Bhoj Wetland
Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
Mohan S. Kodarkar*, Indian Association of Aquatic Biologists, Hyderabad, India, kodarkar_mohan@yahoo.com
Aniruddhe Mukerjee, Madhya Pradesh Lake Conservation Authority, Bhopal, India
* Corresponding author
1. Introduction
encroachments and unauthorized construction activities in the
catchment and on the lakebed. Compared to rural areas, the
South Asia, home to over one-fi fth of the world's population,
impact of this degradation is more severe in urban areas due
is facing a growing water crisis. This region is in the grip of
to their high population densities. Because of the ecological,
continuing fl ood and drought cycles, dictating the need for a
economical and recreational potential of lakes, there is an
long-term strategy for management of its water resources. Big
urgent need to protect, rehabilitate and conserve them as
and small water bodies, in the form of lakes and reservoirs,
precious natural resources. This brief examines how these
dot the landscape of South Asia. These ecosystems impound
issues have been addressed for the Upper and Lower Lakes of
precious freshwater, and are the most easily-accessible source
Bhopal, collectively know as the Bhoj Wetland (Figure 1).
for human use. Historically, major cities in this region fl ourished
in geographical regions with assured water supplies that 2.
The Bhopal Lakes
sustained civilization for centuries. Unfortunately, the last half
of the 20th century has witnessed large-scale degradation of
In India, construction of storage reservoirs is an age-old
the environment in general, and water resources in particular,
practice. Former rulers contributed signifi cantly by constructing
due to multiple anthropogenic factors such as unprecedented
large numbers of impoundments for providing drinking water
population growth, and consequent urbanization, to the people in their cities. This was particularly necessary in
industrialization and chemical intensive agriculture. Among arid, semi-arid and other regions with highly erratic rainfall.
the fi rst victims of this degradation process were the lakes
The Upper Lake of Bhopal, arguably the oldest among the
and reservoirs in the vicinity of urban areas that underwent
large man-made lakes in the central part of India, falls in this
large-scale pollution due to sewage and industrial effl uents
category. This lake was created in the early-11th century by
and toxic chemicals. In most cases, nutrient enrichment led to
King Bhoj by construction of an earthen dam across the Kolans
eutrophication of water bodies (Edmondson 1991), exhibiting
River, a rain-fed tributary of the Betwa River.
negative manifestations such
as:
· Loss of water-spread area
because of siltation and
construction activities;
· Continuous algal blooms;
· Excessive growth of macro -
phytes (e.g, water hyacinth)
and loss of biodiversity;
and,
· Water quality degradation.
There also are drastic
alterations in the morphometry
and water-holding capacity
of lakes and reservoirs, due
to infl ow of silt, dumping of
garbage and reclamation
activities. The process has
been further aggravated by Figure 1. The Bhoj Wetland Basin.

---

In the late-18th century, another lake downstream of the regulatory provisions for the protection of the Bhopal lakes, as
earthen dam of the Upper Lake was constructed by Nawab
well as other waterbodies, are described below.
Chhote Khan (a Minister of Nawab Hayat Mohammed Khan's
regime) to enhance the beauty of the city.
The Bhopal Development Plan 2005, prepared by the
Directorate of Town and Country of Madhya Pradesh, provides
With the passage of time, the administration of Bhopal City
for the following regulatory measures for the protection and
changed hands several times and, in the year 1956, it became
management of lakes:
the capital of the State of Madhya Pradesh. Since then, it has
witnessed a tremendous infl ux of people and consequent ·
Fringe areas of the lakes have been declared as sensitive
urban development, especially on the northeast fringe of the
zones. No construction and development activities in
Upper Lake, as well as around the Lower Lake. This resulted
50 m space from the Full Tank Level (FTL) of the Upper
in an increased demand for potable water and subsequent
Lake and 33 m space from the edge of the Lower Lake
pressure on the Upper Lake resources. Consequently, the
is allowed. The space is to be kept open. The lake fringe
storage capacity of the Upper Lake was increased by raising
of the Upper Lake is to be kept free from any further
the height of the spillway. Although this has resulted in an
construction except passive recreation;
increased water supply, the increased anthropogenic activities
in the catchment also have caused an increased infl ow of silt,
·
The areas of the Upper Lake, including slopes, are to be
untreated sewage, nutrients and pesticides from urban and
planted to the extent of 50-100 m from the maximum
rural areas, and an overall deterioration of the lakes' water
tank level with appropriate indigenous trees and shrubs
quality. The basic features of the twin lakes are illustrated in
to arrest the pollution and silt entering into the lake;
Table 1.
·
The Upper Lake water, which is basically used for
The Upper Lake is a source of potable water and meets 40%
drinking purposes, shall not be allowed to be used for
of the drinking water demand (29 million gallons per day)
such water-based recreational activities that adversely
for the city's growing population. Its fi shing rights have been
affect the water quality; and
allocated on a long-term lease by the Bhopal Municipal
Corporation (BMC) to a fi shermen's cooperative, consisting ·
The practice of agriculture right along the lake fringe
of some 500 fi shermen families. The Lower Lake is mainly a
areas is to be discouraged so that water is not polluted
recreational site. The livelihood of 250 washer-men families
due to the addition of chemical fertilizer, pesticide and
belonging to socio-economically weaker sections of the
insecticides.
society is dependent on the Lower Lake.
Provisions in other national-level acts include the following:
The BMC is the custodian of the lakes, and also has the
authority to control the land use in the fringe area of the lakes
·
The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act,
since it issues building permission sanctions. The various
1974, amended in 1994 empowers the Madhya Pradesh
Pollution Control Board to take action against the
Table 1. Basic Features of Upper and Lower Lakes of the
polluters of the water resources;
Bhoj Wetland.
Upper Lake
Lower Lake
·
The Environmental Protection Act, 1986 also empowers
the Madhya Pradesh Pollution Control Board to take
Riparian countries
India
action against the polluters of the water resources; and
Lake origin
Man-made
Man-made
(11th century)
(Late-18th
century)
·
The Madhya Pradesh Municipal Corporation Act,
1956 (as Amended in 1995) empowers the Municipal
Climatic region
Warmer humid
Corporation to take appropriate measures to prevent
(humid subtropical)
pollution of the water resources.
Drainage basin type
Open
Salinity type
Fresh
However, as far as implementation of these provisions is
Altitude
503.5 m
500 m
concerned, much is still desired.
Surface area
36 km2
1.29 km2
3.
Status of the Lakes
Drainage basin area
361 km2
9.6 km2
Volume
0.117 km3
0.004 km3
The Upper Lake has both rural and urban catchments. With
Maximum depth
11.7 m
9.5 m
a well-protected catchment, its water quality was of potable
standard until recently (Singh and Anandh 1996). In the last
Average depth
6 m
few decades of the 20th century, however, many sections of
Population
0.5 million
the lake became surrounded by habitations as the city grew.
Population density
1,350 persons/km2
These developments have generated anthropogenic pressures
46 Bhoj
Wetland

