IWCAM INDICATORS MECHANISM
AND CAPACITY ASSESSMENT
PART TWO
Prepared by
Sherry Heileman & Leslie Walling
Consultants
for the
GEF Project on "Integrating Watershed & Coastal Areas
Management in Caribbean Small Island Developing States (GEF-
IWCAM)"
GEF-IWCAM
Table of Contents
1. Introduction .................................................................................................................. 1
2. Selection of Indicators for the Template....................................................................... 4
3. Indicators Template...................................................................................................... 7
3.1. Stress Reduction and Environmental Status Indicators ............................................ 7
3.2. Process Indicators .................................................................................................. 36
4. Conclusions and Recommendations ............................................................................. 48
5. References and Acronyms ............................................................................................ 49
Tables
Table 1: Major objectives and issues related to IWCAM in the participating countries........ 5
Table 2: Proposed Stress Reduction and Environmental State/Socioeconomic Indicators . 8
Table 3: Process indicators at regional, national, and local levels. Generic indicators are
given in bold italics, under which are given a number of specific indicators. ..................... 36
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1. Introduction
The preparation of this indicator template constituted the second component of the
assignment `IWCAM indicators mechanism and capacity assessment', under the Project
"Integrating Watershed and Coastal Areas Management in Caribbean Small Island
Developing States (IWCAM)", which is funded by the Global Environment Facility (GEF),
co-implemented by the United Nations Development Project (UNDP) and the United
Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), and co-executed by the Caribbean
Environmental Health Institute (CEHI) and the UNEP Caribbean Regional Coordinating
Unit (UNEP CAR-RCU).
In order to evaluate in concrete terms if IWCAM goals and objectives are being achieved
at the national level, and to take appropriate adaptive and corrective measures, regular
assessment, evaluation, and monitoring must be an essential component of any IWCAM
programme. Monitoring and evaluation is widely recognized as an indispensable tool in
project and programme management, and monitoring and evaluation is an essential
requirement of the entire life cycle of GEF projects (Text Box 1).
Indicators can provide crucial
Text Box 1: GEF M&E
guidance for decision-making in
In the GEF context, monitoring is the continuous or periodic
a number of ways. For instance,
process of collecting and analyzing data to measure the
they can translate scientific
performance of a programme, project, or activity using well
knowledge into manageable
defined and relevant indicators. As an integral and continuing
units of information that can
part of project/programme management, it provides managers
and stakeholders with regular feedback on implementation and
facilitate the decision-making
progress towards the attainment of national, regional and global
process by helping in priority
environmental objectives. Monitoring enables management to
setting, measuring and
take appropriate corrective action to achieve desired results. An
calibrating progress towards
essential component of a monitoring and evaluation plan is a
sustainable development goals,
suite of appropriate indicators.
and providing an early warning
of economic, social and
environmental damage. They are also important tools to communicate ideas, thoughts and
values. There have been several affirmations of the importance of indicators of sustainable
development at international fora, such as the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation
(JPOI), which was adopted at the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) in
2002, and which encouraged, inter alia, further work on indicators for sustainable
development at the national level.
An assessment and monitoring framework, with a suite of appropriate indicators is of
paramount importance for the long term success of national IWCAM programmes. While
there have been a number of past efforts for developing environment statistics and
indicators in the region (see Part I), strategic plans for collecting, analyzing, and
disseminating environmental data and statistics in a well-coordinated and coherent
manner have been limited. So too have been focused efforts to define national
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GEF-IWCAM
environmental indicators to be monitored on a regular basis. In recent decades the
Caribbean SIDS have seen the onset of, inter alia, Agenda 21, the BPoA, and Multilateral
Environmental Agreements (MEAs); meeting their obligations and reporting requirements
all demand the collection of environmental statistics and the use of indicators.
The major objective of this component was to develop an indicators template to monitor
changes in the state of the watershed and coastal environments, monitor the trends in
socioeconomic pressures and conditions in watershed communities and coastal towns,
and to assess the efficacy of IWCAM in addressing these issues and mitigating harmful
impacts, both during the project and in the post-project period. In the longer term, the
selected indicators should be adopted and tracked by the participating countries,
according to their particular circumstances or needs. Each country would need to
determine the baselines and benchmarks for each indicator, since these would vary
among countries and issues.
The template is based on the three types of indicators (Box 2) recommended by GEF for
Text Box 2: The three types of indicators used in GEF International waters projects
Process indicators (PI) focus on the processes or outputs that are likely to lead towards a desirable
outcome, and demonstrate actual, on-the-ground institutional and political progress in solving the
problems. These process indicators assist in tracking the domestic, regional institutional, policy,
legislative, and regulatory reforms necessary to bring about change. They establish regional or national
frameworks/conditions for improving environmental/water resources quality or quantity but do not in and
of themselves deliver stress reduction or improved environmental/water resources quality or quantity.
The establishment of process indicators is essential to characterize the completion of institutional
processes on the multi-country level or national level that will result in action on needed policy, legal,
and institutional reforms and investments. Examples of PIs are:
o Formulation and documentation of a National Intersectoral Committee to address and coordinate
IWCAM issues;
o Country ratification of regional or global conventions and protocols pertinent to the project.
Stress reduction indicators (SRI) relate to the specific on-the-ground measures implemented by the
countries to address the particular issue or concern, and which characterize and quantify specific
reductions in environmental/water resources stress on water bodies or increases in stress-reduction
measures. These indicators document on-the-ground results of demonstration scale pilot projects,
investments, and implementation of sectoral reforms, i.e., they show the rate of success of specific on-
the-ground actions implemented. Examples of SRIs are:
o Non-point source pollution programmes implemented (area treated with best management
practices);
o Area of eroded land stabilized by tree planting (estimated sedimentation reduction).
Environmental status indicators (ESI) are goal-oriented and focus on actual improvements of
ecosystem or environmental quality (state) as well as any associated socioeconomic improvements that
usually extend beyond the lifetime of the project. These indicators are usually `static' snapshots of
environmental and socioeconomic conditions at a given point in time and, like Stress Reduction, are
usually reported against a baseline year and level to show change/improvement. A number of
socioeconomic indicators (SEI) are also indicators of the impacts of environmental change on human
survival and wellbeing. Examples of ESIs are:
o Improved (measurable) chemical, physical (including flow regimes), or biological parameters;
o Improved hydrological balance as vegetation cover increases as a result of reforestation
programmes.
Note: SRI reflects the source (input) of pressure or stress on the environment (e.g. volume of untreated
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GEF-IWCAM
use in its International Waters Projects (Duda 2002): Environmental Status/Water
Resources Indicators (ESI), Stress Reduction Indicators (SRI), and Process Indicators
(PI). Among other commonly used assessment and monitoring frameworks and
associated indicators are the Driver-State-Response (DSR) and its variations such as
Driver-Pressure-State-Impact-Response (DPSIR) and Pressure-State-Response (PSR)
(OECD, 1993; EEA, 1998; UN and World Bank, 2001).
3
2. Selection of Indicators for the Template
Environmental problems in the watersheds and coastal areas of the Caribbean SIDS are
diverse, with many possible solutions and a variety of settings regarding capacity,
institutional, and policy frameworks, among others. Hence, there can be no one standard
list of indicators that applies to all the countries; each country would select a set of
indicators for use in their respective IWCAM programmes. The indicators selected would
be determined largely by the objectives for IWCAM, the nature of the proposed
interventions or activities, the feasibility and cost of collecting various types of information
and data, and the institutional capability for incorporating them into analysis and decision-
making processes. Indicators that measure project impacts quantitatively as opposed to
indicators that simply identify direction of change in environmental performance are
particularly useful. Selection criteria for environmental indicators are listed in Text Box 3.
These also embody the so-called "SMART" concept of indicators1.
Text Box 3: Selection criteria for environmental indicators
Each indicator should meet as many of these criteria as possible:
-
Serve as a robust indicator of environmental change;
-
Reflect a fundamental or highly valued aspect of the environment;
- Be either national in scope or applicable to regional environmental issues of national
significance;
-
Provide an early warning of potential problems;
- Be capable of being monitored to provide statistically verifiable and reproducible data that
show trends over time and, preferably, apply to a broad range of environmental regions;
-
Be scientifically credible;
-
Be easy to understand;
-
Be monitored regularly with relative ease and cost-effectiveness;
-
Have relevance to policy and management needs;
- Contribute to monitoring of progress towards implementing commitments in nationally
important environmental policies;
-
Where possible and appropriate, facilitate community involvement;
-
Contribute to the fulfillment of reporting obligations under international agreements;
- Where possible and appropriate, be consistent and comparable with other countries'
indicators.
The selection of indicators for inclusion in the template was based on three main criteria:
1. The objectives and expected outcomes of the overall GEF-IWCAM project and of
the demonstration projects. These objectives and outcomes reflect national IWCAM
and sustainable development issues in the participating countries, as revealed in
the project document, country reports prepared for the project, and other pertinent
1 "SMART" concept of indicators:
-
Simple (easily interpreted and monitored)
-
Measurable (statistically verifiable, reproducible and show trends)
-
Accessible (regularly monitored, cost effective and consistent)
-
Relevant (directly address issues or agreed objectives)
-
Timely (provide early warning of potential problems)
GEF-IWCAM
documents. Six major IWCAM objectives, each with a number of significant issues,
were considered to be of interest under the project (Table 1). Core and
supplementary SRI, ESI, and SEI were arranged according to these objectives and
issues. Core indicators are those indicators that were judged to be most pertinent to
IWCAM and are relevant to other national, regional, and international frameworks,
as discussed in Part I (Indicators Mechanism and Capacity Assessment). According
to the approach used by GEF, the SRI, ESI, and SEI should be stated as an
increase or decrease (as appropriate) in the indicator.
2. Relevance to other regional and international frameworks such as the CSME,
OECS St. George's Declaration, Latin American and Caribbean Initiative (ILAC),
MEA and action plans, MDGs, and UN Commission on Sustainable Development
indicators for sustainable development. Wherever possible, the core indicators are
common to regional and international initiatives, so that they represent a common
tool to assist governments in meeting international requirements for reporting and
avoid imposing an unnecessary burden on governments and other partners. This
would also help improve information consistency at the national, regional, and
international levels.
3. Availability of data and statistics for compiling the indicators. A number of initiatives
for developing and compiling environmental statistics have been undertaken in the
Caribbean, both at the national and regional levels. The indicators mechanism
assessment in Part I revealed the existence of several indicator mechanisms and
associated data and information related to a number of themes pertinent to
IWCAM. However, while some data are available for a number of the indicators, the
lack of data for others or significant gaps in existing data are evident in all the
participating countries.
The draft indicators template was presented at the GEF IWCAM Indicators Workshop,
Ocho Rios, Jamaica, 2008 (see workshop report in Part III). Additional indicators were
suggested by the workshop participants and are also included in the template.
Table 1: Major objectives and issues related to IWCAM in the participating countries
IWCAM OBJECTIVE
ISSUE
Sustainable water resource use
Declining water resources; human health risks
Conservation/protection of
Forest loss
ecosystems and natural living
Land degradation
resources
Coral reef degradation/loss
Mangrove degradation/loss
Seagrass degradation/loss
Biodiversity loss
Degradation of water quality
Beach loss
Unsustainable fisheries exploitation
Unsustainable tourism development
Sustainable agricultural practices
Harmful agricultural practices
Pollution control/reduction
Solid waste
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Industrial waste
Sewage/domestic wastewater; human health risks
Atmospheric emissions
Improved water quality
Reduction in quality of coastal/marine waters
Reduction in quality of freshwater
Reduction in exposure to natural
Increased vulnerability to natural disasters
disasters
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3. Indicators Template
3.1. Stress Reduction and Environmental Status Indicators
A number of SRI, ESI, and SEI are given in Table 2. Further details (Description/meaning,
rationale, policy relevance, data, and lead agencies) are provided for 17 core SRI and 25
core ESI/SEI indicators that are relevant to the principal regional and international
environmental/sustainable development frameworks, and considered to be very pertinent
to IWCAM. These descriptions are partly based on a number of sources including United
Nations and World Bank 20012; CBD 20033; United Nations 20034; UNEP/World
Bank/University Costa Rica 20045; UNESCO 20066; UNDESA 20077. Where possible, the
descriptions have been adapted to reflect the situation in the Caribbean SIDS.
2 United Nations and World Bank. 2001. Indicators of Sustainable Development: Guidelines and Methodologies. United
Nations, New York. http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/natlinfo/indicators/indisd/indisd-mg2001.pdf
3 CBD (2003). Proposed Biodiversity Indicators Relevant to the 2010 Target.
http://www.cbd.int/doc/meetings/sbstta/sbstta-09/information/sbstta-09-inf-26-en.pdf. See also http://www.cbd.int/2010-
target/indicators/database.shtml
4 United Nations (2003). Indicators for Monitoring the Millennium Development Goals. Definitions, Rationale, Concepts,
and Sources. United Nations, New York.
5 UNEP/World Bank/University of Costa Rica (2004). Latin American and Caribbean Initiative for Sustainable
Development Indicators Follow-up. ILAC 2004 Indicators.
6 UNESCO (2006). A Handbook for Measuring the Progress and Outcomes of Integrated Coastal and Ocean
Management. IOC Manuals and Guides, 46; ICAM Dossier, 2. Paris, UNESCO,
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001473/147313e.pdf
7 UNDESA (2007). Indicators for Sustainable Development.
http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/natlinfo/indicators/isdms2001/table_4.htm
GEF-IWCAM
Table 2: Proposed Stress Reduction and Environmental State/Socioeconomic Indicators
(Core indicators are shown in bold italics. The frameworks under which the core indicator is relevant are shown in parentheses).
Note: a number of indicators could be applied to more than one issue
OBJECTIVE/ISSUE
STRESS REDUCTION INDICATORS
ENVIRONMENTAL STATE AND SOCIOECONOMIC
INDICATORS
1. Sustainable water resource use
1.1 Declining water
- Reduction in annual withdrawal of surface and
- % population with access to clean drinking
resources; human
groundwater (CSME; UNCSD)
water (BPoA; CSME; Mauritius Strategy; ILAC;
health risk
- Increase in area of river basin under management
MDG 7, T10; UNCSD)
(ILAC)
- Water availability/capita (CSME; ILAC; St.
