Caribbean Environment Programme
United Nations Environment Programme
EVALUATION OF THE COASTAL AND MARINE
RESOURCES OF THE ATLANTIC COAST OF
GUATEMALA
Prepared
in
cooperation
with:
Program
of
Ecology,
Fisheries
and
Oceanography
Of the Gulf of Mexico
CEP Technical Report No. 34
1995
CEP Technical Report No. 34
Note:
The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this document do not imply
the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNEP concerning the legal status of any
State, Territory, city or area, or its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of their frontiers or
boundaries. The document contains the views expressed by the authors acting in their individual
capacity and may not necessarily reflect the views of UNEP.
For bibliographic purposes this document may be cited as:
Yañez-Arancibia, Alejandro, Zárate Lomelí, David, and Terán Cuevas, Angel. 1994. EPOMEX.
CEP Technical Report No. 34. UNEP Caribbean Environment Programme, Kingston, Jamaica.
64 pp.
ii
Caribbean Environment Programme
United Nations Environment Programme
EVALUATION OF THE COASTAL AND MARINE
RESOURCES OF THE ATLANTIC COAST OF
GUATEMALA
Alejandro Yañez-Arancibia
David Zárate Lomelí
Angel Terán Cuevas
Prepared
in
cooperation
with:
Program
of
Ecology,
Fisheries
and
Oceanography
Of the Gulf of Mexico
CEP Technical Report No. 34
1995
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This document could not have been written without the assistance of Rodolfo Godínez
Orantes, INGUAT; Mamerto Gomez Cruz of the Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala; Antonio
Salaverría Reyes and Marco Vinicio Cerezo of FUNDAECO, Ana Báez of Turismo y Conservación
Consultores, and Emma Diaz of CONAP.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
I.
Background
1
II.
Objectives
1
III.
Methodology
2
IV.
Analysis
3
V.
Environmental Analysis
22
VI.
Definition of Management Guidelines
37
VII.
Sectorial
Level
42
VIII.
Ecosystems and Habitats
48
IX.
Bibliography
57
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.
Area of Study. Atlantic Coast of Guatemala
4
Figure 2.
Physiography of the Atlantic coast of Guatemala
5
Figure 3.
Hydrological basin of the Atlantic Coast of Guatemala
7
Figure 4.
Mangrove and submerged vegetation coverage. Sarstun region
11
Figure 5.
Mangrove and submerged vegetation coverage. El Golfete region
12
Figure 6.
Mangrove and submerged vegetation coverage.
Puerto
Barrios
region
13
Figure 7.
Mangrove and submerged vegetation coverage.
Punta
Manabique
region
14
Figure 8.
Stations for the mangrove studies
15
Figure 9.
Stations for sea grass studies
17
Figure 10.
Circulation and transport pattern of the estuarine
system of Bahia de Amatique
20
Figure 11.
Formation dynamics of Punta Manabique
31
iii
CEP Technical Report No. 34
Page
Figure 12.
Land use and vegetation map of the study area (5 km inshore limit)
23
Figure 13.
Land use and vegetation surface (as %) of the study area
25
Figure 14.
Land use and vegetation surface (as %) of the Atlantic Coast
up to 5 km inland
25
Figure 15.
Land use and vegetation map. El Golfete region
32
Figure 16.
Land use and vegetation map. Punta Manabique region
36
Figure 17.
Planning methodology applicable to the Atlantic Coast of Guatemala
39
Figure 18. (a)
Policy framework for the management of the coastal areas
and Terminos Lagoon in the State of Campeche.
50
Figure 18. (b)
Coastal Ecological Management Plan of Campeche.
51
Figure 18. (c)
Consultative Board
52
Figure 18. (d)
Directive Board
53
Figure 18. (e)
Terminos Lagoon as an Ecological Protected Coastal Ecosystem
54
Figure 18. (f)
Linkages between issues/problems and programmes
55
iv
Evaluation of the Coastal and Marine Resources ...
Evaluation of the Coastal and Marine Resources of the
Atlantic Coast of Guatemala
I. Background
Tourism is primarily associated with the cultural and archaeological richness of the country and to a
lesser extent with its coastal areas (the Pacific in particular). At present, tourism is the number two
foreign exchange earner of the country. During 1987-1991 alone, tourism earnings reached 774.7
million dollars (INGUAT, 1992). For this reason, the stimulation and diversification of tourism is an
important part of the socio-economic policies defined by the Government of the Republic of Guatemala
for the 1991-1996 period.
To this end, the Guatemalan Institute of Tourism (INGUAT) designed a plan of action for developing
the tourism sector known as the National Plan for Developing Sustainable Tourism. Within this
framework, and considering that the Atlantic Coast possess great tourism potential, the Guatemalan
Institute of Tourism (INGUAT) decided to prepare an integrated management plan for this coastal area.
As part of the studies undertaken in the Atlantic Coast of Guatemala which were aimed at evaluating
existing natural resources, other components were considered i.e. fisheries; evaluation of the eco-
tourism potential and the preparation and implementation of a programme on environmental education
and public awareness.
Figures 2-7, 10, 11, 12, 15 and 16 of this document are adapted from the original satellite imagery.
II. Objectives
-
Evaluation of the potential and extent of the mangroves and sea grass beds, as well as
the causes and degree of environmental degradation of these ecosystems;
-
Evaluation of the extent and potential of the sea grass beds in the "Golfete", Punta de
Manabique, Graciosa Bay and English Canal lakes;
-
Preliminary evaluation of the condition and potential of primary fishery resources; and
-
Provide recommendations for the preparation of the integrated management plan;
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CEP Technical Report No. 34
III. Methodology
1.
Definition of the Study Area
The study area has been defined taking into account ecological, geographical and administrative
criteria.
2. Environmental
Features
This phase of the study involved the definition and description of the main environmental
features of the study area, considering, water and hydro-dynamics, geomorphology, populated
areas, etc. From the analysis of a satellite imagery and field verification, the types, potential
and location of mangroves and sea-grass beds have been evaluated providing information on the
structure and functioning of the ecosystem. To fully define the study area, certain socio-
economic aspects of the region, such as productive activities, coastal infrastructure and services,
etc., were also considered.
Satellite imagery analysis considering geo-reference, spectra, numerical pre-classification and
final classification was undertaken utilizing an image from Landsat T of March 17, 1993, Path
19, Row 49.
Geo-reference
A transfer of information from the satellite photograph to maps prepared by the Military
Institute of Geography (MIG) was performed in order to determine soil use, types of vegetation
and coverage. A geo-reference of the satellite photograph was also undertaken.
Spectral
Analysis
Based of the spectral resolution of the Landsat-T photograph in the visible range, reflective
infrared and thermal infrared, the spectral analysis considered 7 bands. The analysis permitted
the identification of the types of vegetation and actual land use.
Numerical
Pre-classification
The results of the spectral analysis allowed for an initial pre-classification of the image based on
7 selected spectral bands.
Final
Classification
Based on the pre-classification and field validation, the classification of land use and type of
vegetation type was undertaken. Also, the degree of perturbation was evaluated and the
coverage for each classified unit was determined.
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Evaluation of the Coastal and Marine Resources ...
3. Environmental
Analysis
The objective of this phase was to identify and evaluate the principal causes of degradation in
the mangroves and sea grass beds.
4.
Definition of Management Guidelines
Based on the environmental analysis and considering the ecological, socio-economic, and legal
aspects, the management guidelines for the preservation of the marine and coastal areas and its
natural resources have been defined.
IV. Analysis
1.
Definition of the Area of Study
The study area is shown in Figure 1 and considers the coastal plain up to the 20 metres height
isobase and the marine component down to the 10 metres isobath. This definition is based on
the geographical characteristics, geomorphology, hydrology, tides, winds, water dynamics and
freshwater influence in the area.
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CEP Technical Report No. 34
2. Environmental
Features
The Atlantic coast of Guatemala is located in the Gulf of Honduras and includes a semi-
enclosed bay of 140.6 Km long - the Bahia de Amatique. This bay forms a complex ecosystem
of coastal lagoons, swamps and marshes, influenced by tides, riverine systems (Rio Dulce - El
Golfete), and canals connecting protected waters and the adjacent continental platform. A brief
analysis of the main environmental features of the area is provided below:
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Evaluation of the Coastal and Marine Resources ...
3. Physiography
According to Gonzalez et al. (1990), Morena et al. (1993) and Godínez (1993), there are 4
distinct regions or physiographic units in the area (Fig.2):
(a)
Coastal Plain of the Caribbean
This region belongs to the lower Sarstún river basin. It is part of a plain formed by
alluvial material from the Quaternary Era presenting numerous marshy areas. There are
also a number of islets located off the coast and connected to coralline formations.
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CEP Technical Report No. 34
(b)
Izabal
Depression
This is a depression that does not exceed 100 metres above sea level between the
Sarstún River and the foothills of the Mico Mountains. The Rio Dulce-El Golfete
system is an outstanding geographical feature, connected to the Izabal Lake. Generally,
the region is marked by poor drainage with soils typical of flooded areas. It also
presents inner lagoons particularly in the "El Golfete" region.
