"People of the region prospering from a healthy
Western Indian Ocean"
Strategic Action Programme for the Protection of the
Coastal and Marine Environment
of the Western Indian Ocean
from Land-based Sources and Activities
Date of this draft: 19 February 2009
Preamble
To come
i
Acknowledgements
To come
ii
Executive Summary
To come
iii
Table of Contents
Preamble .................................................................................................................................... i
Acknowledgements ..................................................................................................................ii
Executive Summary................................................................................................................iii
Table of Contents .................................................................................................................... iv
Acronyms and Abbreviations ................................................................................................ vi
PART I: BACKGROUND AND INTRODUCTION............................................................ 7
1.1 Celebrating the Western Indian Ocean ...............................................................................7
1.2 The Region under Threat ....................................................................................................9
1.3 What has been achieved thus far? .....................................................................................10
1.4 A Call for Joint Action......................................................................................................12
1.5 Overview of the WIO-LaB Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis .....................................13
1.5.1
Problem Area 1: Physical alteration and destruction of habitats............................................. 14
1.5.2
Problem Area 2: Water and sediment quality degeneration due to pollution........................... 16
1.5.3
Problem Area 3: Alteration in freshwater flows and sediment loads from rivers..................... 17
1.5.4
Problems related to governance and awareness ...................................................................... 18
1.5.5
Root causes and stakeholder sectors related to transboundary problems................................ 19
1.6 Developing the Strategic Action Programme ..................................................................22
1.6.1
General and specific objectives of the SAP............................................................................... 22
1.6.2
Process of developing the SAP ................................................................................................. 22
1.6.3
Structure of the SAP.................................................................................................................. 23
PART II: STRATEGIC ACTION PROGRAMME ........................................................... 25
2.1 Vision and objectives of the Strategic Action Programme ...............................................25
2.1.1
A new vision for the WIO region............................................................................................... 25
2.1.2
Objectives of the Strategic Action Programme......................................................................... 25
2.2 Strategic Component 1: Protecting, Restoring and Managing Critical Coastal Habitats..26
2.2.1
Environmental Quality Objective: Critical Coastal Habitats................................................... 26
2.2.2
Management Targets: Critical Coastal Habitats...................................................................... 26
2.3 Strategic Component 2: Ensuring Water Quality..............................................................31
2.3.1
Environmental Quality Objective: Water Quality..................................................................... 31
2.3.2
Management Targets: Water Quality ....................................................................................... 32
2.3.3
Detailed Action Programme: Water Quality ............................................................................ 34
2.4 Strategic Component 3: Managing River Flows Wisely...................................................35
2.4.1
Environmental Quality Objective: River Flows and Sediment Loads....................................... 36
2.4.2
15-year Management Objective: River Flows and Sediment Loads ......................................... 36
2.4.3
Management Targets: River Flows and Sediment Loads.......................................................... 37
2.4.4
Detailed Action Programme: River Flows and Sediment Loads .............................................. 39
2.5 Strategic Component 4: Strengthening Governance and Awareness................................42
2.5.1
Strategic Objective: Governance and Awareness..................................................................... 43
iv
2.5.2
Management targets: Governance and Awareness.................................................................. 43
2.5.3
Detailed Action Programme: Governance and Awareness ...................................................... 45
PART III: IMPLEMENTATION PLAN............................................................................. 47
3.1 Making it happen...............................................................................................................47
3.2 Mainstreaming action........................................................................................................47
3.3 Institutional arrangements.................................................................................................48
3.4 Financing the SAP.............................................................................................................49
3.5 Partnership and cooperation (to come) .............................................................................50
3.6 Monitoring and evaluation ................................................................................................50
3.7 Risks and Sustainability (to come)....................................................................................50
Reference Materials ............................................................................................................... 51
Baseline studies for the WIO-LaB Transboundary Diagnostic AnalysisError! Bookmark not
defined.
List of other relevant action programmes for the region ......... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Other relevant reference materials ........................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Annex 1
Persons and Institutions that participated in SAP Preparation.............................52
Annex 2
Hot spots of PADH, pollution and river-coast interaction...................................53
2a.
Overview of PADH hotspots in the WIO region ........................................................................... 53
2b.
Overview of pollution hotspots in the WIO region........................................................................ 54
2c.
Overview of river-coast interaction hot spots in the WIO region ................................................. 55
Annex 3
Prioritization of Transboundary Problems and their Causes ...............................56
3a.
Prioritization of problems and related causes of physical alteration and destruction of habitats 57
3b.
Prioritization of problems and related causes of water quality degeneration due to pollution.... 58
3c.
Prioritization of problems and related causes of alteration in river flow and sediment loads ..... 59
3d.
Prioritization of problems related to governance and awareness ................................................ 60
Annex 4
Detailed Action Programme ................................................................................61
4a.
Strategic Component 1: Protecting, Restoring and Managing Critical Coastal Habitats ........... 62
4b.
Strategic Component 2: Ensuring Water Quality ......................................................................... 69
4c.
Strategic Component 3: Managing River Flows Wisely ............................................................... 72
4d.
Strategic Component 4: Strengthening Governance and Awareness ........................................... 78
v
Acronyms and Abbreviations
AMCEN
African Ministerial Conference on the Environment
AMCOW
African Ministerial Council on Water
ANBO
African Network of Basin Organisations
ASCLMEs
Agulhas and Somali Current Large Marine Ecosystems
CI Conservation
International
COP
Conference of Parties
CORDIO
Coral Reef Degradation in the Indian Ocean
COSMAR
Coastal and Marine Programme of the NEPAD Environment Initiative
EAC
East African Community
EAME
Eastern Africa Marine Ecoregion Strategy
EFA
Environmental flow assessment
EIA
Environmental impact assessment
EQO Environmental
Quality
Objective
GEF
Global Environment Facility
ICZM
Integrated Coastal Zone Management
ICZRB
Integrated Coastal Zone and River Basins
IRBM
Integrated River Basin Management
IOC
Indian Ocean Commission
IOC-UNESCO Inter-Governmental Oceanographic Commission
IUCN
The World Conservation Union
IWRM
Integrated water resource management
LBSA
Land-based sources and activities of marine and coastal degradation
MEA Multilateral
environmental
agreements
MDG
Millennium Development Goals
MOU
Memorandum of understanding
NEPAD
New Partnership for African Development
NGO Non-governmental
organization
PADH Physical
alteration
and destruction of habitats
RBO River
basin
organizations
REC
Regional Economic Communities
SADC
Southern African Development Community
SAP
Strategic Action Programme
SEA
Strategic environmental assessment
SWCI
Shared water course institutions
SWRP
Shared Water Resources Protocol (SADC)
SWIOFP South
Western
Indian Ocean Fisheries Project
TDA
Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
UNESCO
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation
UNEP
United Nations Environment Programme
WCMC
World Conservation Monitoring Centre
WIO
Western Indian Ocean
WIO-LaB
Addressing Land-based Activities in the Western Indian Ocean
WIOMSA
Western Indian Ocean Marine Science Association
WWF
World Wide Fund for Nature
WCS
Wildlife Conservation Society
vi
PART I: BACKGROUND AND INTRODUCTION
1.1 Celebrating the Western Indian Ocean
The coastal and marine areas of the Western Indian Ocean region (WIO) provide an essential
source of livelihood and income for its coastal communities. They also contribute
significantly to the economies of countries in the region, which include Somalia, Kenya,
Tanzania, Mozambique and South Africa and the island states of Mauritius, Comoros,
Seychelles, Madagascar and Réunion (France) (see Figure 1).
Figure 1 Map of the Western Indian Ocean Region
7
The economic value of the goods and services provided by the natural environment in the
region is considerable, with current estimates ranging up to 26 billion US$ annually. Fisheries
and tourism are the main contributors, as indicated in Figure 2 below.
Tanzania
South Africa
Somalia
Seychelles
Réunion (France)
Tourism
Mozambique
Fisheries
Mauritius
Madagascar
Kenya
Comoros
0
500
1000
1500
2000 2500
3000
Value (million US$)
Figure 2 Direct use values represented by the fishery and tourism sectors in the
WIO region1.
Tourism is the largest direct source of income linked to the coastal and marine environment,
with the region's beaches, mangrove forests, lagoons and coral reefs of the region attracting
millions of visitors from all over the world every year. Furthermore, the marine waters of the
WIO, and in particular its coastal waters, lagoons, estuaries and continental shelves are
important fishing grounds, providing food and livelihoods for coastal communities; the
mangroves, sea-grass meadows and coral reefs provide coastal protection, as well as food and
shelter for fishes, crustaceans, molluscs and other organisms of ecological and commercial
value. Using these resources sustainably will protect human health and well-being, and keep
options open for economic development into the future.
1 Based on original table drawn from WIO-LaB TDA report, Chapter 3.
8
Box 1
What are ecosystem goods and services?
Nature provides a wide range of benefits for humanity. Collectively, these benefits are known
as "ecosystem services". Various services are provided by the environment: those that
provide products, such as food and water; those that regulate climate, water and disease;
those that support other ecosystem services, such as water cycling, nutrient cycling, crop
pollination, soil formation and retention, and cultural services, such as spiritual and
recreational benefits.
In the WIO region, ecosystem goods and services support livelihoods and income generation
for coastal communities and make major contributions to national economies. Of crucial
importance are the provision of clean water and air, climate regulation, erosion control and
protection of coastal areas from storm surges and flooding. Other vitally important goods and
services include natural products for human use, such as seafood, medicine, building
materials like timber, firewood or charcoal, collection of honey and tannins, and hunting of
game. Recreational uses such as beach walks, snorkeling and diving over coral reefs, sport
fishing and bird watching play an also important economic role in the region.
1.2 The Region under Threat
Although the WIO region is still one of the least ecologically disturbed areas of ocean relative
to other regions, it is increasingly threatened. In the recent past, coastal and marine
environments have started showing signs of degradation, attributed to both natural factors
(coral bleaching and sea level rise) and a variety of human activities, acting at different
intensities and in various combinations.
The coastal zone of the WIO region is the site of most major cities, harbours, industries and
other socio-economic infrastructure, which increasingly affect the environment. With some
40 million people inhabit the coastal areas of the region, the overall population density of the
region is not remarkably high. However, while large areas are almost unpopulated (such as
much of the Somalia coastline), certain areas are indeed very densely populated. Urbanization
pressures are most marked in the mainland states, where main urban centres such as
Mombasa (Kenya), Dar es Salaam (Tanzania), Maputo (Mozambique) and Durban (South
Africa) have arisen, supporting populations of 2 to 4 million.
9
Box 2
A global treasure
The shores and coastal waters of the Western Indian Ocean (WIO) are recognized globally
for their biological richness, natural beauty and high ecological and economic value. With
some of the Indian Ocean's most diverse coral reefs, mangrove forests, sand dunes and
seagrass beds, the region is one of the less ecologically disturbed areas of ocean in the world.
The coastal habitats support rich and complex populations of marine species that rely on this
diversity for their productivity. It is estimated that there are over 2,200 species of fish, many
of which occur nowhere else on earth, including rare and endangered species, such as
dugong, coelacanths and marine turtles.
Consequently, pollution from domestic, industrial and agricultural sources causes the
degradation of water and sediment quality, resulting in loss of biological diversity, problems
for human health and a reduction in fish stocks. Furthermore, most coastal communities in the
region depend on nearby coastal and marine resources for their livelihood, particularly for
food, fuel, shelter and income. Due to the increasing population pressures and in the absence
of alternative resources to sustain the population, resource extraction is often unsustainable
and habitats may be converted for other use such as agriculture or building. Such
developments, in turn, lead to the destruction of vital habitats such as mangrove forests,
seagrass beds and coral reefs, and may cause physical alteration of the coastal zone which
either accelerates or causes coastal erosion. Furthermore, over-fishing and unsustainable
fishing practices results in a decline of fishing resources and consequent decline in harvest.
As a consequence, the natural systems of the WIO region are under increasing pressure from
unregulated human activities, which in turn damages their ability to support livelihoods and
human health. Though many pristine areas remain, this pressure on natural resources is
increasing, with ever greater risk of increased poverty, food shortages and ill-health.
1.3 What has been achieved thus far?
A number of important initiatives have been put in place in the region in the recent past,
seeking to improve both understanding and management of ecosystems in the region. The
foremost has been the establishment of the Nairobi Convention for the Protection,
Management and Development of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the Eastern
African Region, which came into force in 1996. The Convention provides a mechanism for
regional cooperation, coordination and collaborative actions.
In parallel, over the past few years virtually all WIO governments have initiated the
implementation of integrated coastal zone management, and many have environmental impact
assessment policies and legislation in place and operational. In addition, a number of marine
protected areas have been established in priority areas2.
2 According to Wells et al. 2007, considerable efforts to promote MPAs by many agencies have been made over
the past decade. Since the first MPAs were established in the 1960s and 1970s, 8.7% of the continental shelf in
Kenya, 8.1% in Tanzania and 4.0% in Mozambique has been designated, with the size of recently protected sites
markedly larger than earlier sites. Commitments to expand the MPA networks in these countries would, if
implemented, largely achieve the 10% coverage target."
10
Important initiatives have also taken place in the non-governmental sector. In 1993, the
Western Indian Ocean Marine Science Association (WIOMSA) was established, to promote
marine science research and support the improvement of regional capacity to meet the
challenges of coastal and marine management. Several major scientific expeditions have been
undertaken, including the Indian Ocean Expedition and the TYRO expedition, and an Indian
Ocean Atlas has been produced. In 2004, the Forum of Heads of Academic/Research
Institutions in the Western Indian Ocean region (FARI) was established, to facilitate
information sharing and provide links between researchers and decision-makers.
Furthermore, a number of major international NGOs, including the World Wide Fund for
Nature (WWF), the World Conservation Union (IUCN) and the Wildlife Conservation
Society (WCS) have established important marine and coastal programmes and projects in the
region, supporting them with significant investment. Innovative projects have been
undertaken, demonstrating real potential for sustainable community-based marine and coastal
management, restoring habitats and fish stocks, controlling of dynamite fishing and other
destructive techniques, capacity building and improving coastal livelihoods. To streamline the
substantial efforts undertaken by NGOs in the region, the Consortium for the Conservation of
the Marine and Coastal Ecosystems of the WIO region (WIO-C) was established in
September 2006.
Partnerships between governments and civil society have led to some important natural areas
being placed under conservation management3, and some threatened species (such as marine
turtles) have benefited from higher levels of protection. Significant too in the region are the
many local NGOs, often playing an important role in environmental education and
community natural resource co-management programmes.
Box 3 Consortium for Conservation of Coastal and Marine Ecosystems in
Western Indian Ocean (WIO-C)
Concern over the continued degradation of the marine and coastal environment has led a
number of international and regional organizations and agencies to come together to form the
Consortium for the Conservation of Coastal and Marine Ecosystems in the Western Indian
Ocean, (WIO-C). WIO-C aims to support partnerships that advance the interests of marine
research, conservation and management in the region.
WIO-C has nine founding members, the World Conservation Union (IUCN), the World Wide
Fund for Nature (WWF), the Western Indian Ocean Marine Science Association (WIOMSA),
Coral Reef Degradation in the Indian Ocean (CORDIO), Wildlife Conservation Society
(WCS), United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)-Nairobi Convention, Indian Ocean
Commission (IOC), New Partnership for African Development (NEPAD), and Inter-
Governmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC-UNESCO). WIO-C was formally launched
the fifth Conference of Parties (COP 5) of the Nairobi Convention, in November 2007.
3 Priority areas for conservation in the Eastern African component of the WIO region were identified through the
Eastern African Marine Ecoregion process. Global priority sites in the region include the Lamu Archipelago, the
Mida Creek Malindi complex, the Rufiji Mafia complex, Mtwara Quirimbas, Greater St Lucia Wetland
Park, the Maputo Bay Machangulo complex, the Bazaruto Archipelago, and the Zambezi Delta. Conservation
priority sites for the rest of the WIO region (i.e. the island states) have not been identified as yet, but data is
currently being collected in preparation for a priority-setting process.
11
Although these achievements are significant, they are by no means enough to ensure that the
region is sustainably managed in the future. The challenge now is for governments in the
region to take the lead and build on the foundation that has been laid. This Strategic Action
Programme sets out the goals and priorities for such action.
1.4 A Call for Joint Action
Most countries in the region currently face important challenges in adequately managing the
afore-mentioned threats to the coastal zone. Moreover, it is generally realized that the
protection, management and development of the shared ecosystems of the WIO would require
a regional approach, because the impacts of the above-mentioned disturbance sources and
activities are not confined to national borders; the mobile components of the WIO, such as
winds, currents, rivers and tides exist on scales larger than geopolitical entities, and over-
exploitation, habitat destruction or degeneration in water quality in one part of the WIO may
consequently adversely impact on one or more neighbouring countries.
In recognition of these facts, in 1997, the Contracting Parties of the Nairobi Convention
therefore called for joint action to address the increasing impact of human activities on the
WIO coastal and marine environment. In response, UNEP, as the Secretariat for the
Convention, developed a preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis (TDA) and
Strategic Action Plan (SAP) for the WIO region, facilitated through a grant from the Global
Environment Facility (GEF).
Box 4
Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis and Strategic Action Programme
Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis (TDA) a scientific and technical fact-finding analysis
of the relative importance of sources, causes and impacts of transboundary waters problems.
Strategic Action Programme (SAP) a negotiated policy document which identifies actions
in terms of policy, legal and institutional reforms and investments needed to address priority
transboundary problems.
The preliminary TDA and SAP, which were finalized in 2002, defined a number of priority
areas for intervention, as well as identified gaps in information that need to be filled in order
to make better-founded management decisions. Subsequently, three regional projects were
developed within the GEF context in order to undertake further data collection and analysis
and to define and demonstrate appropriate strategies to address priority problems in the WIO
region: (i) the Project Addressing Land-based Activities in the Western Indian Ocean (WIO-
LaB) which focused on land-based activities that impact on the marine and coastal
environment; (ii) the Agulhas and Somali Current Large Marine Ecosystems Project
(ASCLMEs), focused on issues related to productivity, subsistence fisheries and to a certain
extent marine pollution; and (iii) the South Western Indian Ocean Fisheries Project
(SWIOFP), focused on issues related to deepwater fisheries.