- Increase in number of watershed restoration
George's)
programmes
- Water consumption/capita (CSME; ILAC)
- Improvement in technology (or investment) for
- River flow regimes (CBD; CCD)
more efficient water use
- Surface and groundwater levels (related to river
- Increase in aquifer recharge rate
flow regimes, aquifer recharge rate)
- Increase in water use efficiency leading to reduced
- Mean annual rainfall (correlated with water levels
extraction rate (m3/ha/yr in irrigation)
and other relevant indicators)
- Increase in watershed area with appropriate cover
- Incidence of related diseases
(see forest/vegetation cover)
- Reduction in water demand/consumption (UNCSD)
(see annual water withdrawal)
2. Conservation/protection of ecosystems and natural living resources
2.1 Forest loss
- Reduction in deforestation rate (Mauritius Strategy;
-
% Forest/vegetation cover (CSME;
UNFCCC)
CBD;FAO;ILAC; MDG 7, T9; St. Georges; UNCCD;
- Increase in number of reforestation programmes
UNCSD; UNFCCC)
- Reduction in population using solid fuels (ILAC;
MDG 7, T9; UNFCCC)
- Increase in forest area under sustainable
management or protected (CSME; CBD; ILAC;
Mauritius Strategy; St. George's; UNCSD)
- Reduction in incidence of forest fires
2.2 Land degradation - Increase in % municipalities with land use plans
- % Land use change (CSME; ILAC; UNCSD) (see
being implemented (ILAC)
forest cover)
- Increase in area protected (CSME)
- Area degraded (erosion, desertification, etc)
- Increase in amount of land stabilized by tree
(CCD; ILAC; UNCSD)
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planting
- Soil fertility/nutrient balance (CCD)
- Reduction in rate of erosion/topsoil loss
- Organic material content of soil
- Increase in area of rehabilitated land
- Total suspended solids in rivers and coastal
- (see also Agriculture indicators)
areas (GPA; LBS; CBD)
- Area/ population of urban formal and informal
settlements (CSME; ILAC; MDG; UNCSD)
- Exposed soil surface (CCD)
- Ratio cultivated /natural cover
2.3 Coral reef
- Increase in area protected, no. MPAs (CBD;
- % Live coral cover (BPoA; CBD; GPA; SPAW; St.
degradation/loss
SPAW; St. George's;UNCSD*)
George's; UNCSD**)
- Increase in area under sustainable management
- Fish species diversity and abundance (see
- Increase in sustainable tourism practices (Mauritius
Biodiversity)
Strategy)
- Population abundance of indicator species (see
- Reduction in coral removal rate
Biodiversity)
- Improved coastal water quality (see water quality
- % Algal cover
indicators)
- Area of coral reef ecosystem
- Increase in adoption of EIA practices for coastal
- Incidence/area of coral bleaching
developments (Mauritius Strategy)
- Incidence of coral diseases
- Coral
growth
rate
* % marine area protected
- See also water quality
**area of selected key ecosystem
2.4 Mangrove
- Increase in area protected (CBD; SPAW; St.
- Mangrove area by type (BPoA; CBD; GPA;
degradation/loss
George's; UNCSD*)
SPAW; St. George's; UNCSD**)
- Increase in area under sustainable management
- Productivity
- Increase in number of mangrove restoration
- See also water quality
programmes (area restored)
- Reduction in mangrove removal rate
- Improved coastal water quality (see water quality
indicators)
- Increase in adoption of EIA practices for coastal
developments
**area selected key ecosystem
2.5 Seagrass
- Increase in seagrass area protected (CBD; SPAW;
- Seagrass area (BPoA; CBD; GPA; SPAW; St.
degradation/loss
St. George's; UNCSD*)
George's; UNCSD**)
- Increase in number of seagrass restoration
- Productivity
programmes (area restored)
- Epiphytes
- Reduction in removal rate
- See also water quality
- Improved coastal water quality (see water quality
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indicators)
- Increase in adoption of EIA practices for coastal
developments
**area selected key ecosystem
2.6 Biodiversity loss
- Increase in no. and area of protected areas (%
- Population abundance of selected marine and
territory protected) (CSME; CBD; ILAC*; MDG 7,
terrestrial species (CBD; St. George's; UNCSD)
T9; SPAW Protocol; St. George's; UNCSD; WSSD)
(incl keystone and indicator species)
- Increase in measures to protect threatened and/or - No. and abundance of threatened, endangered
indigenous species
species (CBD; CITES; UNCSD)
- Increase in measures to reduce habitat loss
- No. and abundance of invasive species
- Increase in measures to eliminate invasive
(UNCSD)
species/reduce their introduction
- Habitat
diversity
*marine diversity
2.7 Degradation of
- Reduction in pollution loads to coastal and
- Water temperature
water quality
freshwater environments (LBS, GPA)
A number of water quality indicators are available
- Increase in buffer zone along river banks and
(see ESI below)
reservoirs
2.8 Beach loss
- Reduction in illegal sand mining
- % coastline affected by erosion
- Reduction in land based pollution (see water
- Undisturbed beach/sandy shoreline area
quality)
- Increase in number of coastal
protection/stabilization measures
2.9 Unsustainable
- Increase in % fish stocks sustainably managed
- Annual fisheries catch (total & by major
fisheries exploitation
(FAO Code of Conduct)
species, incl. marine mammals) (CSME; CBD;
- Reduction of fishing effort (e.g. no. boats, fishers)
FAO Code of Conduct; ILAC; UNCSD)
for overfished stocks (FAO Code of Conduct)
- Mean sizes in catch of major species
- Increase in number of marine reserves/no-take
- Catch/unit effort (or abundance of major
zones
exploited species) (FAO Code of Conduct;
- Increase in % fish stocks within safe biological limits
WSSD)
(FAO Code of Conduct; UNCSD)
- % stocks within safe biological limits (FAO Code of
- Reduction in use of destructive fishing practices (FAO
Conduct; UNCSD)
Code of Conduct)
- Mean trophic level of catch
- Reduction in IUU fishing (FAO Code of Conduct)
- No. fishers, boats (by size, etc)
- Increase in alternative livelihoods, poverty reduction
initiatives in fishing communities
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2.10 Unsustainable
- Increase in number of sustainable tourism
-
Tourism intensity in coastal areas and the
tourism development
initiatives (SEI)
upper watershed* (CSME, CTO, ACS)
* several indicators exist e.g. number of hotels by
size, number of tourists/year, type of tourism, etc.
3. Improved agricultural practices
3.1 Unsustainable
- Reduction in intensity of fertilizer use/increase in
-
Concentration of residual agricultural
agricultural practices
fertilizer use efficiency (CSME; GPA; LBS Protocol;
chemicals in water, soil, food chain (see water
UNCSD)
quality indicators)
- Reduction in intensity of agricultural pesticide
-
Concentration of nutrients (N, P, K) in water
use (CSME; GPA; LBS Protocol;UNCSD)
(see water quality indicators)
- Increase in organic farming (UNCSD)
-
Crop production/unit area
- Increase in crop rotation practices
-
Production cost/unit area
- Increase in more efficient irrigation practices
-
Incidence of illnesses related to use and
- Increase in area where sustainable agricultural
handling, and ingestion of agricultural
practices are implemented
chemicals
- Reduction in volume of agricultural chemicals
imported/year
- Increase in contour farming
4. Pollution control/reduction
4.1 Solid waste
- Increase in % population with access to solid
waste collection (ILAC; St. George's)
- Increase in % solid waste properly disposed
of/recycled/reused (CSME; Mauritius Strategy; ILAC;
St. George's; UNCSD)
- Reduction in quantity of solid waste produced
(total; per capita) (CSME; ILAC; UNCSD)
- Increase in number of sanitary landfills
- Reduction in number of unofficial dump sites
4.2 Industrial
- Increase in volume of waste treated, recycled,
- See water quality and atmospheric emissions (ESI)
waste
properly disposed (CSME; ILAC; St. George's;
- Incidence of related diseases (Socioeconomic-
UNCSD)
ESI)
- Reduction in untreated waste discharges
- Levels of contaminants in food chain (plant and
- Increase in no. of industries adopting cleaner
animal tissue)
production technologies and/or environmental
management standards/system
- Reduction in volume of pollutants (incl. toxic and
hazardous substances) produced (UNCSD)
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- Increase in investment for cleaner technologies
- Increase in number of companies using ISO
certification (ILAC)
4.3.
- Increase in % population with access to sanitation
- Faecal coliform concentration in surface and
Sewage/domestic
facilities (BPoA; CSME; Mauritius Strategy; ILAC;
ground water (GPA; LBS; UNCSD)
wastewater; human
MDG 7, T10; UNCSD)
- Nutrient (nitrates, nitrites, total nitrogen,
health risks
(Increase in % population with adequate sewage
phosphates) levels in surface and ground water
disposal facilities)
(GPA; LBS)
- Increase in volume of sewage/wastewater treated
- Incidence of related diseases (CSME)
(ILAC; St. George's; UNCSD)
- Increase in number of functioning sewage
treatment plants
- Increase in investment for sewage treatment
- Reduction in nutrient and bacterial loadings in
aquatic environment
- Reduction in untreated sewage discharges
- Increase in consumers using non-phosphate detergent
4.4. Atmospheric
- Reduction in CO2 emissions (per capita) (BPoA;
- Ambient concentration of air pollutants in
emissions
CSME; St. George's; MDG 7, T9; ILAC; UNCSD;
urban/industrial areas (CSME; UNCSD) - a
UNFCCC)
number of substances such as lead, SO2,
- Increase in proportion of renewable energy/total
particulates)
energy consumed (CSME; ILAC; St. George's;
- Energy consumption/GDP (ILAC; MDG 7, T9)
UNCSD)
- Energy use/capita (St. George's; UNCSD)
- Reduction in use of solid fuels (CSME; MDG;
Incidence of related illnesses (SEI)
UNFCCC)
- Increase in number of industries using emission
control
- Reduction in emission of other air pollutants (e.g.
NOx, SO2, CH4, Pb,VOCs) from mobile and
stationary sources (CSME)
- Reduction in emissions of other GHGs (UNCSD)
- Reduction in fossil fuel consumption/capita
- Increase in efficiency of fuel combustion
5. Improved water quality
5.1 Reduction in
- Reduction in point and non-point pollution
Coastal water quality (CSME; CBD; GPA;
quality of
discharges to coastal waters (GPA, LBS, CSME,
LBS;UNCSD;WSSD):
coastal/marine
CBD, UNCSD)
- Concentration of selected pollutants in coastal
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GEF-IWCAM
waters
- Reduction in average and peak sediment loads in
water and sediments (e.g. faecal coliform;
coastal areas (GPA, LBS)
hydrocarbons and other chemical compounds;
- See also Pollution control/reduction
heavy metals; total suspended solids)
- Nutrient loads
- Chlorophyll-a concentration in surface waters
- BOD/COD
- Dissolved oxygen
- Algae concentration in coastal waters
- Incidence of HABs
- Incidence of fish kills
5.2 Reduction in
- Reduction in releases of pollution to surface and
As above, a number of indicators exists dependent
quality of freshwater
groundwater recharge zones
on the issue of concern (e.g. faecal coliform levels,
- Reduction in average and peak sediment loads in
BOD/COD; nutrients; chemical contaminants;
rivers and coastal areas
suspended solids; salinity)
6. Reduction in exposure to natural disasters
6.1 Increased
- Establishment/enforcement of coastal setbacks
-
Population in disaster-prone areas
vulnerability to
for residential and commercial structures
(BPoA;UNCSD)
natural disasters
- Incorporation of hazard mapping into zoning,
-
Annual economic losses from natural
land use planning, and development approvals
disasters (BPoA; CSME; UNCSD)
processes
-
Annual human losses from natural disasters
- Improvement in identification of disaster high risk
(BPoA; CSME; UNCSD)
zones
-
Frequency and intensity by type of extreme
- Increase in disaster response/early warning
natural events (CSME)
systems
-
Mean sea level
Stress Reduction Indicators Description
1. Reduction in annual withdrawal of ground and surface water (% Total Renewable Water)
Definition & meaning
Measures the total annual volume of ground and surface water abstracted as a percentage of the total annually
renewable volume of freshwater. It is an important measure of a country's vulnerability to water shortages. It also
captures the risk to terrestrial environments, aquatic ecosystems, and groundwater from over-extraction of
freshwater resources.
Rationale
Freshwater is essential to support human life, ecosystems and aquatic living resources, and economic
development. The global issues of health, poverty, climate change, deforestation, desertification, and land use
change are all directly associated with water resource and its management. Scarce water could constrain
sustainable social and economic development, and could also lead to loss of biodiversity. Many Caribbean
islands rely on a single source of water, such as groundwater, rainwater, rivers, and other surface flows (UNEP
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GEF-IWCAM
2005). A number of these islands are vulnerable to variable freshwater supplies and shortages, and have been
classified as `water scarce' countries (FAO 2003). Among the threats to water resources in the SIDS are over-
extraction of water, degradation of watersheds, climate change (increase in drought), and inefficient irrigation
practices. This indicator can show the need for adjusted supply and demand management policy. When the
indicator is calculated by sector, it can reflect the extent of water resource scarcity with increasing competition
and conflict between different water uses and users.
Policy relevance
BPoA; ILAC; Mauritius Strategy; MDG 7, T10; St. George's Declaration; UNCSD; WSSD
Data and lead
National agency responsible for water resources;
agencies
FAO AQUASTAT (http://www.fao.org/ag/AGL/AGLW/aquastat/aquastat.htm);
World Water Assessment Programme (UNESCO) World Water Development Report; CIMH (www.cimh.org)
CARDI/PROCICARIBE Caribbean Land and Water Resources Network
(www.procicaribe.org/networks/clawrenet/index.htm)
Comments
Related indicators: Surface and groundwater levels; River flow regime; Increase in aquifer recharge rate (SRI);
Water consumption/capita; Increase in more efficient irrigation practices (SRI).
