
35
15
34.8
Source:
PROCUENA San Juan project, based on data from SILAIS, MINSA, INIFOM, and INEC.

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
135

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and shipped to Spain during the conquest of the continent.
on the tributaries fl owing from the southern sector of the
History shows that since 1504, Nicaragua has made over 10
basin. A feasibility study of the local transportation system in
attempts to construct an inter-oceanic canal. To date, however,
Lake Cocibolca and in the San Juan River conducted in 1970
none of the projects have come to fruition. As of July 2003,
found that the economic and fi nancial benefi t of the project
there are new attempts to organize a canal company (http://
was positive. Since then, however, there have been no new
news.bbc.co.uk/hi/spanish/latin_america/newsid_3107000/
estimates on local navigation in these water bodies.
3107937.stm).
Navigation on the San Juan River and in Lake Cocibolca are
With the discovery of gold in California (1848), transiting affected by the progressive sedimentation of both water
persons from the United States and Europe sought a faster
bodies. Navigation is also an important source of pollution
route to the gold mines through the San Juan River and Lake
of the water resources, due to the fact that boats are washed
Cocibolca. Reports from that time indicate that in 1853 some
and serviced in both water bodies. The waterbodies, therefore,
20,800 persons traveled from the East Coast to the West become depositaries of hydrocarbon residues, agricultural
Coast of the United States using that route. Other data show
chemicals, basic grains, pigs, domesticated animals, and other
that some 2,000 passengers were transported via that route
products that are transported across these bodies of water.
on a monthly basis. However, an earthquake that occurred
in July 1863 increased sedimentation in the San Juan River
The basin's water resources have great potential for
mouth, greatly increasing the diffi culties of navigating that hydroelectric generation. The considerable fl ow rates,
part of the river. Later, the construction of the transcontinental
combined with signifi cant altitude changes within the basin,
railway across the United States in 1869 put an end to the great
have led to the development of this type of project in the San
demand for passenger transport through Nicaragua.
Juan River basin. To date, there are four known hydroelectric
development proposals to use the average fl ow rate at which
Nevertheless, at the beginning of this century, interest in Lake Cocibolca empties into the San Juan River as the source of
commercial navigation through Lake Cocibolca resumed. Of
the power supply. The projects are: Tipitapa-Tamarindo, Brito,
the studies conducted since the 1900s on the construction of
Brito Residual, and Interlagos. None of these options have
an inter-oceanic canal, the following are noteworthy:
been discarded as of this time.
·
Isthmian Canal Commission, 1899-1901
The construction of any of these projects will mean substantive
·
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1929-1931
changes in the average fl ow rate of the San Juan River,
·
Canal Study Commission, 1970
reducing it by some 36%. This will undoubtedly have a strong
·
Japanese Commission, 1989
impact on navigation in the river. Aspects to be considered if
these projects are implemented should be their effects on
Further projects related to the construction of an inter-oceanic
the aquatic life in the San Juan River and Lake Cocibolca, the
canal have been presented more recently, using either the local human populations, fl ora and fauna existing in the area
waters of the San Juan River and Lake Cocibolca or building a
to be inundated by the proposed dams, and the environmental
railway connecting the Caribbean Sea to the Pacifi c Ocean, or a
impact that will result from all the associated construction
combination of the two.
works.
A number of boats that operate on Lake Cocibolca and in the
In addition to the large projects discussed above, there are
San Juan River and its tributaries, facilitate the trading of currently several public and private hydroelectric projects in
goods with the Pacifi c region of the country and the transport
the southern sector of the San Juan River basin, which are
of passengers to towns located in the western sector of the
at different stages of development. The private projects are
lake and in the Pacifi c zone. In some communities like North
approved by the ICE and carried out by private fi rms.
San Juan, existing water-based transportation routes between
communities in Costa Rica is well known. Practically all the
The possible confl icts in water use are discussed whenever
trade in between these communities takes place through an option for hydroelectric power or inter-oceanic canal
Puerto Viejo in the Sarapiquí canton. Also, emergency medical
construction is presented, especially since between 300 and
attention and sometimes other basic services, such as 400 m3/s of the existing river fl ows abstracted to meet the
telephone communications with Nicaragua and education, are
requirements for potable water and irrigation water supplying
obtained through Costa Rica, along the waterways.
suitable farmland in the Pacifi c region of Nicaragua.
The main port facilities located in the San Juan River basin are
On the banks of lakes Xolotlán and Cocibolca and in the León-
the following: San Juan del Norte, El Castillo, and Sábalos,
Chinandega plain, there are 742,000 hectares of land suitable
located on the San Juan River; Granada, San Jorge, San Carlos,
for irrigation (152,000 ha in the Lake Xolotlán zone, 432,000
and San Miguelito, located on the banks of Lake Cocibolca; and
ha in the area of Lake Cocibolca, and 158,000 distributed in
Moyogalpa, Altagracia, and Solentiname, located on Ometepe
the León-Chinandega area). The potential, available water in
Island and in the Solentiname Archipelago, respectively. Los
the León-Chinandega plain and along the banks of the lakes
Chiles, Puerto Viejo, and Barra Colorado are ports situated
is approximately 0.745 km3. This volume could provide the
136 Lake
Cocibolca/Nicaragua