(c)
Sedimentary
Highlands
This is a small region south of Bahía de Amatique located in the foothills of the Mico
Mountains. This region is known for the Karst scenery as it is uneven and marked by
folds, faults under erosion processes.
The soils in this region have poor drainage and are not well developed (CIEGEPLAN,
1993).
(d)
The Motagua Depression
A large part of the study area is found in this region. It is a wide flood plain (from 0 to
40 mts above sea level) formed by alluvial material from the Quaternary Era. The
physiography is marked by well developed fossilized dry streams. There are also tidal
canals and salty marshes. The sedimentary deposits transported by the Montagua River
form a large sandy barrier in a SE-NW direction called Punta de Manabique
(CIEGEPLAN, 1993 and Moreno et al. (1993).
4. Climate
Following the classification of Koeppen, the climate of the study area falls within the Rainy-
Warm type "A", subtype Awi presenting two distinct climatic periods: A rainy season from
June to September with the highest levels of rainfall and humidity or together with a reduction
in wind speed and temperature rise. The dry season goes from October to May and it is marked
by a reduction in temperature and rainfall (CIESEG, 1993).
There is an isothermic period throughout the year with variations of less than 5oC. The average
annual temperature varies from 26.9oC in the region of the Golfete to 25.5oC in Puerto Barrios.
The dominant winds are the Trade Winds blowing in a NNE direction and with annual average
velocities of 10.2 Km/h (CIESEG, 1993). The annual average rainfall is 3000 mm with relative
humidity of 80% (INSIVUMEH, 1990; Godínez, 1993).
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Evaluation of the Coastal and Marine Resources ...
5. Hydrology
According to the hydrological pattern of the country, the study area is found in the Atlantic
Versant and forms 3 basins, the Motagua; Sarstún and Río Dulce River Basin and the Izabal-
Rio Dulce Sub-Basin. The main features of these basins (Fig. 3) are described below:
-
Motagua River Basin
This is a drainage system forming a valley within the Meredon and Espiritu Santo Mountain
Ranges to the SE of Bahía de Amatique and the Minas Mountain Range; the Mico and Cerro
San Gil Mountains are located South of the Bay. The lower basin is marked by the formation
of a wide flood plain and the presence of well developed or abandoned meanders (Bastarrachea,
1985).
The Motagua River is the main system draining into the basin. This river and its tributary, the
San Francisco River, empty directly into the Caribbean Sea in a wide area covered by highly
developed mangroves and tropical rain forests, both are of great ecological and aesthetic value
presenting endangered species such as the tapir, jaguar, spider monkey and gigantic ant eater.
Another important hydrological feature in the basin is the Piteros River which runs parallel to
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CEP Technical Report No. 34
the Motagua River and forms the plain of inundation of the Punta de Manabique region. This
river empties into the Caribbean sea through a mouth that opens seasonally. In the most distal
part of this river bed, the Canal de los Ingleses is connected with La Graciosa Bay. This region
is covered with mangroves and tropical rain forests rich in epiphytes. The fauna include
numerous species of migratory birds such as the "pico de espatula", "pico de zapato" and soldier
heron (CIESEG, 1993).
-
Rio Sarstún Basin
The Sarstún basin lies between the Santa Cruz Mountain Range and the Sarstún River, which
marks the political boundary between Belize and Guatemala. The Sarstún River (140 Km long)
forms meanders and a flood plain on its journey to Bahía de Amatique. As a result of the river's
heavy sedimentary load there is an area of sediment accumulation by the river mouth which is
moderated by the movement of tidal waves, coastal currents and wind action (CIESEG, 1993).
-
Río Dulce Basin (Izabal-Río Dulce Lower Basin)
The lower basin and Lake Izabal drainage converges with that of the Río Dulce and it is carried
towards the Bahía de Amatique. On its journey towards the Bay, Río Dulce is divided in three
regions or sections: a) a canal 10.5 Km long which links Lake Izabal with the Golfete and the
Juan Vicente, Seja and Ciénaga Rivers;
b) a widening area of the middle section of the river forming the El Golfete lagoon with a
surface area of 5855.9 has. The western shore of the lagoon presents a flooding area located
between Chocón-Machaca and Chiquimulilla, and four islands called Cuatro Cayos, Cayo Julio,
Cayo Grande and Cayo Palomo; and c) a canal which links the Golfete with Bahía de
Amatique (CIESEG, 1993).
6. Soils
According to the classification system of Simmons, et al. (1959), there are 5 soil types in the
study area : Inca, Chacalate, Chocón, Alluvials and Manabique. Following is an analysis of the
primary characteristics of these soils (Gonzalez et al., 1990; CIESEG, 1993):
-
Inca Soils (In)
These soils are found all over the flood plain of the Motagua River and were formed by the
continuous alluvial deposits of the river. They have poor drainage, are grayish brown in colour,
are exposed to flooding a major part of the year which creates a serious restriction for their use
for agricultural purposes. The productivity in this type of soil is low to medium and requires
intensive management practices.
-
Chocón Soils (Chc)
These soils are found on the banks of the Sarstún River and the Golfete, as well as on the coast
of Bahía de Amatique. They are formed by marine deposits being dark brown to grey in colour,
Page 8
Evaluation of the Coastal and Marine Resources ...
flat, of medium texture with moderate internal drainage. These features make them suitable for
some agricultural activities such as corn and bean farming with the possible limited
mechanization. The productivity of these soils could be high under moderate to intensive
management practices. Despite the suitability of the soils for agriculture in the Golfete region,
the presence of dense forests makes this region unsuitable for this activity.
-
Chacalate Soils (Cha)
Chacalate soils are found in the lower Motagua valley, part of the Merendón Mountain Range
and the Mico Mountains in slopes exceding 50%. These soils are originally formed from
limestone, very dark brown in colour and present with good drainage.
The soils found on the banks of the Río Dulce and Río Sarstún are good for agriculture with
some limitations. However, due to the presence of dense vegetation it renders the terrain
incompatible with agricultural activity.
-
Alluvial Soils (AS)
These soils which are found in both banks of the Bay of Santo Tomas were formed from
alluvial deposits carried by rivers, or as result of the variation in the lakes water level and have
already been widely utilized, making the addition of fertilizers a normal practice. The western
bank contains arable land within some limitations, while the soils of the eastern coast are not
productive due to the poor drainage and under-development. The AS soils are currently being
cultivated by extensive practices presenting areas of secondary vegetation of graminaceous in
abandoned lands.
- Manabique
Soils
These are found throughout the Manabique Peninsula, and are formed from alluvial deposits of
the Quaternary Era. The drainage is good, clay-sandy texture, dark brown color and it is likely
that fertilizers will have to be applied for agriculture.
7. Biomes:
According to the Holdridge system (Cruz, 1976) and CIESEG (1993), two main biomes are
found in the study area.
-
Very Wet Subtropical Warm-Forest bmh-S (c)
This is found in the Sarstún River region. The rainfall and average annual temperature in this
type of forest lyes between 1587-2066 mm and 21-25oC, respectively. There is a large diversity
of flowering plants associated to this type of soil and amount of rainfall. Typical vegetation
includes:
Orbignya
cohune
(Corozo), Terminalia amazonia (Canxan naranjo), Brosimun alicastrum
(Ramón blanco), Lonchocarpus spp. (Manchiche or palo gusano), Virola spp. (Palo sangre),
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CEP Technical Report No. 34
Cecropia spp. (Guarumo), Ceiba petandra (Ceiba), Vochysia hondurensis (San Juan) and Pinus
caribaea (Pino del petén) (CIEGEPLAN, 1993; Moreno et al., 1993).
-
Very Wet Tropical Forest bmh-T
This type of forest is found over the entire study area, occupying the coastal plains of the
Golfete and Punta de Manabique. The annual rainfall in this region is 3,600 mm annually and
the mean annual temperature, 27oC.
The vegetation species common to this type of forest are: Acacia cookii (Subín), Cordia
gerascanthus (white laurel), Zanthoxylum belicense (Lagarto), Crudia spp., Podocarpus spp.
(Cipresillo), Brasiloxylon excelsa (chestnut) CIEGEPLAN, 1993; Moreno et al., 1993).
8. Mangrove
Forest:
-
Identification of Species
Based on in situ surveys and the analysis of information it was determined that there are four
species of mangroves growing in the region: Rhizophora mangle (red mangrove), Avicennia
germinans (black mangrove), Laguncularia racemosa (white mangrove) and Conocarpus
erectus (button mangrove), R. mangle being the dominant species.
- Coverage
This analysis was performed based on the analysis of satellite imagery, aerial photographs and
field studies. Figures 4 to 7 show the mangrove areas in the following regions: Rio Sarstún-
Livingston, Livingston-Punta de Palma, Río Dulce-El Golfete River, Port Barrios and Punta de
Manabique, respectively. The total mangrove area covers 707.6 ha. A total of 91.9 km of
mangrove growth are present along the shores.
9.