---

on the lake, thus accelerating its eutrophication and microbial
Because the Lower Lake, located within a completely
contamination, and making the water unfi t for human urban catchment, has been subjected to many negative
consumption without proper treatment (Table 2 and 3).
anthropogenic stresses, its water quality degradation has been
much more pronounced than for the Upper Lake (Table 2).
The lake is rich in biodiversity, however, with the principal
components being phytoplankton, zooplankton, macrophytes,
Considering the ecological importance of these lakes, the
aquatic insects and avifauna (both resident and migratory).
Government of India declared the twin lakes as lakes of national
The biodiversity characteristics of the lake are as follows:
importance, and efforts to improve their environmental
status began in 1989. Later implementation of an integrated
·
Macrophytes: 106 species (belonging to 87 genera of 46
conservation and management plan for the lakes was started
families), including 14 rare species;
Table 2. Water Quality of Upper and Lower Lakes of the
Bhoj Wetland (1991-92).
·
Phytoplankton: 208 species, comprised of 106 species of
Chlorophyceae, 37 species of Cyanophyceae, 34 species
Range
Parameter
of Euglenophyceae, 27 species of Bacilariophyceae and
Upper Lake
Lower Lake
4 species of Dinophyceae;
pH
8.8­9.2
7.15­9.7
·
Zooplankton: 115 species (Rotifera 41, Protozoa 10,
Transparency (cm)
NA
14­98
Cladocera 14, Copepoda 5, Ostracoda 9, Coleoptera 11,
Conductivity (µS/cm @
213­228
259­374
Diptera 25);
25°C)
Total dissolved solids
121­252
86­169
·
Fish fauna: 43 species (natural and cultured species);
(TDS; mg/l)
Hardness (mg/l)
60­146
68­154
·
Avifauna: 179 species (52 migratory, 28 locally migratory
Chloride (mg/l)
16­30
14.9­88.9
and 99 local);
Total phosphorus (mg/l)
0.003­0.07
0.106­1.02
·
Insects: 98 species of 10 families; and,
Total nitrogen (mg/l)
0.1­0.9
1.08­1.46
Biochemical oxygen
1.8­6
2.2­11.5
·
Reptiles and Amphibians: >10 species (including 5
demand (BOD; mg/l)
species of tortoise).
Chemical oxygen
8.8­26.4
8­112
demand (COD; mg/l)
Class
B
D
Table 3. Water Quality Criteria for Water Uses.
Class of water
Designated best use
Criteria
A
Drinking water source without conventional
1. Total coliform MPN/100 ml: 50 or less
treatment, but after disinfection
2. pH: between 6.5 and 8.5
3. Dissolved oxygen (DO): 6 mg/L or more
4. BOD (5 days @ 20°C): 2 mg/L or less
B
Outdoor bathing (organized)
1. Total coliform MPN/100 ml: 500 or less
2. pH: between 6.5 to 8.5
3. DO: 5 mg/L or more
4. BOD (5 days @ 20°C): 3 mg/L or less
C
Drinking water source with conventional
1. Total coliform MPN/100 ml: 5000 or less
treatment, followed by disinfection
2. pH: between 6.0 and 9.0
3. DO: 4 mg/L or more
4. BOD (5 days @ 20°C): 3 mg/L or less
D
Propagation of wildlife and fi sheries
1. -
2. pH: between 6.5 and 8.5
3. DO: 4.0 mg/L or more
4. -
5. Free ammonia (as N): 1.2 mg/L or less
E
Irrigation, Industrial cooling, Controlled waste
1. -
disposal
2. pH: between 5.89 to 6.00
3. DO: 4.0 mg/L or more
4. -
5. -
6. Sodium absorption ratio maximum: 26
7. Boron (maximum): 2 mg/L

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
47

---

in 1995. In recognition of its rich biodiversity (especially that the 978 million yen balance (i.e., 15 % of the project cost)
avifauna), and for adopting an integrated management would be shared equally by the GOI and the State Government.
plan, this wetland was declared a Ramsar site (a wetland of
An agreement between the JBIC and the Government of India
international importance) in 2002.
(Ministry of Finance, Government of India being the signatory)
was executed for implementation of the "Lake Bhopal
4.
Environmental Issues Affecting the Lakes
Conservation and Management Project" (also known as Bhoj
Wetland Project), to be executed over a period of 5 years,
The major issues concerning the environment of the lakes are
beginning in April 1995.
described below in Table 4.
The project was to be coordinated with JBIC by a government-
5.
Conservation and Management of the Lakes
controlled society, called the Environmental Planning and
Coordination Organization (EPCO), and implemented by the
Efforts to manage the lakes have been implemented in a Bhopal Municipal Corporation (BMC), State Public Health
piecemeal manner since 1988. The State Government initiated
Engineering Department (PHED), Capital Project Administration
a public awareness generation program of manual weed (CPA) and MP Fisheries Development Corporation (MPFDC).
removal called `Sarovar Hamari Dharohar' (Lakes are Our EPCO was the executive and advisory arm of the Environment
Heritage) in 1989. Because of the water quality resulting from
Department on statewide environmental issues.
aggravated pollution loads and environmental degradation of
the lakes, the Government of Madhya Pradesh prepared an
A Japanese-Indian joint venture fi rm formed for this project
integrated plan for the Conservation and Management of both
was appointed as Project Management Consultant (PMC),
lakes, and requested fi nancial assistance from the Government
as per the terms of the agreement, with a mandate to
of India (GOI) in 1989. The GOI provided grants-in-aid of advise the project for project implementation in May 1996.
Rs. 16.5 million for conservation works during 1989-1992. The project envisaged tackling various conservation and
Because of the high project costs, the GOI proposed the plan
management issues of the Upper and Lower Lakes of Bhopal
for external fi nancial assistance to the Government of Japan
in an integrated manner. Although the issues are interrelated
in 1991. The Environmental Clearance from the Ministry of and interlinked, for ease of operation and management, these
Environment and Forests (MOEF), and the concurrence of the
issues were divided into various sub-projects, albeit with the
Planning Commission, was obtained for the implementation of
understanding of the related issues and their interconnectivity
the project through foreign funding.
with each other. The project initially envisaged 14 sub-projects
under the major topics of:
The Japan Bank for International Cooperation (JBIC) dispatched
a study team, under Special Assistance for Project Formation
·
Desilting and Dredging (desilting and dredging of the
(SAPROF), to India in 1993 to assess the project feasibility.
lakes; deepening and widening of the spill channel, and
Upon its recommendations, JBIC agreed to provide fi nancial
restoration of the island);
assistance, in the form of a soft loan of 7.055 billion yen, out
of the total project cost of 8.033 billion yen. It was decided
Table 4. Summary of Environmental Issues facing the Bhoj Wetland.
Problems
Causes
Reduction of water storage capacity of the lakes
Infl ow of silt and organic materials from urban and rural
catchments, along with monsoon runoff and dry weather
fl ows;
Addition of clay and non-biodegradable materials through
immersion of idols
Obstructions to smooth waterfl ow through the Upper Lake's
Constriction of the spill channel, due to deposition of silt
spill channel, resulting in a threat to the stability of the
earthen dam
Deterioration of water quality
Infl ow of untreated sewage from habitations;
Dumping of municipal wastes not collected by the Municipal
Corporation;
Dissolving of paints in water during immersion of idols;
Chemical fertilizer runoff from the catchment;
Activity of washing of clothes by washermen, resulting in
release of detergents;
Leakage of oil during motor boating
Flourishing growth of invasive aquatic plants
High nutrient load to lakes from infl ow of sewage and
agricultural wastes
Reduction of water spread area
Encroachment on the lake fringe area, which becomes
exposed when the lake water level drops after rains end
48 Bhoj
Wetland