---

water supply to irrigate approximately 138,000 ha, resulting in
cantons are partially within this area. However, due to the fact
a shortfall in the amount needed to irrigate some 600,000 ha.
that they do not have a signifi cant impact on the dynamics of
To make up for this shortfall, a number of different alternative
the basin, they have not been considered in that study.
projects have been proposed, all of them drawing on Lake
Cocibolca as the source. The most recent study, "Irrigation In the case of Nicaragua, the political-administrative division
Strategy for Pacifi c Nicaragua", envisaged damming the is defi ned in terms of departments and municipalities.
waters of the San Juan River at San Isidro, maintaining the
The Nicaraguan sector includes the entire San Juan River
water level of Lake Xolotlán at 32 m asl, draining water from
Department and important parts of the Departments of
Lake Cocibolca into Lake Xolotlán by constructing a canal on
Masaya, Granada, Boaco, Chontales, and Rivas, with a total
the Tipitapa River, and pumping the water available up to of 32 municipalities. PROCUENCA is at this moment the
the 100 m asl mark. This scheme would then irrigate, using
most important initiative to document the situation on the
gravity, the 600,000 ha needing irrigation that are below this
watershed to prepare a management plan.
elevation. This project envisages generating power through
the Tamarindo River, the replenishing of Lake Xolotlán, and
PROCUENCA has calculated the population living within
the provision of drinking water supplies to towns requiring this
the project's boundaries at 1,067,952. This number is an
service, including Managua.
approximate fi gure because the registers in both countries
were defi ned on the basis of canton and municipality and not of
Like the hydroelectric projects, this proposed project would
the basin. The population belonging to the Nicaraguan sector
change the average fl ow rate of the San Juan River, which,
is 779,339, or 73% of the basin's population; the population
in turn, will heavily impact navigation of the river. Aspects belonging to the Costa Rican sector is 288,613, representing
to be considered with this project should be the effects on
the remaining 27%.
aquatic life related to the San Juan River, lakes Cocibolca and
Xolotlán, the existing fl ora and fauna in the area to be fl ooded
The geographic distribution of this population is not
by the proposed dam, and the environmental impact of the
homogeneous. This is most notable in the case of Nicaragua,
construction and all related works. There is confl ict in the use
where 42% of the population is concentrated in four
of water for this irrigation project because, the wider the area
municipalities, and the most important cities (Masaya,
irrigated, the less water available for power generation and the
Granada, and Juigalpa) are located within three of these. The
drinking water supply.
remaining population is distributed over 29 municipalities. The
average population density is approximately 46 inhabitants/
Though the drinking water supply is a problem in the basin,
km2. 55% of the population is rural.
it does not place any particular pressure on the resource
because of the limited size of the demand. However, municipal
In the Costa Rican sector, the population is predominantly rural
and industrial wastewater does indeed pose a threat to water
(85% of the total). There is just one main urban center, Quesada
quality. Due to the fact that most of the population discharges
City, capital of the San Carlos canton. The average density is
its wastewater in riverbeds, streams, or directly in the lake or
22 inhabitants/km2. These numbers can be misleading since
river with no prior treatment, the quality of the water of those
there are extensive zones with very limited populations, and
bodies of water has noticeably deteriorated. Critical points in
parks, as well as reserves that are uninhabited.
this regard are San Miguelito, San Jorge, Granada, Juigalpa,
San Carlos, El Castillo, Sábalos and San Juan del Norte.
1.3 Environment
1.2
Political and Administrative Situation of the Basin
The waters of the Lake Cocibolca-San Juan River basin
fl ow through at least eight distinct terrestrial ecosystems,
The area of the Lake Cocibolca-San Juan River basin system
including:
respects the physical boundaries of the watersheds of the
hydrographic basin which do not coincide, in either of the ·
dry tropical forest to the east, north, and west of Lake
two countries, with the political-administrative boundaries.
Cocibolca;
This factor complicates the management of socioeconomic ·
cloud forest in the high areas of the Central Volcanic
information, usually available in accordance with the territory's
Cordillera of Costa Rica;
political-administrative division. In Costa Rica, the political-
·
moist tropical forest to the south and southwest of Lake
administrative division is by provinces and "cantons" or
Cocibolca and in the eastern foothills;
municipalities. The Project of Formulation of a Strategic ·
very moist tropical forest in the San Juan Valley and on
Action Program for the Integrated Management of Water
the coastal plains;
Resources and the Sustainable Development of the San Juan
·
gallery forest along river banks;
River Basin its Coastal Zone (PROCUENCA; under auspices ·
wetlands to the south of Lake Cocibolca and at the
of the Organization of American States (OAS) and United
confl uences of the Colorado and Tortuguero rivers with
Nations Development Programme (UNDP)), defi nes an area
the San Juan;
which completely encompasses the cantons of La Cruz, Upala,
·
second-growth forest, meadows, and agricultural land in
Guatuso, Los Chiles, San Carlos, Sarapiquí, and Pococí; other
extensive areas of the basin; and,