The three projects are complementary in scope, each addressing issues relevant to the long-
term sustainable development and management of the WIO region. With the ASCLMEs and
SWIOFP project not expected to produce results until several years from now, the SAP,
developed from the WIO-LaB programme is intended to provide the way forward for
12
collaborative action on the management of land-based activities that place pressure on
important ecosystems.
Box 5
What are transboundary issues?
Transboundary issues are issues that have to do with:
· Resources that are shared between countries in the regions,
· Problems caused in one country that impact on another, and
· Common problems.
1.5 Overview of the WIO-LaB Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Over a four-year period, the WIO-LaB Project, implemented within the framework of the
Nairobi Convention, undertook a comprehensive, region-wide analysis of priority
transboundary problems related to land-based activities and sources of degradation of the
coastal and marine environment. The process for the development of the TDA involved
leading experts drawn from the major institutions in the WIO region, drawn from various
fields of expertise; marine pollution, coastal habitats, fisheries, river-coast interactions,
governance and socio-economic issues.
Through a series of thematic assessments, targeted studies and technical workshops,
transboundary problems were reviewed and an analysis of their root causes, including
governance issues, was undertaken. An overview of the main baseline studies undertaken
and/or built upon as part of the TDA process is presented on page 51 (Reference Materials).
Box 6
The WIO-LaB Project
The UNEP-GEF WIO-LaB Project supported the implementation of the Nairobi Convention,
and complements the commitments and priorities identified within the Environmental
Component of the New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD), and in particular its
marine and coastal component (COSMAR). The Project was designed to serve as a
demonstration project of the Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine
Environment from Land-based Activities (GPA) and was financed mainly by the Global
Environment Facility (GEF), the Government of Norway, UNEP and participating countries:
Kenya, Tanzania, Mozambique, South Africa, Seychelles, Comoros, Madagascar, and
Mauritius.
The four main objectives of the project were to:
· Reduce stress to the ecosystem by improving water and sediment quality
· Strengthen the regional legal basis for preventing land-based sources of pollution,
including implementation of GPA
· Develop regional capacity and strengthen institutions in the WIO Region for
sustainable, less polluting development including the implementation of the Nairobi
Convention
13
This process led to the production of the WIO-LaB TDA, which identifies priority issues and
potential areas of intervention related to land-based sources and activities that impact on the
marine and coastal environment. During the process, over 500 experts and stakeholders were
consulted, drawn from key academic and research institutions, government agencies and
regional organizations, including NGOs active in marine conservation. Selected experts from
the Forum for Academic and Research Institutions in the WIO-Region (FARI), as well as
selected independent experts, reviewed and validated the TDA findings.
The TDA identifies three main clusters of land-based transboundary pressures on ecosystems:
1.
Physical alteration and destruction of habitats
2.
Water and sediment quality degeneration due to pollution; and
3.
Alteration in freshwater flows and sediment loads from rivers.
A short description of each of these problem areas is presented in the following sections. A
detailed prioritized overview of the problems and causes related to each of the three problem
areas is furthermore presented in Annex 3.
1.5.1 Problem Area 1: Physical alteration and destruction of habitats
One of the priority transboundary problems for the WIO region is transformation of the coast
and consequent loss of critical habitats that provide essential ecosystem services. This
transformation is often driven by increased economic activities such as construction of
resorts, marinas and ports. Dredging, sand winning, beach reclamation programmes, mining,
extraction of minerals, pipelines and marine waste outfalls all add to alteration of shorelines
and habitats in the WIO. Excessive exploitation of living resources such as coastal forests,
mangroves, seagrass meadows and coral reefs further degrade critical habitats, already
stressed by global climate change. In turn, this has led to abnormal rainfall patterns, droughts,
episodic storm events, floods and predicted sea level changes. Land reclamation for
agriculture, aquaculture and coastal development, as well as extensive upland deforestation,
cause acute problems for the major river catchments in the region, as witnessed in the Tana,
Sabaki, Rufiji and Zambezi systems. The cumulative impacts of these transformations and
losses have lead to significant physical and ecological changes in the region and an overall
deterioration in many ecosystem services.
Each of the participating countries has already experienced such transformation and loss of
habitat and several programmes have identified "Hotspots" where such loss is particularly
pronounced (e.g. The African Process). Equally important is the identification of areas and
habitats that have escaped transformation, remaining relatively pristine and worthy of special
protection to avoid degradation and secure continued ecosystem services (EAME).
The impacts of habitat transformations in the WIO can be grouped into five categories as
presented in Table 1. While shoreline changes are common throughout the region, the other
categories of impact are largely dependent on the extent to which certain habitats occur in a
country, such as mangroves which are found mainly in Tanzania, Kenya, Mozambique and
Madagascar, and coral reefs which are concentrated around the island states, and the
coastlines of Kenya, Tanzania and northern Mozambique.
14
Table 1 Overview of the categories of habitat transformation identified in the
TDA
Degradation of
As a dynamic zone between land and the sea, mangrove wetlands are controlled by
mangrove forests
several interacting factors such as tides, periodicity of freshwater and sediment
fluxes, topography, soil and water salinity, temperature and sedimentation patterns.
These factors are closely related to land and water-use practices in the areas adjacent
to and upstream of the mangrove forests. Human-induced stresses range from
diversion of freshwater, poor land-use in and around mangrove forests to over-
exploitation of the mangrove resources. These stresses disrupt the natural
equilibrium, ultimately leading to the degradation of the mangrove wetlands which
in turn not only depletes the resources within their boundaries, but also affects the
productivity of the adjacent coastal and marine ecosystems.
Degradation of seagrass Seagrass degradation in the WIO region is generally evidenced by continued
beds
destruction and/or reduction of seagrass habitats in shallow inter-tidal and sub-tidal
areas. This degradation is usually as a result of physical action (e.g. dragging of
nets, clearing), pollution or by climate change through increased discharge of
sediment-laden low salinity water derived from flooded river systems. Seagrass
degradation has negative impacts on the system's productivity, biodiversity and
hence food security, ultimately leading to loss of livelihood and increased poverty
among coastal populations.
Degradation of coral
Coral reef ecosystems face various types and levels of impact across the WIO
reefs
region. In addition to anthropogenic threats such as destructive fishing activities,
there is climate change, which has led to severe coral bleaching during the 1997-98
El Niño Southern Oscillation, damaging reefs throughout the region. Continuous
degradation of coral reef biodiversity lowers fisheries productivity, impacting on the
livelihood and incomes, thereby increasing poverty levels.
Degradation of coastal
Degradation of coastal forests is mainly in the form of land transformation through
forests
intense clearing for agriculture, mining, human settlement and coastal development,
including tourism. There is also destruction associated with an increased demand for
forest products such as timber and firewood. Transformation of coastal forests
impact on the coastal environment through reduction of plant and faunal diversity,
loss of soils prone to erosion, reducing recharge of groundwater aquifers and
negatively affecting the development infrastructure. Ultimately, these impacts
change the dynamics of both sediment and water exchange in the coastal zone.
Shoreline changes
Erosion and/or accretion of coastlines can result in significant shoreline change.,
Episodic storm events, in part driven by climate change, impact on critical habitats,
coastal infrastructure, agricultural land and human settlements. As many WIO
shores are dominated by rapidly eroding soft sediments and low-lying wetlands, the
impact of eroding storms and hence shoreline changes are accentuated. Changes in
accretion of the coast results from two main sources: changes in sediment loads
from rivers and the re-suspension of benthic sediments by rough seas. In addition,
increased water turbidity, due to re-suspended sediments, can result in smothering of
corals, seagrasses and mangroves, hence further contributing to shoreline changes.
Sea level rise is an additional anticipated problem for low-lying coastal areas, such
as in central Mozambique, the west coast of Madagascar, the Tana and Rufiji Deltas.
An indicative list of hot spots of physical alteration and destruction of habitats, as identified
through the TDA process, is presented in Annex 2a4. The TDA also identified the main
4 The definition of hot spots is taken from the African Process: `Hot spots' in this context are defined as
"geographically defined coastal areas and other areas of the sea, of national, regional and/or global significance,
where the conditions are such as to adversely affect human health, threaten ecosystem functioning, reduce
biodiversity and/or compromise resources and amenities of economic importance", this as opposed to `sensitive
areas' which are "geographically defined areas, of national regional and/or global significance which, although
not degraded at present, are threatened with future degradation, either because of sensitivity of the receptor or
the magnitude of the anthropogenic activity posing the threat". An appropriate management strategy would often
incorporate management measures for both categories of priority areas, as is done, for example, in the EAME
Strategy (see also footnote 3).
15
causes of the five categories of habitat transformation. A prioritized overview of these causes
is presented in Annex 3a.
1.5.2 Problem Area 2: Water and sediment quality degeneration due to pollution
A significant amount of the pollution load to the sea emanates from land-based activities,
such as municipal and industrial discharges, contaminated surface and sub-surface run-off,
including from agriculture, and atmospheric emissions. Pollutant loads from such land-based
activities are typically disposed of in the coastal zone where they affect some of the most
productive areas of the marine environment, such as estuaries and near-shore waters.
Moreover, contaminants which pose risks to human health and living resources can be
transported long distances by watercourses, ocean currents and atmospheric processes.
The TDA identifies five distinguishable pollution categories, a brief summary of which is
presented in Table 2. The various categories of pollution are not equally common or widely
spread through the region and in many cases their impacts are confined to specific hot spots,
often related to urban centres and/or river outlets. Annex 2b provides an overview of the
hotspots of pollution identified in the TDA, including the specific transboundary problems
associated with each.
Table 2 Overview of the five pollution categories identified in the TDA
Microbial
Microbial contamination refers to the presence of pathogenic organisms
contamination
(protozoa, bacteria and/or viruses) in the aquatic environment of either human or
animal origin that can pose health risks to humans. In the WIO region, microbial
contamination of coastal waters is typically associated with inappropriate
disposal of municipal wastewater, contaminated surface and sub-surface runoff
from urban areas, contaminated runoff from agricultural areas used for livestock
rearing and industrial effluents (mainly from food processing industries).
High suspended solids
High suspended solid loads from land-based sources enter WIO coastal waters
mainly through municipal and industrial wastewater discharges, river discharges
and surface runoff, particularly during rainy seasons. Dredging activities
(usually associated with ports and harbours) can also significantly contribute to
this transboundary problem.
Chemical pollution
Chemical pollution refers to the adverse effects of chemical contaminants (heavy
metals, hydrocarbons and persistent organic compounds) released to the coastal
environment from land-based human activities. Sources in the WIO region are
typically linked to agrochemical discharges, dredging activities in ports and
harbour (releasing sediment-bound heavy metals and hydrocarbons), leachate
from solid waste dump sites, and atmospheric emissions (e.g. heavy metals).
Marine litter
Inappropriate disposal of solid waste represents a serious problem in most of the
urban centers in the WIO region, although quantitative data are limited. Marine
litter refers to the introduction of solid waste materials into water bodies and
their surroundings. Important land-based sources of waste are urban centers
(ports, industrial and commercial areas and informal settlements) and discharges
through rivers (transporting solid waste from adjacent catchments).
Eutrophication
Eutrophication refers to artificially enhanced primary productivity (algal and
(harmful/nuisance algal phytoplankton growth) and organic matter loading in coastal waters as a result of
blooms)
the increased availability or supply of nutrients, usually as a result of
inappropriate disposal of municipal wastewater or nutrient-enriched agricultural
return flows. It should be noted that `eutrophication' in the true sense of the
word, hardly ever occurs in the coastal waters of the WIO region; rather - the
main issue is that of harmful/nuisance algal blooms resulting from nutrient
enrichment.
16
The TDA concludes that the highest pollutant loads entering the WIO originate from the
mainland states and Madagascar. South Africa and Tanzania contribute the greatest overall
loading of nutrients and organic matter, attributed to material originating mainly from the
discharge of untreated wastewater from the larger coastal municipalities.
Furthermore, the TDA concludes that the most common transboundary problem related to
pollution is microbial contamination. This form of pollution also has the highest level of
impact, mainly in terms of health risks to the population (through both direct contact with
seawater and consumption of seafood products).
The second important issue to be recognised is the continued inappropriate management of
solid waste which leads to marine litter, a now common feature at the coasts of Comoros,
Mozambique, Kenya and Tanzania. Issues related to high levels of suspended solids,
furthermore, are largely confined to areas around the main river outlets, while chemical
pollution is mostly associated with the presence of major ports. Eutrophication and harmful
algal blooms were generally rated as a problem of lower importance, with the exception of
Seychelles and Mauritius where cases of seasonal harmful algal blooms have been reported.
The TDA furthermore identified the main causes of the five pollution categories. A prioritized
overview of these causes is presented in Annex 3b.
1.5.3 Problem Area 3: Alteration in freshwater flows and sediment loads from rivers
One of the key areas of concern for the WIO region relates to the interaction between river
basins and the coastal and marine environment. Throughout much of the region, many of the
coastal issues identified are linked to human activities and climatic variability far removed
from the coastline. This is especially so for continental states. Such distant impacts have
altered the nature of the drainage through the river systems large and small impeding the
flow of freshwater, terrigenous sediment and organic matter. They have also affected the
quality of the water, mainly through the addition of nutrients and pollutants from domestic
sewage and industrial and agricultural chemicals. An overview of the two main categories of
river-coast interaction is presented in Table 3.
An overview of the hot spots of river-coast interaction problems for the 15 main river basins
in the WIO region is presented in Annex 2c. In terms of severity of problems associated with
these river systems, it is quite obvious that alteration of river flow is most common
throughout the region. Nevertheless, there are cases where changes in sediment loading and
water quality have severely impacted on coastal habitats. According to the TDA, the most
affected river basins are:
· Pangani (Kenya and Tanzania);
· Athi-Sabaki (Kenya);
· Incomati (South Africa, Swaziland and Mozambique);
· Zambezi (Angola, Botswana, Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Malawi,
Namibia, Tanzania, Zambia, Zimbabwe and Mozambique); and
· Betsiboka (Madagascar).
The TDA furthermore identified the main causes of the various river-coast interaction
categories. A prioritized overview of these causes is presented in Annex 3c.
17
Table 3 Overview of the two categories of river-coast interaction identified in the
TDA
Alteration of river
The alteration of the natural river flow (whether through a drop in quality, quantity
flows and water quality or timing of flow) is found to some degree in many of the major river basins in the
WIO region. The four most frequent reasons for flow alterations are: (i) overall
reduced flow due to consumptive uses of water, (ii) increase of river surface area
along sections of the river due to impoundment, (iii) changed seasonal flow patterns
(e.g. releases for hydropower-generation during the dry season), (iv) increased
floods due to wetland losses (loss of water retention capacity). These are coupled
with the large-scale realities and uncertainties brought about as a consequence of
climatic change, with some basins predicted to receive more rainfall than the
historic mean and others less.
Alteration of sediment
A number of factors, such as changing climatic conditions, land use practices and
loads
dam construction, have led to changes in the sediment load transported by some of
the rivers in the WIO region. The alteration of sediment loads broadly manifests
itself in three ways:
· Increased sediment loads May have a negative impact on the marine
environment, through for example the degradation (smothering) of coral reef
ecosystem. e.g. Athi-Sabaki and the Betsiboka rivers.
· Decreased sediment loads Has a negative impact on the marine environment
through increased erosion of the delta mouth, and through salt-water intrusion,
leading to a reduction of downstream habitats for mangroves and other species,
e.g. Zambezi and Incomati rivers.
· Variable sediment loads in different parts of the basin - in some rivers, both
increased sediment loads, from erosion in upstream areas, and reduced sediment
transport downstream of dams following the trapping of the sediments behind the
dam wall are observed. It is difficult to judge what the impacts of such an altered
situation is on the marine ecology, with no studies found covering the issue.
1.5.4 Problems related to governance and awareness
Despite international conventions, national agreements, international and national responsible
institutions, degradation of the coastal and marine environment continues apace. Management
of issues relating to land based sources and activities is a complex undertaking. It is therefore
not surprising that a primary root cause of the transboundary problems as identified in the
TDA is the fact that governance structures are in many cases inappropriate and inadequate.
An overview of the main weaknesses in LBSA governance is presented in Table 4. A
prioritized list of governance and awareness related issues is presented in Annex 3d.
Coastal zone users are diverse in nature, involving a variety of economic sectors such as
fishing and aquaculture, agriculture and forestry, tourism, mining, industry, transportation,
energy production, as well as related coastal development and urbanisation activities.
Traditionally, governance of these sectors was based on a sectoral approach; each managed
separately through dedicated legal/regulatory, institutional and policy frameworks. It is
therefore not surprising that a primary root cause of governance failure is related to a lack of
coordination of administrative decisions affecting coastal and marine waters.
A key conclusion that may be derived is therefore that crosscutting governance instruments
need to be promoted and developed to meet the unique challenges in the coastal zone. Such
instruments and initiatives include ICZM, EIA and SEA. A positive development is
recognised whereby virtually all WIO countries have to a greater or lesser degree
commenced, or at least considered, the notion of such instruments in their jurisdictions.