2. Increase in aquifer recharge rate
Definition & meaning
Measures the total annual change (increase or decrease) in groundwater level or volume. It is an important
measure of a country's vulnerability to water shortages, particularly if the country is highly dependent on
groundwater resources.
Rationale
Groundwater is an important source of freshwater in the PCs. A number of these islands are vulnerable to
variable freshwater supplies and shortages, and have been classified as `water scarce' countries (FAO 2003).
Furthermore, over-extraction of groundwater is leading to saline intrusion into groundwater aquifers in a number
of the PCs. Groundwater levels are affected by a number of factors, including changing vegetation cover, land
degradation, climate variability and water withdrawal rate. Monitoring of aquifer water levels over a period of time
provides information on aquifer recharge rate, increase in which is a stress reduction indicator. This indicator can
show the need for adjusted water supply and demand management policy, as well as for improved watershed
management.
Policy relevance
BPoA; ILAC; Mauritius Strategy; MDG 7, T10; St. George's Declaration; UNCSD; WSSD
Data and lead
National agency responsible for water resources;
agencies
FAO AQUASTAT (http://www.fao.org/ag/AGL/AGLW/aquastat/aquastat.htm);
World Water Assessment Programme (UNESCO) World Water Development Report; CIMH (www.cimh.org)
CARDI/PROCICARIBE Caribbean Land and Water Resources Network
(www.procicaribe.org/networks/clawrenet/index.htm)
3. Increase in area of river basin under management
Definition & meaning
Area of river basins (and aquifers) with integrated river basin management plans.
Rationale
It is well recognized that the river basin is the most appropriate geographic unit to plan and administer the
multiple uses of water resources, and that an integrated approach is needed for effective river basin
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GEF-IWCAM
management. Among the Caribbean SIDS, the lack of integrated river basin management, as well as
deforestation and other factors, is threatening the sustainability of their freshwater resources. In addition to
integrated management of river basins, degraded watersheds need to be restored (SRI indicator: Increase in
number of watershed restoration programmes). Monitoring of this indicator will show progress towards integrated
river basin management, the success of which could be reflected by other indicators such as surface and
groundwater levels.
Policy relevance
ILAC
Data and lead
National agencies responsible for water resources, forestry.
agencies
Comments
Related indicators: Number of watershed restoration programmes (SRI); Number of reforestation programmes
(SRI); Forest/vegetation cover; Increase in forest area under sustainable management (SRI); % land use change;
Increase in aquifer recharge rate (SRI); Reduction in deforestation rate.
4. Increase in protected area
Definition & meaning
This indicator measures the area of protected land ecosystems, inland water ecosystems, and marine
ecosystems expressed as a percentage of the total area of the ecosystem in question. It represents the extent to
which areas important for conserving biodiversity are protected from incompatible uses.
Rationale
Sustainable development depends on a healthy environment, which in turn depends on ecosystem diversity.
SIDS possess fragile and unique biodiversity and ecosystems, on which their socio-economic development is
highly dependent. Protected areas are essential for maintaining ecosystem and biological diversity, in conjunction
with management of human impacts on the environment. Protected areas have also become places of high social
and economic value, e.g. supporting local livelihoods; protecting watersheds from erosion; harbouring genetic
resources; providing for science, research and education; and forming a basis for cultural and other non-material
values. In the Caribbean SIDS, critical ecosystems and the biodiversity they support are increasingly under threat
from human and natural pressures. While all these countries have established protected areas and reserves,
including marine protected areas, the enforcement of related regulations continues to be a problem.
Policy relevance
CANARI; CSME; CCA; Mauritius Strategy; NBSAP; Ramsar; SPAW Protocol; St. George's Declaration; UNCBD;
UNCSD
Data and lead
Ministries of Environment and other agencies responsible for the designation and maintenance of protected
agencies
areas. UNEP-WCMC, IUCN's World Commission on Protected Areas compiles the United Nations List of
Protected Areas, which provides information on all protected areas of 1,000 ha or more (plus smaller areas
occupying entire islands) for all countries.
UNEP-WCMC/IUCN World Database on Protected Areas (http://sea.unep-wcmc.org/wdbpa/UN.cfm, www.unep-
wcmc.org/wdpa/); IUCN (www.iucn.org); Global Biodiversity Assessment 2002 (CBD); Country profiles
(www.cbd.int/countries/default.shtml);
See www.mpaglobal.org for information on Caribbean SIDS;
CBD NBSAP (www.cbd.int/doc/world/default.asp);
IABIN (http://www.iabin.net/index.php)
Comments
Related indicators: Forest Area as a % of Land Area; Area of Selected Key Ecosystems; Species abundance.
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GEF-IWCAM
This indicator is most meaningful when accompanied by indicators of the status of ecosystem diversity,
particularly of ecosystem modification and conversion.
5. Decrease in proportion of population using solid fuels
Definition and meaning Proportion of population using solid fuels is the proportion of the population that relies on biomass (wood,
charcoal, crop residues and dung) and coal as the primary source of domestic energy.
Rationale
The use of solid fuels affects both the environment and the population that uses these fuels. Incomplete and
inefficient combustion of solid fuels results in the emission of a number of compounds, many of which are harmful
to human health or are greenhouse gases. There are important linkages between household solid fuel use,
indoor air pollution, deforestation, and soil erosion and greenhouse gas emissions. In a number of the SIDS, the
use of solid fuels such as charcoal and wood is widespread, and has resulted in major deforestation in these
countries.
Policy relevance
ILAC; MDG 7, T9; UNFCCC Kyoto Protocol; Montreal Protocol
Data and lead
Agencies responsible for forestry, environment
agencies
Comments
Related indicators: Reduction in deforestation rate (SRI); Forest/vegetation cover
6. Increase in % fish stocks sustainably managed
Definition and meaning % of a country's fish stocks that are appropriately managed for recovery of depleted stocks and prevention of
overexploitation of healthy stocks. Management measures include limitation of fishing effort, protection of
juveniles and spawning individuals, gear restrictions, prohibition of destructive fishing practices, and protection of
critical habitats that maintain fish stocks.
Rationale
Marine fisheries are an important source of food, income and employment in SIDS. Fishing pressure beyond that
required for maximum sustainable yield (or optimum yield) and destructive fishing gear have resulted in
overexploitation of most of the inshore fish stocks in the Caribbean SIDS, as evidenced by declining fish catches
and a decrease in individual sizes. Some offshore, migratory stocks are also in danger of overexploitation.
Overfishing can also result in biodiversity loss, for instance, loss of top predators in the ecosystem through
selective removal. In order for overexploited fish stocks to recover and to prevent overexploitation of healthy
stocks, appropriate management interventions are needed. Another problem in sustainable fisheries
management is Illegal, Unregulated, and Unreported (IUU) fishing, which, in addition to overfishing, also causes
uncertainties in stock assessments because of unknown fishing effort and catches.
Policy relevance
CSME; FAO Code of Conduct; ILAC; UNCSD
Data and lead
Fisheries departments; CFRAMP; CRFM; FAO State of the World Fisheries & Aquaculture; Yearbook of Fisheries
agencies
Statistics; FISHSTAT; Figis (www.fao.org); Indicators for sustainable development of fisheries
(www.fao.org/docrep/W4745E/w4745e0f.htm)
Comments
Related indicators: % stocks within safe biological limits (FAO Code of Conduct, UNCSD); Reduction of fishing
effort; Reduction in IUU fishing.
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GEF-IWCAM
7. Reduction in illegal sand mining
Definition & meaning
Extent of beach/seashore affected by illegal sand/aggregate extraction.
Rationale
In a number of the SIDS, illegal sand and aggregate extraction in coastal areas is contributing to degradation of
beaches and sensitive coastal habitats, both through direct removal and mobilization of sediments. In many
Caribbean countries intensive mining of beach sand has led to increased coastal erosion and sedimentation.
Sand mining and beach erosion are issues of great concern in countries such as St. Kitts and Nevis, St. Lucia,
and St. Vincent and the Grenadines (UNEP 1999). This practice will increase, with rising demand for construction
material by growing populations and urbanization. Sand mining also increases the vulnerability of coastal areas to
erosion, storm surges and other extreme natural events.
Policy relevance
GPA; LBS Protocol
Data and lead
Agencies responsible for Environment, Development Planning
agencies
Comments
Related indicators: Area of selected ecosystems; suspended solids in coastal areas
8. Reduction in pollution loads to coastal areas
Definition & meaning
This indicator measures the total annual volume of pollution loads entering coastal areas from point and non-
point sources (the latter is more difficult to measure). It captures the risk to coastal ecosystems and living marine
resources, as well as to users of coastal areas, from land-based pollution.
Rationale
Pollutants from land-based sources constitute one of the greatest threats to coastal and marine ecosystems and
to public health in the Wider Caribbean Region (UNEP 2005). Land-based sources of pollution are estimated to
account for 80 - 85% of marine pollution in the region (OECS/UNDP 1994). These include industrial, residential,
and agricultural sources from which pollutants are transported to the coast in streams and water run-off by
leaching and infiltration in the soil as well as direct discharges to the sea. Sewage is a particular problem, and
regarded as one of the most important and widespread causes of degradation of the coastal environment in the
Caribbean (Siung-Chang 1997). Nutrient enrichment is also of growing concern in the Wider Caribbean, where
there are indications that eutrophication is increasing (GESAMP 2001). Other pollutants of concern include
POPs, heavy metals, petroleum hydrocarbons and sediments. Several coastal hotspots have been identified in
some of the larger industrialized islands (Siung-Chang 1997) and are related to direct point or non-point pollution
discharges. The latter is difficult, if not impossible to measure accurately, and proxy indicators might be useful
(e.g. quantity of fertilizers applied/unit area). Pollution of coastal areas not only impacts on the structure and
function of sensitive ecosystems such as coral reefs, but could contaminate seafood and harm humans and
marine organisms through direct contact, and reduce the aesthetic value of coastal areas.
Policy relevance
GPA; LBS Protocol
Data and lead
Ministry responsible for environment, UNEP CAR/RCU, CEHI, environmental laboratories
agencies
Comments
See also ESIs related to coastal water quality, waste management
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GEF-IWCAM
9. Increase in % municipalities with land use planning
Definition & meaning
Municipalities with land use plans being implemented.
Rationale
The state of terrestrial resources is influenced by land use patterns. Poor land use planning and land
management practices, as well as incompatible or conflicting land uses, cause serious environmental problems.
Poor land use and land management practices as well as heightened land use conflicts have led to degradation
of a number of ecosystems in Caribbean SIDS (UNEP 2005), and increased the vulnerability of human
communities to natural disasters. Current planning and policy practices result in the conversion of land from its
natural state to other uses, with limited appreciation of the loss of the future value of the land as regards the
natural goods and services it can provide. The changes in land use witnessed in the region over centuries have
had the most dramatic impact on forest ecosystems. The lack of long-term planning as well as evaluation of the
future value of the land and its goods and services, which may be lost in land use change, makes the conversion
particularly problematic.
Policy relevance
ILAC
Data and lead
Agencies responsible for housing, urban planning.
agencies
Comments
Related indicator: % land use
10. Reduction in generation of industrial and municipal solid waste
Definition & meaning
The precise definition of what constitutes solid waste is variable, but principally it can be considered as that
material which has no further useful purpose and is discarded. It is, therefore, perceived to have no commercial
value to the producer. This does not, however, preclude it being of value to some other party. Municipal wastes are
produced by a variety of establishments in the urban environment in addition to households, institutions such as
schools, government buildings, commercial establishments such as hospitals and hotels, and some scattered
sources of hazardous wastes. Solid waste is generally produced in three ways: through the production and
consumption of goods and services; through the processing of wastes from these services; and through end-of-
pipe control or treatment of emissions.
Rationale
Solid waste is explicitly expressed as a concern in the Caribbean SIDS, which lack the resources including
capacity and land space for waste disposal (UNEP 2005). This is compounded by the change in the composition
of the solid waste produced from organic waste to inorganic, non-biodegradable material. This indicator captures
the risk to terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, as well as to human health from municipal and industrial solid
wastes. All such wastes need a suitable area of land for their eventual disposal. High waste loads present risks to
all aspects of the environment and are aesthetically unpleasant. The effects of dumping large amounts of wastes
into the environment and beyond its capacity to attenuate them would be especially important if there are many
endangered species, sensitive ecosystems, and interactions with on-going human impacts.
Policy relevance
BPoA; ILAC; UNCSD; GPA; LBS Protocol
Data and lead
United Nations Centre for Human Settlements: http://www.urbanobservatory.org/indicators/database
agencies
http://www.who.orgWHO: http://www.who.org
Comments
Solid waste disposal (quantity properly disposed of), which is easier to measure, may be a suitable proxy measure
for this indicator. Related indicators: Generation of industrial waste; % waste properly disposed of/recycled/reused
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GEF-IWCAM
11. Increase in proportion of waste properly disposed of/recycled/reused (waste management)
Definition & meaning
This indicator captures the proportion of wastes rendered less harmful through proper disposal, reuse or recycling.
It shows the volume of waste which is properly disposed of/reused/recycled based on the volume actually
generated at source on a per capita basis.
Rationale
Waste management is one of the major environmental issues in the CARICOM region. Growth in urban population,
industrial activity, and tourism continues to outstrip infrastructural capacity to handle waste. Waste reuse and
recycling are important components of a sustainable approach for waste management. Proper disposal, treatment,
reuse and recycling of waste are effective means of reducing the overall waste load in a country and reducing its
impact on the environment and human health. By stimulating recycling and reuse, landfill capacity is conserved
and operational costs for waste management reduced. There is also the benefit of increased income generation
for the urban poor through recycling schemes. While several of the Caribbean SIDS have embarked on waste
recovery and recycling programmes (CEHI/UNEP 2003), they are still faced with a number of constraints (e.g.
financial, technological, human capacity) as regards waste management (UNEP 2005).