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
137

---

·
coastal forest and mangrove swamps on the Caribbean
·
Management and preservation of shared basins and
coast.
water resources;
·
Management of protected areas and preservation of
Because of this range of ecosystems and associated habitats,
biodiversity;
the Lake Cocibolca-San Juan River watershed has a wealth ·
Incentives for the development of sustainable economic
of biodiversity. Its location in the natural biological corridor
activities;
running the length of Central America has made it a meeting
·
Overcoming the population's conditions of poverty, and
ground for species from the subarctic areas of North America
attention to indigenous groups; and,
and others from the subtropics of South America. To a great
·
Institutional strengthening and legislation which would
extent, its natural history is unique. The low population density
reconcile key issues at the border and Central American
in a few parts of the Lake Cocibolca-San Juan River basin has
level.
kept it relatively pristine, although there is little information on
the potential future impact of human migration trends and the
Due to their characteristics, the Central American border
spread of agriculture in the basin.
areas, and especially the Project areas, are key elements in
the structuring of any alternative directed towards protecting
Regional studies now being carried out by the Central American
the environment, combating poverty, and creating a favorable
Committee on Water Resources, with international cooperation,
atmosphere for the countries' sustainable development.
led to the conclusion that the fresh water in the Lake Cocibolca-
Likewise, the border areas favor the possibility of creating
San Juan River basin is the only source capable of meeting the
biological corridors which would permit the most effective
foreseeable development needs of the semi-arid Pacifi c slope
preservation of biodiversity, avoiding fragmentation of the
of Central America, the region's most populated area. Thus, it
natural ecosystems.
is likely that this system will come under increasing pressure of
human exploitation. In addition, because the Lake Cocibolca-
2.
State of the Lake and Basin Environment
San Juan River basin is also a common westward passageway
for anticyclones from the Atlantic to the Pacifi c, the threat of
As noted before, the basin includes three well-differentiated
hurricanes and tropical storms, on top of the threats posed by
sectors: the Lake Xolotlán (Managua) basin, the Lake
volcanic activity and seismic pressures that already make this
Cocibolca (Nicaragua) basin, and the San Juan River basin
freshwater supply especially vulnerable, further exacerbating
(Figure 1). Since Lake Xolotlán occasionally connects with
the human pressures likely to be experienced within this Lake Cocibolca through the Tipitapa River, it has not been
hydrologic system.
considered in PROCUENCA Project. However, the basins of the
Indio and Maíz Rivers in Nicaragua and the Tortuguero River
However, there are other threats to the Basin, coming from
in Costa Rica (these are not depicted in Figure 1) have been
residues of pesticides and other agrochemical substances. included because they share environmental conditions similar
In 1992, the Research Center for Inland Waters of Nicaragua,
to those of the lower San Juan River basin.
(CIRA/UNAN), affi liated to the National Autonomous University
of Nicaragua, at request of the Ministry of Environment and
2.1
Sediments in Lake Cocibolca and the San Juan
Natural Resources (MARENA), carried out a sampling program
River
on waters, benthic organisms and sediments of the San Juan
River. The results, showing high concentrations of pesticides
Sediments originate in the upper and middle parts of the
used in banana plantations, were sent by MARENA Minister
basins and are the result of strong rains, the fragility of
to the Chancellor's offi ce and a verbal note of protest was
many volcanic soils, the deforestation to which the area has
presented by Nicaragua to the Costa Rican Government. been subjected, and agricultural/livestock development. In
Consequently, a meeting of the Central American Commission
Nicaragua, agricultural activity and deforestation have caused
of Environment and Development (CCAD) requested support to
erosion problems and, as a result, fl oods and the diversion of
OAS and UNDP to initiate a research program to establish the
watercourses.
severity of the problem.
Lake Cocibolca is the depository for sediments carried by its
In October 1994, UNEP and OAS signed an Agreement in which
tributaries. It also receives runoff and subsurface drainage
both organizations agreed to support Costa Rica and Nicaragua
which carry dissolved or suspended fertilizers and pesticides
in carrying out the Project for Environmental Management and
used in the area. There is almost no knowledge about the
Sustainable Development of the San Juan River basin. UNEP
volume of sediment arriving at Lake Cocibolca. This information
agreed that the OAS would be the executing organization is essential to appreciate the seriousness of the problem and
with respect to technical cooperation. The project's technical
to implement the conservation practices, requirements that
activities were initiated in June 1995.
would allow for the preservation of lake.
The project's main objectives were defi ned as those relating to
At the Terrón station on the San Carlos River in Costa Rica,
human development and the preservation of natural resources
the contribution of sediment was calculated at 817 metric
and ecosystems. The following aspects were given priority:
tons/km2/yr; at Peñas Blancas, 700 metric tons/km2/yr;
138 Lake
Cocibolca/Nicaragua