18
Table 4 Common weaknesses in governance of land based sources and activities
in the WIO region
Policy and legislative
·
Inadequate updating, implementation, enforcement and monitoring of
inadequacies
legislation
·
Inadequate ratification and domestication of relevant international and
regional instruments
Limited institutional capacity
·
Lack of mechanisms for effective coordination and inter-sectoral
governance
·
Inadequate human resources and technical capacity in institutions dealing
with LBSA-related issues
Inadequate awareness
·
Inadequate awareness, understanding and appreciation of economic value
of coastal-marine ecosystem goods and services at the level of policy-
makers and legislators, civil society and the private sector
Inadequate financial
·
Inadequate financial mechanisms and resources for dealing with LBSA-
mechanisms
related issues
Poor knowledge management
·
Lack of adequate scientific and socio-economic data and information to
support policy making, monitoring and enforcement
Furthermore, since many of the impacts related to land based sources and activities cross
borders, efforts should be focused on harmonizing and adopting legislative frameworks at the
regional level, developing and agreeing on regional-level strategies for land based sources
and activities management (including financial mechanisms for their implementation) and
establishing mechanisms for coordination between institutions as well as financial
mechanisms. A variety of conventions (international and regional) and inter-governmental
agreements, central to governance in the WIO region, are already in place, although not all
have been ratified by all countries. In addition, a number of key institutions have been
established to support implementation. The central challenge now is to provide effective
coordination mechanisms between such governing bodies.
Finally, few policy makers are fully aware of the economic importance of natural
environments and ecosystems. For this reason, destructive activities are allowed to proceed
without clear guidelines and regulation, causing damage to critical habitats and accelerated
shoreline change. The potentially devastating socio-economic consequences of this are not
properly communicated to politicians and the public, resulting in the low priority given to
these issues in the policies and budget allocations of countries in the region.
1.5.5 Root causes and stakeholder sectors related to transboundary problems
The root causes of the transboundary problems identified in the TDA cut across various
sectors. The following generic root causes were found to generally contribute to all the
problems:
19
Generic Root Causes
A. Population pressure
Rapid population growth and associated urbanization increases generation of waste and concentration of waste
streams. Also, population growth leads to increased demand for ecosystem goods and services.
B. Poverty and inequality
The WIO region is characterized by some of the highest poverty levels in the world resulting in pressure on
natural resources. The consequent lack of resources leads to problems such as inadequate sanitation
infrastructure, and institutions and regulatory bodies lacking capacity.
C. Inappropriate governance
Relates to the absence of adequate policy, legal and institutional structures and building blocks for effective
management of the coastal and marine environment.
D. Inadequate financial resources
The absence of adequate financial resources, whether in absolute terms or through inadequate priority setting,
for effective management of the coastal and marine environment is widespread.
E. Inadequate knowledge and awareness
Knowledge deficiencies and inadequate awareness of both population and policy makers are a major cause of
management inefficiencies.
F. Climate change and natural processes
Climate change and natural variability influence the flow patterns of rivers impacting on floodplains and deltas
and is the main cause of coral bleaching.
G. Economic drivers
The demand for ecosystem goods and services, including from export markets, may exceed availability and
regeneration capacity of elements of the ecosystem.
Also, in terms of the stakeholder sectors at the root of the problems, there is much
communality between the various problem areas. Table 5 provides an overview of the various
sectors and root causes related to each of the three main problem areas.
20
Table 5 Synthesis Matrix of root causes and sectors related to transboundary problems
Major Transboundary Problem
Transboundary elements
Major root causes
Main sectors
s
a
reness
ces
a
w
l
processe
velopment
our
y
e and
a
t
ura
t
ure
tr
tal de
n
a
l
i
t
y
a
l res
v
e
rnance
ledg
coas
and
on
essure
equ
aquacul
i
n
e go
nanci
ge
v
ers
o
n
u
c
ti
fi
an
ti
od
on pr
riat
t
e
know
ta
p
c
dri
y and
ch
t
ure and fores
y
or
ate
omi
tr
y pr
vert
i
m
erg
c
on
urism
r
ansp
n
Populati
Po
Inappro
Inadequate
Inadequa
Cl
E
Fisheries and
Agricul
To
Mining
Indus
T
E
Urbanization and
Common in all countries
WATER AND SEDIMENT
Affecting spawning areas for
QUALITY DEGENERATION
migratory marine organisms
DUE TO POLLUTION FROM
Potential for transboundary dispersion
LAND-BASED SOURCES
of persistent pollutants and litter
Common in all countries
PHYSICAL ALTERATION
Affecting spawning areas for
AND DESTRUCTION OF
migratory marine organisms
HABITATS
ALTERATION IN
Common in many countries
FRESHWATER FLOWS AND
Affecting spawning areas for
SEDIMENT LOADS FROM
migratory marine organisms
RIVERS
21
1.6 Developing the Strategic Action Programme
1.6.1 General and specific objectives of the SAP
The general objective of the SAP is to promote sustainable development in the Western
Indian Ocean Region by; (i) incorporating environmental concerns into development policies,
plans and programmes of various regional and national jurisdictions, (ii) instituting an
integrated approach to the management of coastal and marine natural resources in the WIO
Region,(iii) promoting the establishment of mechanisms for regional articulation and for
public participation and consultations through programmes, projects, and actions that will
prevent and resolve degradation of coastal and marine environment, and (iv) foster the
adoption of sustainable practices in coastal and marine natural resources management.
The specific objectives of the SAP are as follows:
· To constitute a frame of reference for regional harmonization and coordination of
transboundary efforts undertaken in the WIO Region in order to enable sustainable
management of the coastal and marine natural resources.
· To strengthen the management of coastal and marine resources, including other
natural resources and the protection of the environment in the various jurisdictions of
the WIO Region.
· To encourage the establishment of a comprehensive planning system and mechanisms
for consultations and coordination among various jurisdictions within each country
and for the WIO Region as a whole.
· To promote incorporation of transboundary environmental concerns in the
development policies, plans and programmes of countries in the WIO Region.
· To assist in strengthening stakeholder consultations and participation in planning and
development of projects aimed at fostering environmental protection in the WIO
Region and thus ensure that projects developed in the region are environmentally
sustainable and socially appropriate.
· To promote conceptualization and implementation of activities and projects for the
sustainable management and exploitation of coastal and marine natural resources
within the context of integrated approach to natural resources management in the WIO
region.
1.6.2 Process of developing the SAP
Based on the findings of the TDA, a group of experts and stakeholders from governments,
civil society, academic institutions in the region met in Mombasa, Kenya, in August 2008 to
draft the vision, long-term objectives, short-term management targets and actions which make
up the draft Strategic Action Programme (SAP).
The draft SAP was furthermore reviewed and refined during a meeting of the WIO-LaB
Regional Task Forces Municipal Wastewater Management and Physical Alteration and
Destruction of Habitats, which was held in Nampula, Mozambique, from 22nd to 24th October
2008. Further consultative processes are scheduled, including the Regional SAP Stakeholder
Workshop to be held on 20th and 21st November 2008 in Cape Town, South Africa, as well as
through the various other regional thematic expert forums established under the WIO-LaB
project and national consultative meetings to be held over the period January to April 2009.
22
A schematic overview of the SAP development process is presented in Figure 3.
Figure 3 Diagram of the SAP development process
1.6.3 Structure of the SAP
The resulting draft Strategic Action Programme for the Protection of the WIO Coastal and
Marine Environment from Land-based Sources and Activities identifies a vision statement,
four strategic components (each having a long term objective), and a set of short-term
23
(typically 5-year) management targets and actions for each component. A schematic overview
of the SAP is presented in Figure 2.
Fig 3 Structure of the SAP
Vision
Long term
Long term
Long term
Objective
Objective
Objective
Target
Target
Target
Action
Action
Action
24
PART II: STRATEGIC ACTION PROGRAMME
2.1 Vision and objectives of the Strategic Action Programme
2.1.1 A new vision for the WIO region
The vision as defined by the SAP Drafting Team has been formulated as:
"People of the region prospering from a healthy Western Indian Ocean"
This vision is underpinned by five key principles:
· Equity
· Sharing responsibility and management
· Harmony between resource users and nature
· An informed society, and
· Lifestyles adjusted to sustainability.
2.1.2 Objectives of the Strategic Action Programme
The strategy has three long-term objectives relating to environmental quality. These are
termed Environmental Quality Objectives (EQO), and spell out the state or quality of the
environment that the SAP hopes to achieve by the end of 25 years.
The overall aim of these EQOs is to ensure that marine and coastal ecosystem functions,
goods and services are assured as a basis for sustainable socio-economic development. The
EQOs are that, by 2032 in the WIO region:
A. Critical coastal habitats will be protected, restored and managed for sustainable use;
B. Water quality will meet international standards; and
C. River flows will be wisely and sustainably managed.
A shorter-term but equally important objective is that by 2013, there will be:
D. Stakeholders collaborate effectively at regional level in addressing transboundary
challenges.
Detailed targets and actions for each of the above-mentioned objectives are presented in the
following sections.
Box 7: What is an Environmental Quality Objective?
This Strategic Action Plan (SAP) contains a long-term vision and a set of three 25-year
Environmental Quality Objectives (EQOs). These are objectives that spell out the state or
quality of the environment that the SAP hopes to achieve by the end of 25 years.
25
2.2 Strategic Component 1: Protecting, Restoring and Managing Critical
Coastal Habitats
2.2.1 Environmental Quality Objective: Critical Coastal Habitats
"Critical coastal habitats in the WIO region protected, restored and managed for sustainable
use."
Recognising the enormous value of healthy critical habitats to the future well-being of people
of the WIO region, this overall objective emphasises the urgent need to halt any further
degradation of critical habitats, provide for restoration of degraded systems where this is
required and possible and have management activities implemented to ensure a full and
sustained spectrum of ecosystem services. It is envisaged that this triad of activities will be
implemented concurrently so that this desired environmental state of the WIO's critical
habitats can be achieved within a 25-year horizon. This objective provides an agreed regional
approach for all participating countries and a basis from which to launch specific national
actions to achieve defined targets.
2.2.2 Management Targets: Critical Coastal Habitats
The SAP identifies a suite of management actions to address the priority issues relating to the
physical alteration and destruction of critical habitats (Annex 3a). These are broadly defined
as targets to be achieved within a five-year period, and will also serve to catalyse successful
longer-term management of these habitats. These targets are summarized below.
1.
Incentives to encourage compliance with best practice in Critical Habitat management
established
High on the list of priorities is the need to develop and implement "best practice" approaches
in managing critical habitats. Currently, most environmental legislation is embedded in a
regulatory approach with threats of punishment or forfeiture. This needs to be complemented
by encouragement in the form of incentives and awards for adherence to best practice.
Excellent examples and models already exist. This approach has been shown internationally
to enlist a wider support than other approaches, as it gives recognition to the role of civil
society in coastal zone management and demonstrates the potential for benefit sharing.
·
Short-term target (within 5 years): Guidelines and standards developed and published,
incentive schemes developed, negotiated and adopted by stakeholders and countries.
·
Medium-term target (10 to 15 years): Attitudes changed and greater co-management
taking place.
·
Long-term strategic target (15 to 25 years): Resource-based livelihoods improved.
2.
Coastal zoning based on integrated economic, social and environmental
considerations implemented
Coastal zoning allows for diverse interests and activities to be located in coastal areas in a
way that can significantly reduce damage to critical habitats and ecosystems. This can reduce
the damage to ecosystem services that underpin health, safety and development. The scientific
basis for zoning decisions should be made more widely accessible and guidelines need to be
customised for local conditions and piloted in participating countries.
26
·
Short-term target (within 5 years): Governments and institutions have initiated spatial
planning of coastal and marine areas as part of national development plan; priority sites
identified and described; comprehensive vulnerability assessment and spatial planning
conducted for priority sites, and guidelines for zoning developed and implemented.
·
Medium-term target (10 to 15 years): Percentage of PA representativeness increased;
existing MPAs management strengthened for effectiveness in reducing habitat
transformation and loss and vulnerability assessments undertaken for Critical Habitats.
·
Long-term strategic target (15 to 25 years): Protected areas with focus on critical coastal
and marine habitats established and contribution to mitigating habitat loss in the WIO
overall.
3.
Critical Habitat management in place in all countries contributing to ecologically
sustainable ecosystem services and regional protection.
While all participating countries implement some level of protection for their critical habitats
regional collaboration and support is weak. Mangroves, seagrasses, corals and coastal
vegetation are priority habitats where harmonising their management in the WIO is an
important transboundary activity. All countries should have access to technical support, best
practice guidelines and opportunities for lessons sharing at regional level. In some cases
additional study is required, as for seagrass ecology and improved mapping of coral high-risk
areas. All countries should be able to develop and implement management plans for their
critical habitats, including identification of opportunities for alternative livelihoods for those
communities that depend on their ecosystem services
·
Short-term target (within 5 years): Critical Habitat management in all countries reviewed
and contributing to regional protection documented; international best practice for Critical
Habitats protection assessed and tailored for local application; "other" critical habitats,
associated diversity and status inventoried, and scientific information on the knowledge of
Critical Habitats habitat dynamics (e.g. seagrass) improved.
·
Medium-term target (10 to 15 years): Access to fishery and other Critical Habitat
resources to be conditional on an ecosystem approach to extractive-use activities and
opportunities for alternatives fully explored and motivated.
·
Long-term strategic target (15 to 25 years): Critical Habitats fully protected, trend in the
net loss of Critical Habitats halted, reversed and/or offset, and ecosystem services restored
and sustained.
4.
A regional monitoring and evaluation plan established and implemented for Critical
Habitats, Coasts and Shorelines
In order to evaluate progress in the SAP and further to guide management and decision-
making, the baseline status of critical habitats, coasts and shorelines in the region needs to be
documented according to an agreed set of key indicators. Remote sensing can monitor
changes in land use and shorelines so as to meet national and regional targets designed to
ensure that key ecosystem services are not degraded.
Baseline information on critical habitats and shorelines will form the basis of a monitoring
strategy that will assist individual countries in their national reporting obligations while
collectively tracking the status of critical habitats and shoreline changes throughout the
region. This presents an opportunity for the development of a regional advisory group to
support development decisions in the WIO region.
27
·
Short-term target (within 5 years): Key indicators (ESI and ecological) and baseline status
of Critical Habitats developed and agreed on, integrated coastal mapping with zoning
plans initiated in > 5 countries, and long-term monitoring based on agreed targets of
coastal zone land-use developed and implemented.
·
Medium-term target (10 to 15 years): Critical Habitat monitoring included in national and
regional SOE reporting, adaptive Critical Habitats management as part of implementation
cycle implemented, baseline (GIS) map of coastal zone resources, land use and critical
ecosystems developed, changes to baseline map documented periodically, and strategy
developed for sustainable longterm monitoring of coastal zone land use and Critical
Habitats.
·
Long-term strategic target (15 to 25 years): All Critical Habitats fully monitored and
included in management cycle at national and regional level, and coastal zone of > 5
countries subjected to formal zonation to mitigate shoreline changes and protect Critical
Habitats.
5.
ICZM legislation in place in all countries
Integrated Coastal Zone Management is an essential tool for minimising destruction of
habitats and supporting sustainable development of the coast. While progress in ICZM has
been reported from several countries in the WIO, some are at different stages of ICZM
development. Technical and financial support should thus be provided to assist countries with
strengthening their ICZM legislation.
·
Short-term target (within 5 years): ICZM status in region assessed, and technical support
to develop and/or update ICZM legislation in selected countries provided.
·
Medium-term target (10 to 15 years): Government development and enactment in >5
countries of ICZM policy and legislation
·
Long-term strategic target (15 to 25 years): All countries have full ICZM legally in place.
6.
National legislation to improve management of bilateral and regional issues
strengthened
While each country clearly needs to focus on its national objectives, collaboration with
neighbouring countries in resolving shared transboundary issues is also needed. Currently this
takes place in most cases on a rather ad hoc or voluntary basis. The authority of the respective
national ministers needs to be strengthened so that they are fully authorised (and compelled)
to deal with transboundary issues.
·
Short-term target (within 5 years): Document setting out clear internal structures that
reflect international liaison relating to transboundary PADH issues for each country,
opportunities identified and recommendations made to strengthen national obligations
towards improving regional management of Critical Habitats.
·
Medium-term target (10 to 15 years): Relevant legislation within and among WIO
countries harmonised.
·
Long-term strategic target (15 to 25 years): Regionally agreed protocols for the
management of transboundary Critical Habitats resource issues developed
7.
Awareness of the importance of critical habitats raised significantly
The causes and consequences of destruction of critical habitats and coastal degradation
revolve around people. Unless people are empowered with relevant information it is not
realistic expect their support or to induce changes in behaviour. This calls for a
28
communication strategy that identifies target audiences, key messages and awareness
materials for each audience. Priorities for action include widely demonstrating the value and
importance of ecosystem services provided by various habitats, developing awareness
materials targeted at schools and the education curricula of the various countries, and
developing flagship demonstration sites near urban areas.
·
Short-term target (within 5 years): Communication plan on Critical Habitats developed &
implemented, coastal and marine environmental education introduced to school curricula,
and school & community involvement in Critical Habitat protection activities fostered.
·
Medium-term target (10 to 15 years): Economic valuation of critical habitats and their
services undertaken, at least two flagship sites identified and developed per Critical
Habitat in the region, and coastal zone management as a topic for study and career
development offered at selected institutions
·
Long-term strategic target (15 to 25 years): Public awareness of Critical Habitats
protection and value adequately entrenched, and adequately trained and retained experts
in ICZM available for national and local implementation of ICZM.
Table 6 Detailed Action Programme: Critical Coastal Habitats
Critical Coastal
Priority
Strategic Actions
Direct
Root
Habitat
level
Causes
Causes
Target
addressed
addressed
1. Incentives to
Medium Develop and implement sector specific guidelines
C, E, G
encourage
for best practice (similar to FAO Code of Conduct.)
compliance with
Develop and implement incentive and
best practice in
environmental awards schemes to recognise good
Critical Habitat
practice at different levels in governance and
management
society.
established
Increase community involvement in Critical
Habitats protection that promotes benefit sharing
and improves livelihoods. Undertake baseline
surveys to assess attitudes & livelihood status.
2. Coastal zoning
High
Facilitate and support government-driven process to C
based on integrated
undertake spatial planning
economic, social
Identify and support institutions to undertake spatial
and environmental
planning of coastal areas.
considerations
Develop and implement guidelines for zoning &
implemented
conduct vulnerability assessment for Critical
Habitats in WIO
Establish protected areas with focus on critical
coastal and marine habitats, evaluating their
contribution to mitigating habitat loss.