---

·
Catchment Area Treatment (afforestation, creation of However, upon a Project Offi cer joining the project in
buffer zones, construction of check dams, silt traps, toe
September 1997, the activities began taking shape, with
walls and cascading and garland drains);
many DPRs cleared between then and mid-1998. The speed
of project execution further improved in May 1998, when the
·
Prevention of Pollution (Sewerage schemes);
state government decided to bring most of the sub-projects
(except for the ones being executed by the Bhopal Municipal
·
Shoreline and Fringe Area Management (construction Corporation and the CPA) under a single umbrella called the
of link road from Retghat to Lalghati, solid waste Bhoj Wetland Project Directorate, by upgrading the project
management, prevention of pollution from Dhobi ghats);
cell within EPCO. Being under the same administrative
and,
department, the CPA was left independent. Thus, two
executive divisions were formed as the IA under the Project
·
Improvement and Management of Water Quality Director (new designation of the Project Offi cer). To assist
(deweeding, biological control of weeds through the IAs in preparing the DPRs of each sub-project, and for
aquaculture, installation of fl oating fountains, water monitoring their implementation, a Project Coordination and
quality monitoring).
Monitoring cell within the project was created, reporting to
the Project Director, with the induction of experts of various
Considering the importance of public awareness in successful
disciplines (environmental engineering, urban planning, geo-
project implementation, public participation and environmental
hydrology, limnology, ecology, etc.) from various government
awareness activities were added as the 15th sub-project. departments. Since EPCO was going to execute such major
Additional works, including a lakeview promenade and works for the fi rst time, an operational system that delineated
protection of lake fringes (both for shoreline management),
the responsibilities of the executing and monitoring divisions
a bridge across the Bhadbada spill channel, establishing an
was prepared and implemented.
Interpretation Center for increasing environmental awareness,
and control of seepage from the earthen dam of the Upper
In May 1998, another major decision was taken to accelerate
Lake, were subsequently included as additional sub-projects
the tendering and sanctioning of the project works. In the
during 2002-2004.
government system, authority for sanctioning works depends
on the magnitude of the estimated costs. The time required
6. Project
Implementation
for such sanction are often long, having to pass through
several levels and thereby creating a bottleneck constraining
Implementation of the projects began in April 1995 under the
smooth progress for time-bound projects. It was necessary
Housing and Environment Department of the State Government,
that such departmental delays be avoided if the project
with the Environmental Planning and Coordination Organisation
was to be completed within the remaining 2 years. A project
(EPCO) playing the role of coordinating agency among various
Technical Evaluation and Tender Approval Committee (TE and
implementing agencies of the State Government. Being a large
TAC) was constituted in May 1998, under the chairmanship of
investment project, sanction of the major works fell under the
the Secretary of the Environment Department, including Chief
purview of the State Cabinet. To ensure speedy disposal, the
Engineers of the Public Health Engineering, Water Resources,
State Cabinet delegated its fi nancial powers to an Empowered
and Public Works, as well as a representative of the Finance
Committee under the chairmanship of the Chief Secretary of
departments, as members. It was the competent authority
the State Government, which was constituted in February for according approval to the Detailed Project Reports of
1996. The Committee had the secretaries of all concerned the various works under the project, evaluating tenders and
state government departments with a stake in the project technical matters, and sanctioning works up to Rs. 15 million
implementation, as well as the MOEF, GOI, as members.
for all IAs.
A project cell was set up within EPCO, with the role of Regarding fi nancial issues, as per the loan agreement with the
coordinating the activities of various implementing agencies
JBIC, the release of funds to the State Government was done via
(IA) and the PMC. At times, the IA showed an indifferent a reimbursement process (i.e., the JBIC would reimburse the
attitude toward completing the project on schedule. The expenditure made by the IAs). The Project Authority previously
project progress was tardy for the fi rst two-and-a-half years
got the funds from the government in the form of budgetary
because of a lack of coordination between the implementing
allocations in its annual budget, with its release from the
and coordinating agencies, as well as the PMC. None of the
Finance Department having to be periodically obtained.
Detailed Project Reports (DPRs) of the various sub-projects
There often was a delay in getting the budget released from
were cleared for implementation during this period, with the
the Finance Department, thereby also delaying payments to
three parties blaming each other for the delay. Two of the contractors. This problem was ultimately overcome with the
DPRs ultimately had to be given to private consultants for EC giving the go-ahead in 2000, with the concurrence of JBIC,
preparation. The project remained headless for a period of 6
to shift from a reimbursement mode to a transfer mode of
months (March - September, 1997).
payment. Under this new system, the bills were passed by the
IAS, and payment to contractors made directly by the JBIC to
their account, thereby bypassing the state budgetary system.