Policy relevance
CSME; ILAC; LBS Protocol; Mauritius Strategy; St. George's Declaration; UNCSD
Data and lead
Environment Ministry; United Nations Centre for Human Settlements:
agencies
http://www.urbanobservatory.org/indicators/database
http://www.who.orgWHO: http://www.who.org
Comments
Related indicators: Population with access to solid waste collection. It is also associated with some of the
indicators for human settlements, industrial activity and financial mechanisms, such as percent of population in
urban areas, and environmental protection expenditures. Also pertains to other types of waste (e.g. sewage)
12. Energy consumption
Definition & meaning
The amount of energy - liquids, solids, gases and electricity consumed in a given year in a given country or
geographical area. The indicator is a widely used measure of access to and use of energy,
individual and industrial energy consumption patterns and the energy intensity of a society.
Rationale
Energy is a key factor in industrial development and in providing vital services that improve the quality of life.
However, its production, use, and byproducts have resulted in major pressures on the environment, both from a
resource use and pollution point of view. The decoupling of energy use from development represents a major
challenge of sustainable development in SIDS. The long-term aim is for development to continue through gains in
energy efficiency rather than increased consumption and a transition towards the use of renewable energy
resources. UNFCC and the Kyoto Protocol call for limitations on total greenhouse gas emissions, which are
dominated by COs from the combustion of fossil fuels.
Policy relevance
ILAC; MDG 7, T9; St. George's Declaration; UNFCCC Kyoto Protocol
Data and lead
UNDESA (www.un.org/Depts/unsd); UNFCCC Secretariat
agencies
Comments
Relate indicator: Proportion of renewable energy/total energy consumed (ILAC; St. George's Declaration)
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GEF-IWCAM
13. Increase in consumption of renewable energy resources
Definition & meaning
The percentage of a country's total energy consumption supplied from renewable energy sources. This indicator
measures the proportion of energy mix between renewable and non-renewable energy resources.
Rationale
Chapter 4 of Agenda 21 calls for an improvement of efficiency in the use of energy sources and for a transition
towards the use of renewable resources. Energy is a key aspect of consumption and production. Dependence on
non-renewable resources can be regarded as unsustainable in the long term. Renewable resources, on the other
hand, can supply energy continuously under sustainable management practices and their use in general creates
less environmental pressure. The ratio of non-renewable to renewable energy resources represents a measure of
a country's sustainability. While a number of the SIDS are slowly introducing renewable energy, of which there is
considerable potential (e.g. wind, solar), they still remain largely dependent on fossil fuels.
Policy relevance
Agenda 21; ILAC; St. George's Declaration; UNFCCC Kyoto Protocol
Data and lead
Energy Ministry
agencies
14. Reduction in carbon dioxide emissions
Definition and meaning Carbon dioxide emissions per capita is the total amount of carbon dioxide emitted by a country as a consequence
of human (production and consumption) activities, divided by the population of the country. National reporting to
the UNFCCC, which follows the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change guidelines, is based on national
emission inventories and covers all sources of anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions, less carbon sinks (such
as forests). Annual CO2 emissions in tonnes. Emissions of CH4, N2O, HFCs, PFCs and SF6 can be converted to
CO2 equivalents using 100 year global warming potentials (a measure of how much a given mass of greenhouse
gas is estimated to contribute to global warming) provided in the IPCC Assessment Report 2001
(http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/index.htm).
Rationale
The indicators signify the commitment to reducing carbon dioxide emissions and progress in phasing out the
consumption of CFCs by countries that have ratified the Montreal Protocol. Carbon dioxide emissions are largely
a by-product of energy production and use. They account for the largest share of greenhouse gases associated
with global warming. Although SIDS contribute a very small proportion of total GHG, they are most vulnerable to
the impacts of global warming and climate change.
Policy relevance
BPoA; St. George's Declaration; UNFCCC; MDG 7, T9; ILAC; UNCSD
Data and lead
Environment Ministry; Energy Ministry; IPCC (http://www.ipcc.ch; UNFCCC (http://www.unfccc.int.
agencies
15. Reduction in emissions of greenhouse gases (GHG)
Definition
Anthropogenic emissions, less removal by sinks, of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide (CO2), methane
(CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), sulphur hexafluoride (SF6),
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), together with the indirect greenhouse gases
nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO) and non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOCs).
Emissions of CH4, N2O, HFCs, PFCs and SF6 can be converted to CO2 equivalents using 100 year global
20
GEF-IWCAM
warming potentials (GWPs) provided in the IPCC Second Assessment Report (1995).
Rationale
This indicator measures the emissions of the six main GHGs which have a direct impact on climate change, less
the removal of the main GHG CO2 through sequestration as a result of land-use change and forestry activities.
GHGs contribute in varying degrees to global warming depending on their heat absorptive capacity and their
lifetime in the atmosphere. Although SIDS contribute a very small proportion of total GHG, they are most
vulnerable to the impacts of global warming and climate change.
Policy relevance
ILAC; MDG; UNFCCC Kyoto Protocol
Data and lead
Environment Ministry; Energy Ministry; UNFCCC Secretariat; IPCC
agencies
16. Reduction in the use of fertilizers
Definition & meaning
Extent of fertilizer use in agriculture per unit of agricultural land area. The purpose of this indicator is to measure
the intensity of fertilizer use in agriculture. Data on the quantities of fertilizers used are converted into the three
basic nutrient components and aggregated. The three components are nitrogen (N), phosphorous (P205), and
potassium (K20).
Rationale
This indicator shows the potential environmental pressure from agricultural activities. Extensive fertilizer use is
linked to eutrophication of water bodies, soil acidification, and potential of contamination of water supply with
nitrates. The actual environmental effects will depend on pollution abatement practices, soil and plant types, and
meteorological conditions. Agriculture makes a significant contribution to the economy of most of the Caribbean
SIDS, which annually import and apply large quantities of agricultural fertilizers. The steep topography of most of
the islands and cultivation on hillsides promote the movement of fertilizers to coastal areas in these countries.
Policy relevance
CSME; GPA; LBS Protocol; UNCSD
Data and Lead
Agriculture Ministry; FAO; FAO Compendium of Agricultural Indicators
agencies
(www.fao.org/es/ess/os/envi_indi/part_11.asp)
Comments
This indicator does not include organic fertilizer from manure and crop residues, or the application of fertilizers to
grasslands. The indicator assumes even distribution of fertilizer on the land. A more relevant and sophisticated
indicator would focus on nutrient balance to reflect both inputs and outputs associated with all agricultural
practices. This would address the critical issue of surplus or deficiency of nutrients in the soil.
Related indicator: Nutrient loads in water bodies; Increase in organic farming.
17. Reduction in the use of agricultural pesticides
Definition & meaning
Refers to the use per hectare /sale to the agricultural sector of substances that reduce or eliminate unwanted
plants or animals, especially insect pests. They include major groups of pesticides such as insecticides, mineral
oils, herbicides, plant growth regulators, bacteria and seed treatments, and other active ingredients.
Rationale
Agricultural pesticides add persistent organic chemicals to ecosystems. Pesticides can be persistent, mobile, and
toxic in soil, water, and air; and can have severe impact on humans and wildlife through the food chain. Use of
pesticides can have wide implications for the environment. They can accumulate in soil and biota, and residues
may reach surface and groundwater through leaching. Some agricultural pesticides are banned by international
trade agreements. The generalized use of pesticides and pest control is a key issue in the WCR (UNEP 1999).
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GEF-IWCAM
Agriculture makes a significant contribution to the economy of most of the Caribbean SIDS. These countries
import large quantities of pesticides, which are extensively used in agriculture and reach the coastal and marine
environments via rivers and atmospheric transport. The steep topography of most of the islands and cultivation
on hillsides encourage soil erosion and the movement of pesticides to coastal areas.
Policy relevance
CSME; GPA; LBS Protocol; UNCSD
Data and Lead
Agriculture Ministry; FAOSTAT http://apps.fao.org;
agencies
FAO Compendium of Agricultural Indicators (www.fao.org/es/ess/os/envi_indi/part_11.asp)
Comments
This indicator provides an aggregation, which ignores toxicity, mobility, and level of persistence; and spatial and
application variances.
Related indicator: Increase in organic farming.
Environmental Status & Socioeconomic Indicators Descriptions
1. Surface and ground water levels
Definition & meaning
Level of water in major rivers and streams, and in groundwater aquifers.
Rationale
Surface and ground water levels are affected by a number of factors, including changing vegetation cover, land
degradation, climate and water withdrawal rate. Surface and ground waters are important sources of freshwater
for human uses as well as for maintaining ecosystem health, and are the main sources of freshwater in the
Caribbean SIDS (UNEP 2005). Changes in water levels could also reflect periods of floods or drought. Monitoring
of aquifer water levels over a period of time provides information on aquifer recharge rate, increase in which is a
stress reduction indicator.
Policy relevance
CCD; CBD; MDG.
Data and lead
National agencies responsible for water resources.
agencies
World Water Assessment Programme (UNESCO) World Water Development Report; FAO Aquastat
(www.fao.org/ag/agl/aglw/aquastat/dbase/index.stm); CIMH (www.cimh.org)
CARDI/PROCICARIBE Caribbean Land and Water Resources Network
(www.procicaribe.org/networks/clawrenet/index.htm)
Comments
Related indicators: Reduction in annual withdrawals of surface and groundwater (SRI); Increase in aquifer
recharge rate (SRI); River flow regimes.
2. River flow regimes
Definition & meaning
Volume of water discharged per unit time from major rivers and streams. An indication of periods of floods and
drought.
Rationale
Changing vegetation cover, deforestation, land conversion and land degradation generally affect the water
holding capacity of ecosystems. These changes directly affect the magnitude and timing of run off and the
intensity and frequencies of flooding and drought. Changes in flood and drought periods can provide a measure
of the status of water control and water precipitation functions in the river basin. Increase in floods and drought
periods also often reflect a change in weather patterns. The impact of climate change on water resources is a
critical issue in the Caribbean (UNEP 2005), making it even more of an imperative for SIDS to protect their
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GEF-IWCAM
watersheds and water resources from further degradation.
Policy relevance
UNCBD; UNCCD
Data and lead
National and regional hydrographic/hydrologic agencies, water resources agencies.
agencies
World Water Assessment Programme (UNESCO) World Water Development Report; FAO Aquastat
(www.fao.org/ag/agl/aglw/aquastat/dbase/index.stm)
Comments
Related indicators: Surface water level; Mean annual rainfall
3. Mean annual rainfall
Definition & meaning
Average annual rainfall at country level (or average monthly rainfall for intra-annual rainfall variability).
Rationale
This indicator reflects the country's vulnerability to drought, dry spells, and stress on surface water resources, as
well as to flooding. Deviation from the mean annual rainfall could indicate shifts in weather patterns and climate,
and could negatively affect a country's resilience to other hazards (e.g. fires, water movements, ability of
ecosystems to attenuate pollution).
Policy relevance
UNFCCC
Data and lead
Meteorological offices; CIMH (http://www.cimh.org)
agencies
Comments
Related indicators: Water availability; River flow regimes; Surface and groundwater levels; Aquifer recharge rate
4. Area of selected key ecosystems
Definition & meaning
Remaining area per ecosystem type per country or region, i.e. Remaining natural area not being converted into
other uses. It is a direct measure of biodiversity loss: a loss of X% area of an ecosystem type will approximately
result in a similar loss of the mean abundance of its ecosystem-specific species. The indicator does not measure
the actual biodiversity and its loss within the remaining ecosystem (ecosystem quality), only its spatial potential.
Rationale
In the Caribbean SIDS, key ecosystems include forests, coral reefs, mangroves and seagrass beds, on which
their wellbeing and socio-economic development depend. For instance, mangroves, seagrasses and coral reefs
play an important ecological role. This includes harbouring high biological diversity, providing nursery grounds for
the juveniles of many commercially important fish species, as well as providing coastal protection and
stabilization against storm surges and erosion. Many biological resources, at gene, species and ecosystem level,
are currently at risk of modification, damage or loss through destruction and degradation of key ecosystems, and
through excessive living resource extraction. Physical alteration and degradation of ecosystems is among the
principal environmental problems for the smaller islands (UNEP 2005). This indicator uses trends in the extant
area of identified key ecosystems to assess the relative effectiveness of measures for conserving biodiversity
(and natural resources) at ecosystem level and as a tool to estimate the need for specific conservation measures
to maintain biological diversity.
Policy relevance
BPoA; CSME; CCA; CANARI; GPA; MDG; NBSAP; RAMSAR; SPAW Protocol; St. George's; UNCBD; UNCSD
Data and lead
FAO; UNEP-WCMC/IUCN world database of protected areas (www.unep-wcmc.org/wdpa/); IUCN
agencies
(www.iucn.org); CBD Secretariat: Global Biodiversity Assessment 2002, Country profiles
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GEF-IWCAM
www.cbd.int/countries/default.shtml), (www.cbd.int/doc/world/default.asp);
IABIN (http://www.iabin.net/index.php)
CARICOMP (www.mona.uwi.edu/cms/caricomp.htm; www.ccdc.org.jm/caricomp.html); Reefs at Risk in the
Caribbean; AGRRA (coral.aoml.noaa.gov/agra/); UNEP-WCMC (www.unep-wcmc.org/GIS/coraldis/index.cfm);
Reefcheck (www.reefcheck.org);
GCRMN (www.gcrmn.org/default.aspx)
UNEP-WCMC World Atlas of Seagrasses (www.unep-wcmc.org/marine/seagrassatlas/index.htm)
FAO Global Forest Assessment; FAO Status & Trends in Mangroves; FAO country mangrove extent
(www.fao.org/docrep/007/j1533e/J1533E03.htm#P1966_37230); UNEP-WCMC World Mangrove Atlas
(bure.unep-wcmc.org/imaps/marine/mangroves/viewer.htm)
Comments
Does not always indicate the quality of the ecosystem.
Related indicators: Area live coral cover; Area coral reef affected by bleaching/diseases
5. Abundance of selected key species
Definition & meaning
This indicator uses estimates of population trends in selected species (including threatened, invasive, keystone and
indicator species) to represent changes in biodiversity, and the relative effectiveness of measures to maintain
biodiversity. Species abundance is a measure or proximate of the number of individuals of a single species. This
can be measured in many ways. Because loss of biodiversity is characterized by a decrease in abundance of many
species and an increase of a few other species, this indicator provides a direct measure of biodiversity loss.