Support the implementing of zoning guidelines in
participating countries.
3. Critical Habitat
Very
Review, develop and/or strengthen Critical Habitat
C
management in
High
management in all countries contributing to
place in all
regional protection
countries
Develop and implement guidelines (best practice)
contributing to
in Critical Habitat management and the activities
ecologically
that impact on them.
sustainable
Develop and introduce ecosystem approaches to
ecosystem services
fishing and other extractive-use activities associated
and regional
with Critical Habitats.
29
Critical Coastal
Priority
Strategic Actions
Direct
Root
Habitat
level
Causes
Causes
Target
addressed
addressed
protection.
Develop and implement alternative sources for
products derived from Critical Habitats. E.g.
energy, building materials, etc
Rehabilitate and mitigate degraded Critical Habitats
Identify and do strategic assessment of other critical
habitats and such as canyons, coastal lakes, dunes,
estuaries, aggregating and nesting sites, biodiversity
hotspots, bird flyways, etc.
Update mapping, status and distribution of seagrass
and coral habitats
Study seagrass ecology, function and dynamics
Establish implications of seaweed culture to
seagrasses.
4. A regional
High
Establish and agree on baseline status and key
C,
E
monitoring and
indicators for Critical Habitats.
evaluation plan
Develop & support implementation of Critical
established and
Habitat monitoring strategy as input to national/
implemented for
regional SOE reporting
Critical Habitats,
Produce adaptive Critical Habitats management
Coasts and
recommendation as part of implementation cycle
Shorelines
Establish baseline map of coastal zone land use and
critical ecosystems using remote sensing and GIS
to map coast and shoreline changes.
Integrate coastal mapping with ICZM and zoning
programmes (Target 2 above)
Develop long term monitoring of coast and
shoreline changes based on agreed targets of coastal
zone land use
6. ICZM legislation
High
Assess ICZM status in region
C
in place in all
Provide technical support to develop and/or update
countries
ICZM legislation in selected countries.
Governments enact ICZM legislation
7. National
Medium Review relevant national legislations within the
C
legislation to
context of priority transboundary Critical Habitats
improve
issues.
management of
Harmonize relevant legislation within and among
bilateral and
WIO countries.
regional issues
Develop regionally agreed protocols for the
strengthened
management of transboundary Critical Habitats
resource issues
8. Awareness of the
High
Develop dissemination (communication) plan on
E
importance of
Critical Habitats protection, including mechanisms
critical habitats
fro delivery.
raised significantly
Conduct economic valuation of critical habitats.
Promote & support school & community
involvement in Critical Habitat protection activities
Establish flagship conservation sites and
environmental education centres especially near
urban setting.
Introduce coastal & marine environmental
education to school curricula.
30
Critical Coastal
Priority
Strategic Actions
Direct
Root
Habitat
level
Causes
Causes
Target
addressed
addressed
Promote coastal zone management as a topic for
study and career development to ensure future
capacity
2.3 Strategic Component 2: Ensuring Water Quality
2.3.1 Environmental Quality Objective: Water Quality
"Water quality in the WIO region meets international standards by year 2035"
Increasing levels of pollution resulting from discharge of untreated municipal effluents into
the estuaries and the ocean threaten human health and ecosystem integrity in the Western
Indian Ocean region. When humans come in contact with, or drink contaminated waters, they
may develop diseases which cost money to treat, and also lead to loss in productivity.
Polluted waters can also give rise to production of contaminated fish and other marine
products. Polluted waters are also not as productive as clean waters. These threats can be
contained by treating all industrial and municipal effluents to commonly agreed acceptable
standards before discharge.
The SAP proposes firstly to establish water quality standards that protect human health and
ecosystem integrity. Because pollutants can travel over large distances in the ocean, it is
imperative that all countries develop and enforce common standards in order to guarantee the
integrity of the waters of the Western Indian Ocean. Some countries in the Western Indian
Ocean (Mauritius, South Africa) already have standards, others are in the process of
developing standards (Kenya). Most existing international standards (such as European Union
Standards, World Health Organisation Guidelines) have been developed for conditions in
temperate climates, and there is need to adapt the international standards to local (tropical)
conditions.
In the medium to long term, wastewater treatment systems should be constructed to ensure
tertiary level treatment of all municipal effluents before they are discharged into the estuaries
and the Ocean. Construction will require substantial, but worthwhile outlay of funds.
Improvement of water quality is in line with Millennium Development Goals 4, 5, 6 and 7 on
Reducing Child Mortality, Improving Maternal Health, Combating HIV/AIDS, Malaria, and
Other Diseases, and Ensuring Environmental Sustainability respectively.
Monitoring of the quality of the marine waters to guarantee the safety of bathing and
consumption of fish from the ocean waters is also important for the protection of human
health. Ocean water quality standards for the Western Indian Ocean region need to be
established and enforced to aid in marketing of the coastal tourism as a safe destination to
local and international tourists.
Improved water quality also requires better land use management and in particular erosion
prevention in river basis. This issue is addressed below in component 2.4 which deals with
managing river flows and sediment loads.
31
The benefits of having healthy coastal people and environment will in the long run bring
economic benefits that far outweigh the costs to be incurred in executing the SAP. The
objectives, targets and activities to be carried out under the SAP to address and reverse the
increasing pollution of WIO waters are set out below.
2.3.2 Management Targets: Water Quality
In order to meet the Environmental Quality Objective of ensuring that water quality meets
international standards by the year 2035, the following management targets have been set:
1.
Effluent discharge standards developed and regionally harmonised
Untreated or semi treated effluent discharges constitute the main sources of pollution for
rivers, ground waters, and ocean waters (receiving water bodies). To ensure that effluents do
not unduly pollute the receiving waters, standards must be developed and harmonised within
the WIO region to control the levels of pollutants that can be discharged into a given
receiving body without compromising the quality and ecosystem integrity. Provided there is
political will, these targets can be achieved in the next five years.
2.
Marine water standards developed and regionally harmonised
Marine waters host fish for human consumption, ecological systems that attract tourism; and
are also used for recreation (swimming, diving). To prevent contamination of human food,
and protect the ecosystems and waters that are very important for tourism development, it is
important that standards are set and enforced regarding the levels of pollutants that are safe
for the various functions of the oceans. The targets for harmonisation of standards can be
realised in the next five years.
3.
Regional best practice framework models for municipal wastewater management
developed and adopted
Municipal wastewaters are the greatest contributor to pollution of receiving water bodies. The
absence of frameworks for municipal wastewater management curtails the planning and
budgeting for wastewater management activities. There is therefore a need to provide for a
framework within which each coastal municipal authority can plan and budget for proper
wastewater management to protect human health and ecosystem integrity.
4.
Collection, treatment and disposal of effluents undertaken in accordance with regional
standards
In most of the WIO states, only small percentages of the populations are served by proper
effluent disposal systems. Even where the systems exist, they were constructed for smaller
population sizes, and are now overstretched by rising population numbers. Effluent collection,
treatment, and disposal systems are needed to ensure that waters discharged from the
treatment systems meet the standards agreed upon in targets 1 and 2 above. Pilot wastewater
treatment facilities will be constructed in each of the WIO states within the first five years of
the SAP. Construction of more waste water treatment facilities to carter for tertiary level
treatment of all coastal municipalities may take longer, due to the high costs involved in
construction. However, provided that there is political will, these targets can be achieved in
the next 10 to 25 years. This will contribute greatly to attainment of water quality in the WIO
region that meets international standards by year 2035.
32
·
Short-term target (within 5 years): One pilot wastewater treatment plant in each WIO
country.
·
Medium-term target (10 to 15 years): Wastewater treatment plants in all major hotspots
·
Long-term strategic target (15 to 25 years): All wastewaters treated to tertiary level before
discharge
5.
Environmental Management Systems and Cleaner Production Technologies
encouraged
Pollution from coastal industries is of increasing concern. Cleaner production technologies
have been successfully demonstrated around the world: not only do they reduce pollutants
from production industries, but they also save industry money, cutting on wasted inputs of
materials and energy. Measures to encourage more widespread use of cleaner production
technologies will protect the environment and human health, as well as make industries
competitive in the long run. Promoting cleaner production approaches by industry will help to
ensure environmental sustainability of industrial growth. In the short term (5 year time
horizon), selected industries will be used to demonstrate the benefits of cleaner production
technologies as pilot sites. In the longer-term 15 to 25 years all industries in the WIO region
will be encouraged to adopt cleaner production technologies.
·
Short-term target (within 5 years): One pilot industry in each WIO states adopts Cleaner
Production Technologies.
·
Medium-term target (10 to 15 years): Major industries in WIO countries adopt Cleaner
Production Technologies
·
Long-term strategic target (15 to 25 years): All industries in WIO countries adopt Cleaner
Production Technologies.
7.
Stakeholders sensitised and political support harnessed in favour of pollution
prevention
The successful implementation of the strategies stated above will depend on the goodwill of
many actors at the policy and implementation levels: governments, NGOs, private sector,
local authorities and the various ministries related to pollution reduction. Relevant ministries
(environment, water, local authorities, regional authorities, industry, lands, agriculture),
national Bureaux of Standards, the private sector, NGOs, community-based organisations and
the media need to be coordinated and brought together to adopt and implement the vision,
objectives and benefits of a pollution-free coastal environment. The Nairobi Convention
Secretariat and National Focal Points will need to be strengthened to facilitate this expanded
coordination.
Short-term target (within 5 years): Tools for stakeholder sensitization developed and used.
Medium-term target (10 to 15 years): Benefit of improving on marine pollution is
demonstrated vis à vis the cost of doing nothing demonstrated effectively.
Long-term strategic target (15 to 25 years): High level of awareness on pollution prevention
achieved.
33
Box 8: Two Success Stories
In Mauritius, implementation of the National Sewerage Masterplan resulted in
prioritisation and construction of sewage treatment projects over a 20-year period,
starting in 1994. The projects prioritised and implemented were: (i) Montagne
Jacquo, (ii) Grand Baie (iii) Baie du Tombeau (iv) Plaines Wilhems Reticulation
systems and House connection (v) West Coast sewerage project, which mainly
includes the Flic-en-Flac, Bambous and Tamarin for the collection, treatment and
disposal of sewage in the West Coast Region (vi) upgrading of sewerage
infrastructure on low-cost housing estates, and (vii) St. Martin treatment plant
In Mombasa, Kenya, the use of a Constructed Wetland to treat wastewater at a Prison
institution the Shimo La Tewa Prison is expected to reduce the pollution loading
entering the Indian Ocean. Untreated wastewater from the toilets, bathrooms and
kitchens was previously being directly discharged into the Mtwapa Creek and
entering the Indian Ocean 10 km north of Mombasa Island. Similar systems can be
adopted in hotels, schools and small settlements located along the coast.
2.3.3 Detailed Action Programme: Water Quality
An overview of the specific actions to be undertaken to achieve each of the Management
targets is presented below. The table also shows the direct and root causes addressed by the
target5. Further details are presented in Annex 4b.
Table 7 Detailed Action Programme: Water Quality
Target
Priority
Strategic actions
Direct
Root
level
Causes
Causes
addressed6
addressed
1. Effluent
Medium Compile and review the existing effluent
i; ii; iv; v;
A; B; C; E
discharge standards
standards in the WIO Region
vii; ix; xiii
developed and
Harmonize the regional effluent standards
regionally
harmonized
Hold national consultations on the draft
harmonized standards
Publish, create awareness of, and adopt
regional standards at national level
2. Marine water
Medium Compile and review the existing marine water i; ii; iii; iv;
A; B; C; E
standards
standards in the WIO Region
v; vii; ix; xiii
developed and
Harmonise the marine water standards
regionally
Hold national consultations on the draft
harmonized
harmonized standards
Publish, create awareness of, and adopt
regional standards at national level
6 Direct Causes of poor water quality are set out in Annex 3b. Root causes are set out in section 1.55.
34
Target
Priority
Strategic actions
Direct
Root
level
Causes
Causes
addressed6
addressed
3. Regional best
Medium Review existing MWW management
i; ii; ii; iv
C; D; E
practice framework
frameworks and develop Best Practice models
models for
for MWW management in the WIO region
municipal
Initiate/refine national frameworks for
wastewater
wastewater management
management
Hold national consultations and agree on
developed and
regional Best Practice models for MWW
adopted
management
Adopt National frameworks for wastewater
management and develop action plans for
their implementation
4. Collection,
High
Conduct an inventory of existing wastewater
i; ii; ii; iv
A; B
treatment and
management systems in the WIO region
disposal of
Identify priority areas for intervention
effluents
Identify model MWW management systems
undertaken in
Construct one pilot treatment plant in each
accordance with
country
regional standards
Rehabilitate existing wastewater management
in pilot sites
systems where necessary
Construct appropriate collection and treatment
systems
Build capacity for wastewater management at
appropriate levels required (including
laboratory staff)
Set up monitoring, evaluation and
enforcement teams
5. Environmental
High
Cleaner production centres conduct scoping
ii; ii; iv
C; D; E
Management
studies for industries
Systems and
Formulate cleaner production
Cleaner Production
strategy/guidelines
Technologies
Select industries on which to conduct pilot
encouraged
cleaner production practices
Sensitise and mobilise political support for
wider application of cleaner production/EMS
Introduce financial/ economic incentives to
promote the adoption and compliance of
cleaner production/EMS technologies
6. Stakeholders
High
Develop regional strategy for sensitisation and i; ii; ii; iv
C; E
sensitized and
harnessing political support (identify
political support
champions).
harnessed in favour
of pollution
Prepare, publish, disseminate sensitisation
prevention in key
materials in all languages
sectors
2.4 Strategic Component 3: Managing River Flows Wisely
In many rivers in the WIO region, poor management of river basins results in changes to river
flows, degeneration in water quality and changes in sediment loads. Other factors being
constant, the critical element in river basin management is lack of an appropriate decision
35
making tool for sustainable river and sediment flows. The changes in river flows and
sediment loads in turn impact negatively on the coastal and marine environment, causing
damage to critical habitats, reducing ecosystem productivity and the ecosystem services that
they provide. Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) Plans have attempted to
devise a holistic approach to water management. However, these plans have remained just
that. Implementation difficulties have made it impossible to benefit fully from the process.
To remedy poor management of river basins, the SAP proposes that Environmental Flow
Assessment (EFA), a decision support tool for managing river flows wisely and sustainably,
is adopted and implemented in the WIO region. The EFA process needs to be conducted in a
participatory and transparent manner in each river basin. Awareness about the EFA needs to
be created, capacity to implement EFA programmes built, and EFAs conducted in priority
river basins. To ensure that EFAs take coastal and marine management into account
effectively, institutional linkages between national river basin management and coastal water
management organizations need to be created. The ultimate objective is that freshwater and
coastal zone management are integrated and sustainably managed at all levels.
Additionally, the SAP proposes the immediate investigation of key aspects that are crucial to
wise management of rivers: impoundments, dam operations and wetlands. The results of
these studies would be fed into EFA processes.
The immediate causes of flow variability and increase/decrease of sediment discharge include
inappropriate land use and land use changes, especially agricultural land use, urbanisation,
mining of sand and aggregates and deforestation. Catchment management planning and
strategy can reduce these pressures and their negative impacts on coastal habitats, shorelines
and water quality. Although data and information for most of the river basins is incomplete,
examining catchment management as an integral part of IRBM as well as ICZM is essential
and adds value to current delineation of river basins up to the coastline.
2.4.1 Environmental Quality Objective: River Flows and Sediment Loads
"River flows in the WIO region are wisely and sustainably managed."7
Meeting this objective will mean healthy, functioning rivers, assuring the inhabitants of the
WIO region of continued clean water and a flourishing environment. The rivers, wetlands and
coastal areas of WIO will provide sustainable environmental services for present and future
generations.
2.4.2 15-year Management Objective: River Flows and Sediment Loads
"Management of Coastal Zone and River Basins are fully integrated with each other in the
WIO region."
7 In technical terms, this can be expressed as: "Sustainable environmental flow regimes established and adhered
to." This objective explicitly recognises environmental flow needs of rivers, through the establishment of water
entitlements for the environment.
36
The long-term management objective of integrated coastal zone and river basins creates new
opportunities for more effective management by providing for upstream and downstream
flow assessment, reduced erosion and sediment transport and better catchment management.
Box 9: What is Environmental Flow Assessment (EFA)?
A healthy river is one that is managed to provide a compromise between the needs of human
water user, and the needs of the environment. But just how much of the original flow regime
of a river should continue to flow down it, on to its floodplains and to the ocean, in order to
maintain riverine, coastal and marine ecosystems?
Environmental Flow Assessment (EFA) is an internationally accepted tool for determining
what these water requirements of the environment are. "Environmental flows" are the flows
of water provided within streams and rivers, wetlands or coastal zone that are necessary to
maintain river ecosystems and their benefits. If these water flows can be maintained, the
important natural functions that a river plays can also be maintained.
An EFA aims to provide technical information to river, coastal and marine resources
managers on how much water is necessary to maintain environmental goods and services. An
EFA will include technical studies describing the social, economic and environmental
implications of different options, which can help to find the optimal balance among competing
water uses.
2.4.3 Management Targets: River Flows and Sediment Loads
In order to support the wise and sustainable management of rivers in the WIO region, the
SAP proposes the use of Environmental Flow Assessment (EFA) as an improved decision-
making, flow and sediment discharge management tool. Critical evaluation of impoundments
and dam operations, wetlands and catchment management is also proposed, with results to be
made available as inputs to EFA. A suite of priority management actions deriving from the
development of EFA, defined as targets to be achieved within a five-year period, are
suggested. Meeting these targets will improve prudent decision taking, support sustainable
development and catalyse successful longer-term management of river-ocean interaction.
These targets are set out below.
1.