Structure and Distribution of Mangrove Forests
Mangroves do not appear along the entire length of the coast. The types of soil and topography
limit their distribution as the major part of the coast presents altitudes exceeding the average sea
level. Soils are of karstic nature and are under-developed. Both features are not well suited for
mangrove development.
There are mangrove forests along river basins, flood plains of the Sarstún River as well as in the
deltas and flood plains formed by the San Martin, Tapon Creek, Cocoli and Quehueche Rivers
(between Punta San Juan and Livingston); the total surface area covers approximately 189.9
ha.(Fig.4)
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Evaluation of the Coastal and Marine Resources ...
In the river banks and delta of the Chocón-Machacas River, mangroves are also growing as in
the Tamejá River (in the Golfete region). The area covered by these forests is about 269.6 ha.
(Fig. 5)
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CEP Technical Report No. 34
The Bay of Santo Tomás of Castilla presents mangrove clusters and the San Carlos, Las Pavas
and Romana Rivers also have growths along the banks. The total surface area covered by the
mangroves in this region is about 24 ha. (Fig. 6), including riverine and basin types of forests.
Page 12
Evaluation of the Coastal and Marine Resources ...
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CEP Technical Report No. 34
Between Pichilingo Point and Punta de Manabique (including La Graciosa Bay) up to the
mouth of the San Francisco River, there are mangroves growing along the river bank. The total
surface is about is about 224.1 ha. (Fig. 7)
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Evaluation of the Coastal and Marine Resources ...
In order to characterize the mangrove forests in the study area, and following Cintron and
Shaeffer-Novelli, (1983-1984) and Schaeffer-Novelli and Cintron (1986), four sample sites
were chosen (Fig.8) and the following parameters were selected: diameter at breast height
(dbh), area at base, density, relative density, relative frequency, relative predominance and
value. Also the index of complexity developed by Holdridge (1971) was calculated. The
technique selected for sampling was the centred point (Cottam and Curtis, 1956). Results are
given in Table 1.
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CEP Technical Report No. 34
The mangrove growth that predominates in Bahía de Amatique could be considered as a border
type (Stations 1 and 4), presenting low density (25-29 trees per 0.1 ha) and 11.6 to 23.87 m.
tall. The dominant species, R mangle A. germinans occurs sporadically. Forests show low
complexity and have small basal area (1.31 to 1.72 m2/0.01 ha).
Table 1.
Structural comparisons of mangrove forests in the sampling stations*
Location
Density Base Area
Average
Relative
Relative
Relative
Vale
Complexity
(0.1 ha) (m2/0.01 ha)
Height
Frequency
Density
Occurrence
Index
(m)
(%)
Station 1
26
1.31
11.06
100
100
100
300
0.38
R. mangle
Station 2
12
0.51
11.9
66.7
81.3
56.8
204.8
0.48
R. mangle,
3
0.39
24
33.3
A. germinans
Station 3
42
1.71
11.69
100
100
100
1.001
0.87
R. mangle
Station 4
29
1.79
23.87
100
100
100
100
1.19
R. mangle
Mangroves nearby the mouth of the Pio Quinto River between Port Barrios and Coco Point in
Bahía de Amatique are also of border type comprising R. mangle and A. germinans being the
red mangrove, the predominant species. These forests are confined to a small fringe of less than
15 m. wide, of low density (3 to 12 trees/0.1 ha) and basal area (0.39 to 0.51 m2/0.1 ha). The
complexity index is 0.48 (Station 2).
The NE side of El Golfete also shows mangroves of border type found mainly along the fringes
of inland lagoons (Calix and Salvador lagoons). This region has the best developed forests of
the study area. The average height of the trees is about 11.6 m, with a density of 42 trees per 0.1
ha and a base area of 1.77 m2/0.01 ha. The predominant species in this zone is R. mangle
(Station 3).
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Evaluation of the Coastal and Marine Resources ...
10.
Sea Grass Beds
- Species
Identification
Based on in situ surveys and the analysis of information gathered from the sampling stations it
was determined that Thalassia testudinum, is the predominant species. However, other species
such as Halodule wrigthii and Syringodium filiform may occur. In the Salvador lagoon
(Golfete area) there is a large bed of Vallisneria americana. (Fig. 9) (Table 2).
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CEP Technical Report No. 34
-
Extent and Distribution
From the analysis of the satellite photographs and field studies, the extent and distribution of
sea grass beds in the region were determined. The distribution of underwater vegetation is
shown in Figures 4-7.
The presence and distribution of sea grass beds in any tropical region is related to the degree of
water transparency, relatively surf-free environments, shallowness and sandy bottoms. In the
study area, these features are present only in the east central section of Bahía de Amatique and
in Graciosa Bay. It is precisely in these regions where the analysis of the satellite image reveals
the presence of evenly distributed sea grass beds (Fig. 7). The area covered by this type of
vegetation is about 3750.5 ha. In La Graciosa Bay the sea grass beds reach a density of 1433
plants per m2 and a biomass in dry weight of 12.48 g/m2 (Table 2).
There are some important patches of sea grass beds of about 82.8 ha. in the shallows by the
mouth of the San Carlos River and Punta de Palma as well as in the Santo Tomas de Castilla
Bay.
Table 2.
Structural comparisons for submerged vegetation and environmental parameters
in the sampling stations *
Site Density
Biomass
in
Temp.
pH Oxygen Salinity
dry weight
(oC)
(mg/l)
(g/m2)
Station 1
1,433 12.48
30.2
7.4
6.9 23.2
Thalassia
testudinum
Station 2
4,690
2.77
29.4
6.0
5.6
4.4
Halodule
wrigthii
Station 3
8.72
28.1
6.1
4.2
0.0
Valisheria
americana
Station 4
27.0
5.8
0.89
14.1
no vegetation
*
Department of Ecology of the University of San Carlos ( USAC)
The Salvador Lagoon in the Chocón-Machacas River delta, Vallisneria americana covers an
area of 14.9 ha (Table 2). In Laguna Grande in the Sarstún River, a small area of 9.0 ha was
found from the satellite imagery analysis, but, as an in situ sampling was not performed given
the existing conditions of low salinity it could probably be a growth of V. americana variety.
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Evaluation of the Coastal and Marine Resources ...
11. Oceanography
- Hydrodynamics
The Bahía de Amatique, could be considered as an estuarine ecosystem due to its
hydrodynamic and geo-morphological characteristics. It is a body of semi-enclosed coastal
waters with a connection to the sea and in which salinity is considerably diluted due to the
influence of fresh water coming from land drainage (Pritchard, 1967). The bay covers an area
of 54160.8 ha (by considering an imaginary line between Punta de Manabique and the mouth of
the Sarstún River). It is a body of shallow water with an average depth of less than 10m.
The tides takes place twice a day with heights ranging from 0.1 to 0.5m in low- and high-water,
respectively (IGM, 1984).
Two major systems discharge the waters into the bay, the Sarstún River and the Polochic-Lago
Izabal-Río Dulce. Draining directly into the Caribbean Sea are the Motagua River and its
tributary, the San Francisco River, whose sedimentary load and watercourse have contributed to
the formation of Punta de Manabique as a large sand barrier lying in a SE-NW direction.
The rivers discharge in the area, geomorphology, dominant winds (NNE) and tidal effects are
factors that influence the circulation patterns in the estuarine system. Water circulation follows
an anticyclonic pattern beginning around the mouth of the Sarstún River and closing the circuit
at Punta de Manabique (Fig. 10) as a result of the presence of this sand barrier. The main
indicators of this type of flow are the presence of the barrier reef along the Belizean coast north
of the mouth of the Sarstún River. This assumption is based on the fact that if the water
discharged by this river were to flow in a northerly direction, the barrier would not be there.
Other indicators of the circulation pattern are the sedimentary load carried away by rivers and
the orientation of deltas following the flow of currents, as well as the distribution of shallow
banks in the central basin, whose direction is in accordance with the proposed circulation
pattern.
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CEP Technical Report No. 34
- Physico-chemical
Characteristics
The majority of the physico-chemical parameters in the estuarine system showed a gradient due
to the rivers discharges, currents and tides existing in the area.
Salinity, fluctuates throughout the year from 10 to 30 ppm (INSIVUMEH, 1981). In
accordance with data provided by Salaverría and Rosales (1993) for the rainy seasons, there is a
clear gradient with readings from approximately 10 pp/mt at the mouth of the rivers to 16 pp/mt
in the outermost part of the bay. Eventually, there is also a stratification of this reading, with
average surface readings of 11.9 pp/mt to 33.7 pp/mt at the bottom as a result of the circulation
of two masses of water, one being superficial (less saline), heading towards the sea and the
other (more saline), penetrating the bay from below.
The annual variation in water temperature is from 20 to 33oC (INSIVUMEH, 1981). Salaverría
and Rosales (1993) report for the rainy season, a system average of 29.2oC and a 5.0 mg/l
dissolved oxygen concentration in the water column.
- Environmental
dynamics
As a result of the field work the following characteristics were identified:
Page 20
Evaluation of the Coastal and Marine Resources ...
a)
The river discharge draining in Bahía de Amatique affects its productivity and regulates the
distribution of sea grass.