---

at Punta Viejo and Veracruz on the Sarapiquí River, it was 2.3 Biological
Diversity
calculated at 216 metric tons/km2/yr. At the Guatuso station
on the Frío River, a contribution of 298 metric tons/km2/yr was
The confl uence of the bio-geographical regions of North and
calculated.
South America has given the San Juan River basin a varied
and rich biological diversity. In addition, the largest tropical
Periodic samples of suspended sediments transported by rain forest north of the Amazon region is also found here.
the rivers have not been taken at key stations; however, However, the basin area has been irreversibly changed,
the sedimentation can be verifi ed visually. Already in 1868,
despite the fact that nature reserves are maintained and
Thomas Belt, an English mining engineer and naturalist, noted
appropriate areas are identifi ed to serve as buffer zones and
the sand banks development along the San Juan River due
for environmental restoration. Some of these areas have a
to deforestation. Sediment has caused some riverbeds to be
very high representation of ecosystem types, which affords
fi lled in, with the consequent problems of overfl ow, fl oods, and
them a high potential for use in non-extractive activities. These
the formation of new beds. This especially affects the San Juan
activities could generate resources to partially fi nance their
River delta and, therefore, the animal habitat of the seacoast.
protection and development activities.
2.2
Presence of Pesticide Residues in Sediments of
A total of 51 protected areas, varying in type and size, have
Lake Cocibolca
been identifi ed in the basin. Thirty-three of these have been
established in Costa Rica and 18 in Nicaragua. The main types
The agriculture on the basin relies on heavy usage of of protected areas found in the basin are biological reserves,
agrochemicals. Table 6 shows crops raised in both sides of the
national parks, wildlife refuges, protected areas, and nature
basin, and the different substances employed. Lack of control
reserves.
of both substances and concentrations applied remains as a
major challenge to meet.
The main terrestrial threats to the preservation of biodiversity
of the basin have been identifi ed as:
In 1994, 1997, 2002 and 2003, the Research Center for
Inland Waters of Nicaragua (CIRA/UNAN) carried out ·
Lumber exploitation and deforestation;
sampling campaigns surveying organisms (phytoplankton, ·
Recurrent burning of pastureland;
zooplankton, fi sh, benthic organisms), water and sediments.
· Mining
activities;
The most striking results are those of pesticide residues ·
Damming or redirecting of surface waters;
contents of the sediments. Organochlorine pesticides, (pp-
·
Unplanned colonization and ramshackle settlements;
DDT, lindane, dieldrin, heptaclore), and organophosphorous
·
Contamination by agrochemicals and other products;
(methyl parathion) were found in all 49 sampled sites, at ·
Erosion and soil loss;
concentrations of health concern both for people and the ·
Problems regarding land possession; and,
environment. For example, the pp-DDE concentration was ·
Lack of a unifi ed conceptual framework between the two
found to be as high as 790 pg/g in the sediment at one station
countries with respect to the management of protected
(CIRA/UNAN 1992-2003).
areas.
Table 6. Crops and Pesticides Used in the Watershed Area.
Anti-
Crops
Insecticide
Nematicide
Fungicide
bacterial/
Herbicide
Molluskicide
viral
Rice




Beans






Corn



Roots and Tubers





Oranges




Bananas




Coffee


Pineapples




Sugar cane



Cotton


Peanuts





Vegetables




Source:
PROCUENA San Juan project.