Awareness of EFA as a tool for wise river basin management raised
Environmental Flow Assessment (EFA) is an internationally accepted tool for determining
water flow needed to maintain river ecosystems and their benefits. An EFA helps managers to
find the optimal balance among competing water uses, natural and human. As yet, the EFA
tool is not well known in the WIO region. Promoting it needs to include information,
guidelines and best practices, and an awareness building strategy targeting key actors such as
decision-makers, research institutes, river basin managers and local stakeholders.
2.
Capacity for applying EFA increased amongst key stakeholders
To implement EFA effectively, the capacity of key agencies needs to be strengthened. These
include research institutes, river basin organisations, NGOs, the private sector, basins users'
organisations, community based organisations and, and where such exists, land use
37
commissions. EFA experts in the region can support "training on the job" programmes.
Linkages with existing networks of practitioners and information centres (e.g.
www.indaba.iucn.org) will be established.
3.
EFA conducted in river basin management in selected basins
The first step will be to develop criteria for identifying those river basins where EFAs should
be conducted and implemented. Country-specific priorities will be determined and practical
implementation options of EFA will be agreed between experts from relevant sectors/
ministries such as water, fisheries, agriculture, mining and energy, and research institutes,
basin management organisations, basin users' and community-based organisations.
Once the EFA results are available, these need to be integrated into the management of the
selected basins, which will involve establishing legal, institutional and operational structures.
Finally EFAs need to be incorporated into relevant water management plans, programmes and
policies. During this process, practice and lessons on integration of EFA need to be shared
through exchange visits, secondments, etc. In anticipation for the next phase, member states
will include determining data requirements and carrying out hydrological monitoring for
other basins on the priority list.
4.
EFA methodologies agreed upon and tools developed for coherent application of EFA
findings in both freshwater and coastal management
At the outset, the region will develop an integrated tool as well as harmonised regulatory
mechanisms for river basin and coastal zone management to ensure that each member state
meets the minimum management requirements for sustainable river and oceans ecosystems.
Joint assessment and planning teams, working groups and a focal point for EFA and ICZM
will be essential. Sharing lessons and developing guidelines will also be important for
expanding application of EFA to other basins.
5.
Policy discussion on coastal and marine issues catalysed through collaboration
between SWCI and NC Secretariat
To support integration of ICZM and IRBM, the Nairobi Convention Secretariat will initiate,
sensitise and maintain formal communication with Regional Economic Communities such as
Southern African Development Community (SADC) Water Division, the East African
Community (EAC), the African Ministerial Council on Water (AMCOW), the African
Ministerial Conference on the Environment (AMCEN) and other relevant international
protocols (secretariats or agencies) as well as other development partners. The aim is to add
value to the fact that most of the rivers are transboundary and require goodwill and political
support. Formal regional collaboration between shared watercourse institutions such as river
basin organisations, river commissions, technical committees and the Nairobi Convention
Secretariat will be established to implement policy and political decisions.
6.
National freshwater management and coastal zone management frameworks fully
integrated
The Nairobi Convention will support collaborative arrangements between relevant agencies at
national level. Local or national linkages between river basin management and coastal water
management organizations are also needed. The purpose of such linkages will be to ensure
that current policies, legal and institutional gaps/overlaps are identified and adjustments made
as necessary. Forums for intersectoral discussion, cooperation and joint planning (at
38
ministerial as well as stakeholder level) need to be established, to define common objectives
and streamline management responsibilities between freshwater and coastal management
organisations. The outcome is to ensure coherence between freshwater and coastal
management policies, laws and institutions.
7.
Impoundments and dam operations impacts on river flow variability and sediment
discharge analysed and results implemented
Dams, water abstraction, inter-basin transfer and climate variability rank high as the main
causes of alteration of river flows. Dams are envisaged as playing a role in adaptation to
climate change and climate variability. Impoundments and dam operations alter river flows,
increasing or decreasing sediment discharge, thus causing renewed erosion and/or deposition
and water quality degeneration8. The SAP proposes an immediate investigation into the
impacts of impoundments and dam operations on river flow variability. The analysis will
include effects of climate change and climate variability on coastal and marine resources.
Adaptation strategies will also be examined. The results would be implemented through being
fed into EFA.
8.
Significance of identified wetlands on flow variability, sediment discharge and coastal
and marine productivity investigated and wisely managed.
This immediate investigation will also feed into EFA. Wetlands are valuable for their
ecosystem services, hydrological significance and in many cases are refugia to fauna and flora
Wetlands have the capacity to regulate river flows, act as sediment sinks and reduce saltwater
intrusion into coastal aquifers. With the growing population, demand for food production is
likely to increase, resulting in increased pressure on wetlands. The investigation will consider
the impact of climate change and climate variability and effects of river flow and flow
variability on wetlands. Adaptation strategies will be examined.
9.
Catchment management tools used to prevent soil erosion
Cultivation of lands close to riverbanks and construction of facilities close to the shoreline
lead to soil erosion that contaminates water bodies, increasing sediment loads. The most
effective tool for managing these pressures is catchment management, a participatory process
that involves planning and implementing measures to sustain and enhance catchment
functions (relating to water use and water allocation) that affect life within the catchment
boundary. An important aspect of catchment management is providing for buffer zones
restricting development to set distances from rivers and shorelines.
·
Short-term target (within 5 years): Riverine and coastal management plans adopted and
implemented.
·
Medium-term target (10 to 15 years): Zoning rules fully enforced
2.4.4 Detailed Action Programme: River Flows and Sediment Loads
An overview of the strategic actions to be undertaken to achieve each of the targets is
presented below. Further details thereof are presented in Annex 4c.
8 Water quality issues are dealt with in component 2.3)
39
Table 8 Detailed Action Programme: River Flows and Sediment Loads
River Basins
Priority
Strategic Actions
Direct
Root
Target
level
Causes
Causes
addressed9
addressed
1. Awareness
High
Review completed and ongoing EFA studies,
E
raised and EFA
assess best practices and prepare guidelines/best
tool promoted
practices/ lessons learnt including existing
in the WIO
sources of data for EFA
region
Desk-top and/or rapid assessment of identified
"hot spot" basins
Establish a regional/basin-wide task force to
develop and adapt EFA methodologies
Disseminate results and create buy-in by
stakeholders including political leaders and
decision-makers
2. Capacity for
High
Carry out capacity needs assessment
C,
E
applying EFA
Identify experts for EFAs and launch training
increased
workshops including "training on the job"
amongst
components, organized tours, visits, secondments,
stakeholders
etc.
Review, strengthen/build capacity of identified
institutions and review sector strategies
Create linkages/integration with existing networks
of practitioners and information and data centres
for exchange (e.g. www.indaba.iucn.org) for
information dissemination.
Establish and implement demonstration projects
focusing on meeting coastal water and sediment
flows needs.
3. EFA
High
Develop selection criteria for target basins
C;
E
conducted and
Develop plans for conducting EFAs in identified
operating rules
river basins
(EQOs)
Carry out hydrological monitoring for river basins
integrated in
for EFA
river basin
Establish legal, institutional, operational
management in
structures for adoption and implementation of
selected basins
EFA in management of the selected basins
in the WIO
Carry out EFAs and validate results
region10
Disseminate results and create buy-in at political
and technical level
Identify management activities corresponding to
EFA findings and revise existing/ incorporate
EQOs into relevant water management plans (e.g.
IWRM plans)
4.
High
Assess and harmonise, where necessary, different
C;E
Methodologies
methodologies and management tools regarding
agreed upon
ICZM currently in application.
and tools
Develop an integrated tool for river basin and
developed for
coastal zone management and establish regulatory
coherent
mechanism for application in river basin and
application of
coastal management.
9 Refer to annex 3c for information on direct causes, and section 1.5.5 for root causes.
10 Note: EQOs are environmental quality objectives for selected basins, and correspond to thresholds of potential
concern
40
River Basins
Priority
Strategic Actions
Direct
Root
Target
level
Causes
Causes
addressed9
addressed
EQOs in both
Establish joint assessment and planning teams/
freshwater and
working groups/ focal point for EFA and IRBM,
coastal
ICZM
management
Develop guidelines for achievement of EQOs in
river basin management and Coastal and marine
management (River Estuarine and marine
management).
5. Policy
Medium
Initiate, sensitise and maintain formal
C;E
discussion on
communication with stakeholders
coastal and
Support collaborative arrangements between
marine issues.
relevant agencies at national level
Catalysed
through
collaboration
between SWCI
and NC
Secretariat
6. National
High
Analyse current national/regional legal/
C; E; F
freshwater
institutional gaps/ overlaps and identify options
management
for review
and coastal
Assist parliament to harmonise national/regional
zone
laws governing freshwater and coastal
management
management
frameworks
Establish intersectoral discussion, cooperation
(policies, legal,
arrangements and joint planning
and
Harmonise/streamline management
institutional)full
responsibilities between freshwater and coastal
y integrated.
management organizations
7. Effects of
High
Develop selection criteria for target basins
A; C; E; G;
impoundments
Carry out hydrological monitoring for river basins
F
and dam
Establish legal, institutional, operational
operations on
structures
river flow
Carry out study and validate results
variability and
Disseminate results and create buy-in at political
sediment
and technical level
discharge
Identify management activities corresponding to
analysed and
the findings and revise existing dam operation/
results
incorporate findings into relevant water
implemented
management policies and plans (e.g. IWRM
plans)
8. Significance
High
Develop selection criteria for target wetlands
A; B; E; F
of identified
Carry out hydrological, geological and biological
wetlands on
study of selected wetland(s)
flow variability,
Establish ecosystem-based management plan
sediment
(legal, institutional, operational structures)
discharge and
Carry out study and validate results
coastal and
Disseminate results and create buy-in at political
marine
and technical level
productivity
Identify management activities corresponding to
investigated and
the findings and revise existing wetlands
wisely
operation/ incorporate findings into relevant
managed.
wetland management policies and plans (e.g.
IWRM plans)
41
River Basins
Priority
Strategic Actions
Direct
Root
Target
level
Causes
Causes
addressed9
addressed
9. Catchment
High
Draft regional guidelines for harmonising riverine
A; B; F; G
management
and coastal management plans including setbacks
impacts on
Promote and strengthen stakeholder institutions
coastal habitats,
within the basin
shorelines and
Promote and strengthen sector collaboration, joint
water quality
water resources planning, etc
investigated and
Review catchment management plans including
results adopted
information management, monitoring, etc
in river basin
Promote integrated land and water use planning
and coastal and
marine
Identify partnerships and build resources
management
mobilisation opportunities for catchment co-
management
2.5 Strategic Component 4: Strengthening Governance and Awareness
Governance problems underlie much of the damage to the natural environment. This damage
results, in turn, in negative impacts on people and the economy of the region. In addition,
governance and management problems hamper successful responses to transboundary
problems.
Key governance problems include poor co-ordination, inappropriate and incoherent
legislation and a lack of adequate institutional frameworks for managing development
pressures. Equally important are poor information management and the lack of adequate
financial resources and mechanisms. The widespread lack of understanding of the importance
of coastal and marine ecosystems for human health, wellbeing and prosperity is compounding
factor.
This strategic component focuses on addressing four main root causes: inappropriate
governance, inadequate financial resources, inadequate knowledge and awareness, and
economic drivers.
The SAP proposes that over the next five years, a key priority will be improving capacity for
ecosystem-based management, and ensuring that, throughout the region, appropriate legal and
regulatory frameworks for LBSA management are in place and implemented at national level.
An important priority is to create awareness of the importance of good marine and coastal
management at the level of policy-makers and legislators, civil society and the private sector
Regional legal framework for LBSA need to be updated and harmonized with multilateral
environmental agreements, and regional co-ordination and inter-sectoral governance
improved. Appropriate financial mechanisms need to be developed and implemented, and
regional knowledge management needs to be undertaken effectively.
As governance is a crosscutting issue, aspects are addressed in all Strategic Components of
the SAP. The governance issues addressed in this component tend to be more regional and
generic in character, and complement the more specific governance issues addressed in other
Strategic Components.
42
2.5.1 Strategic Objective: Governance and Awareness
"By 2014, stakeholders will collaborate effectively at regional level in addressing
transboundary challenges.
This strategic objective is based on the assumption that, with regional support, national
governments in the region can overcome the most significant governance problems within
five years (rather than the 25-year horizon of the other strategic objectives in the SAP). The
key to achieving this is collaborative action. However, sustained effort will be required to
maintain this situation once it is achieved.
The SAP identifies a suite of priority management targets that should be achieved within the
first five years of implementation. These targets address the governance-related root causes of
many of the problems identified in the TDA. Meeting these targets will help to catalyse
successful longer-term governance in the region. These targets are set out below.
2.5.2 Management targets: Governance and Awareness
1. Capacity for ecosystem-based management improved
One of the most important priorities for the SAP is to support the development of human
resources and technical capacity in institutions dealing with LBSA-related issues. To lay the
foundation for this, the SAP proposes to develop and implement a regional capacity building
strategy, focussed on key priorities for LBSA management. Strengthening regional and
national networking and lessons-sharing between practitioners, academics and policymakers
will be a key component of this strategy.
A further crucial need is to facilitate integrated governance. Coastal zone users involve a
range of economic sectors such as fishing and aquaculture, agriculture and forestry, tourism,
mining, industry, transportation, energy production and urban development,. Crosscutting
governance instruments initiatives essential to effective management of this zone include
integrated coastal zone management (ICZM), environmental impact assessment (EIA) and
strategic environmental assessment (SEA). The SAP proposes that regional guidelines,
standards and procedures for ICZM, SEA and EIA be established, building upon the regional
Guidelines for Environmental Assessment as developed under the WIO-LaB project, and that
relevant capacity building programmes be provided to ensure that these instruments are
implemented in coastal and marine management.
2. Appropriate legal and regulatory frameworks for LBSA management in place and
implemented at national level
Various international and regional conventions, inter-governmental agreements and
institutions that are central to good governance in the WIO region, already exist. The SAP
proposes encouraging all countries to ratify relevant regional and international agreements
and other instruments (where this has not been done), and to follow this up by enacting and
implementing appropriate national legislation.
A key regional initiative will be to develop framework for coastal area legislation as well as
model national legislation and regulations. This framework would include ecosystem based
management approaches (e.g. ICZM, SEA, EIA and EFA). Where appropriate, national
governments would use this framework to domesticate and implement relevant regional and
43
international instruments. Improved enforcement of relevant policies and legislation will be
supported by regular regional monitoring of the state of the environment and publication of
findings.
3. Awareness of importance of good marine and coastal management raised at the level of
policy-makers and legislators, civil society and the private sector
Knowledge is a key pillar empowering people to play an active role in effective governance
and management of natural resources, including marine resources. However, within the WIO
region, many do not have access to appropriate knowledge on the environmental impacts and
socio-economic consequences of human activities. Also lacking is knowledge of policies and
institutional structures that can prevent or mitigate impacts on essential ecosystem services.
The SAP proposes to develop and implement, in consultation with key stakeholders, a
regional communication strategy targeted at: a) policy-makers and legislators, b) civil society
and c) the private sector, with appropriate messages and materials for each sector, to support
national governments to undertake similar activities, and to monitor the outcomes of the
strategy.
4. Regional legal framework for LBSA updated and harmonized with multilateral
environmental agreements
Addressing the underlying root causes of many transboundary problems requires cooperation
between countries. National or local responses, often in isolation, are ineffective at addressing
these challenges. In particular, efforts need to be focused on harmonising and adopting
legislative frameworks at the regional level, and establishing and strengthening regional
cooperation arrangements (including regional treaties, conventions and institutions).
The SAP proposes that regional action be taken to review, update and harmonize the regional
legal framework relevant to LBSA, in consultation with key stakeholders. This could take the
form of a protocol under a convention. For example, the revised framework would be
submitted to the Conference of Parties (COP) of the Nairobi Convention as a protocol for
consideration and approval
5. Regional co-ordination and inter-sectoral governance improved
Establishing and strengthening regional cooperation arrangements including regional treaties,
conventions and institutions is crucial to effective LBSA management in the region. The SAP
proposes that regional engagement be initiated with relevant regional economic/trade
organizations (eg SADC Shared Water Resources Protocol) on issues of common concern,
and to facilitate collaboration on the implementation of LBSA instruments. A further priority
is to support the building of regional collective capacity to negotiate MEAs that reflect
concerns for sustainability (both environmental and socio-economic).
6. Appropriate financial mechanisms developed and implemented
The TDA found that the scarcity of financial resources, linked to weak institutional capacity
and the governance, remain the main limiting factors in optimal management of LBSA in the
region. A key priority of the SAP, therefore, is to mobilize resources. Mechanisms for
sustainable financing include taxes, user charges, borrowing (bonds and loans) and grants.
While grant financing from donor sources is an important mechanism to catalyse action, it
44
cannot stand alone. Sustainable initiatives seek to assure both capital and operating costs, and
integrate both short and long term financing.
The SAP proposes that a regional resource mobilization strategy be developed, including
appropriate financial mechanisms, best practice and model legislation.
Relevant aspects of this strategy should be taken up and implemented by national
governments. Further, regional action is needed to strengthen regional and national
networking and lessons-sharing between practitioners, academics and policymakers.
7. Regional knowledge management undertaken effectively
There exists already a wealth of relevant information that can be used more effectively to
provide technical decision-support to those responsible for development. An effective
knowledge management system is an essential foundation for good governance, At present,
the WIO region lacks adequate scientific data, information and analysis, (in both natural and
social sciences), hampering effective policy making and sustainable management.
Information is fragmented and difficult to access, and there is limited collaboration and co-
ordination between various institutions responsible for knowledge management.
The SAP proposes that regional action be taken to develop and implement a regional
knowledge management strategy, building on existing information, resources and systems.
Policy briefs based on existing and new information can make important information
accessible to decision-makers. Regional collaboration in information management will help to
make this happen.