The suspended and solution material discharged by the rivers and distributed by the currents
along the coast, including the mouth of the Sarstún River and Port Barrios (Fig. 11), create
conditions of water transparency, sedimentary load and salinity hardly favourable for the large-
scale development of sea grass beds. However, the current in the east central part of Bahía de
Amatique and Graciosa Bay presents waters of medium salinity and of a particularly high
transparency, which permits the development of this type of vegetation (Fig. 7).
The discharge of the rivers also regulates the natural productivity of the ecosystem, as it is
converted into one of the main energy sources for the supply of nutrients and organic matter for
sustaining the ecosystem's metabolism and energy for the food chains.
b)
The Canal de los Ingleses impacts significantly on the productivity of Graciosa Bay and
regulates the productivity of mangroves and sea grass beds in the region.
This canal gushes forcefully from the Piteros and San Francisco rivers, in addition to draining
across the densely vegetated marshes of the river delta. The vegetation in the Canal de los
Ingleses suggests the presence of a large amount of nutrients while, simultaneously, this
vegetation buffers the transport of terrigenous materials. Nonetheless, the water transported by
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CEP Technical Report No. 34
the canal has significant levels of organic matter, a small amount of terrigenous sediments and
produces a salinity gradient towards Graciosa Bay. These are favourable conditions for the
establishment of sea grass beds in Graciosa Bay and stimulate the productivity and structure of
mangroves as well as the metabolism throughout the water column.
c)
Punta de Manabique is an active, growing sand barrier which is fast advancing towards its end,
showing areas of accretion and erosion. This sedimentary type of environment conditions the
structure of the mangrove forests along the coastline.
The currents inside the Bay, water and terrigenous sediments discharges, particularly from the
Motagua and Piteros Rivers diverted to a SE-N-W direction by the coastal currents, are the
main factors accounting for the formation of Punta de Manabique (Fig. 11). This sand barrier is
a very dynamic system which is formed along the same direction as the coastal currents due to
the continuous discharge of sediments. Areas of erosion and accretion which appear alternately
along the external coastline of the barrier affect the structure and distribution of the mangrove
forests. By being high energy environments (erosive environments), they contribute to the
growth of poorly developed, low, shore mangroves. Trees fall due to the erosion, leaving the
coastline even more exposed to the currents and surf. The formation of Punta de Manabique is
the result of the outer littoral currents on the one hand, and the internal currents in Bahía de
Amatique, on the other.
V. Environmental
Analysis
1.
Analysis of Current Land Use and Types of Vegetation
Based on the analysis of subject maps, aerial photographs, satellite imagery and field
verification, a study was done to determine the current land-use and types of vegetation
(including mangroves and sea grass). The analysis of the satellite imagery involved the same
four phases mentioned in the section dealing with evaluation of coverage and distribution of
mangrove ecosystems and sea grass.
In
Figure 12 the land-use units and types of vegetation identified are presented. The following
is a description of each of them:
- Mangroves
This unit appears in soils influenced by tides and are covered by mangrove forests, Rhizophora
mangle, primarily.
- Wetlands
These areas occur in soils that are water-logged for the greater part of the year and covered by
marshy forests.
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Evaluation of the Coastal and Marine Resources ...
- Wet
Forest
This unit corresponds to soils that are flooded during one season of the year or have a certain
level of humidity. The vegetation that covers these soils corresponds to that of Very Humid
Tropical Forest.
- High
Forest
This unit is known to be present in areas with an altitude of more than 10 m. The type of
vegetation falls within the High Density Forest classification.
- Water
This term is used to label all those areas covered with continental or marine waters and also
includes the river basins down to the 10m isobath.
- Submerged
Vegetation
These are estuarine freshwater/marine areas covered by sea grass beds, mainly of Thalassia
testudinum. There are some regions presenting freshwater vegetation such as Vallisneria
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CEP Technical Report No. 34
americana.
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Evaluation of the Coastal and Marine Resources ...
- Denuded
Area
These are areas devoid of vegetation and are primarily located in the beach area.
- Urban
Area
In these areas, the vegetation has been totally changed by urban or suburban neighbourhoods.
-
Agricultural Area 1
Agricultural areas labelled type 1 are those where the vegetation has been completely replaced
by agricultural crops (corn primarily) and to a lesser extent by pastures induced by herding
practices.
-
Agricultural Area II
Type II agricultural areas are on soils that have been subjected to agricultural activity and then
abandoned once they have ceased to be productive. These soils are covered with secondary
vegetation.
- Secondary
Forest
This unit is associated with soils having secondary vegetation under and advanced state of
succession. It is primarily made up of trees with heights of 8-12 m.
In
Table 3 and Figure 13 the surface area for each identified unit and its percentage in relation
to the study area is shown. Both figures show that there is already a significant degree of
degradation, considering that 19.6% (taking the surface area covered by water and 33% without
water) of the surface area has undergone a change in the characteristics of the soil and a loss of
natural vegetation which impair the ecological functions performed by the ecosystem.
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CEP Technical Report No. 34
A further analysis was carried out of soil use and vegetation in the area within the coastline and
a distance of 5 km inland. The reason for considering this area is that it is federal property and
can be included in the Integrated Management Plan for Environmental as a buffer zone. The
final classification of the satellite imagery coincides with that of the study area and is shown in
Figure 12. The statistics and percentages are given in Table 4 and Figure 14.
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Evaluation of the Coastal and Marine Resources ...
2. Environmental
Impact:
The extensive and growing environmental degradation of the region and the entire municipality
of Izabal in general is due primarily to ignorance of the ecological and sociological value of the
ecosystems and the lack of planning instruments for monitoring and evaluating land-use and the
natural resources. The main factors affecting the environment are: inadequate agricultural
practices, over-fishing, the development of coastal and port infrastructure, human settlements
and urbanization as well as activities having to do with the prospecting and exploitation of
hydrocarbons, dredging, illegal hunting and unregulated sporting.
Table 3. Statistics on units of land-use and vegetation identified in the study area (ha)
Sarstún Golfete Puerto Punta
Total
Barrios
Manabique
Mangrove swamp
189
269.
24.
224.
707.
.81
62
06
12
62
Wetland
1,4
6,75
1,1
9,70
19,0
44.12
4.0
92.56
0.43
91.12
Wet Forest
1.0
13,7
13,7
6
97.43
98.5
High Forest
1,05
1,4
2,77
6,50
1,2
6.31
31.87
5.0
6.12
42.93
Water
11,
6,89
11,
15,6
45,3
101.81
6.25
757.43
13.68
69.18
Underwater
vegetation
9.0
14.8
82.
3,75
3,85
7
81
0.5
7.18
Denuded Area
11.
0.25
27.
107.
146.
62
5
0
37
Urban Area
52.
24.0
856
12.8
945.
12
.12
7
12
Agricultural Area 1
224
4,82
1,5
2,05
8,65
.0
3.0
54.43
4.12
5.56
Agricultural Area II
183
512.
249
535.
1,48
.93
43
.75
25
1.37
Secondary Forest
664
2,66
1,6
5,83
10,7
.18
4.87
19.56
7.0
85.62
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CEP Technical Report No. 34
- Agricultural
Practices
Agriculture is the activity that has had the greatest impact on the loss of woodlands,
mangroves and marshes in the region, although the region soils are not suited to that type of
activity. Agriculture can be considered as a seasonal activity due to the fact that soils are
used as long as they are productive and later are abandoned.
Lands to be cultivated are prepared by slashing and burning without any conservation or
management procedure. The most important crops in the region are corn, beans and rice and
to a lesser extent banana, coconut and pineapple crops. Herding is a complementary activity
to agriculture and is done on a large scale, in pastures which are prepared by burning forest
and mangrove areas. Livestock activities are primarily associated with cattle and pig rearing
(CIESEG, 1993).
The main environmental problems associated with agricultural activities and the removal of
vegetation are: the loss of critical habitats for species of commercial value or that are
endangered: loss of soils and erosion, transport and carriage of sediments towards the coastal
zone which affect water quality. Another associated problem is the carrying of agro-
chemicals used on crops, which reduces the quality of water and affects the fishing resources.
Table 4.
Statistics on units of land use and vegetation identified in the area
between the coastline and 5 km within (ha).
Total
Mangroves
707.62
Wetlands
21,346.31
Wet
Forest
13,798.50
High
Forest
26,965.50
Water
45,369.18
Underwater
Vegetation
3,857.18
Denuded
Area
175.93
Urban
Area
998.87
Agricultural Area I
15,641.00
Agricultural Area II
4,657.00
Secondary
Forest
18,096.81
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Evaluation of the Coastal and Marine Resources ...
- Fishing
Fishing in the region is primarily carried out by unskilled fishermen mainly in the Graciosa
Bay, Punta Manabique, the mouth of the Sarstún River, Livingston and the Río Dulce-
Golfete areas.
Salaverría and Rosales (1993) reported more than 45 species of fish, mollusks and shellfish
in the region. The distribution and abundance of these resources depend on the river
discharge, salinity and concentration of oxygen during the rainy season.