Rationale
The CBD recognizes that biodiversity has its own intrinsic value and that biodiversity maintenance is
essential for human life and sustainable development. Many biological resources in the Caribbean SIDS, at gene,
species and ecosystem level, are currently at risk of modification, damage or loss as a result of human and natural
pressures. The Caribbean SIDS have a high level of endemism and high species extinction rate (UNEP 2005). This
indicator helps to track changes in abundance of key species and the success of/ need for measures to protect
ecosystems and biodiversity. It illustrates the effectiveness of national measures designed to conserve biological
diversity and ensure its use is sustainable, including the measures implemented in fulfillment of obligations
accepted under the CBD.
Policy relevance
CANARI; CSME; CCA; CITES; IUCN; MDG; NBSAP; Ramsar; SPAW Protocol; St. George's Declaration; UNCBD;
UNCSD
Data and lead
National agencies responsible for biodiversity protection; IABIN; WWF (http://panda.org/livingplanet/lprreport.cfm);
agencies
IUCN (www.iucn.org); UNCBD: Global Biodiversity Assessment 2002, Country profiles
(www.cbd.int/countries/default.shtml), www.cbd.int/doc/world/default.asp; UNEP-WCMC/IUCN world database of
protected areas (www.unep-wcmc.org/wdpa/), (http://www.unep-wcmc.org/species/reports/);
IABIN (http://www.iabin.net/index.php);
CARICOMP (www.mona.uwi.edu/cms/caricomp.htm; www.ccdc.org.jm/caricomp.html); Reefs at Risk in the
Caribbean; AGRRA (coral.aoml.noaa.gov/agra/); UNEP-WCMC (www.unep-wcmc.org/GIS/coraldis/index.cfm);
Reefcheck (www.reefcheck.org);
GCRMN (www.gcrmn.org/default.aspx)
Comments
Related indicator: Area of selected ecosystems.
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GEF-IWCAM
6. Annual fish catch (Total and by major species)
Definition & meaning
Annual catch of major species or total annual catch (all species) in relation to spawning biomass (not always
known). This indicator, in particular, if the data on spawning biomass are available, can provide a snapshot of the
present status of a stock/species in a given country/area with respect to past trends. A reduced spawning biomass
or a very high ratio of the catch peak value with respect to present catches, can be considered as a warning that
the fisheries could soon become unsustainable. However, it is necessary to take into account the high variability of
populations of some commercial marine species as a consequence of changes of environmental conditions.
Rationale
Marine fisheries are an important source of food, income and employment in SIDS. Fishing pressure beyond that
required for maximum sustainable yield (or optimum yield) and destructive fishing gear have resulted in
overexploitation of most of the inshore fish stocks in the Caribbean SIDS, as evidenced by declining fish catches
and a decrease in individual sizes. Some of the offshore fish stocks are also in danger of being overfished as a
result of increasing fishing effort for these species. Overfishing can also result in biodiversity loss, for instance, loss
of top predators in the ecosystem through selective removal. Trends in annual fish catch provide an indication of
fisheries sustainability and the need for intervention to address overfishing.
Policy relevance
CSME; CITES; FAO Code of Conduct; ILAC; MDG; UNCBD; UNCLOS; UNCSD
Data and lead
National Fisheries Divisions; CFRAMP; CRFM; FAO.
agencies
FAO State of the World Fisheries & Aquaculture; FAO review of world fishery resources; Yearbook of Fisheries
Statistics; FISHSTAT; Figis (www.fao.org);
Univ. British Columbia Fisheries Centre Sea Around Us project (www.seaaroundus.org)
Comments
Related indicator: Reduction in fishing effort (SRI). Catch/unit effort is an indicator of fish stock abundance.
7. Forest/natural vegetation cover
Definition & meaning
The amount of natural and plantation forest or natural vegetation cover in a country. As defined by the FAO Global
Forest Resources Assessment, forest includes both natural forests and forest plantations. It refers to land with an
existing or expected tree canopy of more than 10% and an area of more than 0.5 ha where the trees should be
able to reach a minimum height of 5 m. Excluded are stands of trees established primarily for agricultural
production, such as fruit tree plantations. A number of the SIDS do not have extensive forest cover (according to
the FAO definition), and natural vegetation cover might be more appropriate in these countries. The proportion of
land area covered by forest is the forest area as a proportion of total land area, where land area is the total surface
area of the country less the area covered by inland waters. The comparison of forest/vegetation area over time
using reference years allows the calculation of change in absolute values, and as a percentage of the deforestation
rate.
Rationale
Forests fulfill a number of vital functions, including the provision of goods (timber and non-timber products) and
services such as protection against flooding, habitat for biodiversity, carbon sequestration, watershed protection,
soil conservation and a filter for pollutants. Deforestation could impact on coastal areas through, e.g., promoting
25
GEF-IWCAM
soil erosion and deposition of sediments in coastal ecosystems. Changes in forest area reflect the demand for land
for other competitive uses, and through timber extraction, fire, etc. The higher the deforestation rate, the more
critical the forestry situation is in the country. In the past few decades, the Caribbean SIDS have experienced
significant deforestation and associated impacts such as severe flooding and landslides (UNEP 2005).
Policy relevance
Agenda 21; CCA; CANARI; CSME; CITES; ILAC; MDG 7, Target 9; Ramsar; St. George's Declaration; UNCBD;
UNCCD; UNFCCC; UNCSD
Data and lead
National agencies responsible for forestry; FAO; Int'l Tropical Timber Org (www.itto.or.jp).
agencies
FAO (2005). Global Forest Resources Assessment, 2005. http://www.fao.org/forestry/fo/fra.
FAO (2003 and biennial). State of the World's Forests. http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/005/Y7581E/Y7581E00.HTM.
Country data at www.fao.org/forestry/site/country/en/;
FAO Aquastat (www.fao.org/ag/agl/aglw/aquastat/dbase/index.stm);
CARDI/PROCICARIBE Caribbean Land and Water Resources Network
(www.procicaribe.org/networks/clawrenet/index.htm);
National agriculture census (FAO); FAO Compendium of Agricultural Indicators
(www.fao.org/es/ess/os/envi_indi/part_11.asp);
Caribbean Vegetation and Landcover Mapping Initiative (edcintl.cr.usgs.gov/tnc/index.html);
Caribbean Vegetation Atlas by country (edcintl.cr.usgs.gov/tnc/products/atlas.html);
UNCCD (www.unccd.int/cop/officialdocs/menu.php)
Comments
The proportion of total forest cover (including both natural forest and plantation) may underestimate the rate at
which natural forest is disappearing in some countries. The area figure does not give any indication of the quality of
the forest, its ecosystem context, nor forest values or practices.
Related indicator: % land use; Reduction in deforestation rate (SRI)
8. Land affected by desertification (land degradation)
Definition & meaning
This is a measure of the amount of land affected by desertification (degradation) as a proportion of national
territory. The indicator describes the extent and severity of desertification at the national level. Land degradation
means reduction or loss of the biological or economic productivity and complexity of rainfed cropland, irrigated
cropland, or range, pasture, forest and woodlands resulting from inappropriate land uses and other processes.
Rationale
This indicator shows the extent and severity of land degradation at the local/national level. Trend data over time
can indicate success of response mechanisms. Land degradation has serious implications for sustainable
development for many SIDS, which have limited land area. In these countries, human activities and habitation
patterns are causing land degradation, which is caused by a number of processes such as soil erosion;
deterioration of the physical, chemical and biological or economic properties of soil; and long-term loss of natural
vegetation.
Policy relevance
Agenda 21; UNCCD; UNCSD; UNCBD
Data and lead
Natural Resources, Agriculture, Forestry Ministries; FAO
agencies
See also Forest/vegetation cover.
Comments
Related indicators: Forest/vegetation cover; % land use.
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GEF-IWCAM
9. % Land use change
Definition & meaning
% land under different uses (e.g. natural vegetation cover, urban areas, agriculture). Monitoring of the area under
different land uses over time provides an indication of land use change.
Rationale
The state of terrestrial resources is influenced by land use patterns and the absence of initiatives that ensure
sustainable land use results in the inefficient use of these resources and land use conflicts. The conversion of lands
from their natural state due to urbanization, industrialization or agricultural development is a major issue in the
Caribbean countries, which have been undergoing rapid land use changes (UNEP 2005). The present land use
pattern in the Caribbean SIDS has developed primarily as a result of historical demands in developed countries for
tropical export crops rather than from the characteristics of the climate, soil, topography, and natural vegetation
(FAO 2002). Among the problems resulting from these demand-driven land use patterns is the issue of land tenure
- land distribution in the region has been characterized by the inequitable distribution of property and the lack of
land titles.L TRENDS
Policy relevance
CSME; ILAC; UNCSD; UNCBD
Data and lead
Agencies responsible for planning, housing, agriculture, lands and surveys depts.
agencies
See also Forest/vegetation cover.
Comments
Related indicators: Forest/vegetation cover; Ratio cultivated to natural land cover; Area formal and informal urban
settlements.
10. Concentration of E. coli/faecal coliforms in surface and ground waters
Definition & meaning
Refers to the concentration of E. coli/faecal coliforms in freshwater supply and aquatic ecosystems, as well as the
proportion of freshwater resources destined for potable supply containing concentrations of faecal coliforms that
exceeds the levels recommended in the WHO Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality. The indicator assesses the
quality of water available to communities for basic needs and identifies communities where contamination of water
with human and animal excreta at source or in the supply is posing a threat to health. It also identifies ecosystems
where fecal contamination is a risk to ecosystem health and natural living resources as well as to human health
(e.g. bathing beaches, aquaculture facilities, shellfish beds).
Rationale
The concentration of faecal coliforms in water bodies is an indirect indicator of contamination with human and
animal excreta. Water contaminated with human and animal excreta poses a serious health risk and is therefore
unsuitable for potable supply unless it has been suitably treated. E. coli is the preferred/recommended faecal
contamination indicator. This measure indicates situations where treatment is required or has to be improved to
guarantee safety of water supply. It also indicates the need for adequate treatment/ disposal of sewage. Sewage is
regarded as one of the most important and widespread causes of degradation of the coastal environment in the
Caribbean (Siung-Chang 1997). Microbiological pollution from the discharge of untreated sewage (because of
inadequate sewage treatment/disposal facilities) is severe in the Caribbean SIDS and poses a serious threat to
human health from direct contact with polluted waters or from the consumption of contaminated fish and shellfish
(UNEP 2004a, 2004b). In the SIDS, faecal contamination of aquatic ecosystems is of major concern, especially in
coastal areas that are important for fishing, tourism and recreation.
Policy relevance
Caribbean Action Plan; CSME; GPA; LBS Protocol; UNCBD; UNCSD
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GEF-IWCAM
Data and lead
Water supply utilities, Environment and Health Ministries, environmental laboratories (e.g. CEHI, IMA), GESAMP;
agencies
public health laboratories, UNEP CAR-RCU, WHO
Comments
Related indicator: Increase in sewage treatment (SRI); Increase in population with access to sanitation facilities
(SRI)
11. Algae concentration in coastal waters
Definition & meaning
This indicator uses the concentration of algae growing in coastal waters to represent the health of the coastal
ecosystem, and the effectiveness of measures to reduce nutrient inputs from land run-off and discharge.
Rationale
Inputs of nutrients from point sources such as sewage outputs and non-point or diffuse sources like fertilizer run-off
from agricultural practices cause increases in growth of algae. Proliferations of microalgae in marine or brackish
waters can cause massive fish kills, contaminate seafood with toxins, and alter ecosystems. Elevated algal
concentrations in coastal waters reflect high nutrient inputs, which can represent serious threats to coastal
ecosystem health. A large concentration of algae restricts the available light, reduces dissolved oxygen levels and
may increase sedimentation, which smothers other organisms. Increasing concentrations of algae can also indicate
threats to human and animal health by toxic algal blooms. Several of the Caribbean SIDS have reported elevated
nutrient levels and algal blooms in coastal areas to be of concern. This indicator can illustrate the effectiveness of
measures designed to reduce nutrient inputs in accordance with the goals of the Caribbean Regional Sea
Convention and Action Plan.
Policy relevance
CSME; GPA; LBS Protocol; UNCBD; UNCSD
Data and lead
Environment Ministries; GESAMP; GPA; GOOS; IMO; LBS Protocol; UNEP CAR-RCU
agencies
Comments
Direct measurement of nutrient inputs to coastal zones from both point and non-point sources could provide an
alternative indicator, but would be costly.
Related indicators: Chlorophyl-a concentration; Nutrient loads; indicators relating to fisheries, biodiversity, fresh
water quality and fertilizer use.
12. Incidence of HABs and fish kills
Definition & meaning
Annual occurrence (number) of Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs) and fish kills. Areal extent of HABs and fish kills,
and number of fish dead per incident, also provide further qualitative information on the severity of these
phenomena.
Rationale
Elevated inputs of nutrients (mainly from landbased sources sewage, agricultural fertilizers, but also from boats
and ships) to aquatic ecosystems in the Caribbean SIDS cause eutrophication, algal blooms (sometimes toxic red
tides) and fish kills. The severity of algal blooms can be affected by climate variability. The incidence of these
phenomena has been reported in a number of the SIDS, where they frequently occur in semi-enclosed bays and
harbours (e.g. Beltran et al. 2002; Webber and Clarke 2002). HABs are frequently the cause of very serious
human illness when the biotoxins produced are ingested in contaminated seafood. The illnesses most frequently
associated with marine biotoxins include paralytic shellfish poisoning and ciguatera poisoning. The risk of
ciguatera poisoning is high where algal biomasses are significantly elevated due to eutrophication, such as in
28
GEF-IWCAM
nutrient/sewage-enriched areas (PNUMA 1999). In addition to being a threat to human health, these phenomena
also impact on ecosystem structure and function (incl. biodiversity).