·
Short-term target (within 5 years): Existing information on critical habitats integrated into
clearing house mechanisms, comprehensive and integrated regional database in place and
strengthened with information on Critical Habitats, Pollution and River Basins, and
informative policy briefs based on existing information developed.
·
Medium-term target (10 to 15 years): All metadata on Critical Habitats, Pollution and
River Basins routinely captured and made accessible.
·
Long-term strategic target (15 to 25 years): All metadata routinely on Critical Habitats,
Pollution and River Basins captured and accessible for management support.
2.5.3 Detailed Action Programme: Governance and Awareness
An overview of the specific actions to be undertaken to achieve each of the targets is
presented below. Further details are presented in Annex 4d.
Table 9 Detailed Action Programme: Governance and Awareness
Governance and
Priority
Strategic Actions
Root
Awareness
level
causes
Target
addressed
1. Capacity for ecosystem
Very Establish regional guidelines, standards and procedures for
C
based management
High ICZM, SEA and EIA.
improved (including e.g.
Develop and implement regional and national capacity
ICZM, SEA, EIA and EFA.)
building strategies, focused on key priorities for LBSA
management.
45
Governance and
Priority
Strategic Actions
Root
Awareness
level
causes
Target
addressed
Strengthen regional and national networking and lessons
sharing between practitioners, academics and policymakers.
2. Appropriate legal and
High Develop regional framework (including guidelines and
C
regulatory frameworks for
model legislation) for national legislation. Include ecosystem
LBSA management in place
based management approaches into national legislative and
and implemented at national
regulatory frameworks (e.g. ICZM, SEA, EIA and EFA).
level
Domesticate and implement relevant regional and
international instruments.
Improve enforcement of relevant policies and legislation.
Monitor impact of implementing new legislation in
addressing problems.
Monitor state of environment in WIO region as a whole, in
relation to priority problems, and publish findings.
3. Awareness of importance
High Develop a regional communication strategy targeted at:
E
of good marine and coastal
a) policymakers and legislators;
management raised at the
b) civil society;
level of policy-makers and
c) the private sector;
legislators, civil society and
and including appropriate messages and materials for each
the private sector
sector.
Implement regional communication strategy at regional and
national levels, monitor outcomes
4. Regional legal framework High Review, update and harmonize regional legal framework
C/G
for LBSA updated and
relevant to LBSA
harmonized with multilateral
Develop model legislation for key LBSA
environmental agreements
Issues/sectors (local government tourism, agriculture, etc).
Enact necessary national legislation to domesticate and
implement regional legal framework
5. Regional co-ordination
High Reach agreement with relevant regional economic/trade
C/G
and inter-sectoral
organizations on issues of common concern, and collaborate
governance improved
on the implementation of LBSA instruments (e.g. SADC
Shared Water Resources Protocol).
Build collective capacity to negotiate MEAs that reflect
concerns for environmental and socio-economic
sustainability.
6. Appropriate financial
High Develop a regional resource mobilization strategy, including
D
mechanisms developed and
appropriate financial mechanisms, best practice and model
implemented
legislation.
Domesticate and implement relevant aspects of the regional
resource mobilisation strategy; monitor outcomes.
Strengthen regional and national networking and lessons
sharing between practitioners, academics and policymakers.
7. Regional knowledge
High Develop a regional knowledge management strategy,
C
management undertaken
building on existing information, resources and systems.
effectively
Implement regional knowledge management strategy.
Integrate existing information on critical habitats, river
basins and pollution into clearing house mechanisms
46
Governance and
Priority
Strategic Actions
Root
Awareness
level
causes
Target
addressed
Capture metadata on critical habitats, river basins and
pollution and made accessible.
Develop informative policy briefs based on existing
information.
Prepare treatise on each of the Critical Habitats in the
region contributing to baseline assessment & current status
of Critical Habitats
PART III: IMPLEMENTATION PLAN
All below sections will be further expanded.
3.1 Making it happen
It should be mentioned that countries in the region are in different stages of development.
This implies that were some countries still require basic actions to be undertaken, others may
skip certain levels, and proceed with advancing issues at a much higher level. In this regard,
the process of achieving the long-term objectives of the SAP is likely to take place in a series
of steps, each one building on the successes and lessons of the previous one, and taking into
account any changes in the context that may have an impact on the programme. The
anticipated steps in the process are:
Phase 1: A catalytic phase, in which action is taken to address key priorities that are
essential to the success of the programme, and that lay the foundation for the next
phase.
Phase 2: A mainstreaming phase, in which the major components of the strategy are
incorporated into the programmes of responsible agencies and stakeholders.
Phase 3: A consolidation and long-term sustainability phase, in which the
programme's long-term objectives are achieved and their sustainability ensured.
These phases are general in character, and may not apply to all aspects of the programme -
some components of the SAP will always be more advanced than others, with some reaching
a point where consolidation is the key focus while others are still in attempting to catalyse
action.
Whatever the current level of implementation may be, however, the key interventions set out
above will form the focus of implementation of the SAP Strategy. Successful implementation
will also need strengthened partnerships and the resources to match. The following lays out
the principal mechanisms for implementation of the SAP.
3.2 Mainstreaming action
At the national level, an important priority will be to mainstream the priorities of the SAP into
national policy and legal frameworks, development plans and budgets. National
47
implementation will also need to focus on action on the ground, through the development of
investment plans and projects in priority areas.
At the regional level, mainstreaming activities will include activities directed at strengthening
of the regional legal framework and agreements, lessons-sharing, capacity building, and
financial mechanisms. This could also include guidelines, protocols and possibly standards.
Implementation will thus take place at both regional and national levels, with the SAP
providing a framework for National Action Plans or similar national planning instruments
such as ICZM Plans and Environmental Management Plans. The relationship between
regional and national action plans is illustrated below:
Regional Strategic Actio
n Programme (SAP)
National
National
Natio
nal
National
National
Action
Action
Action
Action
Action
Plan
Plan
Plan
Plan
Plan
Most countries are currently in the process of developing their National Action Plans, ICZM
Plans or Environmental Management Plans, integrating measures as defined in the SAP as
applicable to the national situation.
3.3 Institutional
arrangements
The Nairobi Convention Secretariat will serve as the main repository of the SAP, the SAP
being holistically incorporated in the Convention's Work Programme for the period 2008-
2011. It is intended that Regional Activity Centers on the various thematic topics of the SAP
be designated in support of its functions. Furthermore, the existing Advisory Groups as
established under the Convention will be maintained and expanded as necessary:
1. Regional Legal and Technical Review Task Force
2. Regional Task Force on Physical Alteration and Destruction of Habitats
3. Regional Task Force on Municipal Wastewater Management
4. Regional Task Force on Environmental Assessment
5. Regional Task Force on Coral Reef
6. Regional Task Force on Marine Turtles
7. Regional Working Group on Water, Sediment and Biota Quality
Two further mechanisms for coordination of the implementation of the SAP will furthermore
be maintained and strengthened in order to provide a mechanism for the involvement of key
partners from the region:
48
1. The Forum of Academic and Research Institutions (FARI) in the Western Indian
Ocean (WIO) region. This independent Forum is constituted of the Heads of
Institutions of academic and research institutions in the region and functions as a
mechanism for coordination of research activities, but also as a mechanism for quality
assurance and as a sounding board / clearinghouse for technical outputs from the
project and other regional activities.
2. The Consortium for Conservation of Coastal and Marine Ecosystems in Western
Indian Ocean (WIO-C) brings together a number of international and regional
organizations and agencies with the objective of supporting partnerships that advance
the interests of marine research, conservation and management in the region.
In order for the Nairobi Convention Secretariat to fulfill its expanded coordinative role of the
implementation of the SAP, it will need to be strengthened, including through mobilization of
political actors. Furthermore, the National Focal Points need to be capacitated to devote more
resources to activities relating to the Nairobi Convention.
Box 10: Role and functioning of the Regional Advisory Groups
The purpose of the Advisory Groups is to provide the Secretariat with the best possible advice
and information on topics key to implementation of the Strategic Action Programme. In all
cases, they will, as part of their duties, respond to requests for advice from the Secretariat and
prepare proposals for the Secretariat's consideration at their own initiative. The groups will
include experts from specialised institutions in the member states. The Advisory Groups will
work closely with other experts, organisations, institutions and the private sector as needed.
The Nairobi Convention Secretariat will provide general co-ordination for the Advisory
Groups, assigning the management of specific tasks to appropriate officers according to their
technical specialisation.
The Advisory Groups shall be supported by Regional Activity Centres which shall co-ordinate
the necessary programme support and the provision of practical technical support for their
work. The Activity Centres shall be created through in-kind contributions by member state
governments, supported where needed by funding from donors, especially during the first five
years.
3.4 Financing the SAP
The countries of the region will seek the necessary funding for the actions agreed upon in this
Strategic Action Programme from national, regional and international sources. Funding
sources may involve:
1. General public funding (allocated through national/local budgets);
2. Private financing;
3. Economic instruments; and
4. Grants and loans.
49
Specific funding arrangements for the national policies and measures agreed on in this
Strategic Action Programme shall be presented in the National Action Plans (or similar
national planning instruments) to be adopted by each of the member states.
Furthermore, under the overall coordination of the Nairobi Convention Secretariat, targeted
projects for international funding will be prepared for bilateral or multilateral funding,
involving appropriate partners. Donor conferences for assisting in this process shall be held
every five years, starting in the year 2009.
3.5 Partnership and cooperation
To come
3.6 Monitoring and evaluation
The Nairobi Convention Secretariat will be responsible for overall monitoring and evaluating
the implementation of the SAP.
The SAP will be reviewed on a regular basis, the first update being scheduled when the SAP
for the Agulhas and Somali Current Large Marine Ecosystems will become available in 2011,
under the coordinative efforts of the ASCLMEs Project. The ASCLMEs SAP will take into
consideration the relevant elements of the current Land-based Activities SAP, where
necessary updating aspects thereof in line with developments. It is intended that the relevant
aspects of the ASCLMEs SAP will at that point also be incorporated in the Nairobi
Convention Work Programme for the period 2012-2016.
Subsequent to the 2011 updated SAP, updates of the SAP will be scheduled on a 4-year cycle,
in synergy with the Nairobi Convention 4-year Work Programmes.
(Monitoring and evaluation procedures to be elaborated)
3.7 Risks and Sustainability
To come
50
Reference Materials
To come
51
Annex 1
Persons and Institutions that participated in SAP Preparation
To come
52
Annex 2
Hot spots of PADH, pollution and river-coast interaction
The following sections provide an overview of the hot spots of PADH, pollution and river-
coast interaction as identified in the TDA.
2a.
Overview of PADH hotspots in the WIO region
TRANSBOUNDARY PROBLEM
ds
e
COUNTRY
HOT SPOT
eefs
ass be
r
forests
o
relin
mangrove
agr
coral
S
h
changes
Degradation of
Degradation of
se
Degradation of
Degradation of
coastal forests
Moheli
Comoros
Grand Comoros
Anjuan
Malindi Ungwana Bay*
Vanga-Msambweni Complex*
Kenya
Tana Delta*
Mida Creek*
Toliare
Mahanjanga Bay
Madagascar
Nosy Be
Hahavavy
Rodrigues
Mauritius
Grand Bay
Flic en Flac
Maputo Bay*
Mozambique
Nacala-Mossuril seascape*
Zambezi delta*
La Digue
Seychelles
East Coast, Mahé
Anse Volbert, Praslin
South Africa
Richards Bay
Dar es Salaam
Tanga Coastal Area*
Tanzania
Zanzibar*
Bagamoyo*
*These sites are also EAME conservation priorities. However, it should be noted that these are not the complete
list of EAME priorities, and that EAME does not cover the WIO island states, for which currently a separate
prioritization exercise is underway as part of the WWF-led WIOMER programme. For a full list of EAME
conservation priority areas, including action plans, please refer to http://eame.wiomsa.org/consvplan.html.
53
2b.
Overview of pollution hotspots in the WIO region
TRANSBOUNDARY PROBLEM
er
d
COUNTRY
HOT SPOT
nde
r
obial
e
litt
pe
solids
Mic
blooms)
Chemical
Pollution
contamination
(solid waste)
Sus
Eutrophication
(harmful algal
Marin
Mitsamihouli beach
Chindini Beach
Chomoni Beach
Comoros
Moroni Port
Anjouan Port
Fomboni Port
Mombassa
Vanga Creek (Wasini)
Lamu
Kenya
Malindi/Watamu Marine Park
Malindi Bay
Ungwana Bay
Port de Mahajanga
Port de Nosy-Be
Madagascar
Toliara
Baie de Fort-Dauphin
Port Louis Harbour
Pointe Aux Sables
Baie du Tombeau
Bain des Dames
Mauritius
Palmar
Belle Mare
Grand Baie
Rodrigues
Maputo Bay
Mozambique
Nacala Bay
La Digue
Anse Volbert
Seychelles
East coast Mahe
Port Launay Marine Park
Mahe Wetland
South Africa
Richards Bay
Dar es Salaam
Tanzania
Tanga
Zanzibar
54
2c.
Overview of river-coast interaction hot spots in the WIO region
TRANSBOUNDARY PROBLEM
in
e in
e
in
COUNTRY*
HOT SPOT
u
a
lity
nt load
nt load
river flow
dime
dime
Alteration
I
n
creas
Decreas
Degradation of
water q
se
se
Tana
Kenya
Athi-Sabaki
Betsiboka
Tsiribihina
Madagascar
Mangoky
Fiherenana
Zambezi
Pungue
Mozambique
Limpopo
Incomati
Maputo
South Africa
Thukela
Pangani
Tanzania
Rufiji
Ruvuma
*Refers to country of river outflow
Issues of `critical' concern
55
Annex 3
Prioritization of Transboundary Problems and their Causes
56
3a.
Prioritization of problems and related causes of physical alteration and destruction of habitats
TRANSBOUNDARY PROBLEM
Coastal
Shore-line
Mangroves
Seagrasses
Coral reefs
DIRECT CAUSES
forests
change
H L
i.
Coastal flooding as a result of sea level rise
H
H
M ii.
Sedimentation associated with heavy river sediment discharge
M
L iii.
Alteration of fresh water flow
M iv.
Salt water intrusion
L
v.
Destruction and/or degradation of wetlands
L VH
M
vi.
Clearance of natural vegetation for human settlement
L
M
L
M vii.
Pollution (discharge of municipal wastewater agricultural and industrial effluents,
including accidental oil spillage)
L
L L
viii.
Land reclamation
M ix.
Increased sea urchin population associated with reduction in predators (due to
inappropriate fishing practices or changes in environmental conditions)
L x.
Seaweed harvesting for commercial purposes
M xi.
Increased reef activity
M xii.
Anchor damage
M
M xiii.
Over-fishing and bad fishing practices
VH
xiv.
Coral bleaching
M M
L
xv.
Conversion of habitats for aquaculture/mariculture
L H xvi.
Conversion of habitats to industrial zones
L
xvii.
Mining of beach sand and removal of corals
L
xviii.
Dredging for port and harbours
M
L
L
M
M
xix.
Alteration in freshwater flows and sediment loads due to dam construction
H M
L
xx.
Conversion of habitats for saltworks
H VH
xxi.
Deforestation to meet timber and fuelwood needs
H xxii.
Seagrass beds removal for clam collection and bathers (tourists)
H VH
xxiii.
Over-harvesting for supply of fuelwood and charcoal
M xxiv.
Overgrazing associated with high cattle population
VH
L
xxv.
Land clearance for agriculture
H xxvi.
Uncontrolled wild fires
Key:
L: Limited
M: Medium H: High
VH: Very High
57
3b.
Prioritization of problems and related causes of water quality degeneration due to pollution
TRANSBOUNDARY PROBLEM
DIRECT CAUSE
Microbial
Eutrophi-
Marine litter
Suspended
Chemical
contamination
cation
and debris
solids
Pollution
H
L H
i.
Disposal of un- or under-treated municipal wastewater
L
L H
L
ii.
Industries a discharging un- or under-treated industrial wastewater
L
L
iii.
Dredging activities in ports and harbours
L
L M
L
iv.
Waste from coastal mining and mineral (oil, gas, etc) exploration activities
v.
Contaminated surface and sub-surface runoff (e.g. from municipal, industrial and
M
L
L
H
L
agricultural areas, as well as from accidental spills)
M vi.
Destruction of coastal forests contributing to high suspended solid loads
vii.
River discharges transporting high suspended sediment loads (as a result of soil
M
L
L
H
L
erosion) and/or transporting municipal/ industrial waste and agrochemicals from
catchment areas
viii.
Leaking of agrochemical (fertilizer and pesticide residues) from inadequate storage
L
L
facilities, dumping or return-flows
L
L ix.
Runoff from livestock rearing areas
x.
Atmospheric emissions (e.g. incineration of waste, vehicle and industrial emissions
L
L
and wood/coal burning)
L L L
xi.
Inadequate collection, treatment and disposal of solid waste
xii.
Public littering on beaches and in areas where litter can be transported into coastal
L
areas
xiii.
Waste products from aquaculture farms that are high in nutrients and suspended
L
solid loads
Key:
L: Limited
M: Medium H: High
VH: Very High
58
3c.
Prioritization of problems and related causes of alteration in river flow and sediment loads
TRANSBOUNDARY PROBLEM
Alteration of river
Water quality
Increased
Decreased
IMMEDIATE CAUSES
flow
degradation11
sediment loads
sediment loads
H
L
M
i.
Damming of rivers
H
L
ii.
Direct water abstraction for urban water supply and irrigation agriculture
H
M
iii.
Inter-basin water transfer
L
iv.
Hydrological variability
L
H
v.
Poor land-use in river basins
M
vi.
Agricultural runoff of nutrients and pesticide residues
M
vii.
Wastewater discharges
M
viii.
Stormwater runoff
H
M
ix.
Changes in vegetation types and patterns
H
L
L
x.
Alteration of climatic conditions
H
xi.
Unsustainable agricultural practices/techniques (e.g. slash and burn)
H
xii.