The species having commercial importance are: mackerel, snook, calale (colorado), jackfish,
mojarra, palometa, corvina and shark as well as shrimp, lobster and tarpoon. The current
regulation (fishing seasons) is based upon limited information on the biology and ecology of
the species. The little information available is limited and is related to fish prospecting
studies such as those of Aweigh Engineers (1975) and Matthes (1986), anthropological
studies such as that by Maldonado (1991) and studies focused primarily on the distribution of
mollusks for example those by Cazali (1988) and Prado (1990).
The lack of information on the current state of fisheries, in terms of their biology and of
volume of catch as well as the lack of management of resources and planning of the fishing
activity can lead to problems of over-exploitation of this resource. This will lead to a
reduction in the region's production of fish, with the resultant economic losses. It is also
important to bear in mind the effect which other sources of environmental impact can have on
fishing productivity in the region, for example contamination from agro-chemicals and
sewage as well as the destruction of critical habitats, food or protection (sea grass, mangroves
and wetlands).
- Forestry
The removal of precious wood by legal and illegal loggers as well as the cutting down of
trees such as mangroves for use as building materials, fuel and energy are common practices
in the study area and are not subjected to any form of sustainable management. The results
of these activities are the destruction of critical habitats for the fauna, soil loss and transport
of materials and contaminants towards the bay, thus reducing the quality of water and the
ecosystems. One of the ecosystems most vulnerable to this alteration are the sea grass beds
which are susceptible to the accumulation of excessive nutrients and changes in water
transparency (CIESEG, 1993).
- Hydrocarbons
Activities associated with hydrocarbons are currently limited to transportation and storage at
Puerto Barrios and Santo Tomás de Castilla while exploration was considered outside of the
study area, (Lake Izabal). There are few studies done on the levels of concentration
of hydrocarbons in the region. One study done by DGEN-Shell (1991), shows the existence
of traces of oil in the area linking Lake Izabal to Río Dulce (Castillo de San Felipe).
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CEP Technical Report No. 34
Despite the non-existence of significant levels of hydrocarbons in the sediments and the
water column, the risk of accidents or spills as potentially serious sources of contamination in
the area must be considered. In April, 1975 there were spills off the Atlantic Coast of more
than 25,000 gallons of asphalt and about 6000 gallons of bunker oil by the sinking of a ship
near Punta de Manabique. The result of this spill was a considerable reduction in the
population of fish, shrimp, lobster, squid, clams and snails and a financial loss of more than
31 million quetzales (Bastarrachea, s/f).
Oil exploration and production activities being planned for Lake Izabal could induce, if
adequate preventative or mitigating measures are not established, a deterioration in water
quality and habitats. This could occur not only in the lake but also in its area of influence up
to Río Dulce, - the Golfete and the marine/coastal zone, due to chronic release or accidental
oil spills or interruption of natural run-offs by the development of canal and access routes.
Also, activities, such as dredging, can bring about negative effects such as the suspension of
this contaminant in the water column, directly affecting sea grass beds. Another unwanted
effect associated with oil development activities is the immigration of people induced by the
demand of manpower for the industry with the resultant problem of pressures on land use and
increased demand for services such as drinking water, solid wastes disposal, sewage, etc.
-
Human Settlements and Urbanization
There are three important population centers in the study area - Puerto Barrios, Puerto de
Santo Tomas de Castilla and Livingston as well as small villages or rural areas spread along
the entire coastline. The main environmental problem is the lack of a sewage disposal
system, drainage and sewage treatment plants. The ecological implications and
environmental effects of the discharges are the reduction in the quality of water and the
ecosystem; changes in transparency and light penetration which could affect the processes of
photosynthesis and the productivity of phyto-plankton and sea grasses. Under conditions of
anoxia the production of compounds such as mercapthanes and sulphuric acid would cause
changes in the pH of the water as well as an offensive odour. Apart from particulated
material and nutrients entering the system; sewage can transport germs that cause bacterial
diseases (e.g., cholera and typhoid) as well as viral infections (e.g., poliomyelitis and
hepatitis), among others, that can be transmitted through eating contaminated fish and
shellfish.
- Tourism
Despite the fact that tourism generates 211.3 million dollars per year (1991 data), which
makes it the second largest foreign exchange earner for the country after coffee (INGUAT,
1992), coastal tourism in the region is basically domestic and there is very little tourism
infrastructure and services. There are some hotels providing basic services in Port Barrios,
Santo Tomás de Castilla, Livingston and Golfete.
The non-existence of treatment plants for waste water generated by hotels or boats anchoring
in Golfete and the release of this water into the marine area are the principal causes of
environmental degradation in the region. The environmental effects are similar to those
mentioned earlier.
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Evaluation of the Coastal and Marine Resources ...
-
Ports Infrastructure and Activities
The heavy traffic of small, medium and large boats crowding the ports of Santo Thomas de
Castilla and Puerto Barrios, as well as the existing infrastructure causes spills of grease, oils
and chemicals as well as waste water, most of the time without any form of treatment.
According to 1992 data provided by the National Port Authority, there are now, in the Santo
Tomas de Castilla Bay, high levels of contaminating nutrients and fecal matter (from 750 - >
25 000 NMP /DL) which exceed the maximum permissible limit prescribed by COGUANOR
for drinking water (3 npm/DL for fecal matter).
Dredging activities in the navigation canal of Santo Tomás de Castilla Bay is another source
of impact on the region, due to the re-suspension of sediments and contaminants which alter
water quality and that of the ecosystem, primarily of sea grass beds. Due to the coastal
currents the sediments and suspended solids are carried along the littoral towards Bahía la
Graciosa which reduces water transparency, thus diminishing productivity or resulting in a
total loss of the vegetation in extreme cases.
3.
Environmental Analysis by Regions
A brief analysis by regions is presented below based on documentation available (CIESEG,
1993), National Port Authority, Moreno et al., 1993; Godínez, 1993 a and b; Gonzalez et al.,
field studies and the analysis of maps and satellite imagery.
-
Río Sarstún Region
This area includes the Río Sarstún Game Reserve, and the coastline between this area and
Livingston.
-
Río Sarstún Game Reserve
North east of the study area includes part of the Type III Protected Area called the Río
Sarstún Game Reserve.
It represents a region of important ecological and socio-economic value due to its great
biodiversity and the presence of critical habitats (mangroves an subtropical forests). The
socio-economic and political value of this region is based on the fact that it forms the
political boundary between Belize and Guatemala.
The standard vegetation of this region is characteristic of a very humid subtropical forests
which includes riverine mangroves associated with the Sarstún River, Sarstún Cay and the
flood plain of the basin. Both types of vegetation can be considered as critical habitats for
many species, some endangered (e.g., starks, herons, fishing eagle, toucan, jaguar, manatee,
tapir, wild boar, otter and crocodile) and others of commercial value such as fish, crustaceans
and mollusks found at the mouth of the river.
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CEP Technical Report No. 34
The main problems of contamination and environmental impact in the region are those
having to do with unplanned human settlements which exert pressure on forests and
mangrove areas by removing trees form large areas primarily for the cultivation of corn or for
obtaining lumber. Another problem in the region is illegal hunting of species such as the
jaguar and crocodile for trading in hides or the wild boar for food.
-
The Punta San Juan-Livingston Coastline
* Punta San Juan
There are five important areas in this region having good potential for tourism and
agriculture -Punta San Juan-Livingston, Cocoli-Siete Altares, Siete Altares, the Siete
Altares-Rio Quehueche coastline and the Rio Quehueche-Livingston coastline. The
region is now having some tourism activities due to its hidden fine sand beaches.
This has resulted in the removal of coastal and inland vegetation as well as beach
refilling activities. Due to a lack of sanitary infrastructure, sewage is released
directly on to the land and sea from human settlements.
* Punta de Cocolí-Altares
Along the coast in this region are many narrow fine sand beaches interrupted by karst
areas, which makes them not very accessible by land. In spite of this and due to its
great aesthetic value, there are beaches which can support some permanent tourism
installations with adequate plants for sewage and waste water treatment and disposal.
* Siete Altares
In the Siete Altares region, erosion due to the river flow is continuous. This region,
though not having any beaches, has great aesthetic value and is utilized for
recreational purposes.
The vegetation is made up of coastal forests and some species such as Vochysia
hondurensis (San Juan) and Pachira acuatica (zapotón). There are abundant
bromeliads and orchids. Towards the beach area, there are coconut trees and sea
grapes (Coccoloba belizensis).
The interior coastline is marked by deforested valleys and flat areas due to agriculture
(primarily corn and bananas, to a smaller degree). These lands are abandoned once
worn out and are converted into wasteland. Vegetation is also removed for lumber
and firewood, building materials and energy. Another problem in the region is the
area dedicated to military exercises, which affect the natural conditions by
deforesting and penetrating areas.
* The Siete Altares-Quehueche Coastline
This region begins at the mouth of the Quehueche river. There are narrow fine-sand
beaches with tourism potential although in some regions the removal of coastal
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Evaluation of the Coastal and Marine Resources ...
vegetation has brought about problems of coastal erosion and salinity. The main
indicator of this process is the exposure and destruction of certain coconut palm trees.