Policy relevance
BPoA; GPA; LBS Protocol; SPAW Protocol; UNCBD
Data and lead
CANARI; CCA; Environment Ministries; Fisheries Divisions; Environmental Health Laboratories (CEHI, IMA)
agencies
Comments
Related indicators: Nutrient loads in aquatic ecosystems
13. Heavy metals and POPs in the environment
Definition & meaning
Concentration of heavy metals (e.g. lead, mercury) and persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in water, soil,
sediments, and aquatic organisms.
Rationale
Heavy metals are very persistent in the aquatic environment, bio-accumulate in marine organisms, and are highly
toxic to humans when consumed. Pollution by heavy metals arises from a number of sources, including industrial
point sources, such as the petroleum industry (oil refineries and petrochemical plants), chemical industries,
pesticide production, and metal and electroplating industries. Hg and Pb are of greatest concern because of their
high toxicity in certain forms and their transport over long distances in the atmosphere. Other metals of concern are
As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Se, Sn, and Zn. Elevated levels of heavy metals have been recorded in coastal areas near a
number of heavily industrialized centres (`hotspots') in the Caribbean SIDS (GEF/UNDP/UNEP 1998, UNEP 1999,
Beltrán et al. 2002).
While POPs may not be a priority for the smaller SIDS with limited industrial development, studies in the Caribbean
documented in UNEP/GEF (2002) showed that POPs such as aldrin, DDT, DDE, endosulfan, and lindane have
been detected in some areas (`hotspots'), for example, in sediments in Portland and Kingston Harbour (Jamaica),
the southwest coast of Cuba, and coastal areas of St. Lucia, as well as in marine biota in these countries. Several
sources of POPs have been identified, with the most important being the agriculture, energy and industrial sectors,
as well as incineration of domestic, industrial and agricultural waste (UNEP/GEF 2002).
Policy relevance
CSME; GPA; LBS Protocol; Rotterdam Convention; Stockholm Convention; UNCSD
Data and lead
Environmental laboratories (e.g. CEHI, IMA); Environment and Health Ministries
agencies
Comments
Related indicators: Reduction in pesticide use (SRI); Concentration of agricultural chemicals and other pollutants;
Increase in volume of industrial waste produced/treated (SRI).
14. Suspended solids in rivers and coastal waters
Definition & meaning
An indication of soil stability within the watershed/coastal area. The rate of soil loss and thus river loads of
suspended solids depend on a number of factors such as deforestation, unsustainable agricultural practices,
climate and soil characteristics. Soils with high silt content (e.g., loess soils) are more susceptible to erosion than
soils with low silt content. Therefore baseline values are river-basin specific.
Rationale
Increasing load of suspended solids, mainly sediments, in aquatic systems is related to soil erosion arising from
conversion of natural ecosystems into agriculture, deforestation and degradation of ecosystems by human
activities, among others. In many of the SIDS, this is exacerbated by cultivation and habitation of hillsides, which
29
GEF-IWCAM
accelerate the mobilization and transport of sediments to downstream, including coastal areas. Suspended solids
can have detrimental effects on aquatic ecosystems, particularly coral reefs, by blocking light penetration and
smothering of organisms. Its deposition could also alter the flow of water. In a regional overview of land-based
sources and activities affecting the marine, coastal and associated freshwater environments in the Wider
Caribbean Region, almost all the countries, including several Caribbean SIDS, included high levels of sediments
in the coastal zone among the major environmental problems they face (UNEP 1999). In fact, in the OECS,
sediment mobilization was ranked as the first environmental priority.
Policy relevance
GPA; LBS Protocol; UNCBD; UNCCD
Data and lead
National agencies responsible for agriculture, forestry, environment.
agencies
Comments
Related indicators: Sand mining; Forest/natural vegetation cover; Area of land degraded
15. Nutrient loads in water bodies
Definition & meaning
Concentration of Nutrients (N, P, K) in rivers, coastal areas
Rationale
The predominant source of nutrients in aquatic ecosystems is the discharge of untreated sewage, as well as non-
point agricultural run-off as a result of the large quantities of agricultural fertilizers applied annually in the SIDS.
The total estimated nutrient load from land-based sources in the Caribbean Sea is 13,000 tonnes/yr of nitrogen
and 5,800 tonnes/yr of phosphorus (UNEP 2000). Increasing population densities, conversion of natural
ecosystems and intensifying agricultural production often result in increasing riverine nutrient fluxes. Elevated
nutrient inputs into coastal areas are associated with a range of conditions, including HABs, changes in the
aquatic community structure, decreased biological diversity, fish kills, and oxygen depletion in the water column.
Low oxygen conditions have led to significant losses of fish and shellfish resources. Organic and nutrient pollution
is among the most widespread and possibly the most serious marine pollution problem in the Caribbean (Siung-
Chang 1997; GESAMP 2001), and several of the SIDS have reported high nutrient levels in coastal areas to be of
concern (UNEP 1999).
Policy relevance
GPA; LBS Protocol; UNCBD; UNCSD
Data and lead
Environmental laboratories (CEHI, IMA); Environment Ministries; Water Resources Agencies; UNESCO-IOC
agencies
(Global Nutrient Export from Watersheds project www.ioc-unesco.org)
Comments
Related indicators: Agricultural fertilizer use; sewage treatment; population with access to sewerage facility
16. Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) in water bodies
Definition
BOD measures the amount of oxygen required or consumed for the microbiological decomposition (oxidation) of
organic material in water.
Rationale
The purpose of this indicator is to assess the quality of water available to consumers in localities or communities
for basic and commercial needs. It is also one of a group of indicators of aquatic ecosystem health. The presence
of high BOD may indicate faecal contamination or increases in particulate and dissolved organic carbon from
non-human and animal sources that can restrict water use and economic development, necessitate expensive
30
GEF-IWCAM
treatment and impair ecosystem health. Inadequate organic waste (including sewage) treatment and disposal in
the Caribbean SIDS increases the potential for elevated BOD in their aquatic ecosystems. Increased oxygen
consumption poses a potential threat to a variety of aquatic organisms, including fish. It is important to monitor
organic pollution to identify areas posing a threat to health, to identify sources of contamination, to ensure
adequate treatment, and provide information for decision-making to enhance water sustainability.
Policy relevance
CSME; GPA; LBS Protocol; UNCBD; UNCSD
Data and lead
Environmental laboratories (e.g. CEHI, IMA); WHO; UNEP Global Environment Monitoring System
agencies
(GEMS/Water) Collaborating Centre; UNICEF; United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (Habitat); FAO.
Comments
Related indicator: Those related to waste treatment and disposal, sewage facilities
17. Ambient concentration of air pollutants in urban and industrial areas
Definition & meaning
Ambient air pollution concentrations of ozone, carbon monoxide, particulate matter, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen
dioxide, nitrogen monoxide, volatile organic compounds including benzene (VOCs) and lead. The indicator
provides a measure of the state of the environment in terms of air quality and is an indirect measure of population
exposure to air pollution in urban/industrial areas. It also relates to atmospheric deposition of contaminants in
coastal and marine areas.
Rationale
An increasing percentage of the population in the SIDS lives in urban areas. High population density and the
concentration of industry exert great pressures on local environments. Air pollution from households, industry
power stations and transportation (motor vehicles), is often a major problem in many of these countries. As a
result, the greatest potential for human exposure to ambient air pol ution and subsequent health problems occurs
in urban areas. The domestic use of solid fuels also produces certain air pollutants, which endanger human
health. Improving air quality is a significant aspect of promoting sustainable human settlements.
Policy relevance
CSME; UNCSD
Data and lead
Environmental laboratories (e.g. IMA, CEHI); Environmental Management Authority (T&T); WHO air quality
agencies
guidelines for all the pollutants of this indicator, except nitrogen monoxide (www.who.org).
Many countries have established their own air quality standards for many of these pollutants.
18. Water availability/capita
Definition & meaning The amount of water needed to satisfy metabolic, hygienic, and domestic requirements. This is usually defined as
20 litres of safe water/person/day.
Rationale
A number of the Caribbean SIDS are vulnerable to variable freshwater supplies and shortages, and have been
classified as `water scarce' countries, i.e. available water/capita falls below the international limit of 1,000 m3
/capita/year (FAO 2003).This situation is critical in the low limestone islands of the Eastern Caribbean. Water
demand has increased in the past 30 years in the Caribbean SIDS, with growing population and increasing tourism,
urbanization and industrialization, and has often surpassed natural capacity (UNEP 2005). This is compounded by
transmission losses from poor maintenance of infrastructure, variable rainfall patterns and watershed degradation.
Policy relevance
CSME; ILAC; St. George's Declaration
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GEF-IWCAM
Data and lead
National agencies responsible for water resources; FAO; WHO/UNICEF (2000) Global Water Supply and Sanitation
agencies
Assessment 2000 Report. http://www.who.int/docstore/ water_sanitation_health/Globassessment/GlobalTOC.htm
World Water Assessment Programme (UNESCO) World Water Development Report; FAO Aquastat
(www.fao.org/ag/agl/aglw/aquastat/dbase/index.stm); CIMH
Comments
Related indicator: Water consumption/capita
19. Population with access to clean drinking water
Definition & meaning Proportion of population with access to an improved water source in a dwelling or located within a convenient
distance from the user's dwelling.
Rationale
Accessibility to improved water sources is of fundamental significance to lowering the risk and frequency of
diseases associated with poor hygiene and unsafe water.
Policy relevance
Agenda 21; ILAC; Mauritius Strategy; MDG 7, T10; St. George's Declaration; UNCSD
Data and lead
National Water and Sewerage Authority; Min. Health. International targets for this indicator have been established
agencies
under WHO.
WHO/UNICEF (2000). Global Water Supply and Sanitation Assessment 2000 Report.
http://www.who.int/docstore/water_sanitation_health/Globassessment/GlobalTOC.htm.
World Water Assessment Programme (UNESCO) World Water Development Report; FAO Aquastat
(www.fao.org/ag/agl/aglw/aquastat/dbase/index.stm); CIMH
Comments
Other related indicators: Water availability/capita (ILAC; St. George's); Water consumption/capita (ILAC); Water
use intensity by economic activity (UNCSD); population with access to clean water
20. Population with adequate sewage disposal facilities
Definition & meaning
Proportion of population (rural, urban, total) with access to facilities for human excreta disposal/collection in the
dwelling or immediate vicinity. Facilities such as sewers or septic tanks, poor-flush latrines and simple pit or
ventilated improved pit latrines are assumed to be adequate, provided that they are not public. International
targets for this indicator have been established under WHO. Since access to sewage disposal facilities does not
necessarily mean that the wastewater is adequately treated before entering the environment, this indicator should
be used with other related indicators (see comments)
Rationale
This is a basic indicator for assessing sustainable development, especially human health. Accessibility to
adequate excreta disposal facilities is fundamental to decrease the risk and frequency of associated diseases
and reducing environmental impacts from sewage. Elevated nutrient levels from sewage input into the aquatic
environment could lead to eutrophication, HABs, contamination of seafoods, etc. Contamination of ground and
surface water resources from sewage poses a human health risk.
Policy relevance
Agenda 21; ILAC; Mauritius Strategy; MDG 7, T10; St. George's; UNCSD; WSSD
Data and lead
Water and Sewerage Authorities; Health, Environment Ministries.
agencies
WHO/UNICEF (2000). Global Water Supply and Sanitation Assessment 2000 Report.
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GEF-IWCAM
http://www.who.int/docstore/ water_sanitation_health/Globassessment/GlobalTOC.htm
Comments
The availability of disposal and treatment facilities does not always translate into their utilization or proper
functioning. Could also be expressed as % population in urban/rural areas with/without access. See also SEI:
Increase in proportion of waste properly disposed of/recycled/reused (waste management)
21. Environmentally-related illnesses
Definition & meaning
Number of reported cases of environmentally-related diseases (e.g. gastroenteritis, typhoid, malaria, dengue,
cholera, accidental pesticide poisoning, respiratory diseases, etc).
Rationale
A number of illnesses are related to poor environmental quality and the presence of toxic pollutants in the
environment and in the food chain. For instance, poor water quality (and quantity) is correlated with increases in
the incidence of water-borne diseases (UNEP 2005). Each year incidences of environmentally-related illnesses
are reported in the Caribbean SIDS, which reveals the need for improved domestic, municipal and industrial
waste management, and better handling of agricultural pesticides and other toxic substances.
Policy relevance
CSME
Data and lead
Health Ministry; Public Health Depts; Epidemiology Centres (CAREC); Environmental laboratories (CEHI); UNEP;
agencies
WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation
(www.wssinfo.org/en/25_wat_dev.html; www.wssinfo.org/en/35_san_dev.html); PAHO/WHO
Comments
Related indicators: Access to clean water; Access to sanitation; Waste production and recycling; Level of toxic
substances in food chain.
22. Human and economic loss due to natural disasters
Definition & meaning
The number of persons deceased, missing, and/or injured, and the amount of economic and infrastructure losses
incurred as a direct result of a natural disaster. Provides estimates of the human and economic impact of disasters
in order to measure the trends in population vulnerability (i.e. to determine whether a country is becoming more or
less prone to the effects of disasters).
Rationale
The Caribbean SIDS are highly vulnerable to natural disasters (particularly climate related disasters such as
storms, hurricanes, floods, landslides), the impacts of which have been increasing as a result of a number of
factors (e.g. climate change, concentration of people and infrastructure in coastal zones and other vulnerable
areas). Natural disasters can have devastating short and long-term impacts on the environment, society and
economy of any country, adversely affecting progress towards sustainable development.
Policy relevance
BPoA; International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR); Mauritius Strategy; UNCSD
Data and lead
National/regional agencies for disasters; CDERA (www.cdera.org/doccentre/index.php); CRED global disasters
agencies
database (www.em-dat.net/); ISRD Secretariat (www.unisdr.org)
Comments
Linked to other indicators such as population in vulnerable or disaster prone areas.