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
49

---

This change both accelerated project execution and made ·
Catchment area treatment. The catchment area of the
the payment system completely transparent. In addition, to
Upper Lake covers about 361 km2, with agricultural
prevent the transfer of IA or EPCO personnel involved in project
practices being undertaken in most of the area. During
execution, the Empowered Committee decided that nobody
the rainy season, runoff from the catchment carries
would be transferred or relieved from his duty without the
much silt and organic debris to the lake. The urban
concurrence of the Empowered Committee.
catchment runoff and sewage enters the lakes through
various drains, causing both siltation and water
With this new system in place, the project implementation
pollution. To mitigate the infl ow of silt, agricultural
became much smoother, with the TE and TAC regularly
residues and other wastes into the lakes, 75 check dams
convening to make necessary technical decisions. Further,
of loose boulder/gabion structures, and 2 silt traps
the time for sanctioning DPRs, calling tenders and tenders
having a cumulative silt trapping capacity of 0.36 million
evaluation, was considerably shortened. In July 2000, however,
m3, have been constructed across 31 inlet channels.
the Project Director was transferred, with the next director
lasting only 4 months, followed by a short period in which
·
Sewerage system. Sewage is a major cause of pollution
the project was headless, resulting in delaying the progress
and water quality deterioration of both lakes with 14
at a crucial implementation stage. Since December 2002, two
drains carrying 15 million liters/day of sewage entering
Project Directors have had reasonable terms of more than a
the Upper Lake and 28 drains carrying 50 million
year, heading the project almost continuously.
liters/day entering the Lower Lake. An infrastructure
has been developed that comprises an 86.7 km pipeline
7. Project
Progress
through congested human settlements with 8 sewage
pump houses and 4 treatment plants for diversion and
Although implementation of the project is still underway,
treatment of domestic sewage. The systems are in a trial
its positive impacts are perceptible, including the following
stage, expected to be fully operational within a period of
areas.
6 months. However, connecting individual households
to the main sewage pipeline is a remaining task.
·
Fringe area protection. The Bhopal Development Plan
2005 prohibits construction within 50 m of the Full ·
Solid waste management. Due to limited infrastructure
Tank Level (FTL) of the Upper Lake and within 33 m of
before project implementation, the municipal
the Lower Lake. Accordingly, a "No Construction Zone,"
corporation could only collect 96 tons of garbage daily,
located up to 50 m from the FTL of the Upper Lake, has
compared to the generation of 131 tons of garbage from
been demarcated with boundary stones. A physical
the project area (18 city wards). The infrastructure of
barrier, in the form of arches along the Lower Lake, has
the Bhopal Municipal Corporation was strengthened
been constructed to prevent direct access to the lake.
from project funds, by providing dumper placers, refuse
compactors, a sewer-cleaning machine and containers.
·
Creation of buffer zones between the lake and the
An electronic weigh bridge also was installed at the
human settlements. A 5.4 km Link Road on the
dump site to monitor the effi ciency of each vehicle.
northeast and a 2.5 km long Lake View Promenade
These measures resulted in the additional collection
on the southeast fringe of the lake, were constructed,
and disposal of 70 metric ton of solid waste from the 18
serving the dual purpose of preventing encroachment
municipal wards located in the urban watershed.
of the lake fringe area and reducing the traffi c pressure
throughout the city. The promenade also has become
·
Prevention of pollution due to washing activities. There
a recreational site for city dwellers. In order to prevent
are unorganized settlements of washermen along the
encroachment by human settlements, cultivation and
Lower Lake, with the sewage from these settlements
grazing within the lake area, and siltation, plantation
previously fl owing directly into the lake. Their cloth-
buffer zones have been created, particularly in the
washing activities also resulted in discharges directly
western, southern and northern fringes of the Upper
into the Lower Lake. These sewage infl ow and washing
Lake. In addition, intensive planting activities have been
activities caused drastic deterioration in the lake's water
carried out in the lake's watershed area to control soil
quality. To ameliorate the situation, the washermen
erosion. The species selected (51 in total) either produce
have been shifted outside the catchment of the Lower
biomass or have medicinal properties; they are also
Lake, with rehabilitation sites for 250 washermen
tolerant of both fl ooding and drought conditions. About
families having all facilities for living and washing, being
1.7 million plants have been planted in over 10 km2 of
constructed. Resettlement of the washermen families
land over a period of 12 years. In the social forestry
was completed in February 2004, with the vacated land
program, farmers were encouraged to raise fruit yielding
being developed as a buffer zone with gardens and
trees along their crop fi elds and marginal lands, with the
parks.
results being encouraging to date.
·
Dredging and desilting of lakes. Due to silt deposition
from the various drains, mass land formation was
50 Bhoj
Wetland