In areas with good drainage, there are red, white and button mangroves, the red
mangrove being predominant.
Agriculture and firewood removal from lands that were abandoned earlier on are for
the most part covered by bitter cane (Gynerium sagittatum) as well as other
gramineae. Large-scale deforestation has taken place.
* The Quehueche-Livingston Coastline
The part between the mouth of the Quehueche River and Livingston is a suburban-
urban area. A number of houses are located closer to the Quehueche river. There are
some narrow fine sand beaches along the coastline where special villas for tourism
have been constructed.
The main problems of this region are health related; storm water and sewage are
directly discharged into the sea without prior treatment or, in most cases, into
improper latrines. The release of sewage into catchment areas produces an offensive
odour and endangers public health. Another problem is the cutting down of trees for
use as energy in the form of firewood and charcoal. Areas
already deforested are covered with secondary vegetation. The remaining vegetation
is primarily made up of coconut trees and palma confra (Manicaria sacciera).
-
The Golfete Region
This part of the study area is comprised of two protected areas - the Río Dulce National Park
and the Biotopo Chocón-Machacas. Also included are the Golfete plains which are located
outside the protected area (Fig. 15).
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CEP Technical Report No. 34
* Rio Dulce National Park
This protected park includes a fringe 1 Km wide and 39 Km long on both sides of Río
Dulce and Golfete. It is a region of great ecological importance and has been
declared a protected area for the preservation of tropical rain forests and as a habitat
and shelter for the manatee.
The river banks in the Golfete region are being used for tourist housing and
infrastructure (lodgings and water facilities). These activities, in addition to the
destruction of coastal vegetation (mangrove primarily) cause a deterioration in water
quality and habitats as well as fishery resources in Golfete, by means of
contamination resulting from the release of untreated waste water.
In addition to housing and tourism infrastructure, the unplanned development of
forestry and agricultural activities on the plains adjacent to Golfete is an important
source of contamination and environmental impact in the region. The removal of
vegetation leads to the loss of habitats critical for the numerous species of fauna,
problems of erosion and soil loss. Contamination of lagoons and associated fisheries
by agro-chemicals is also a problem.
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Evaluation of the Coastal and Marine Resources ...
* Biotopo Chocón-Machacas
This protected area adjoins the Río Dulce National Park. The region is home to
wetlands (mangrove and flood prone forests) located in the flood plain, delta and
inland lagoons of the Chocón Machacas River. It was formed by preserving wetlands
and their associated flora and fauna, the antillean manatee in particular (Trichechus
manatus).
The main problems of degradation in the region are the illegal hunting of exotic
species, the loss of woodland areas to subsistence agriculture and the heavy
unregulated traffic of fishing and tourist boats, which lead to the deterioration of the
manatee's habitat and population.
-
Puerto Barrios Region
This region extends from Punta de Palma to Punta Pichilingo and, for analytical purposes,
was divided into 2 areas:
* Bahia de Santo Tomas de Castilla
This area includes Punta de Palma up to Puerto Barrios. In the section from Punta de
Palma to Ensenada San Carlos, are some wide, medium-sized, fine-sand beaches
which, given their slope (2-15%), are suitable for urbanization. The coastline located
between Río Las Escobas and Río San Carlos is marked by the presence of border
mangroves in which the dominant species is R. mangle. The mangrove species grows
at the mouth and banks of Río San Carlos. On the flood plains of the San Carlos and
the Pavas rivers, the marshy forests are well preserved. The presence of mangroves
on the flood plain and delta of the San Carlos river, besides being of a high ecological
value, also has considerable economic value, due to its potential for ecotourism. In
addition to mangroves, there are other types of coastal vegetation such as Coccoloba
uvifera, Cocos nucifera, Thespesia sp., Hibicus tilliaceus and the confra palm
Manicaria saccifera.
The main sources of environmental impact in the region are: The removal of coastal
vegetation (mangrove included) for use as building materials and in order to develop
agricultural activities. The removal of vegetation leads to loss of habitats and
migration of numerous species.
Towards the interior coastline there are highly developed activities primarily
dedicated to livestock rearing and a few areas to the cultivation of corn, sugar cane
and coconut trees. Also, in the entire coastal zone of the study area is the frequent
practice of preparing land by slashing and burning, whether for livestock pastures or
agricultural activity. Another source of impact in the region, is the construction of a
highway that runs parallel to the coast between Santo Tomas de Castilla and Punta
Herreria. This construction being undertaken without taking into account in its
design, the natural drainage in the region, which could potentially lead to erosion and
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CEP Technical Report No. 34
loss of coastal vegetation. In the Bahia de Santo Tomas de Castilla, there are serious
problems of organic and microbiological contamination caused by the release of
agro-chemicals and sewage into the bay. Currently the readings for nutrients and
fecal matter much exceed the maximum permissible limits established by official
standards.
* Punta de Palma Coast
This region includes from Punta de Palma to Punta Herreria at the mouth of Rio
Dulce. There are some fine-sand beaches of 2 to 3 metres wide that are
accessible via a track which runs from Punta Herreria to the Puerto de Santo
Tomas de Castilla. Along the coastline there are houses and facilities for vacationers,
fishermen and peasants, a few ports and activities for the replenishment of the
beaches. The reason for there being only a few docks and refilling activities is the
effect of currents and coastal erosion. Also available, are storage facilities for fishing
boats. In certain sections of the coast there are enclosed areas which do not appear in
the maps of the region.
The main impacts in the region are: a) the high degree of removal of the adjacent
interior coastal vegetation for agricultural and livestock purposes or for firewood. In
some fringes of the coastline erosion problems exist as shown by the land slides of
the high platform edges and the exposure of the roots of coconut trees. Another
significant impact in the region, particularly in Punta Herrería, is the destruction of
coastal vegetation to develop the tourism potential of the region.
-
Punta de Manabique Region
This zone forms part of the Specially Protected Area Punta de Manabique. It is located on
the flood plain of the Motagua River, between Pichilingo River and the San Francisco River
basin up to the point where it meets the Atlantic. (Fig. 16).
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Evaluation of the Coastal and Marine Resources ...
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CEP Technical Report No. 34
The predominant coastal vegetation is classified as border mangrove, reaching from the
mouth of the Pichilingo River up to Punta de Manabique. The most important mangrove
areas are on the Bahia la Graciosa coastline, thinning out upon its approach to the Santa
Isabel lagoon. In this region there are some mainly narrow, fine-sand beaches (2-4 m wide)
although some, such as Cambalache Beach and Punta de Palma Beach are as wide as 20 to 45
m, respectively. These beaches are only accessible by sea, which creates limitations for
developing hotel infrastructure due to the instability of the land. The soils are water-logged
having drainage problems.
The Bahia la Graciosa and Piteros River region has much potential for ecotourism activities,
due to its scenery, the presence of the most highly developed mangrove forests in the region
as well as sea grass beds. Notwithstanding, their ecotourism potential, further studies should
be done before developing ecotourism activities given that this area is a critical habitat.
The coastline from Punta de Manabique to the mouth of the San Francisco River is marked
by the presence of beaches with even fine sand. These beaches are wide (between 35 to 100
m) and are evenly distributed from Punta de Manabique to the mouth of the San Francisco
River. The Cabo Tres Puntas, Palo Blanco, La Maquina and San Francisco del Mar beaches
belong to this area. The first three have tourism potential due to their size, dimensions, sand
quality and water transparency. However, their use is limited due to their inaccessibility and
instability of the land for construction. In the case of San Francisco del Mar beach, its tourist
potential is limited due to its dark coloured sand and water resulting from the export of hides
and organic materials from the mangrove and wetlands areas to the coast.
The predominant vegetation in the interior section of Punta de Manabique is wetlands to the
north and woodlands that are somewhat water-logged to the south.
It is a well preserved region with an increasing degree of degradation. The main sources of
environmental impact are agriculture and small-scale livestock rearing. There is also
charcoal production from mangrove forests and wetlands. Illegal and legal hunting are other
significant human activities in the area.
VI. Definition of Management Guidelines
An integrated management plan for the Atlantic Coast of Guatemala should consider the
environmental characteristics of the area to allow for the continuous operation of the system and to
provide recommendations to diminish environmental degradation resulting from human activities.
Following an environmental management framework and a set of management guidelines aimed at a
regional, sectorial and ecosystem levels for the area of study are proposed.
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Evaluation of the Coastal and Marine Resources ...
1. Regional
Level
This section comprise the planning and management strategies applicable to the Atlantic
coast of Guatemala. The strategy is multisectorial in nature, although it can be focused on
one sector alone such as tourism, but should always consider the interactions with the other
sectors involved in the region.
The model considers the following components (Figure 17):
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CEP Technical Report No. 34
Page 40
Evaluation of the Coastal and Marine Resources ...
2.
Definition of Objectives
This component combines the ecological, social and economic criteria and elements to allow
for the identification of management guidelines leading towards the sustainable development
of the area and the activities which have influence upon the coastal zone, such as tourism and
related activities in the area. Also, this section aims at the preservation of the ecosystems or
critical habitats (mangroves, wetlands and sea grass) and the existing natural resources.