Deforestation of catchment areas
H
xiii.
Encroachment on river banks
H
xiv.
Mining of sand and aggregates within river courses
M
xv.
Road development in rural and urban areas
L
xvi.
Canalization and impoundment of rivers for navigation purposes
Key:
L: Limited
M: Medium H: High
VH: Very High
11 Whereas the overall ranking is low, water quality degeneration is a problem in some hotspots
59
3d.
Prioritization of problems related to governance and awareness
Severity Scope
Overall
rating
Problem
VH VH VH
Inadequate updating, implementation, enforcement and monitoring of legislation
VH H H
Inadequate awareness, understanding and appreciation of economic value of coastal-marine ecosystem goods and
services at the level of policy-makers and legislators, civil society and the private sector
VH H H
Inadequate financial mechanisms and resources for dealing with LBSA-related issues
H H H
Lack of mechanisms for effective coordination and inter-sectoral governance
H H H
Inadequate human resources and technical capacity in institutions dealing with LBSA-related issues
H H H
Inadequate ratification and domestication of relevant international and regional instruments
M M M
Lack of adequate scientific and socio-economic data and information to support policy making, monitoring and
enforcement
Key:
L: Limited
M: Medium
H: High VH: Very High
60
Annex 4
Detailed Action Programme
61
4a.
Strategic Component 1: Protecting, Restoring and Managing Critical Coastal Habitats
Target
Actions
Stakeholders to be
Expected results
Duration Estimated
M&E indicators*
Risks and
involved
cost (1000
uncertainties
US$)
1. Incentives to
Develop and implement
Academia; Odin-
Guideline published,
2-4M 15
PI
indicator
Risk = low for
encourage
sector specific guidelines Africa; WCMC;
adopted, disseminated and
Code of Conduct
development
compliance with
for best practice (similar
Marine
best practice being
documents produced
and high for
best practice in
to FAO Code of
Environmental
enforced
and disseminated
implementation
Critical Habitat
Conduct.)
Protection agencies
management
such as KWS,
established
Ezemvelo etc;
National Institutes;
NGOs; FARI;
Specialist consultants
Develop and implement
National Institutes;
Schemes developed, based
12-18M
50
SRI indicator
Risk = medium
incentive and
Conservation
on international standards;
Scheme submitted
As these are
environmental awards
societies; NGOs;
Blue Flag; preferred
for consideration
mostly difficult
schemes to recognise
FARI; Local
agents; tax incentives, high
to implement
good practice at different authorities;
profile awards, green stars,
levels in governance and corporations, cities
trophies, etc.; changed
society.
media, politicians,
perception and attitudes of
education units
resource users (=
Outcome)
Increase community
National Institutes;
Resources users involved
6-12M 30
PI
indicator
Risk = medium
involvement in Critical
NGOs; Conservation
in co-management of
Plan developed and
Habitats protection that
bodies,; beach
sustainable use of Critical
submitted.
promotes benefit sharing committees, labour
Habitat resources.
Community groups
and improves
unions, CBOs
Tangible improvement in
strengthened/
livelihoods. Undertake
livelihoods associated with
established and
baseline surveys to
Critical Habitats.
taking leadership
assess attitudes &
livelihood status.
62
Target
Actions
Stakeholders to be
Expected results
Duration Estimated
M&E indicators*
Risks and
involved
cost (1000
uncertainties
US$)
2. Coastal zoning
Facilitate and support
Academia; National
Government willingness
3 M
20
PI indicator
Risk = low
based on integrated
government-driven
Institutes; NGOs;
and acceptance to
Workshop
economic, social
process to undertake
specialists; business,
undertake spatial planning
Review document
and environmental
spatial planning
communities,
and mainstreaming as part
complete. [A]
considerations
stakeholders, local
of national development
implemented
authorities; tourism
plan for coastal and marine
areas
Identify and support
Academia; National
Institutional capacity to
24 M
150
PI indicator
Risk = low-
institutions to undertake
Institutes; NGOs; GIS conduct spatial planning
Regional zoning
medium
spatial planning of
and remote sensing
established; Funds for
proposal developed
As technical
coastal areas.
experts; business,
implementation secured
and delivered [A]
capacity may be
communities,
inadequate
stakeholders, local
authorities; tourism
Develop and implement
National Institutes;
Comprehensive
Ongoing Unknown SRI indicator
Risk = medium-
guidelines for zoning &
NGOs; GIS experts;
vulnerability assessment &
>100
Practical support
high
conduct vulnerability
Specialist; business,
spatial planning conducted
provided and audited. As governments
assessment for Critical
communities,
for priority sites.
[A]
may not accept
Habitats in WIO
stakeholders, local
system
authorities; tourism
Establish protected areas National Institutes;
Potential PA's identified
Ongoing >100 Additional
MPA Risk for PA
with focus on critical
NGOs; GIS experts;
and % of PA
areas identified and
establishment =
coastal and marine
Specialist
representativeness
protection motivated. medium to high
habitats, evaluating their
consultants; business, increased; Strengthened
Increased % of PA
contribution to
community
effectiveness of existing
after 10-15 years.
mitigating habitat loss.
stakeholders, local
MPAs in reducing habitat
[B-C]
authorities; tourism
transformation and loss.
Support the
National Institutes;
Practical and technical
>24M Unknown
Practical support
Risk= medium
implementing of zoning
NGOs; GIS experts;
support to national zoning
> 100
provided and audited to high as some
guidelines in
specialists; business,
initiatives with focus on
governments
participating countries.
tourism communities, priority sites; successes
may not accept
local authorities;
shared.
suggestions
stakeholders,;
63
Target
Actions
Stakeholders to be
Expected results
Duration Estimated
M&E indicators*
Risks and
involved
cost (1000
uncertainties
US$)
3. Critical Habitat
Review, develop and/or
Academia; National
Review of management
6 M
80
PI indicator
Risk = medium
management in
strengthen Critical
Institutes; NGOs;
status of Critical Habitats
Review submitted.
to high as
place in all
Habitat management in
CORDIO; FARI;
in each country linked to
[A]
countries may
countries
all countries contributing specialists;
legal instruments. National
object to
contributing to
to regional protection
mangrove, seagrass, coral
external support
ecologically
and coastal forest
sustainable
management plans
ecosystem services
developed and published.
and regional
Develop and implement
Academia; National
International best practice
6 M
20
PI indicator
Risk = low
protection.
guidelines (best practice) Institutes; NGOs;
assessed and tailored for
Document
in Critical Habitat
FARI; specialists
local application
completed, targeted
management and the
per country. [A]
activities that impact on
them.
Develop and introduce
Fisheries
Access to fishery and other
24 M
25
Ecosystem
Risk = low for
ecosystem approaches to departments, National Critical Habitat resources
approaches to
the development
fishing and other
Institutes, fisheries
to be conditional on an
management
of EA but
extractive-use activities
specialists, NGOs
ecosystem approach to
identified and
Medium for the
associated with Critical
extractive-use activities.
adopted in
implementation.
Habitats.
management of
extractive use of
resources [A]
Develop and implement
Academia; National
Reduced pressure on
24M 40
PI
indicator
Risk = medium-
alternative sources for
Institutes; NGOs;
Critical Habitats resources;
Integrated document
high as this is
products derived from
specialists;
Opportunities for
delivered for each
socio-
Critical Habitats. E.g.
community leaders
alternatives fully explored
Critical Habitats. [A] economically
energy, building
and motivated
Sustainable
difficult
materials, etc
alternatives in place
[B-C]
Rehabilitate and mitigate Academia; National
Reversal, halting or
Ongoing
Variable
Rehabilitation plans
Risk = medium
degraded Critical
Institutes; NGOs;
offsetting the trend of the
>24
>100
developed and
Habitats
specialists
net loss of Critical
implemented. [B]
Habitats; Improved
management
64
Target
Actions
Stakeholders to be
Expected results
Duration Estimated
M&E indicators*
Risks and
involved
cost (1000
uncertainties
US$)
Identify and strategically Academia; National
Inventory of other critical
24 M
> 80
PI indicators
Risk = low
asssess other critical
Institutes; NGOs;
habitats and associated
Inventory completed,
habitats and such as
Specialist
diversity and status; GIS
annotated and
canyons, coastal lakes,
consultants; coastal
format with relevant
published [A]
dunes, estuaries,
zone ecology, fishery
templates for each WIO
aggregating and nesting
and estuarine
country
sites, biodiversity
specialists
hotspots, bird flyways,
etc.
Update mapping, status
Academia; National
Annotated inventory of
12 M
60
PI indicators
Risk = low
and distribution of
Institutes; NGOs;
seagrass and coral habitats
Fully integrated GIS
seagrass and coral
specialists; remote
with associated diversity
mapping includes
habitats
sensing and GIS
and status; GIS format
ground truthing. [A]
experts
with relevant templates for
every WIO country
Study seagrass ecology,
Academia
Scientific information to
24 M
20
PI indicators
Risk = low
function and dynamics
improve the knowledge of
Papers and reports
seagrass habitat dynamics
covering all
exists.
countries. [A]
Establish implications of Academia
Scientific reports and
6 M
10
PI indicators
Risk = low
seaweed culture to
papers
Collated report. [A]
seagrasses.
4. A regional
Establish and agree on
Academia; National
Key monitoring indicators
6M 15
PI
indicator
Risk = Medium
monitoring and
baseline status and key
Institutes; NGOs;
& baselines established;
Agreed document in
Some countries
evaluation plan
indicators for Critical
specialists
place and signed off.
may not endorse
established and
Habitats.
[A]
implemented for
Develop & support
National Institutes;
SOE reports developed or
6M
10
ESI indicator
Risk =Low
Critical Habitats,
implementation of
NGOs; specialists
strengthened to include
Regional SOE plan
Medium
Coasts and
Critical Habitat
Critical Habitats.
for Critical Habitats
Shorelines
monitoring strategy as
Disseminated to AMCEN,
in place. [A]. SOE
input to national/
COP, etc.
published [B]
regional SOE reporting
65
Target
Actions
Stakeholders to be
Expected results
Duration Estimated
M&E indicators*
Risks and
involved
cost (1000
uncertainties
US$)
Produce adaptive
National Institutes;
Periodic status of Critical
1M / year
3 / year
Periodic (annual?)
Risk =
Critical Habitats
NGOs; National
Habitats updated
status report
management
management agencies
recommendation as part
of implementation cycle
Establish baseline map
Specialist consultants, Coastal GIS map with
12M 150 Map produced and
Risk = medium
of coastal zone land use
national departments
overlays reflecting
Per
available for
as it requires
and critical ecosystems
different land use, critical
country
planning and
fairly high-tech
using remote sensing and
habitats, zones of high risk
zonation [A-B]
GIS.
and vulnerability and
coastal assets
Integrate coastal
Academia; National
Zonation plans linked to
Ongoing
10
ICZ plans to include
Risk low
mapping with ICZM and Institutes; local
land-use policy
coastal zone mapping
zoning programmes (2-
NGOs; Local
developed
and monitoring data.
above)
authorities; specialist
consultants
Develop long term
National Institutes;
Strategy developed for
6M
10
Policy and strategy
Risk = medium
monitoring based on
local NGOs; Local
sustainable longterm
produced, including
to high as
agreed targets of coastal
authorities;
monitoring of coastal zone
targets for coastal
targets may not
zone land use
land use and PADH
land-use developed
be agreed to
and agreed to
6. ICZM legislation Assessment of ICZM
National Institutes;
ICZM review document
2M
5
ESI indicator
Risk = low
in place in all
status in region
specialists; WIOMSA
Document finalised
countries
Provide technical
Academia; National
ICZM policies/legislation
18M 100
PI
indicator
Risk = low
support to develop
Institutes; NGOs;
in place & supported for
Policy developed and
and/or update ICZM
specialists; donors;
implementation
adopted [A]
legislation in selected
WIOMSA
countries.
66
Target
Actions
Stakeholders to be
Expected results
Duration Estimated
M&E indicators*
Risks and
involved
cost (1000
uncertainties
US$)
Governments enact
National Institutes;
ICZM legislation gazetted.
>36 M
60
PI indicator
Risk = medium
ICZM legislation
business; NGOs;
ICZM legislation in
to high
donors; national
place and
science councils;
implemented in all
education
WIO countries [B-C]
departments; local
councils; Academia;
7. National
Review relevant national National Institutes;
Document setting out clear
1.5 M
10
ESI indicator
Risk = High as
legislation to
legislations within the
NGOs; FARI;
internal structures that
Document delivered
governments
improve
context of priority
specialists; legal
reflect international liaison
[A]
may not want
management of
transboundary Critical
departments
change
bilateral and
Habitats issues.
regional issues
Harmonize relevant
National Institutes;
Opportunities identified
3 30
PI
indicator
Risk = Low
strengthened
legislation within and
ministries; NGOs;
and recommendations
Review document
among WIO countries.
FARI; specialists;
made that can strengthen
delivered [A].
legal departments
national obligations
Improved national
towards improving
legislation [B]
regional management of
Critical Habitats.
Develop regionally
National Institutes;
Regional protocols to
1.5 M
7.5
PI indicator
Risk = Medium
agreed protocols for the
specialists; legal
arrest transformation and
Document delivered
management of
departments
loss of habitat developed
transboundary Critical
and adopted by all WIO
Habitats resource issues
countries.
8. Awareness of the Develop dissemination
Academia; Odin-
Communication plan
3 M
10
PI indicator
Risk = low
importance of
(communication) plan on Africa; National
developed using key
Plan developed and
critical habitats
Critical Habitats
Institutes; NGOs;
information sources and
submitted
raised significantly
protection, including
CORDIO; FARI;
suite of media and other
mechanisms fro delivery. specialists; media;
dissemination
education depts.;
opportunities
67
Target
Actions
Stakeholders to be
Expected results
Duration Estimated
M&E indicators*
Risks and
involved
cost (1000
uncertainties
US$)
Conduct economic
Academia; National
Valuation of Critical
12 M
50
PI indicator
Risk = medium
valuation of critical
Institutes; NGOs;
Habitats reflected in
Accessible document As this is a
habitats.
FARI; specialists
ecosystems services and
produced presenting
technically
costs associated with no
various cost and
difficult
action as a result of PADH
benefit alternatives
exercise
Promote & support
Schools; Academia;
Implementation plan.
12 M
50
PI indicator
Risk = low
school & community
National Institutes;
Specific activities
Review and
involvement in Critical
education depts.;
undertaken e.g. beach
proposals finalised
Habitat protection
education specialists;
cleanups, enviro-clubs,
for discussion
activities
CBOs; community
enviro-days, outreach; etc
leaders; religious
groups.
Establish flagship
Academia; National
Key sites identified,
12M`
100
At least two flagship
Risk= low to
conservation sites and
Institutes; education
rationale provided, linkage
sites identified per
medium
environmental education groups; local NGOs;
to curriculum defined and
Critical Habitats in
centres especially near
Local authorities;
usage/access plan
the region. Support
urban setting.
specialists; media;
provided. Background
provided to local
CBOs; Conservation
info/marketing plan of site
sites.
authorities
in place.
Introduced coastal &
Schools; Academia;
School curricula enriched
12M 50
PI
indicator
Risk = low to
marine environmental
National Institutes;
with EE on Coastal &
Proposals finalised
development
education to school
education depts.,
marine issues. Review of
for discussion and
and medium for
curricula.
education specialists
relevant curricula and
implementation. [A]
implementation
identification of
opportunities to link and
strengthen.
Promote coastal zone
Academia; National
Adequately trained and
36M 60
PI
indicator
Risk= low
management as a topic
Institutes; NGOs;
retained experts in ICZM
At least five students
for study and career
Local authorities;
available for national and
trained in ICZM
development to ensure
training authorities
local implementation of
future capacity
specialists; media;
ICZM.
CBOs
68
4b.
Strategic Component 2: Ensuring Water Quality
Target
Strategic Actions
Stakeholders to be
Expected
Duration
Estimated M&E indicators*
Risks and
involved
results
cost (1000
uncertainties
US$)
1.Effluent discharge
Compile and review the existing UNEP, standards
Effluent
Short Term (~5
Harmonised regional Political will;
standards developed and effluent standards in the WIO
organisations,
discharge
years)
and national effluent Funding
regionally harmonized Region
environment agencies, standards in
discharge standards availability
Harmonize the regional effluent NGOs, universities,
place
available
standards
local authorities
Hold national consultations on the
draft harmonized standards
Publish, create awareness of, and
adopt regional standards at
national level
2. Marine water
Compile and review the existing UNEP, standards
Marine water
Short Term (~5
Harmonised regional Political will;
standards developed and marine water standards in the
organisations,
standards in
years)
and national marine Funding
regionally harmonized WIO Region
environment agencies, place
water standards
availability
Harmonise the marine water
NGOs, local
available
standards
authorities,
Hold national consultations on the universities
draft harmonized standards
Publish, create awareness of, and
adopt regional standards at
national level
3. Regional best practice Review existing MWW
UNEP, standards
Models available Short Term (~5
Regional best
Political will;
framework models for management frameworks and
organisations,
years)
practice framework Funding
municipal wastewater
develop Best Practice models for environment agencies,
models for municipal availability
management developed MWW management in the WIO NGOs, universities
wastewater
and adopted
region
management
Initiate/refine national
frameworks for wastewater
management
69
Target
Strategic Actions
Stakeholders to be
Expected
Duration
Estimated M&E indicators*
Risks and
involved
results
cost (1000
uncertainties
US$)
Hold national consultations and
agree on regional Best Practice
models for MWW management
Adopt national frameworks for
wastewater management and
develop action plans for their
implementation
4. Collection, treatment Conduct an inventory of existing Local Authorities;
Reduced
Short Term (~5
One pilot wastewater Political will;
and disposal of effluents wastewater management systems environment agencies; pollution loads years)
treatment plant in
Funding
undertaken in
in the WIO region
water ministries with in pilot areas
each WIO country
availability
accordance with regional Identify priority areas for
assistance from
standards in pilot sites
intervention
UNEP, NGOs WHO,
Identify model MWW
IUCN, WWF, Water
management systems
and Sanitation NGOs,
National Bureaux of
Construct one pilot treatment
Standards, local
plant in each country
authorities,
Rehabilitate existing wastewater universities, and
management systems where
polytechnics
necessary
Construct appropriate collection
and treatment systems
Build capacity for wastewater
management at appropriate levels
required (including laboratory
staff)
Set up monitoring, evaluation and
enforcement teams
5. Environmental
Cleaner production centres
UNIDO; industries;
Reduced
Short Term (~5
One pilot industry in Political will;
Management Systems
conduct scoping studies for
local authorities;
pollution loads years)
each WIO states
goodwill from
and Cleaner Production industries
government
from pilot
adopts Cleaner
industries
70
Target
Strategic Actions
Stakeholders to be
Expected
Duration
Estimated M&E indicators*
Risks and
involved
results
cost (1000
uncertainties
US$)
Technologies
Formulate cleaner production
environment agencies industries
Production
encouraged
strategy/guidelines
Technologies
Select industries on which to
conduct pilot cleaner production
practices
Sensitise and mobilise political
support for wider application of
cleaner production/EMS
Introduce financial/ economic
incentives to promote the
adoption and compliance of
cleaner production/EMS
technologies
6. Stakeholders
Develop regional strategy for
Media; Governments; Improved budget Short Term (~5
Tools for
Political will;
sensitized and political sensitisation and harnessing
NGOs; CBOs
allocations for years)
stakeholders
Availability of
support harnessed in
political support (identify
pollution
sensitization
funds
favour of pollution
champions).
prevention
developed and used
prevention in key sectors Prepare, publish, disseminate
sensitisation materials in all
languages
71
4c.