---

occurring at the confl uence points, resulting in
(water hyacinth) and an assemblage of submerged
decreased water storage capacity and spread area.
weeds, was started in a systematic manner in January
About 85,000 m3 silt was removed from the Lower
1999. Maintenance operation are still continuing, with
Lake via the dredging operation. Silt removal in Upper
the magnitude of weed growth having been considerably
Lake, however, was undertaken through dry excavation,
reduced.
after constructing earthen coffer dams and dewatering
the area. A total of 2.70 million m3 of silt was removed
·
Installation of water oxygenation systems. Injection
from 6 peripheral zones of Upper Lake, resulting in a
of ozone to improve water quality of an urban lake
4% increase in lake storage capacity. The excavated
was tried out for the fi rst time in the world in the Lower
materials were transported to wastelands transforming
Lake. For the Upper Lake (a potable water source),
them into productive agricultural and plantation lands.
however, only fountains with the provision of exposing
the hypolimnetic water to the atmosphere, have been
·
Deepening and widening of the spill channel. To
installed. A total of 15 aeration units (1 ozonizer, 1
maintain the Upper Lake's water level, it has a spillway
ozonizer cum fountain and 4 fountains in the Lower
and approach channel (4.41 km long) for the smooth
Lake; 9 fountains in the Upper Lake) have been installed
discharge of excess water during the rainy season
to oxygenate the hypolimnetic water. This activity
through gates. Continued silt deposition over the years
has not only improved the water quality, but has also
within the existing narrow channel section, however,
become a tourist attraction.
resulted in obstructions to the smooth water fl ow
through the channel. Silt accumulation near the gates
·
Aquaculture. Herbivore grass carp, along with Indian
also caused high pressure on the gates. An insuffi cient
Major carp, were introduced in the lakes to control
spillway system discharge capacity would lead to the
submerged weeds (e.g., Hydrilla, Najas, Vallisnaria),
buildup of water pressure in the Upper Lake, causing
as well as to maintain ecological balance. This has
a threat to the dam at Kamla Park. The deepening and
resulted in an up to 50% reduction in the density of
widening works were carried out in 2.6 km of the spill
aquatic weeds, and an increase in fi sh production by
channel to accommodate a discharge of 566 m3/sec,
130%. Thus, this activity has both improved the lake
with about 0.98 million m3 of silt being removed. The
water quality, and enhanced the economic conditions of
channel also was given a proper shape to attain the
fi shermen.
required discharge. As with desilting, the excavated
material was given to public and private parties on ·
Construction of high level bridge across Bhadbhada
payment for their soil improvement and landscaping
spill channel. Because of the development on the
usage, earning the project authority about Rs. 6 million
southeastern part of Upper Lake, and to reduce traffi c
in this manner.
pressure over the old Bhadbhada Bridge (spillway),
a 4-lane bridge across Bhadbhada spill channel was
·
Restoration of Takia Island. Takia Island in the Upper
constructed, and is expected to divert the development
Lake has a Mazar of Shah Ali Shah Rahmatullah Aliah,
outside of the catchment of the Upper Lake.
which is of religious importance. Because of wave
action, its periphery has been getting eroded from ·
Public awareness campaign. During the implementation
the western side over the years, posing a threat to the
of the project, it was concluded that there was a need to
existence of the Mazar, while it was being silted on the
educate the public of Bhopal about the need for the
eastern side. Two rows of toe walls were constructed
project and to make the public aware of the deteriorating
around the island as a remedial measure and the area
lake environment. It was decided, therefore, to organize
between the walls was fi lled in with soil excavated from
a well-coordinated public awareness program. As
the silted lakebed.
an initial activity, a survey was conducted to assess
people's responses regarding the conservation and lake
·
Weed removal. Nutrient enrichment of the lakes due to
management efforts. Based on this initial study, people
infl ows of untreated sewage, organic waste-containing
of all walks of life were involved through the awareness
runoff from urban areas in both lakes, and agricultural
program. The cooperation of selected NGOs also
residues from rural areas around the Upper Lake have
was solicited for this activity, with various education
caused excessive aquatic vegetation growth within
awareness materials being developed including:
the lake area. In order to reduce nutrient recycling and
gatherings at strategic locations; publication of special
prevent accelerated evapotranspiration of lake water,
bulletin (Tal Sandesh) to create awareness regarding
controlled weed removal operations were carried out in
diversion of Idol immersion activities; advertisement in
about 90% of the submergence area of the Upper Lake,
newspapers regarding project actions; communication
and almost the entire area of the Lower Lake. Removal
through TV/radio; T-shirts/caps, showing the message
of different types of weeds, including shoreline (Ipomea
of "Save Bhopal Lakes," used by students/volunteers
fi stulosa), emergent (Scirpus roylie, Cyprus rotandus,
involved in awareness campaign; and stickers
Polygonum glabrum and Ipomoea aquatica), fl oating
with various lake conservation slogans, used to

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
51

---

communicate the message. A major achievement of this
the Upper Lake to the Lower Lake, and to supply potable
awareness campaign was the complete cessation of idol
water to the city. Lacking proper care over the years, the
immersions at the traditional site of the Upper Lake.
upstream retaining wall of the earthen dam, upstream
Details of specifi c the activities carried out under the
toe, and the tunnel inside the earthen dam, were
awareness program are provided in Table 5.
damaged. Consequently, water was seeping throughout
the length of the body of the dam and through the
·
Interpretation Center. To create awareness among
tunnel. A proposal to stabilize the dam retaining wall,
people of all walks of life, an Interpretation Center was
and to prevent water wastage, was included in the
developed on the shore of the Upper Lake, depicting
project at a later stage. The remedial measures included
the origin of the Bhoj Wetland, ecosystem structure and
col-crete construction of existing stone masonry walls,
functions, conservation principles, project activities and
grouting of retaining walls, construction of bell-mouth
the future course of action for the wise use of the lake
inlet and outlet structures of the tunnel, and shot-
ecosystem. This museum is expected to be a common
creting in two layers on the tunnel's inner wall. A vertical
meeting point for stakeholders, as well as a tourist
shaft was provided to facilitate the future inspection
attraction.
and treatment of the tunnel. For inspection purposes, a
pathway was laid on the upstream side of the dam. Area
·
Control of seepage through earthen dam of Upper Lake.
beautifi cation also has been done through provision
The earthen dam of the Upper Lake was constructed in
of planters and lighting, with the work being in its last
the year 1005, reportedly being constructed between
stage of completion.
2 dry masonry wall fi elds with moorum (small pebbles
mixed with red soil) and boulders. A tunnel (gallery) 8. Project
Innovations
subsequently was constructed to release water from
In addition to what was conceptualized in the project, a number
of other innovations also were done, including the following.
Table 5. Activities Carried Out Under the Awareness
Campaign.
·
Promotion of organic farming. Intensive cropping with
Particular Event/Material
Total
inorganic fertilizers is being done in the rural watershed.
number
A signifi cant part of these nutrients fi nd their way into
Workshops
37
the lake via monsoon runoff, causing the growth of
Seminars
7
aquatic vegetation in the lake. With the intention of
Training
22
discouraging farming practices in the watershed based
on inorganic fertilizers, a drive to promote the use
Public meetings
54
of organic manure was launched in 15 villages of the
Recreational program/fi eld visits
20
catchment, comprising two districts of the State. The
Open fora
18
manure was produced by the farmers themselves, and
Rallies
20
was comprised of farm wastes and cow dung. Relevant
activities included hands-on training to farmers for
Eco-camps
24
making high-quality compost using bacterial inoculums.
Street theater/puppet shows
20
The farmers found the method acceptable, since their
Lecture (20) and audio-visual shows (50)
103
crop yields were higher, compared to the conventional
Competitions
43
method, and there also was considerable savings
because the need to purchase inorganic fertilizers was
Exhibitions
20
eliminated.
Participatory programs
18
Bird watching
4
·
Control of idol immersion activities. Religious activities
Science fairs
4
have a deep relationship with water resources in India.
At the end of religious festivals, the immersion of
Festival fairs
1
idols in water is practiced throughout the country. Idol
Film festivals
­
immersion also was practiced in the Upper Lake, which
Big Events
is a potable water source for the people of Bhopal.
Mera Taal Mera Bhopal on World
1
Since the idols are made of wood, hay, bamboo, clay,
Environment Day (5 June 2001)
and printed with bright (heavy metal laden) colors,
the lake was receiving silt, as well as being polluted.
Public hearing (10 October 2001)
1
Thus, an alternate idol immersion site on the spillway
Lake Festival (22 - 25 December 2001)
1
of the Upper Lake was developed, and through constant
Human Chain on World Wetland Day (2nd
1
persuasion and intensive awareness campaigns,
February 2002)
idol immersion ceased around the year 2002 at the
Total
419
traditional site, which was located near the potable
52 Bhoj
Wetland