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
139

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In conclusion, it should be pointed out that in both countries,
lose their fertility and are abandoned after a few years, making
alternatives for the preservation and sustainable management
way for pastures and stockbreeding; thus the elimination of the
of biodiversity exist. The alternatives include:
forest is consolidated. At different times, this process has been
encouraged by means of national incentives for stockbreeding,
· defi ning buffer zones to temper the pressures on based on direct or indirect subsidies.
protected areas;
The indiscriminate extraction of lumber has been an additional
·
implementing biological corridors which aid the factor in deforestation. The options for discouraging the
preservation of species of fauna or for environmental
destruction of the forest do not seem simple. They require
restoration; and,
the implementation of mechanisms which intensify and
permanently settle agricultural production. This would
·
fostering greater understanding and abilities with require the adoption of new practices by the producers, as
respect to preservation of the protected areas. In all well as a change in their attitude with respect to the use of
cases, these alternatives are subject to a clear defi nition
natural resources. Forest production requires, in its turn,
of objectives and methodologies which will help new approaches which revert the extractive concept of
prioritize consistent with the aspirations, motivations,
forest exploitation. In addition, it would require a change
and opportunities afforded to local societies.
to a productive activity with longer cycles, one which offers
economic conditions that would permit it to compete with
3.
Economic Activities in the Basin Based on
other alternative lands uses.
Natural Resources
The area for agricultural uses covers 60% of the territory. In
At different times, the section of the basin belonging to each
Nicaragua, the basin produces 26% of the national bean crop,
country was affected by strong growth in agricultural and almost 21% of the sorghum, and slightly more than 16% of
livestock activities. These activities have generally expanded
the corn and sugar cane. In the Costa Rican sector, the basin
both in suitable areas and in areas where the capacity for use
produces 54% of the beans, 11% of the sugar cane, 6% of the
under current conditions is for forests. As a result, there has
corn and banana production, and 90% of the production of
been indiscriminate deforestation. In the case of Costa Rica,
tubers and roots.
the forests that existed in the low lands, lands with lesser
slopes, and non-fl oodable lands in the basin have practically
Agriculture in the Lake Cocibolca-San Juan River basin reveals
disappeared; and in the case of Nicaragua, the remaining marked asymmetries with respect to the number of producers
natural forests have deteriorated up to the very boundaries of
and available land areas. Commercial producers represent
the most signifi cant biological reserves. The process has been
11% of the total and occupy 55% of the land, and small and
generated by the destructive use of forest resources and the
subsistence producers represent 88% and occupy 49% of the
advance of shifting agriculture and livestock production. For
total area.
this reason, signifi cant areas have been exposed to erosion
generated by high-intensity tropical rains, with the loss of soil
In the Nicaraguan and Costa Rican sectors of the basin,
which is then refl ected in increased levels of water turbidity.
stockbreeding has a fundamental role because nearly 20% of
Agricultural production technologies, which are in many cases
the national herd is found in the project area. In Nicaragua, the
inappropriate, and the intensive use of agrochemicals on breeds are generally dual purpose. In Costa Rica, on the other
certain crops have adversely impacted the quality of water
hand, there is a tendency toward specialization in accordance
resources, a factor that has only had limited studies to date.
with the type of production, meat or milk. Management of
stockbreeding activities should improve at the global level
In the Nicaraguan sector, the agricultural frontier is expanding,
in order to increase production instead of increasing land
in many cases on ground of low productive capacity. This areas devoted to this activity. Improvement of the herds is
constitutes one of the causes of deforestation and of the great
a priority, as are planning and management of the fodder
pressure on protected natural areas. It is estimated that 8.5%
base, development of breeding services, and improvement of
of the Nicaraguan sector and 8% of the Costa Rican sector is
sanitation for livestock.
occupied by primary and secondary forests.
Some industries associated with the primary production
In the case of Costa Rica, the productive incorporation of activities are located in the area. There are a total of 70
these territories has already occurred and the need for land
sawmills in operation, 10 in the Nicaraguan sector and 60 in
is now directly pressuring the protected areas. In Nicaragua,
the Costa Rican one. Under the heading of agroindustries, the
the agricultural frontier is still rapidly expanding eastward, in
following stand out: in Costa Rica, the presence of four banana
a new drive, without having achieved its consolidation and
companies located in Pococí Canton, one citrus fruit processing
is threatening the Great Indio-Maíz Biological Reserve. The plant in Los Chiles, three sugar mills, a milk producers
causes of this process are found in a combination of factors: it
cooperative located in Quesada City, San Carlos Canton, and
is linked to subsistence agricultural production, ineffi cient use
numerous coffee processing plants. In the Nicaraguan sector,
of natural resources, and migration to new lands. These lands
the agro-industrial activities are associated with the sugar
140 Lake
Cocibolca/Nicaragua