23. Population (or area) of urban formal and informal settlements
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GEF-IWCAM
Definition & meaning
Number of inhabitants living in urban formal and informal settlements. The indicator measures the size of formal
and informal urban settlements by their population size. By focusing on the legality of human settlements, this
indicator measures the marginality of human living conditions as well as the potential for degradation of land or
other ecosystems. Formal settlements refer to land zoned residential in city master plans or occupied by formal
housing. Informal settlements refer to: i) residential areas where a group of housing units has been constructed on
land to which the occupants have no legal claim, or which they occupy illegally; ii) unplanned settlements and areas
where housing is not in compliance with current planning and building regulations (unauthorized housing).
Rationale
Settlements characterized by illegality of tenure and unauthorized shelter are generally marginal and precarious,
and do not cater to basic human needs such as affordable housing. They affect sustainable human settlements
development, human health, and socioeconomic development. Illegal dwellers generally live in an unsafe and
precarious environment, lack basic services, suffer from the absence of tenure security, and have no legal claim in
case of eviction. Also, numerous illegal settlements are established on lands that are predisposed to natural
disasters. Informal settlements have usually a much higher population density than formal settlements and these
living conditions constitute a threat to human health.
Policy relevance
ILAC; MDG (G7, T11); UNCSD
Data and lead
National agencies responsible for housing, planning and development; United Nations Centre for Human
agencies
Settlements (Habitat): http://www.urbanobservatory.org/indicators/database; http://www.unhabitat.org/mdg.
Comments
Related indicators: Proportion of households with access to secure tenure (MDG Goal 7, Target 11); Population in
disaster-prone areas.
24. Total population/population in coastal areas
Definition & meaning
Total number of human inhabitants of the country. Another indicator is % of population living within certain distance
from coastline (usually 100 km) including major rivers that empty into the ocean. However, because of the small
sizes of the Caribbean SIDS, total population might be more appropriate.
Rationale
This indicator represents the impact population and population growth has on economic development as well as on
the degradation of watersheds and coastal ecosystems. SIDS are heavily dependent on coastal areas and their
natural resources for economic development, with the population and economic activities concentrated in coastal
areas. As a result, these areas and resources are under increasing threat from growing population and increasing
economic activities. Because of their small land masses, activities in inland areas also affect the coastal zone. In
fact, the entire land mass of SIDS could be considered the coastal zone. A high concentration of population in the
coastal zone can dramatically affect coastal ecosystems through habitat alteration or loss and high pollutant loads.
These processes can lead to loss of biodiversity, influx of invasive species, coral bleaching, new diseases among
organisms, hypoxia, harmful algal blooms, siltation, reduced water quality, and threats to human health.
Policy relevance
BPoA; CSME; GPA; LBS Protocol; MDG; UNCBD; UNCSD
Data and lead
National agencies responsible for housing, planning and development; national statistical office; United Nations
agencies
Centre for Human Settlements (Habitat). The Digital Chart of the World coastline can either be acquired on an
individual country basis from the Pennsylvania State University Map Library web site
(http://www.maproom.psu.edu/dcw/), or from ESRI (http://www.esri.com).
Comments
The width of the 100 km band may be too wide to capture within country variance of population pressure on coastal
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ecosystems in small islands, and might even encompass the entire island, if of very small size.
Related indicators: Population in disaster-prone areas; population density.
25. Tourism intensity
Definition & meaning
A number of indicators exist to represent tourism intensity, e.g. Number of tourist arrivals/year; Number and location
of hotels/rooms by type; Ratio tourists/local inhabitants; etc.
Rationale
Tourism continues to play a prominent role in the economies of the Caribbean SIDS, and is a vital income source for
all the countries, particularly Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados, Jamaica, St Kitts and Nevis, St Lucia, and
St Vincent and the Grenadines. In the Caribbean SIDS, tourism infrastructure and activities are heavily concentrated
in coastal areas. Poorly managed tourism is one of the most significant causes of habitat destruction, land use
change, natural resource overexploitation and consumption and pollution in these countries.
Policy relevance
Data and lead
National agencies responsible for tourism; CTO; ACS (www.acs-
agencies
aec.org/Documents/Tourism/Projects/ACS_ST_000/Tourism_Stats0603.pdf); ACS project -Development of
indicators for the Sustainable Tourism Zone of the Caribbean); WTO
Comments
Related indicators: Increase in number of ecotourism initiatives.
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3.2. Process Indicators
Process indicators are arranged according to nine major categories (Table 3). Where appropriate, indicators are arranged
according to Regional, national, and local levels. Descriptions are given for 11 main types of PI indicators.
Table 3: Process indicators at regional, national, and local levels. Generic indicators are given in bold italics, under which are given a
number of specific indicators.
1. Systemic (enabling) environment - Policy and Legislation
Regional
Existence of policies and legislation enabling IWCAM
· Appropriate policy and legislation in support of IWCAM objectives adopted at the regional level.
Existence, status and coverage of regional IWCAM plans and strategies.
· Sustainable political and financial mechanisms established to support coordination of IWCAM at
the regional level.
- National and regional agreement on strategy and funding mechanism(s).
· Regional IWCAM coordinating mechanism established and operational.
· Detailed regional IWCAM indicators guidelines that embrace requirements of regional
conventions and treaties (e.g., LBS protocol) developed and disseminated.
National
Existence and status of national IWCAM, policies, legislation, plan and strategy.
· Reforms in policy, legislation and institutional arrangements in support of IWCAM as the
overarching framework for natural resources and environmental management in the SIDS.
· The coordinated implementation of sectoral initiatives in support of IWCAM.
· National land-use and planning policies enacted that incorporate IWCAM principles.
Ratification and implementations of all IWCAM-relevant regional and international conventions.
· All PCs ratify and implement MEAs related to IWCAM (CCD, CBD, SPAW and LBS Protocols of
the Cartagena Convention, UNFCCC Kyoto Protocol, Basel Convention, Ramsar Convention).
· Legislation and regulations enacted to facilitate compliance with international and regional MEAs.
· Legislation for mandatory Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA) enacted.
2. Institutional
Regional
The existence and functioning of a representative regional coordinating mechanism for IWCAM.
· IWCAM regional mechanism adopted and supported by regional agreements and institutional
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arrangements.
· Establishment of an inclusive and representative regional Partnership Forum for IWCAM- related
issues with strong input from private sector and other potential funding partners.
· Partnership Forum meets on a regular basis and provides positive recommendations that are
implemented as appropriate.
Regional IWCAM coordinating mechanism is mandated and established.
· Regional IWCAM Strategy developed.
· Effective regional cooperation and sharing of information and lessons on IWCAM.
· Development and transfer of appropriate technologies and IWCAM-related techniques.
Demonstration projects replicated in the region within five years of the end of the IWCAM project.
· Demonstration project replication support strategy developed and endorsed by PC governments.
National
Regional IWCAM Strategy endorsed by the Governments.
Inter-ministerial Committees established to engage ministries with IWCAM responsibilities.
High-level steering committee established to oversee and coordinate the preparation and
implementation of a National IWCAM plan and strategy.
Inclusive, participatory, national integrated watershed management council and inter-sectoral
IWCAM committee established to address and coordinateIWCAM issues.
Active management in areas covered by IWCAM plans.
· An integrated management mechanism for IWCAM is developed and implemented.
· National framework established to make operational the coordinated and integrated management
of watersheds and coastal areas.
· Annual strategic management assessment conducted to ensure that management effort,
resource allocation (human, material and financial) and skills levels are adequate to support the
sustained and coordinated implementation of IWCAM polices and measures.
· IWCAM plans developed and implemented for major watersheds.
National sustainable development policy incorporates IWCAM principles.
· National Sustainable Development Councils convene at least twice a year.
National IWCAM training-needs assessment and skills development programme approved and
implemented.
· National IWCAM training-needs assessment and skills development programme established.
· National IWCAM training-needs assessment and skills development programme reviewed every
three years on the basis of the skills assessment and gap-analysis exercise.
· Increased knowledge, skills and use of participatory methods and practices by personal in
government agencies with IWCAM responsibilities: Stakeholder identification, needs
assessment, participatory processes and methods, conflict management.
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3. Enforcement
National
National plan and strategy for the effective enforcement of environmental regulations is
developed and enacted.
· National agreement on strategy and funding mechanism(s) for environmental enforcement
established and implemented.
· 100% of approved land use requests comply with IWCAM criteria and existing environmental
regulations.
· Number of formal environmental impact assessments conducted and proportion of these that had
a formal consultative process.
Local
Participatory approaches to the enforcement of environmental regulations and the promotion of
voluntary compliance.
4. Stakeholder Participation
Regional
Level of stakeholder participation in IWCAM and satisfaction with IWCAM outcomes.
· Regional participatory IWCAM policy and process enacted.
· Regional stakeholder identification processes established and completed (e.g. regional
representatives from the private sector, tertiary and research institutions, labour organizations,
environmental NGOs, agriculture, fisheries, Gender Interests groups, professional organizations,
water and waste water management, etc.).
National
Level of stakeholder participation in, and satisfaction with IWCAM decision-making process.
· National participatory watersheds and coastal areas management policy and plans enacted.
· Documentation of stakeholder involvement in preparation and creation of stakeholder involvement
plan.
· Representative involvement of broad spectrum of stakeholders in project activities and development,
especially key decision-makers and traditionally under-represented groups.
· Project activities targeting the strengthening of stakeholder input and participation.
- Stakeholder identification established and processes completed.
- Needs assessment processes established and completed.
- Conflict management strategy developed and implemented.
- Capacity development plan developed and implemented.
- Formal mechanisms established for participatory IWCAM involving NGOs, CSOs, communities
and other stakeholders.
· Number of NGO and CSO programmes and action plans addressing IWCAM.
Suitably skilled CSOs and NGOs assist in stakeholder identification, needs assessment, conflict
management and capacity development processes at the regional, national and local levels.
Local
NGOs, CSOs and CBOs actively involved in IWCAM.
· Increase in number of CSOs, NGOs and community groups actively involved in IWCAM.
· Evidence of increased levels of understanding and commitment of local authorities and communities
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to IWCAM objectives.
· Community-based natural resources management programmes implemented in at least 20% of
watershed communities.
· Community forestry wardens appointed in major watersheds.
5. Financing and Economic Instruments
National
Formal agreements on sustainable funding for strategic approach.
· Amount of investment in environmental/IWCAM enforcement.
National agreement on strategy and funding mechanism(s) for community enforcement.
· IWCAM initiatives supported by national public sector investment programmes.
· Budgetary allocations for IWCAM specified in the annual estimates.
· Annual national budget allocations made to departments, agencies, and community
organizations in support of IWCAM.
Economic instruments for effective IWCAM.
· National IWCAM incentives strategy developed on the basis of stakeholder needs assessment.
· Market and non-market incentives for improved watershed management identified and
implemented.
- Benefits from watershed services valued and financing mechanisms developed (e.g.
payment for environmental services by major potential "buyers" of watershed services (e.g.
tourism, agriculture, housing, water utilities and transportation).
- Codes of practice and standards for watershed stewardship established as the basis for
certification and labeling schemes.
- Efficacy and equity of existing tax and incentives schemes affecting watersheds and coastal
resources assessed.
- Incentives schemes designed to secure watershed services.
· Rates and fees sufficient to fund effective IWCAM on the basis of valuation of watershed
services.
· Water rates schedule rewards efficiency.
· Increase in number of hotels participating in certification schemes for tourism (Green Globe).
· Number of companies and government departments adopting ISO 14001 standards.
· Deposit refunds on all glass, plastic, and aluminum containers - target: 50% (glass), PET (35%)
return rate, 15% recycled.
· Alternative income generating plans developed for major watersheds produced.
· Specific alternative income initiatives under implementation in 20% of the major watersheds.
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· Quantifiable changes in livelihoods of targeted watershed communities, reducing the frequency
of environmentally damaging activities
6. Public Awareness and Outreach
Regional
Regional IWCAM communications strategy developed and implemented.
Regional awareness campaigns target all stakeholders.
Regional campaign informed by national knowledge, attitudes and practices (KAP) surveys.
National
National IWCAM KAP baseline survey completed in each PC.
· Baseline public awareness established through nested KAP studies (National/Watershed).
National IWCAM communications strategy developed and implemented based on KAP baseline
survey.
National public education and outreach (PEO) programmes established to improve knowledge of
IWCAM.
End of project KAP assessment undertaken to determine change in KAP and effectiveness of
project interventions.
IWCAM concepts incorporated in national school curricula. Effective teaching materials available.
· IWCAM project establishes awareness of IWCAM concepts, goals, and benefits in 20% of the
high school and adult population.
· Schools and school-based NGOs and environmental clubs actively involved in IWCAM-related
projects.
7. Monitoring and Evaluation
Regional
IWCAM indicators mechanism.
· Regional mechanism for harmonization of indicators and monitoring.
· Regional agreement/framework for capacity building and sharing of expertise and resources for
monitoring.
National
PCs endorse and adopt a monitoring and evaluation (M&E) plan that incorporates IWCAM
process, stress reduction, and environmental status indicators (PI, SRI, ESI).
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Routine monitoring, evaluation and adjustment of IWCAM initiative.
· IWCAM indicators mechanism assessment and indicators template endorsed by all PCs.
- PCs endorse and adopt an M&E plan that incorporates IWCAM process, stress reduction,
and environmental status indicators.
IWCAM indicators mainstreamed into national IWCAM planning and decision-making processes.
· A suite of IWCAM SRI, ESI, and PI, determined by national needs and circumstances, adapted
and used by the relevant PCs or agencies with watershed and coastal areas management or
monitoring responsibilities.
- Traditional and local knowledge is reviewed, assessed and incorporated into the indicators
mechanism where appropriate.
- Natural resource and water resource inventories completed and baselines established.
- Environmental and water quality standards established against which SRI and ESI are
assessed.
- Valuation of watershed services conducted (e.g. water production, flood control, soil
stabilization, biodiversity conservation, agro-productivity).
- Annual national assessment of IWCAM process for adaptive management is undertaken
with the full participation of all IWCAM-related entities.
- Annual application of GEF IWCAM tracking indicators shows increased scores throughout
life of project.
- National environmental statistics report produced every three- five years.