3. Environmental
Characterization
This phase involves defining and characterizing the main environmental (e.g., climate,
soils, geology, water, land use and types of vegetation and identification and
characterization of habitats and critical ecosystems) and socio-economic features
(population, current productive activities and potential, municipal, state and federal
development plans and programmes). Also the characterization and description of the
existing infrastructure and services (e.g., drainage, coastal and tourism infrastructure,
communication media, etc.) are considered under this planning phase.
-
Definition of the Study Area. In a functional or natural way, the basin or water tables
which drain on the coastline define the most appropriate environmental boundary for
defining the study area. This approach can be adjusted considering the political and/or
administrative limits as well as the geography of the area. The next step will consider the
regionalization of the area based on ecological or geographical criteria. this approach
will be utilized in the identification and characterization of the environmental subunits.
4. Environmental
Diagnosis
The objectives of this phase are aimed at identifying and evaluating, the characteristics of
the area and the main environmental problems. It also encompasses the actual and
potential land use, and allows for a determination of the extent and directions of the
environmental degradation.
5. Proposal
Phase
- Management
Model. Based on the above information and legal aspects, a planning
model for the study area is drafted defining land-use, (agricultural, cattle rearing,
urbanization, ports, industry and tourism) and the exploitation of natural resources. Also,
included are mitigating measures for areas with a high level of degradation as well as
preservation measures for critical areas, ecosystems and the natural resources.
- Management
Guidelines. The objective of this stage is to define in a concrete way,
together with all the institutions involved in the project, the standards, actions,
regulations, criteria and managerial issues which permit, environmental planning and
management for the use and sustainable development of the study area and its natural
resources.
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CEP Technical Report No. 34
6.
Implementation and Management
This phase involves the establishment of intersectorial collaborative programmes
involving public, private and social entities; considering environmental and legal
monitoring programmes. Also defined are programmes for the protection of critical
habitats, flora and fauna, broadcasting and communication programmes, etc.
In the present phase is also necessary to include, the definition of legal instruments at
municipal level to strengthen the programmes.
Any project to be designed or implemented should consider an environmental impact
assessment, for evaluation. The level of studies and type of data on environmental
impact that would be recommended to be undertaken will depend on the magnitude of the
project, or the ecological and socio-economical value of the area.
An acceleration of the legal and administrative procedures aimed at protecting critical
areas as soon as possible (i.e., the four areas within the region: Sarstún, Río Dulce,
Biotopo Chocón Machacas and Punta Manabique), should be seriously considered.
Otherwise, the biodiversity and environmental quality will be largely affected
jeopardizing the achievement of the proposed objectives.
The legal and administrative procedures for establishing of the protected areas, as well as
for their administration and operation, must consider:
-
Definition of geographical limits and the application of adequate zoning criteria
such as the primary and buffer zones in which are included zones of restricted,
moderate or intensive use (this is applicable to the Río Sarstún and Punta de
Manabique).
-
Solution of conflicts related to land occupancy through the up-dating and
enforcement of the national land registers with a view to properly enforcing the
laws related to the management and establishment of the reserves (La Forgia,
1991).
-
Definition of management plans that regulate the different activities and
compatible uses in the protected areas (i.e., Biotopo Chocón-Machacas, Río
Dulce and Punta de Manabique). Also, whenever required, the level or status of
the protected areas must be re-considered, (i.e., Punta de Manabique) due to the
fact that it may require a higher degree of protection due to its great ecological
value, biodiversity and fragile environment (CIESEG, 1993).
-
Participation of the local community in the administration and management of
protected areas. This would be a source of income and reduce the impact of the
invasion of these areas by people with limited economic resources.
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-
Implementation of environmental education programmes and public awareness
campaigns, aimed at incorporating the management and sustainable development
ideas and procedures for the conservation of the area and its natural resources.
-
Establishment of coordinating mechanisms that permit the harmonization of
municipal and national legal aspects to avoid conflicts of interest related to the
territorial concessions within the protected areas (La Forgia, 1991).
-
Inclusion and participation of federal and municipal governmental institutions
with non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and institutions in the coordination
and administration of the protected areas due to their potential for tourism and
ecotourism.
-
Installation of sanitary infrastructure (drinking water, drainage for waste water
and rain water), electricity and communications at the heart of the population for
the benefit of the environmental quality and standard of living, as well as tourism
activities planned for the region.
-
Establishment of technical schools related to tourism and fisheries could be of
great value in order to support the programmes on capacity building for the
management of the resources in the area. Also, with a view to fulfilling the
objectives of the integrated management plan, it is necessary to consider
strategies for environmental education for the local population through training of
primary and secondary school teachers. Radio and television programmes,
conferences, documentaries and meetings, etc., should also be considered for the
population in general.
VII. Sectorial Level
One strategy for coastal planning and management that has been applied in many countries, is
based upon a type of sectorial planning which in turn is based on capital projection and
implementation, land use planning and the identification of the necessary infrastructure for
managing and developing specific sectors (Sorensen et al., 1992). This type of strategy could be
applicable to different sectors of the Atlantic Coast of Guatemala, such as agriculture, fishing,
ports, and for the development of tourism in particular. It is valid as long as it considers the
environmental characteristics of the place and the environmental impacts to be produced due to
the specific activities. Ultimately, this approach reaches the integrated strategy.
Based on the foregoing, some guidelines and recommendations for planning and managing the
main sectors in the region are provided:
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CEP Technical Report No. 34
Tourism
It is important to consider a tourism management plan based on the following recommendations:
-
Evaluate the carrying capacity of the ecosystem in order to determining the population
size and size of infrastructure that the area can support.
-
Define zoning areas in the coastal areas with potential or earmarked for tourism activities
based on the type of soil, socio-economic and geographical considerations.
-
Determine minimum standards for environmental quality and monitoring programmes for
water quality to prevent problems of pollution and the degradation of the ecosystem,
public health and tourism.
-
Ensure that the local population benefits from the economic gains from tourism,
considering their participation in the productive process through the supply of services
and manpower. Tourism provides a source of employment, economic resources and an
increase in the standard of living of the local population on the one hand, and on the
other, a reduction of negative environmental and economic impact from an unemployed
population.
-
Regulate and restrict the passage of high-speed water crafts (i.e., boats, jet-skies) in the
protected areas, as well as in Río Dulce, El Golfete and the northern section of the
Manabique Peninsula, Graciosa Bay and Canal de los Ingleses. This is due to the
fragility of the ecosystems and richness of fauna (including endangered species such as
the manatee). Gangways, complement the landscape and should be designed in
accordance to the dynamics of the ecosystem (e.g., maintaining run-offs and natural
flows through use of elevated platforms or columns).
-
Undertake studies on the ecological viability considering the identification of the most
appropriate places, extent of the project and adequate infrastructure required such as
waste water treatment plants and a system for the collection, management and disposal of
solid wastes. This is particularly important in areas with a medium potential for
developing recreational and conventional tourism, such as Punta San Juan, Punta Cocolí,
the coastline south of Punta de Manabique and the high intensity in the coastal area of
Quehueche, Livingston and Punta de Palma. Also, to be considered is the maintenance
of coastal vegetation and the utilization of indigenous species. The issuance of a
preventive study or an environmental impact assessment prior to authorization of beach
refilling activities is recommended.
-
Construction of a waste water treatment plant and drainage systems, and the adequate
collection, treatment and disposal of solid waste is vital in Livingston and Río Dulce-El
Golfete, particularly as the current infrastructure such as hotels, marinas and water
facilities lack adequate management of waste water and solid wastes.
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Evaluation of the Coastal and Marine Resources ...
1.
Hunting and Fishing
Due to the high level of hunting activity and illegal as well as legal trade of species of
fauna and flora (some of which are threatened or endangered) which are threatening the
biodiversity in the region, there should be a promotion of specific actions or mechanisms
to declare protected areas and to eliminate or restrict these types of activities. Special
emphasis should be given to the enforcement procedures.
It is also necessary to promote the development of a list of flora and fauna and the
establishment of a monitoring programme as a tool for the follow-up and evaluation of
wildlife communities.
Fishing activity ought to be stimulated because it represents a tourist attraction by virtue
of its products (food) and services (recreational fishing) which is a major source of
income for the local population. It is necessary to define management and development
strategies for fishing, which permit the maintenance of a resource base and sustainable
development of the activity. The following are some recommendations:
-
Continue making efforts related to the assessment of the fishing resources in order
to define their structure and function as well as the environmental factors that
determine and regulate them. Using the results of these studies, guidelines or
regulations for identifying fishing seasons, fishing permits, definition of fishing
tackles, etc., could be clearly defined.
-
In order to prepare adequate management strategies, undertake studies related to
fishing yields and statistics, existing infrastructure, fishing strategies, variations in
the supply of fish depending on the location of fishermen or fisheries, zones and
times of the year to fish depending on the species, fishing techniques being used,
operations and cost of operations.
-
Avoid the practice of trawling in sea-grass areas.
-
Consider an implemented ecological monitoring programme as an instrument to
follow-up resources management and evaluation.