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mills located in Rivas Department, one tomato processor in
natural richness and biodiversity, among others, are a benefi t
Nandaime Municipality, one palm oil extractor in El Castillo
belonging to the nation; the same is stipulated by Article 89
Municipality, and several coffee processing plants.
with respect to natural beauty. The Constitution of Nicaragua
refers specifi cally to the environment and natural resources in
4.
Framework of Legal and Institutional Work
two articles: 60 Cn, which establishes the right of Nicaraguans
to live in a healthy environment; and 102 Cn, which stipulates
Both countries have made progress with respect to the defi nition
that natural resources are the national heritage.
of a legal framework which considers, both in a sectoral and
integrated manner, the factors which create environmental 5. Situation
Assessment
management in national areas and in international relations.
These instruments have two types of limitations: on the one
The GEF Operational Strategy lists four major areas of concern
hand, institutional and organizational capacity to implement
relating to international waters:
them is weak, and on the other, there are gaps and overlapping
areas which make it diffi cult to use them adequately. It is not
·
degradation of the quality of water resources;
by coincidence that in both countries, changes have occurred
in the legal instruments which are conducive to improving the
·
physical habitat degradation of coastal and near-shore
unity and coherence which reality demands. The creation of
marine areas, lakes and watercourses;
the Ministry of Energy, Resources, and Mines (MINAE) and the
Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources (MARENA) as
·
the introduction of exotic species that disrupt aquatic
organizations responsible for environmental management and
and land ecosystems; and,
management of natural resources in Costa Rica and Nicaragua,
respectively, are two examples. Also, in both countries there
·
excessive and/or inappropriate exploitation of resources
are numerous institutions which directly or indirectly have
due to inadequate management and control measures.
authority over the environment and various natural resources,
including water, which makes it diffi cult to clearly establish
These issues were identifi ed as part of an earlier study,
their jurisdictional boundaries, their responsibilities, and the
carried out jointly by UNEP and the OAS, that pointed to a
control which each exercises in practice. This multiplicity of
number of current and emerging problems that threaten the
jurisdictions and superposition of functions caused by the sustainability of development in the San Juan River basin
various activities that are carried out both in and outside of the
and ultimately the quality of life of the people who live there.
basin, impacts negatively on the evaluation and control of the
These transboundary environmental problems often have
environmental impacts.
common roots and manifest themselves both individually and
collectively. They are closely interrelated, but in the interest of
In short, the existing constitutional mandates, institutional seeking solutions they have been broken down as follows.
mandates, laws, and international agreements suggest
that there is a suffi cient regulatory framework to direct 5.1
The Accelerating Degradation of Transboundary
environmental management actions, biodiversity preservation,
Ecosystems
and sustainable development. The major limitations are
associated with the institutional, technical, and organizational
In the traditional uses of the main ecosystems of the area,
capacity to enforce compliance with this regulatory framework
human activities have exerted pressures on the environment
and the lack of public awareness which facilitates legal action
and resulted in confl icts among the various groups involved,
in every country. Although the instruments which regulate with negative consequences for the quality of water resources.
binational relations with respect to the boundaries and the laws
These consequences include inadequate urban, industrial,
of the countries associated with the San Juan River do exist,
and agroindustrial wastewater treatment systems; migratory
the regulation of environmental issues where water resources
agriculture, extensive grazing and the consequent extension
are key, and the intent to jointly develop the territories around
of the agricultural frontier; widespread cutting of trees for
the basin lack the legal framework that promotes binational
timber, unregulated ecotourism, non-conservationist farming
cooperative efforts. The national initiatives have concentrated
practices, the introduction of aggressive exotic species such
on a few agreements regarding specifi c work. For example, the
as Tilapia spp.; and uncontrolled fi res in the drier forests and
Proyecto de Areas Protegidas para la Paz (Protected Areas for
of grassland. An emerging problem is the growing use of small
Peace Project, SI-A-PAZ) with regards to the efforts undertaken
and very small hydropower plants to tap the considerable
by the Presidents and Chancelleries of both countries, through
hydroelectric potential of the region.
which the Binational Commission has been, in recent years,
revitalized to deal with border issues of common interest.
5.2
Overexploitation of Valuable Natural Resources
Costa Rica and Nicaragua defi ne their borders in accordance
The problems here are related to poor land use, especially
with the provisions of the Cañas-Jerez Treaty of April 15, 1858,
the farming of hillside areas and wetlands, the construction
ratifi ed by the Cleveland Decision of March 22, 1888. The State
of poorly designed roads, unregulated fi shing, and excessive
of Costa Rica, in its Constitution, Article 121, specifi es that
exploitation of valuable moist tropical forest species and the

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
141

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destruction of plant cover in fragile areas, causing erosion Cocibolca-San Juan River basin--how it is structured, how it
and land degradation. The result is a loss of potential income
works, what its socioeconomic dynamics are, how information
from agriculture, fi shing and tourism, a threat to biodiversity
is managed at the local level--makes it impossible to proceed
and the natural productivity of the ecosystem, and a change
with the minimum certainty needed.
in coastal and inland waterway dynamics. There are signs that
three marine and freshwater species are being over exploited:
5.7 Weak
Institutions
Carcharhinus leucas, locally called "bull shark" or "freshwater
shark" because of its unique behavior of migrating between
Although both countries have quite comprehensive legislation
the Caribbean Sea and Lake Cocibolca; Pristis perotteti or big
on environmental management and the sustainable use
sawfi sh; and Pristis pectinatus or fi ne- toothed sawfi sh.
of natural resources that could be implemented locally, a
paucity of fi nancial and human resources on the local level
5.3
Soil Degradation and Increasing Sedimentation
and the poverty in which most of the population lives makes
compliance diffi cult.
Part of the sedimentation of the San Juan River and its coastal
zone is produced as a result of natural processes, according
5.8 Insuffi cient Human and Institutional Capacity
to historic documents. Nevertheless, road construction,
the advancing agricultural frontier and its associated Natural resource management is ineffi cient and it will not be
deforestation, and hillside farming without adequate soil-
possible to strengthen environmental command-and-control
conservation techniques exacerbate sedimentation problems,
mechanisms without fi rst creating local economic foundations
as well the emerging problems arising from open-pit mining
and training people.
and the extraction of construction materials.
5.9 Limited
Stakeholder
Participation
5.4
Pollution of Water Bodies
There is currently limited participation by stakeholders in
The main causes of water pollution are the indiscriminate sustainable development due to centralization of decision-
use of pesticides and fertilizers, especially where intensive making, which the governments are currently trying to change.
farming practices are used, and urban, industrial, and agro-
This situation, added to reductions in the overall size of
industrial waste discharges. The water bodies being affected
government, has hampered local action. This organization
in Nicaragua are Lake Cocibolca, the San Juan River and its
recognizes the need to promote and strengthen civil society
coastal zone, the wetlands to the south of Lake Cocibolca.
organizations, increase the participation of women, and
In Costa Rica the Caño Negro wetlands, the Colorado River,
involve more people in decision-making on the sustainable
and the Tortuguero canals are suffering the consequences of
development of the Lake Cocibolca-San Juan River basin.
degraded water quality. Sporadic die-offs of aquatic fauna and
The initial steps toward enhancing stakeholder participation
fl ora give evidence of such degradation, as do small-scale and
have been already taken during the execution of the GEF
occasional studies of water quality that have been carried out
supported Block B program and through other actions of
in some parts of the Lake Cocibolca-San Juan River Basin.
MINAE and MARENA. These steps now need to be reinforced
and further developed through programs to educate people
5.5
High Vulnerability to Natural Hazards
about sustainable development and adopting sustainable
production practices and lifestyles within a comprehensive
This is apparent in the devastating impact of hurricanes and
watershed management approach that does not yet exist.
tropical storms on the region's ill-housed populations, on its
infrastructure, and on crops grown in areas where the forest
5.10 Extreme
Poverty
has been cleared and the soil is fragile (areas exposed to
landslides caused by hurricanes, tropical storms, and seismic
Extreme poverty, combined with high population growth,
or volcanic activity). Natural hazards can have a drastic and
low incomes and a subsistence economy, poor sanitation
dramatic effect on the watercourses of the region.
conditions, and a relative imbalance in employment and
income-generating opportunities between the two countries,
5.6
Inadequate Planning and Management
characterizes the current level of economic development in the
Lake Cocibolca-San Juan River basin. Uncontrolled migration
Although MINAE and MARENA are both trying to promote exacerbates the situation, by exceeding the capacity of existing
integrated watershed management using the legal mechanisms
institutions to meet all the sanitation, health, and educational
provided within each country through their own environmental
needs created. The economic conditions force the inhabitants
legislation, there is no watershed planning and administration
to move to the mountainsides and practice slash-and-burn
capacity in place. There have been no mechanisms for agriculture just to survive. These reactions contribute to the
coordinating management and control across the international
environmental degradation being experienced in the Lake
border and, thus, no ongoing institutional approach to water
Cocibolca-San Juan River basin, but can be addressed, in
resources management in the Lake Cocibolca-San Juan River
part, through building institutional capacities and creating
basin. The lack of comprehensive up-to-date data on the Lake
142 Lake
Cocibolca/Nicaragua