---

water intake point. Because the new site was located on
since 2002. The water quality at Shetal Das Ki Bagiya and
the spill channel of the Upper Lake, the impacts of idol
Prempura Ghat was analyzed during this period, with improved
immersion on the main waterbody were eliminated.
water quality at Shetal Das Ki Bagiya being recorded after
2002 (Table 6).
·
Control of motor boating. Being a large, urban lake,
boating activities, including motor boats, were popular
9.2 Dredging
and
Desilting
in the Upper Lake, causing pollution problems related to
oil and grease spillage. The project authorities were able
The Upper Lake receives runoff and wastewater from 38 inlet
to convince the BMC to ban motor boating because of
channels in its catchment area, spread from the northern to
the spillage, which was polluting the lake.
southern side of the lake. The major part of the catchment
area is subject to agriculture activities, and part is devoted to
9.
Importance of Scientifi c Studies in Decision
settlements, in a ratio of approximately 70:30. Although part of
Making
the southern side of the Upper Lake is protected, due to the Van
Vihar (protected area) and Shyamla hills, the northern side of
Analysis of water quality, and monitoring of biodiversity of the settlements has spread rapidly over the last two decades.
the two lakes, has been conducted since 1998 on a regular
The shallow portion of the Upper Lake extends towards the
basis. Special studies were conducted to assess the impacts, if
north. The stormwater infl ow deposits silt in the shallow area
any, of anthropogenic activities, as well as developing project
of the lake, with regular deposition of silt and dead organic
activities to facilitate corrective measures, if necessary, on the
matter making the lake shallower. Water to the Upper Lake is
part of decision-makers. Some of the notable special studies
supplied as potable water, thereby exposing the shallow area
are enumerated below in the following sections.
during the summer months because of the receding lake water
level. The accrued nutrients support plant and macrophyte
9.1
Impact of Idol Immersion
growth. After death and decay of the plants, humus is formed,
and because of decomposition of the humus, the nutrients are
The immersion of idols in waterbodies is a religious activity
recycled in the lake ecosystem. This phenomenon is repeated
performed by Hindus after the worship of gods and goddesses.
at least twice per year, enhancing nutrient enrichment of the
Because of the immersions, a considerable quantity of organic
lake water. To ameliorate the situation, as well as increase
and inorganic materials fi nd their way to the waterbodies, the lake's water storage capacity, a desilting operation was
resulting in siltation and water pollution. There also is concern
carried out, resulting in removal of considerable quantities of
related to the toxic materials used in the paint of the idols. In
nutrients from the lake bed, including 187.4 tons of nitrogen
the Upper Lake, Sheetal Das Ki Bagiya was the traditional site
and 93.7 tons of phosphorus in the total 4.68 million tons of
for idol immersion, which was located very near the potable
silt removed.
water intake points. Thus, shifting idol immersion from the
traditional site was necessary. An alternate site at Prempura
9.3 Impacts
of
De-weeding
Ghat was created in the year 1999, and people were requested
via an awareness program to stop idol immersion at Sheetal
The Upper and Lower Lakes receive untreated sewage though
Das Ki Bagiya. Through the cooperation of general public, different sewage inlets. The estimated pollution load to the
religious leaders, district administration and local bodies idol
two lakes through this process is presented at Table 7.
immersion at Sheetal Das Ki Bagiya was completely stopped
Table 6. Comparison of Water Quality Status after Shifting the Idol Immersion Site.
Parameters
Shetal Das Ki Bagiya
Prempura Ghat
1998
2003
1998
2003
Turbidity (FAU)
68
17
6
36
Total alkalinity (mg/l)
228
110
74
164
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD; mg/l)
36.4
12.0
1.6
14.0
Chemical oxygen demand (COD; mg/l)
270
40
20
68
Chloride (mg/l)
50.6
17.98
28.8
24.98
Total hardness (mg/l)
200
104
66
152
Phosphate (mg/l)
2.98
0.37
0.081
3.21
Chromium (mg/l)
0.038
0.009
0.02
0.04
Nickel (mg/l)
0.056
0.038
0.018
0.052
Lead (mg/l)
0.648
0.018
0.023
0.042
Manganese (mg/l)
0.682
0.02
0.043
0.052