8. Data and Information
Regional
Existence of common procedures and standards for data collection endorsed and adopted by all
PCs.
· Existence of common metadata standards and protocols.
· Existence of institutional coordination mechanism to ensure the production of compatible results
by management, research and monitoring programmes.
Regional database and information exchange facility established.
· Permanent and sustainable institutionalization for regional IWCAM data and information storage
and transfer established.
· Effective regional cooperation and sharing of information and lessons on IWCAM.
· IWCAM Clearing House effectively networks Demo Lessons and Practices database, and
provides linkages to other pertinent information databases.
· IWCAM website established.
- Cross-linkages between Clearing Houses and databases.
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· Regional indicator network and P, ES, and SR Indicator database established.
- All Indicator-related information stored and regularly updated in a suitable database.
National
National IWCAM data policy and strategy for the coordinated collection, centralized management,
and use of selected IWCAM related data and indicators for adaptive management is enacted.
Central coordinating data repository and clearing house for watershed and coastal areas
data/information is established.
· Central coordinating data repository and clearing house supports indicator network and data
storage facility.
National statistical unit compiles environmental statistics and indicators, and presents data on
environmental status and trends in reports of national statistics.
National IWCAM baseline data and indicators incorporated into existing GIS database(s) and
updated annually.
National capacity for development of indicators and monitoring strengthened.
IWCAM data collection and monitoring programme established.
· Programme is consistent with regionally endorsed data collection protocols.
· Data collection protocols require all collected field data to be geo-referenced, as far as possible.
9. Capacity Development
Regional
Regional strategic plan to address the human resource deficiencies in IWCAM monitoring and
indicators.
· Mechanisms for the coordinated provision of technical assistance through:
-
Pooling of expertise.
-
Exchange/sharing of trained staff.
-
Training of staff.
· Regional directory of training capacities and opportunities offered by regional and national
tertiary institutions that support areas for environmental indicators development and
management.
· Training programmes in environmental monitoring and indicators development and management.
· Tertiary level IWCAM stream, with monitoring and indicators component, offered by at least
one teaching institution in the region.
National
National/local strategic plan to address the human resource deficiencies in IWCAM monitoring
and indicators.
· Capacities and training needs, and training solutions, required to establish IWCAM indicators
mechanism identified.
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· Time frame established for completing training required to establish IWCAM indicators
mechanism.
· Dedicated budget for environmental monitoring and indicators training.
· Annual training needs assessment for environmental monitoring and indicators incorporated into
formal government training mechanism.
· Environmental monitoring and statistics for adaptive environmental management mainstreamed
into secondary and tertiary curricula.
Process Indicators Descriptions
1. Systemic (Enabling) environment Regional IWCAM mechanism.
Definition &
The existence of a functioning and representative regional coordinating mechanism for IWCAM
meaning
Rationale
A regional coordinating mechanism will:
· Facilitate the evolution of the current IWCAM initiative from a short-term, project-based approach to the
development of IWCAM capacities for a sustained programmatic approach.
· Ensure the coordination of the different regional actors influencing coastal, marine and terrestrial areas
and natural resources and facilitate the participation of the relevant national and inter-governmental
stakeholders.
· Provide a regional mechanism for harmonization, sharing of experiences and lessons learned,
resource mobilization, etc.
Data and lead
Formal mandate, official documents, meeting records.
agencies
CARICOM, National agencies with IWCAM-related responsibilities, Ministries of Foreign Affairs, Regional
offices of international organizations (e.g. UNEP CAR RCU).
2. Systemic (Enabling) environment - Regional IWCAM plan and strategy
Definition &
Appropriate plan and strategy to direct and facilitate the implementation of IWCAM objectives adopted at the
meaning
national and regional level.
Rationale
To provide a clear road map to facilitate and guide the coordinated development of capacity and
implementation action necessary to achieve IWCAM goals and objectives.
Data and lead
Formal mandate, official documents, meeting records, planning documents, strategy documents, budgets,
agencies
CARICOM, National agencies with IWCAM-related responsibilities, Ministries of Foreign Affairs, Regional
offices of international organizations (e.g. UNEP CAR RCU)
3. Systemic (Enabling) environment - National IWCAM policy
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Definition &
Existence of national policies and legislation enabling the development and implementation of an appropriate
meaning
IWCAM indicators mechanism.
Rationale
The existence of adequate policy and legislation indicates the extent to which environmental monitoring and
indicators mechanisms are supported by a tangible political commitment at the highest level, and clear and
enforceable legislation.
Legislation supporting environmental indicators mechanisms will define the authorities, obligations and
relationships of stakeholders and administrative actors. Although legislation does not guarantee effective
environmental monitoring or use of environmental indicators, it does provide an indication of national intent,
incentives, and the accepted norms.
Data and
Legislation, regulations, policy documents.
lead
Government agencies with responsibilities for environmental monitoring and development of national indicators
agencies
mechanisms.
4. Monitoring and Evaluation - National IWCAM monitoring and indicator mechanism developed.
Definition
An environmental monitoring and indicators mechanism that with clearly defined.
& meaning
· Goals and objectives for adaptive management.
· Institutional
arrangements.
· Relationships to stated national sustainable development goals and objectives, and the policy, legislative
and financial mechanisms established.
Rationale
To provide an inclusive and transparent roadmap to facilitate and guide the coordinated mainstreaming of IWCAM
monitoring data and indicators in national policy and planning processes. The plan for the national environmental
monitoring and indicators mechanism reflects the commitment of the relevant government agencies, private sector
and civil society stakeholders to adopt an integrated, multi-disciplinary, multi-sectoral approach to the management
of watersheds, coastal, and marine areas.
Data and
Official documents, meeting records, reports, financial estimates, budgets, M & E reports, enforcement records.
lead
Government agencies with responsibilities for environmental monitoring and indicators mechanisms.
agencies
5. Enforcement
Definition
National plan and strategy for the effective enforcement of IWCAM regulations is developed and enacted.
& meaning
Rationale
An integrated natural resources management (INRM) objective is to manage natural resources in a way that
ensures that the behaviours and strategies for the exploitation of natural resources are consistent with, and
supportive of, national sustainable development objectives.
Data and
Natural resource management plans, management records, evaluation reports, enforcement records, permit
lead
records.
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agencies
Government agencies with natural resources management responsibilities, monitoring and law enforcement
agencies, national defence forces, national standards entities.
6. Stakeholder participation
Definition
Level of stakeholder participation in IWCAM monitoring and natural resources management and decision-making
& meaning processes (policy formulation, planning, implementation) and satisfaction with IWCAM mandates and outcomes.
Rationale
In order to be effective IWCAM plans and strategies must change the behaviours of all stakeholders that use and/or
impact natural resources. In order to change behaviours, stakeholders understanding and awareness of IWCAM
benefits, issues, goals, objectives, and management approaches must be developed. Participatory processes can
provide a transparent mechanism for developing the awareness, capacities, commitment, and trust necessary to
effect behavioural change and compliance.
Participatory approaches also ensure that local and traditional knowledge, and the needs, concerns and aspirations
of all stakeholders are considered in the policy, planning, and implementation processes. Although this
consideration does not guarantee adoption or compliance, it does provide for the transparency required to
effectively and objectively manage conflicts and foster adaptive approaches to management. Participatory
approaches can also help in the identification, development, and acceptance of effective economic incentives and
instruments.
These factors influence the levels of stakeholder satisfaction with the participatory processes and with IWCAM
outcomes.
Data and
Meeting records, survey and interview results.
lead
Government agencies with NRM responsibilities and mandates, civil society organizations, NGOs, professional
agencies
bodies.
7. Economic instruments
Definition
Economic instruments to promote and support environmental monitoring and indicators development and use.
& meaning
Rationale
Economic instruments can complement or serve as an alternative to regulatory instruments, providing an
intermediate step, or an alternative to, the command-and-control approach to enforcement. Economic instruments
and incentives help to correct the market distortions that often serve as incentives to the unsustainable use of
natural resources.
Data and
Documentation on the use of economic instruments and government records, interview and survey results.
lead
Government agencies with IWCAM responsibilities, chambers of commerce, CSOs, NGOs, businesses.
agencies
8. Public Awareness and Outreach
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Definition
The incorporation of environmental monitoring and indicators into targeted messages, interpretive information
& meaning products, signage, as well as educational and training curricula.
Rationale
Improved public and stakeholder awareness of INRM issues, vision, aims, objectives, and goals can lead to
increased voluntary compliance, a process known as "interpretive enforcement". Improved public awareness can
also contribute to more effective surveillance through peer-pressure and the voluntary reporting of infractions. The
formal incorporation of the skills areas for developing and maintaining indicators mechanisms into educational
curricula can address the need for new multi-disciplinary information management skills.
Data and
University records, government agency annual reports, national schools curricula, media, educational institutions,
lead
Ministry of Education, Government agencies with IWCAM responsibilities, NGOs, CSOs, professional bodies.
agencies
9. Monitoring and Evaluation
Definition
The routine monitoring and evaluation of a project, programme, or of environmental state, using pre-determined
& meaning indicators and against set targets, goals, and objectives.
Rationale
An operational monitoring and evaluation mechanism is necessary to determine whether targets, goals, and
objectives of an IWCAM project or programme are being achieved. Evaluation of achievements/progress against
stated targets will allow the identification of adaptive measures, if these are deemed necessary.
Data and
Project and programme performance evaluations, state of the environment reports, work programmes, patrol
lead
reports, budgets, etc.
agencies
Government agencies with NRM and sustainable development responsibilities and mandates, national statistical
offices, all stakeholders.
10. Data and Information
Definition
Existence of the minimum amount of required data, as well as common procedures and standards for data
& meaning collection adopted and implemented by the countries. Also includes appropriate data and information management
system.
Rationale
Management is often hampered by a paucity of data, barriers to data sharing and access, and the incompatibility of
data formats. NRM requires that planning and decision-making is informed by timely access to environmental data
from a range of sources and thematic areas, as well as of relevant socio-economic data. This can be efficiently
achieved through a centrally coordinated mechanism for establishing and maintaining standards, and coordinating
data collection, management, reporting, and data-sharing. The effectiveness of NRM will depend on the availability
of data and information on which to base the assessment of natural resource endowments relative to stated national
sustainable development goals and objectives. This assessment process in turn provides the basis for decision-
making in support of adaptive management.
Data and
National Statistical agencies, all agencies with NRM responsibilities. National and institutional databases and spatial
lead
data systems.
agencies
Government agencies with NRM and/or environmental data collection and monitoring responsibilities.
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11. Capacity Development
Definition The formulation and adoption of formal capacity development mechanisms for IWCAM.
&
meaning
Rationale The multi-disciplinary nature of IWCAM will require the coordinated development of capacities in the disciplines
required to support and sustain the development of viable IWCAM programmes, including associated indicator
mechanisms. Even when training opportunities are provided in the disciplines required to support national IWCAM
mechanisms, not all PCs will have the resources to support the full range of disciplines. Strategies will be required to
share and/or pool human resources on a regional or sub-regional basis.
Data and Documentation and reports: national schools curricula, curricula from tertiary teaching institutions in the region with
lead
environmental management/natural resources management programmes; regional and national strategies for capacity
agencies development and human resources resource sharing; directory of regional training opportunities and capacities;
training needs assessments.
Government agencies with NRM and/or environmental data collection or monitoring responsibilities. Ministries of
Education, tertiary teaching and training institutions, regional IGOs, donor agencies.
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4. Conclusions and Recommendations
Conclusions and a number of recommendations are given in Part I. Among the
immediate next steps in the development of an IWCAM indicators framework are:
· Pilot testing of a set of core indicators in one of the PCs with more advanced
indicators mechanisms, to be determined in consultation with the IWCAM
indicators working group. This activity could also build capacity and generate
lessons for replication in other PCs;
· Development of national indicators templates by the PCs, and a minimum
environmental monitoring programme in support of the indicator framework
based on existing data;
· Determination of the cost of the monitoring programme and identification of
possible sources of funding;
· Establishment of the appropriate institutional arrangements and mechanisms,
and agreement of roles and responsibilities for coordinated implementation of the
monitoring programme at national level.
Please refer to Part I and the workshop report for further details.
To sum up, a number of challenges - institutional, methodological, and technical exist
with respect to developing indicators frameworks (adapted from Pintér and others
20058):
From the institutional perspective, the key challenge is to ensure indicators are
integrated into mainstream policy mechanisms, instead of being an environmental "add-
on" to already existing statistical, measurement and reporting systems. Environmental
agencies often do not have sufficient mandate, capacity and influence to ensure
indicators are brought to bear on key policy decisions, such as the development of
government budgets, sectoral policy frameworks, or long-term plans and sustainable
development strategies.
From the methodological point of view, there are continuing uncertainties and debates
about what and how to measure and how to link specific indicators to time-bound
targets and thresholds. Comparability of indicators continues to be limited by a number
of factors, including the use of different indicator frameworks that often adhere minimally
to standards of how the same variables should be measured. Aggregated indices are
attractive for communication with citizens but require high quality data for consistent,
comparable, and complete indicator sets, as well as a political consensus on indicator
weights that is difficult to achieve on the national or sub-national scale.
8Pintér, L. Hardi, P. and Bartelmus, P. (2005). Indicators of Sustainable Development: Proposals for a Way Forward.
Discussion Paper Prepared on behalf of the UN Division for Sustainable Development, UN Division for Sustainable
Development Expert Group Meeting on Indicators of Sustainable Development, New York, 13-15 December 2005.
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Development of indicators also continues to be affected by serious technical challenges,
particularly related to data. The challenges include not only data availability and quality,
but also problems with common definitions and the lack of long-term, consistent
monitoring mechanisms that would supply data with adequate temporal and spatial
resolution. The issue, however, is not only the inadequacy of the right kind and quality
of data, but also that in some cases the data that are collected at considerable cost
have little apparent use in decision-making.
Making significant progress on any of these issues requires a serious investment of
time, effort, and resources, as well as coordinated action of many agencies at the
regional, national, and sub-national levels.
5. References and Acronyms
Please refer to Part I.
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