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economic instruments, neither now existing, to address such
contributions. National and binational workshops will be
problems.
organized to give stakeholders the opportunity to become
involved, to engage their commitment and facilitate SAP
6.
The PROCUENCA Project
implementation. The project team will strive to assure gender
balance in these activities. To establish a broad base of
6.1 Components
participation and learn the capacity of organizations to carry
out actions, the four demonstration projects in various natural
Thus far, the PROCUENCA Project has been the only activity
areas within the Lake Cocibolca-San Juan River basin are
that has devised a comprehensive initiative, including envisioned. These activities are to be more broadly-based and
critical policy, legislative and institutional framework for long
inclusive of the general public and public-at-large than those to
term basin management. It is comprised in the following be conducted under Component 3 (above), and will contribute
components.
to inclusion of public inputs beyond those considered from an
economic perspective.
Component 1: Formulation of the Strategic Action Plan (SAP).
Development of the SAP is the core task to be completed by
Component 5: Local, national and bi-national level institutional
the Technical Units in close consultation with UNEP and the
arrangements. This component is designed to correct
OAS pursuant to the implementation arrangements.
problems identifi ed in the transboundary diagnostic analysis
(TDA) regarding the shortcomings in institutions working at
Component 2: Lake Cocibolca-San Juan River Basin Information
the local and national levels, and to encourage enhancement
System. The objective of this Component is to enhance the
of binational coordination between institutions within the Lake
capabilities of existing infrastructure in the decision-making
Cocibolca-San Juan River basin as well as to ensure that the
process at all levels of government, and to encourage prescribed actions of the SAP are incorporated into national
technical cooperation at the national level, by contributing policies. Technical meetings bringing together MINAE and
and disseminating information among stakeholders, while, in
MARENA personnel and cooperative research efforts between
the fi rst instance, specifi cally facilitate data acquisition and
universities and other institutions of both countries will be
sharing through an improved system.
promoted. Current institutional arrangements and the role
they play in the management of the San Juan River basin will
Component 3: Strategic Actions with Stakeholder Involvement.
be reviewed. This component is complementary to Component
Strategic planning and management will depend on integrating
6 (below).
basic research with a series of activities and investment projects
carried out within the identifi ed geographic and subject areas
Component 6: Capacity building and institutional
to be targeted for development. Historically, such projects strengthening. This component will foster the formation
have lacked effective stakeholder involvement as a result of
of basin councils in critical sub-basins and encourage the
the institutional and human resource issues identifi ed above.
participation of such councils within the municipal sustainable
As an integral part of the process of formulating the SAP for the
development councils existing within the Lake Cocibolca-San
Lake Cocibolca-San Juan River basin, a series of demonstration
Juan River basin. The Federation of Local Border Governments
activities illustrative of ways and means for promoting will be strengthened through specifi c activities with clearly
sustainable agriculture production and the conservation defi ned goals in order to promote the strengthening and
restoration of land and water ecosystems will be conducted,
further development of coordination mechanisms at the local
providing both an assessment of cost and feasibility, and level. A proposal to strengthen institutions will be drafted with
specifi c examples to local communities of alternative means
measures for: (a) building sustainable development planning
of production and land and water resource management. and management capacities; (b) improving infrastructure;
Economic mechanisms contributing to the sustainable (c) equipping institutions; and (d) designing mechanisms to
management of natural resources and to meeting the demand
increase the incomes of local and regional institutions. These
of the inhabitants for improved living conditions, and to solve
activities will be supported by two demonstration projects
the confl icts that can arise over plans and decisions affecting
establishing costs and feasibility of achieving integrated
resource use will be specifi cally identifi ed and developed. This
management as well as assessment of specifi c paradigms to
component will facilitate interaction between the GEF-funded
be developed at specifi c sites within the Lake Cocibolca-San
activities and those of on-going development projects.
Juan River basin.
Component 4: Public Participation. This component will foster
Component 7: Education and training in conservation and the
and support the participation of all stakeholders, including the
sustainable use of natural resources. This component has
general public, in the development and implementation of the
been designed to provide the building blocks of an education
activities carried out under the Lake Cocibolca-San Juan River
and training Program that will make the inhabitants of the Lake
basin project, and complement the activities proposed under
Cocibolca-San Juan River basin more aware of the important
Component 3 (above). Success is dependent on identifying
role that water resources play in society, in the economy, and
and motivating stakeholders and giving them an opportunity
in nature. It will be especially geared to students and young
to participate, including, where necessary, through fi nancial
people, who generally are more willing to change their habits