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
53

---

Because the lake's nutrient enrichment accelerates the for these lakes were being diluted. Also, environmental
growth of macrophytes, removal of weeds (invasive shoreline
conservation and management of lakes cannot be a one-time
and fl oating weeds, emergent and submerged weeds) was effort, and project activities must be continued as a catalyst to
conducted, and nutrient levels in various types of weeds initiate further action and development activities.
analyzed, as part of the conservation measures (Table 8).
Additionally, the experiences gained and the human resources
developed during the project implementation process should
The pattern of nutrient accumulation in major emergent, be meaningfully utilized for the purpose of conserving lakes
fl oating and submerged weeds is illustrated in Table 9.
and other waterbodies of the entire state of Madhya Pradesh.
Finally, although there are a number of laws related to water
A revival of indigenous species was also observed as a resources, there is no single agency with responsibility for
result of the removal of invasive species. The harvesting of
their conservation and management. Thus, there is a need for
weeds from the lakes, by mechanical or manual means, has
a specialized, legally-empowered agency for the integrated
demonstrated that the eutrophication of the lake can be conservation and management of lakes and waterbodies.
controlled to a large extent by this process. Similarly, the heavy
metal contamination also can be controlled through harvesting
The Government of Madhya Pradesh has proposed establishing
of weeds (e.g., water hyacinth).
an independent Lake Conservation Authority (LCA) for
conservation and management of lakes for the entire state
9.4
Effects of Mechanized Boating
of Madhya Pradesh. In response to this initiative taken by the
Government of Madhya Pradesh, JBIC funded a pre-investment
The Upper Lake attracts many tourists, for which a number
study of the institutional and fi nancial framework of such an
of mechanized boats utilize the lake. Accordingly, a study agency. After discussion with various stakeholders, and several
to assess the impacts of mechanized boating on lake water
rounds of roundtable meetings with the stakeholders, the pre-
quality was conducted, indicating considerable oil and grease
investment study consultant recommended an institutional
leakage from the boats, due to bad maintenance. This material
framework for the Lake Conservation Authority, and suggested
forms an impervious layer over the water surface, causing a mechanism to make the Authority fi nancially viable (it
anaerobic conditions in the bottom water layer in the lake.
is noted that, there were no attempts during the project
Based on these results, action was initiated by the local body
implementation to generate revenues except by the Water
and mechanized boating was prohibited in the Upper Lake.
Quality Monitoring laboratory until now). It is proposed that
the Authority function with two-tier administrative set-up (i.e.,
10.
Future Action Plan for Sustainability
a State level Lake Conservation Authority), headquartered at
Bhopal, with local Lake Management Committees constituted
During the implementation of the Lake Bhopal Conservation
for each conservation area (constituting a specifi c lake, its
and Management Project, it was realized that due to the catchment and command areas). The responsibilities of the
multiplicity of agencies involved in the development, regulation
LCA will include the following:
and maintenance of the lakes and their catchment areas, and
the issues thereof, the conservation and management efforts
·
Preparing an inventory of lakes and other waterbodies in
the state;
Table 7. Estimated Annual Pollution Load from Untreated
Sewage (million tons).
Parameter
Upper Lake
Lower Lake
Table 9. Levels of Nutrients in Various Types of Weeds.
Nitrate
22
44
Type of weed Name
Nutrient level (mg/kg)
Total phosphorus
97
217
Nitrate
Phosphorus
Biochemical oxygen
270
4590
Emergent
Scirpur royli
58.0
0.008
demand (BOD)
Jussia repens

1.28
0.0025
Chemical oxygen
81
22,952
Polygonum

8.28
0.0014
demand (COD)
glabrum
Free fl oating
Eichornia
70.60
0.028
Table 8. Removal of Weeds from Upper and Lower Lakes
crassipes
during 1999-2000.
Submerged
Potamogeton

8.28
0.004
Type of weeds
Quantity removed
crispus
Upper Lake
Lower Lake
Mysiophyllum

1.31
0.0015
Shoreline
4.21 km2
­
spathullatum
(Ipomoea fi stulosa)
Ceratophyllum

8.284
0.0018
Emergent
6.11 km2
­
derriursum
Free fl oating
21,346 tons
5,807 tons
Najas minor

1.28
0.007
Submerged
74,078 tons
­
Vallisnaria
38.0
0.018
54 Bhoj
Wetland

---

·
Identifying critical water sources and formulating responsible for implementation of awareness program
conservation and management plans to prevent involving NGOs, the Research, Development and Monitoring
anthropogenic activities;
and Engineering divisions will focus on development of
conservation plans of the lakes of the state, and monitoring
·
Regulating and controlling incompatible activities which
implementation of such plans by the Field level agencies in the
adversely affect the water sources;
Conservation Areas. The day-to-day function of the LCA will be
under the control of a Chief Executive Offi cer.
·
Formulating policy guidelines for managing water
resources;
The State Government has approached JBIC to provide a core
fund for the functioning of the Authority which, through proper
·
Preparing basin management plans;
investment of the corpus fund, and generating resources
through project grants and consultancy services to other
·
Identifying and facilitating declaration of conservation
agencies involved in lake management within and outside the
areas; and,
state, would generate additional funds to make the Authority
a self-sustaining organization. This issue is presently being
·
Preparing status reports of water resources.
negotiated between the State Government and JBIC.
The conceptual framework of the Authority is provided in
Figure 2. The LCA will have four functional divisions (Research,
Development and Monitoring, Engineering, Outreach and
Administration and Finance). While Outreach Cell will be
Figure 2. Conceptual Framework of the Lake Conservation Authority.

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
55

---

11. Lessons
Learned
11.4 Lakefront Protection is a Must
11.1
An Integrated Project Planning Approach is
The lakefront is always prone to encroachments and pollution,
Required
thereby requiring protection as a major management action.
This could be achieved by declaring a buffer zone from the
Lake management is a very complex issue, involving different
full tank level of the lakes as a "No Construction Zone," by
disciplines, multi-dimensional activities and an integrative developing and demarcating the area as a bio-physical zone.
approach. Unfortunately, the mind set of experts available Nevertheless, protecting the lakefront and water-spread area
for such work is quite different; technocrats consider lakes
from abusers is a continuing battle.
as a physical entity and apply stereotypic technology-based
solutions, while scientists consider lakes as `living systems'
11.5 Administrative and Financial Mechanisms for
requiring specifi c solutions based on prevailing biological
Expeditious Decision-Making are Needed
and physicochemical circumstances. This differing perception
sometimes leads to a confl icting situation in regard to project
Project implementation in a government mechanism is usually
implementation. The best solution to this problem lies in handicapped because of a maze of red tape and delays in
imparting common core training to all project staff, covering
the decision-making process. For special projects, however,
diverse areas and interdisciplinary topics.
there is a need for administrative and fi nancial innovations in
project execution, as has been demonstrated by various state
Staff training should be arranged at the beginning, rather than
government decisions which helped expedite the decision-
in between implementation phases. Staff selection should be
making process.
according to the work requirements, and their qualifi cations,
experience and expertise should be elaborated in the project
11.6 Continuity of Project Staff is Essential
proposal itself. The processing of a project should be simple
and easy so as to avoid delays. Post-project infrastructure This lesson is of utmost importance when executing a time-
maintenance for specifi c periods should be a part of the bound conservation project. In the project, the technical staff
project proposal, including the necessary funding allocations.
involved in project preparation and execution remained with
the project for long periods of time, thereby facilitating project
11.2 A Lake and Its Catchment Must be Managed as a
continuity. However, frequent changes of the project head
Composite Whole
during the period when its execution was in full swing affected
the project implementation progress.
Management of lakes and reservoirs for their sustainable use
is directly linked to their catchment. In other words, a lake is a
11.7 Need to Sustain Measures
refl ection of its catchment, and a number of measures must be
taken to protect the catchment, including:
By their very nature, conservation measures are never one-
time activities. The sustainability of the measures must be
·
Developmental activity that affects its green cover and
ensured for a long period, in order to achieve fruitful results.
landscape should be prohibited, and developmental
activities associated with human settlements in the 12.
References and Further Reading
catchment should be restricted;
Agarker, M.S. et al. 1994. Biology, Conservation and
·
Nonpoint source runoff (i.e., from the drains) must be
Management of Bhoj Wetland. Bionature.
trapped; and,
Annual Report of Environmental Research Laboratory. 2000-
·
Agriculture activities in the catchment require an 2003. Bhoj Wetland Project.
awareness generation, conducted via the government
extension services machinery, especially to facilitate a
Bajpai, A., S. Pani, R.K. Jain and S.M. Misra. 2002. "Heavy metal
change in fertilizer consumption patterns, from chemical
contamination through idol immersion in a tropical lake." Eco.
to organic fertilizers.
Env. and Cons. 8(2): 157-159.
11.3 Awareness Raising, Education and Stakeholder
Chandrasekhar, S.N.A. 1996. Ecological studies on Saroornagar
Participation are Essential
lake, Hyderabad, India. Ph.D. Thesis, Osmania University:
Hyderabad, India.
Stakeholder involvement, including lake-dependent
communities and common people, should be an integral part
Detailed Project Report of Deweeding of lakes. 1997. Bhoj
of any management program. Their interest in the lake needs
Wetland Project.
to be sustained through awareness campaigns and other eco-
friendly activities.
Detailed Project Report of Control of Weeds through
Aquaculture. 1997. Bhoj Wetland Project.
56 Bhoj
Wetland