-
Regulation of fishing activities should be formulated and adequate legal and
administrative instruments defined for their application (LaForgia, 1991).
-
Design and undertake technical training programmes for unskilled fishermen in
the region.
-
Encourage the organization of fishermen cooperatives and put in place some
financial mechanism for them to obtain services, boats and adequate fishing skills.
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CEP Technical Report No. 34
-
Encourage recreational fishing to support tourism in the region.
-
Undertake studies prior to developing aquaculture activities in the region.
-
Avoid conversion of marshy or mangrove swamp areas into aquaculture grounds
due to the range of tides and characteristics of the soil and terrain as it is not
suitable for this activity.
The planning and management of marine resources should complement activities related to the
protection of habitats and the associated populations. Their exploitation will be included within
the framework of the integrated planning approach considering the following aspects (Yañez-
Arancibia, et al., 1993):
-
Maintenance of marshy habitats including sea-grass beds due to the linkage
between them and the availability of fishing resources in the region.
-
Maintenance of the local fishing populations, for optimum catch volumes and
recruitment.
-
Protection of the coastline and vegetation from impacts, such as dredging of
marshes and canals which are harmful to the species.
-
The development of research activities aimed at evaluating the impact due to
ports activities bridge construction, and future prospects for urban expansion.
-
Understanding the biological interactions between the tourism activity, oil
exploration and extraction, with the native species and populations.
-
The control of chemical waste contamination of rivers and basins, which affect
areas where fish life cycles take place.
-
The implementation of ecological models that permit an evaluation of the
potential of the populations and their relationship with the functioning of the
ecosystem.
2.
Agriculture and Livestock Farming
Agriculture and livestock farming on high and low lands are the activities that have led
most to environmental degradation in the region, and for which there is need to develop a
short-term management strategy that allows for the definition of a model of land use.
This strategy should be based on the state of environmental degradation, ecological value
of ecosystems, biodiversity and type of soil. Thus, areas with potential for developing
agriculture and livestock farming could be defined, and strategies for protection,
restoration or change in land use could be developed for areas where the potential does
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Evaluation of the Coastal and Marine Resources ...
not exist. The following is a list of recommendations:
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CEP Technical Report No. 34
-
Promote the use of conservation and management techniques for soil and water
resources, adequate management of agro-chemicals (pesticides, herbicides and
fertilizers) and crop diversification or rotation, as well as a credit and finance
programme. This would be relevant mainly in areas dedicated to agriculture and
livestock.
-
Expand agriculture to areas that have already been reduced to secondary
vegetation, or are abandoned, as it is the most viable option in economic and
ecological terms for coastal soils rather than destroying the mangroves and
wetlands.
-
Consider the development of reforestation programmes due to the degree of
degradation or ecological importance.
-
Promote technical training programmes for the region's farmers.
-
Formalize land ownership in order to be able to standardize and regulate land use.
-
Design of access roads should consider the preservation of the ecosystem's
dynamics.
-
Avoid the conversion of areas with great economic potential, such as mangroves
and wetlands into areas for agriculture and livestock rearing.
3. Urbanization
-
Promote an urban management plan considering the soils potential. This plan
would help in the identification and zoning of urban areas as well as establishing
buffer areas (green areas) to diminish the direct effect of the urban settlements on
the ecosystems nearby.
-
Encourage capital investment for basic sanitary infrastructure, such as sewage
treatment plants, rain and waste water drainage systems, as well as the use of
latrines or absorption wells. Also to be encouraged is a programme for solid
wastes collection, handling and disposal.
-
Implement a programme for monitoring the quality of water and fishing resources
with a view to preventing public health problems.
-
Regulate, wetlands and mangroves for obtaining building materials, wood and
charcoal and for preparing lands for cultivation. Monitoring and reforestation
programmes in highly degraded areas to arrest the process of leaching and soil
erosion. Its effect on the coastal zone, should also be considered.
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Evaluation of the Coastal and Marine Resources ...
4. Oil-Related
Activities
-
Establish a technical advisory committee and a regional contingency plan to
prevent and control oil spills, since the risk of accidents and oil spills in the Bahía
de Amatique from transportation and storage activities is high.
-
Carry out detailed studies on environmental impact related to oil exploration and
exploitation activities for Izabal and the study area to allow for the identification
and evaluation of the direct and indirect effects of these activities on the
ecosystem, as well as to define measures to reduce or prevent such impacts.
-
Undertake a detailed cost-benefit analysis of environmental impact which sets
standards for or is used to regulate all activities in the area. This is very important
due to the presence of protected areas and critical habitats such as mangroves,
wetlands and sea grass, and the tourism and ecotourism potential of the region.
5.
Ports and Means of Communications
-
Consideration should be given to the establishment of basic infrastructure which
permits the treatment and proper disposal of liquid and solid wastes from land
facilities and ships.
-
Consider the impact of dredging operations on the benthonic and nectonic
organisms, due to the reduction of oxygen in the water column and the re-
suspension of sediments, contaminants and organic matter, as well as the effects
of increasing turbidity on sea grass beds. This should be primarily considered in
Bahía de la Graciosa as suspended material is transported towards this region due
to the coastal circulation. Thus, it is necessary to consider the use of mud traps or
dredging strategies which ensure that the transportation of suspended material
does not reach away the sea grass beds.
-
Any proposed port engineering project such as jetties, waterfronts or ports should
include in their design, the maintenance of the natural basic watercourse
circulation to avoid or lessen the impact of erosion and deposit, particularly in
areas of sea grass, mangrove and wetlands.
-
It is necessary to encourage the construction of communication infrastructure in
the coastal zone to support projected tourism activity and to provide access to
areas of recreational or ecotourism importance. This infrastructure would
encourage communication between different towns which would stimulate trade
and access to the products and services in the main urban areas. Any construction
of access roads or highways, especially in marshy or mangrove areas must, as
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CEP Technical Report No. 34
much as possible, be parallel to the flow of surface waters to mitigate the effect of
water retention and droughts. In this regard, the construction of drains and
bridges must also be considered.
VIII. Ecosystems and Habitats
Ecosystems such as mangroves, wetlands and sea grass which are of great ecological and socio-
economic importance in the region, have been identified as areas for protection, however, no
regulation existis on their use and protection. The following is a list of proposed
recommendations and guidelines for their management:
-
Preserve the structure and function of the ecosystems, mainly the interaction between
marshes (mangroves and wetlands), and sea-grass in Bahía de Amatique and the adjacent
Continental Platform.
-
Assess the evolution of resources and habitats by permanent ecological monitoring.
-
Define the legal and administrative instruments and regulations for the protection of the
different ecosystems.
-
Avoid the construction of canals and dredging activities which could affect the
productivity and lead to ecosystems degradation, lessening their economic value or
causing their disappearance by flooding, water retention and salinization.
-
Maintain the hydrological balance between salt and fresh water in order for the
mangroves to flourish. It is necessary that planners dealing with water resources, as well
as communications, ensure the maintainance of the hydrological balance when designing
their works. An example could be the regulation of the unloading of fresh water from
dams into the watercourse, making embankments parallel to the coastline and providing
drainage system on the highways.
-
Avoid the conversion of mangroves and wetlands into agricultural areas. However, this
transformation could be considered in degraded swampy areas as long as ecological
viability and environmental impact assessment are undertaken.
-
Define legal and administrative instruments for the use, conservation and protection of
sea grass beds.
-
Develop environmental education programmes which include the ecological and
economic value.
-
Develop an environmental monitoring programme for sea grass beds, with the objective
of evaluating their potential and preventing any alteration or change as a result of
environmental degradation.
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Evaluation of the Coastal and Marine Resources ...
-
Regulate the type of boats, routes and speed in areas were sea grass beds are present, in
order to avoid the suspension of sediments and the resultant degradation of the
ecosystem, particularly in Bahia de Graciosa.
-
Avoid trawling activity in sea grass areas as it leads to their elimination as well as the re-
suspension of sediments and the alteration of the substratum.
-
Consider the coastal water circulation when constructing docks, ports and waterfronts so
that sedimentation and erosion does not occur in areas where sea grass beds are thriving.
-
Avoid activities such as dredging and beach refilling in areas of sea grass beds. When
these activities are carried out in adjacent areas, mud traps or dredging strategies must be
used which ensure that by virtue of the water circulation and wind direction, they are
dispersed into other areas. It is likewise recommended that spillage of liquid wastes such
as waste water, run-offs from urban areas and water from pumping stations be avoided.
-
Avoid contamination of the waterways and estuaries originating from agricultural
practices and dumping of organic matter from domestic and industrial activities which
seriously affect the coastal ecosystems as mangroves, wetlands and river basins which
are natural traps of contaminants.
In concluding, it is recommended that the integrated management plan for the Atlantic Coast of
Guatemala be grounded in a development strategy based on scientific knowledge geared towards
the solution of the priority problem, and the definition of planning and development policies.
Figures 18 a-f present a framework of policy management for coastal areas in the State of
Campeche and the Terminos Coastal Lagoon (Mexico).
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CEP Technical Report No. 34
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CEP Technical Report No. 34
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