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
143

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and production practices, and who have been shown to be
cultural monuments, and would help the proposed nomination
effective conduits by which such habits and practices can of the Lake Cocibolca as a UNESCO world natural heritage site,
be transferred into individual households to the benefi t of requested by the Nicaraguan government.
entire communities. Best sustainable production practices
will be identifi ed. The information will be disseminated in both
8. References
countries and knowledge will be furthered through training
for various kinds of local organizations working in the fi elds
This document draws heavily from materials available on the
of development and environmental conservation. Workshops,
PROCUENA San Juan project website (http://www.oas.org/
seminars, and technical meetings will be held in conjunction
sanjuan/) including:
with the preparation of the SAP. Materials for environmental
education will be collected, designed, and implemented in OAS (Organization of American States) and UNDP (United
three demonstration projects, which will be evaluated to aid in
Nations Development Programme). 1997. Diagnostic Study
the design of the implementation Program.
of the San Juan River Basin and Guidelines for an Action
Plan: Executive summary. (Available at http://www.oas.org/
6.2
Initiatives from Municipalities
sanjuan/english/documents/diagnostic.html).
Local governments have a crucial role to play in the Also cited in the text is:
development of the afore-mentioned processes. In parallel
with the work carried out by PROCUENCA, the municipalities
CIRA/UNAN (Research Center for Inland Waters of Nicaragua).
around Lake Cocibolca organized in an Association of 1992-2003. Excerpts from published and unpublished data
Municipalities of the Great Lake (AMUGRAN), which consists of
on Lake Cocibolca and San Juan River systems. CIRA/UNAN:
32 municipalities. The Association has agreed on a Declaration
Managua, Nicaragua.
of Policies for Uses of the Lake Cocibolca and its basin, and on
their Conservation. This historic declaration sets a reference
Disclaimer
framework so stakeholders in the municipalities are helping to
defi ne both the course of the economic development and the
The fi ndings, interpretations and conclusions expressed in
protection of the basin resources.
this report are the views of the author and do not necessarily
represent the views of The World Bank and its Board of
7.
Lessons Learned and Recommended
Directors, or the countries they represent, nor do they
Initiatives
necessarily represent the view of the organization, agency
or government to which the author is associated. Also, the
For a long time, state agencies from the Central Government
colors, boundaries, denominations, and classifi cations in this
of Nicaragua have not been able to coordinate development
report do not imply, on the part of The World Bank and its
efforts on the basin of the Lake Cocibolca-San Juan River Board of Directors, or the countries they represent, and the
system. As a consequence, many of the undesirable effects
organization, agency or government to which the author is
already presented above have resulted in degradation of the
associated, any judgment on the legal or other status of any
basin and loss of resources and development opportunities.
territory, or any endorsement or acceptance of any boundary.
Information now available from a major effort done through
PROCUENCA sheds light on how stakeholders involved in
conception and development of plans, programs, and projects
can help to improve the general situation. Public awareness of
the losses of environment assets seen as both economic and
social opportunities losses, leads public opinion into national
attention.
Lack of reliable scientifi c data has been a major drawback and
must be taken into account for any Strategic Action Plan to be
devised.
The interest of the Mayors of the Municipalities associated in
AMUGRAN can drive the SAP and help the Central Government
to initiate needed actions at the local level. In this aspect, the
request that AMUGRAN presented both to the President of the
Republic and to the National Assembly on June 4 and 5, 2003,
to have a Law which would declare Corridor of Sustainable
Development for the Municipalities contained in the Lake
Cocibolca-San Juan River basin. This initiative would integrate
the many protected areas, Ramsar sites, archeological and
144 Lake
Cocibolca/Nicaragua

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