---

Detailed Project Report of Dredging and Desilting of lakes. Pani, S., B.J. Khan and P.K. Nandi. 2002. "An analysis of
1998. Bhoj Wetland Project.
effectiveness of restoration measures in the improvement
of water quality of Bhoj Wetland." In the Proceedings of
Detailed Project Report on Deepening and Widening of Spill
the International Conference on Hydrology and Watershed
Channel. 1998. Bhoj Wetland Project.
Management, Hyderabad, India.
Edmondson, W.T. 1991. The Uses of Ecology, Lake Washington
Pani, S. and S.M. Misra. 2003. "Impacts of artifi cial aeration/
and Beyond. University of Washington Press: Seattle, WA, ozonization on algal community structure of a tropical
USA.
eutrophic lake." Eco. Env. and Cons. 9(1): 31-34.
Kodarkar, M.S. 1995. "Conservation of lakes, with special Pani S., S.M. Misra and P.K. Nandi. 2000. "Bio-monitoring of
reference to fi ve waterbodies in and around Hyderabad." two tropical water bodies of contrasting trophic status using
Publication 3, Indian Association of Aquatic Biologists (IAAB):
macrobenthos." In the Proceedings of INTECOL 2000.
Hyderabad, India.
Postel, S. 1984. "Water: Rethinking management in an age of
Mukerjee A. 1999. "Conservation and Management of Bhoj scarcity." World Watch Paper 62.
Wetland, India." In the Proceedings of the 8th International
Conference on the Conservation and Management of Lakes in
Singh, R.K. and H. Anandh. 1996. "Water quality index of some
Copenhagen, Denmark.
Indian rivers." Indian J. Environ. Health 38 (1 and 2): 21-34.
Mukerjee, A. 1999. "Fringe Area Management in the Context
Subrata, P. and S.M. Misra. 1993. "Impact of hydraulic detention
of Urban Lakes." In the Proceedings of the 2nd National on the water quality characteristics of a tropical wetland (Lower
Consultation on Framework For Action (FFA) for the Indian lake)." In Pankaj Srivastava (ed.). Environmental pollution and
Water Vision in New Delhi, India.
its management.
Mukerjee, A. 2000. "Religious Activities and Water Pollution:
Tekale, N.S. 2003. "Idol immersion: A critical analysis of
Case Study of Idol Immersion in Upper and Lower Lakes of
environmental impact on urban lakes and remedial measures."
Bhopal." Paper presented in World Lakes Session, 2nd World
In the Proceedings of the UGC-sponsored National Conference
Water Forum in The Hague, Netherlands.
on Urban lakes: Environmental status economics and
management options, Hyderabad, India.
Mukerjee, A., P.K. Nandi and A.K. Bajpai. 2000. "Dynamics
in Bhoj Wetland, Bhopal." Paper presented at the 20th
World Commission on Environment and Development. 1990.
Annual International Symposium of the North American Lake
Our Common Future. Oxford University Press: Oxford, U.K.
Management Society, Madison, USA.
Zafar, A.R. 1959. "Taxonomy of lakes." Hydrobiologia 13(3):
Mukerjee, A. and P.K. Nandi. 2000. "Impact of religious 187-299.
practices, boating and trapa cultivation on Upper Lake,
Bhopal." In the Proceedings of the 10th World Water Congress,
Disclaimer
Melbourne, Australia.
The fi ndings, interpretations and conclusions expressed
Mukerjee, A. 2001. "Religious Activities and Water Pollution."
in this report are the views of the authors and do not
Paper presented at Asian Wetland Symposium, Penang, necessarily represent the views of The World Bank and its
Malaysia.
Board of Directors, or the countries they represent, nor do
they necessarily represent the view of the organizations,
Muromoto, S. and Y. Oki. 1983. "Removal of some heavy metals
agencies or governments to which any of the authors are
from polluted water by water hyacinth (Eichornia crassipes)."
associated. Also, the colors, boundaries, denominations, and
Bull. Environ. Contain. Toxicol. 30: 170-177.
classifi cations in this report do not imply, on the part of The
World Bank and its Board of Directors, or the countries they
Nandi P.K. and S. Pani. 2002. "Impact of nutrient enrichment
represent, and the organizations, agencies or governments to
on biodiversity of a tropical wetland." In the Proceedings of the
which any of the authors are associated, any judgment on the
Conference on Reservoir Limnology, Czech Republic.
legal or other status of any territory, or any endorsement or
acceptance of any boundary.
Nandi P.K. 2002. "Control of Ipomoea fi stulosa, an invader
species in Upper Lake, Bhopal, India." In the Proceedings
of the 23rd Meeting of the Society of Wetland Science, Lake
Placid, USA.

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
57

---

---