Strategic Component 3: Managing River Flows Wisely
Target
Strategic Actions
Stakeholders to be
Expected results
Duration
Estimated
M&E indicators
Risks and
involved
cost (1000
uncertainties
US$)
1. Awareness
Review completed and
Ministries of Water,
EFA accepted as a
Short-term
1,400 Report
on
best Governments able
raised and EFA
ongoing EFA studies, assess
Fisheries, Agriculture,
decision support
(~5 years)
practices and
to identify/equip
tool promoted
best practices and prepare
Mining/Energy, Nat
tool by
guidelines for
Focal
in the WIO
guidelines/best practices/
ional Research
governments and
carrying out EFA Points/Ministries
region
lessons learnt including
Institutes, River Basin
stakeholders
for coordination of
existing sources of data for
Authorities, Water
EFA
EFA
Users' Associations,
Undertake desk-top and/or
and CBOs
rapid assessment of identified
"hot spot" basins
Establish a regional/basin-
wide task force to develop and
adapt EFA methodologies
Disseminate results and create
buy-in by stakeholders
including political leaders and
decision-makers
2. Capacity for
Carry out capacity needs
National Governments,
Critical mass of
Short term
5100 Guidelines
on
applying EFA
assessment
Line Ministries
managers trained
(~5 years)
EFA
increased
Identify experts for EFAs and
Research institutes and
implementation
amongst
launch training workshops
academia, international
produced;
stakeholders
including "training on the job" organisations, NGOs,
Report on EFA
components, organized tours,
private sector, Basins
training
visits, secondments, etc.
Users, CBOs, and Land
conducted,
Review, strengthen/build
Use Commissions.
networks formed
capacity of identified
and operational
institutions and review sector
in the region
strategies
72
Target
Strategic Actions
Stakeholders to be
Expected results
Duration
Estimated
M&E indicators
Risks and
involved
cost (1000
uncertainties
US$)
Create linkages/integration
with existing networks of
practitioners and information
and data centres for exchange
(e.g. www.indaba.iucn.org) for
information dissemination.
Establish and implement
demonstration projects
focusing on meeting coastal
water and sediment flows
needs.
3. EFA
Develop selection criteria for
Ministries of Water,
Environmental
3500
Reports of EFA
Development
conducted and
target basins
Fisheries, Agriculture,
flows/water
successfully
partners, private
operating rules
Develop plans for conducting
Mining/Energy, Nat
requirements
completed in
sector, etc, support
(EQOs)
EFAs in identified river basins ional Research
determined and
each country;
the programme
integrated in
Carry out hydrological
Institutes, River Basin
water management
No. of water
river basin
monitoring for river basins for Authorities, Water
Plans revised
management
management in
EFA
Users' Associations,
incorporating EFA
plans revised
selected basins
Establish legal, institutional,
and CBOs
findings
in the WIO
operational structures for
region12
adoption and implementation
of EFA in management of the
selected basins
Carry out EFAs and validate
results
Disseminate results and create
buy-in at political and
technical level
12 Note: EQOs are environmental quality objectives for selected basins, and correspond to thresholds of potential concern
73
Target
Strategic Actions
Stakeholders to be
Expected results
Duration
Estimated
M&E indicators
Risks and
involved
cost (1000
uncertainties
US$)
Identify management activities
corresponding to EFA findings
and revise existing/
incorporate EQOs into
relevant water management
plans (e.g. IWRM plans)
4.
Assess and harmonise, where
Ministries of Water,
Guidelines for the
Medium-
5700 Report
on
National
Methodologies
necessary, different
Fisheries, Agriculture,
application of EFA term (~15
methodologies
parliaments and
agreed upon and methodologies and
Mining/Energy, Nat
developed and
years)
and findings of
regional
tools developed
management tools regarding
ional Research
agreed
EFA for
commissions
for coherent
ICZM currently in application. Institutes, River Basin
freshwater and
debate and pass
application of
Develop an integrated tool for
Authorities, Water
coastal
EFA-related laws
EQOs in both
river basin and coastal zone
Users' Associations,
management;
and regulations
freshwater and
management and establish
and CBOs
Report on
coastal
regulatory mechanism for
management
management
application in river basin and
responsibilities
coastal management.
between
Establish joint assessment and
freshwater and
planning teams/ working
coastal
groups/ focal point for EFA
management
and IRBM, ICZM
organisation
Develop guidelines for
achievement of EQOs in river
basin management and Coastal
and marine management
(River Estuarine and marine
management).
5. Policy
Initiate, sensitise and maintain ANBO, Nairobi
Linkages and
120
NC annual report Governments'
discussion on
formal communication with
Convention Secretariat, networks
of activities
budgetary
coastal and
stakeholders
SADC Water Division,
established and
allocation for
74
Target
Strategic Actions
Stakeholders to be
Expected results
Duration
Estimated
M&E indicators
Risks and
involved
cost (1000
uncertainties
US$)
marine issues
Support collaborative
EAC, AMCOW,
operational ministries,
research
catalysed
arrangements between
AMCEN, and other
institutes, NGOs,
through
relevant agencies at national
relevant international
CBOs, and other
collaboration
level
Protocol (Secretariats)
stakeholders for
between SWCI
Development partners
maintenance of
and NC
supporting
links
Secretariat
Transboundary Water
Resources Management
6. National
Analyse current
Regional
Institutional review Long-term
1500 Report
on
Legal
Development
freshwater
national/regional legal/
Economic Communities and harmonised
(~2035)
and Institutional
partners supporting
management
institutional gaps/ overlaps
such as SADC
management
Framework;
shared water
and coastal zone and identify options for review Water Division, EAC,
regulations adopted
resources
management
Assist parliament to harmonise AMCOW,
by national
management buy-
frameworks
national/regional laws
AMCEN, ANBO and
governments
in;
(policies, legal,
governing freshwater and
other relevant
National
and
coastal management
international Protocol
parliaments and
institutional)
Establish intersectoral
(Secretariats),
regional
fully integrated. discussion, cooperation
Development partners
commissions
arrangements and joint
supporting
debate and approve
planning
Transboundary Water
laws and
Harmonise/streamline
Resources Management
regulations on
management responsibilities
integrated river
between freshwater and
basin and ocean
coastal management
and coastal water
organizations
resources
management
7. Effects of
Develop selection criteria for
Ministries of water,
Short-term
Report
on
impoundments
target basins
fisheries, agriculture,
(~5 years)
ecosystems
and dam
Carry out hydrological
mining/energy, research
approach in
operations on
monitoring for river basins
institutes, UNEP (Dams
operations of
river flow
Establish legal, institutional,
section), River basin
impoundments
variability and
operational structures
Organisations, Water
and dams
75
Target
Strategic Actions
Stakeholders to be
Expected results
Duration
Estimated
M&E indicators
Risks and
involved
cost (1000
uncertainties
US$)
sediment
Carry out study and validate
Users Associations, and
discharge
results
CBOs
analysed and
Disseminate results and create
results
buy-in at political and
implemented
technical level
Identify management activities
corresponding to the findings
and revise existing dam
operation/ incorporate findings
into relevant water
management policies and
plans (e.g. IWRM plans)
8. Significance
Develop selection criteria for
Ramsar Secretariat;
Short-term
No
national
of identified
target wetlands
IUCN, WWF
(~5 years)
wetlands policy.
wetlands on
Carry out hydrological,
flow variability, geological and biological
sediment
study of selected wetland(s)
discharge and
Establish ecosystem-based
coastal and
management plan (legal,
marine
institutional, operational
productivity
structures)
investigated and Carry out study and validate
wisely
results
managed.
Disseminate results and create
buy-in at political and
technical level
Identify management activities
corresponding to the findings
and revise existing wetlands
operation/ incorporate findings
into relevant wetland
management policies and
plans (e.g. IWRM plans)
76
Target
Strategic Actions
Stakeholders to be
Expected results
Duration
Estimated
M&E indicators
Risks and
involved
cost (1000
uncertainties
US$)
9. Catchment
Draft regional guidelines for
National governments
No new
Short-term
Riverine
and
Absence of clear
management
harmonising riverine and
developments
(~5 years)
coastal
policy, legal
impacts on
coastal management plans
within agreed
management
instrument or
coastal habitats, including setbacks
setbacks (riverine
plans adopted
regulations for
shorelines and
Promote and strengthen
and coastal)
and implemented establishing
water quality
stakeholder institutions within
in each country
catchment
investigated and each river basin
management
results adopted
Promote and strengthen sector
in river basin
collaboration, joint water
and coastal and
resources planning, etc
marine
Review catchment
management
management plans including
information management,
monitoring, etc
Promote integrated land and
water use planning
Identify partnerships and build
resources mobilisation
opportunities for catchment
co-management.
77
4d.
Strategic Component 4: Strengthening Governance and Awareness
4d. Governance
Strategic Actions
Stakeholders to
Expected results
Duration
Estimate
M&E
Risks and
and Awareness
be involved
d cost
indicators*
uncertainties
(1000
Target
US$)
1. Capacity for
Establish regional guidelines,
UNEP in
Regional guidelines,
Availability of
ecosystem based
standards and procedures for
collaboration with standards and
funding,
management
ICZM, SEA and EIA.
governments and
procedures for
political will
improved
NGOs
ICZM, SEA and EIA
produced
Develop and implement capacity Governments in
Capacity building
building strategy, focused on key collaboration with strategy developed
priorities for LBSA
UNEP and NGOs and implemented
management.
Strengthen regional and national Regional: UNEP
Existence of
networking and lessons sharing
and regional
operational
between practitioners, academics NGOs; National: networks;
and policymakers.
Governments in
Regular appropriate
collaboration with lessons sharing
national
opportunities
stakeholders
provided at regional
and national levels
2. Appropriate
Develop framework (including
UNEP, with
Regional framework
1- 2 years
Political will
legal and
guidelines and model legislation) relevant national
for national legislation.
regulatory
for national legislation. Include
government
frameworks for
ecosystem based management
agencies
LBSA
approaches into national
management in
legislative and regulatory
place and
frameworks (e.g. ICZM, SEA,
implemented at
EIA and EFA).
78
4d. Governance
Strategic Actions
Stakeholders to
Expected results
Duration
Estimate
M&E
Risks and
and Awareness
be involved
d cost
indicators*
uncertainties
(1000
Target
US$)
national level
Domesticate and implement
National
Legislation passed,
All countries Political will
relevant regional and
governments
conventions ratified
in WIO
international instruments.
region have
incorporated
regional
framework
into their
legal
systems
Improve enforcement of relevant Government
Enforcement of
policies and legislation.
agencies
relevant policies and
legislation improved.
Monitor impact of implementing UNEP, NGOs
Impact monitored
new legislation in addressing
and results fed into
problems.
decision making
Monitor state of environment in
UNEP, regional
Greater awareness of
State of the
WIO region in relation to
NGOs
priority issues and of
Region
priority problems and publish
progress in
Reports
findings.
addressing them
published
regularly
3. Awareness of
Develop a regional
UNEP with
Regional
One year
50
Regional
Issues and
importance of
communication strategy targeted NGOs, in
communications
communica
sectors targeted
good marine and
at:
consultation with
strategy produced
tions
are not SAP
coastal
d) policymakers & legislators;
governments
strategy;
priorities,
management
e) civil society;
Public
messages and
raised at the level
f) the private sector;
information materials are not
of policy-makers
including appropriate messages
and
appropriate for
and legislators,
and materials for each sector
sensitizatio
target audiences
civil society and
n material;
the private sector
Policy
briefs
79
4d. Governance
Strategic Actions
Stakeholders to
Expected results
Duration
Estimate
M&E
Risks and
and Awareness
be involved
d cost
indicators*
uncertainties
(1000
Target
US$)
Implement regional
UNEP with
Raised awareness in
4 years
250
Improved
Awareness not
communication strategy at
NGOs, in
target groups of the
LBSA
raised
regional and national levels. (R
consultation with
importance of and
legislation
sufficiently to
& N), monitor outcomes
governments
key elements of good
in force and change
marine and coastal
has popular behaviour
management;
support
Improved
administration of
LBSA laws
4. Regional legal
Review, update and harmonize
UNEP with
Regional legal LBSA
1 year
25
Revised
framework for
regional legal framework
relevant
framework updated
framework
LBSA updated and relevant to LBSA
government
and harmonised with
approved
harmonized with
agencies
MEAs
by
multilateral
Conference
environmental
of Parties
agreements
(COP)
Develop model legislation for
UNEP, with
Model legislation on
6 months
25
Model
key LBSA
relevant national
key issues used to
legislation
Issues/sectors (local government government
domesticate regional
available
tourism, agriculture, etc)
agencies
framework
Enact necessary national
National
National legislation
23 years
National
Dependent on
legislation to domesticate and
governments,
consistent with
legislation
political will
implement regional legal
with assistance
regional framework
consistent
framework
from UNEP
with
regional
framework
80
4d. Governance
Strategic Actions
Stakeholders to
Expected results
Duration
Estimate
M&E
Risks and
and Awareness
be involved
d cost
indicators*
uncertainties
(1000
Target
US$)
5. Regional co-
Reach agreement with relevant
UNEP, UNDP
Harmonised regional
One year
15
ordination and
regional economic/trade
with relevant
legal LBSA
inter-sectoral
organizations on issues of
government
frameworks and
governance
common concern, and
agencies
intergovernmental
improved
collaborate on the
collaboration on
implementation of LBSA
LBSA issues
instruments (eg SADC SWRP)
Build collective capacity to
UNEP, UNDP
Capacity reflecting
On-going
15
negotiate MEAs that reflect
with relevant
environmental and
concerns for environmental and
government
socio-econimc
socio-economic sustainability
agencies
concerns
6. Appropriate
Develop a regional resource
UNEP, NGOs,
Have in place a
Two years
20
financial
mobilization strategy, including
governments
regional resource
mechanisms
appropriate financial
mobilisation strategy
developed and
mechanisms, best practice and
implemented
model legislation
Domesticate and implement
National
Have in place a
Two years
20
relevant aspects of the regional
governments
domestic regional
resource mobilisation strategy,
resource mobilisation
monitor outcomes
strategy
UNEP, NGOs,
Have in place strong
Two years
15
Strengthen regional and national governments
networks between
networking and lessons-sharing
practitioners,
between practitioners, academics
academics and
and policymakers.
policymakers
81
4d. Governance
Strategic Actions
Stakeholders to
Expected results
Duration
Estimate
M&E
Risks and
and Awareness
be involved
d cost
indicators*
uncertainties
(1000
Target
US$)
7. Regional
Develop a regional knowledge
UNEP, NGOs,
Agreed regional
6 months
10
Regional
knowledge
management strategy, building
governments
knowledge
knowledge
management
on existing information,
management strategy
management
undertaken
resources and systems.
strategy
effectively
developed
and agreed
on
Regional knowledge
UNEP, NGOs,
Better access to
1 year
50
Regional
management strategy
governments
knowledge and
knowledge
implemented
information about the
management
region for policy-
system in
makers & legislators,
place and
managers, scientists
operational
and the public
Integrate
existing information on
Academia; NC-
Comprehensive and
6 M
20
PI indicator
Risk = low
critical habitats, river basins and
Clearing House;
integrated regional
Data from
pollution into clearing house
Odin-Africa;
database strengthened
each country
mechanisms
WCMC; MEP;
with Critical Habitats
collected.
National Institutes;
information.
Database
NGOs; FARI;
functional.
specialists; students
[A]
Capture Critical Habitat, river
Odin-Africa;
Database and
6 M >
10 ESI
Risk = low-
basins and pollution metadata and Clearing House;
associated information
ongoing
indicator
medium as
make accessible.
NGOs; specialists;
formats- CD web etc
Database
actual data
National institutes
developed,
sources
populated and must be
functional.
made
Public
available
accessible [A]
82
4d. Governance
Strategic Actions
Stakeholders to
Expected results
Duration
Estimate
M&E
Risks and
and Awareness
be involved
d cost
indicators*
uncertainties
(1000
Target
US$)
Develop informative policy briefs
Academia; National Strategic policy
3 M
10
PI indicator
Risk = low
based on existing information.
Institutes; NGOs;
documents- highly
Targeted
specialists
informative but
briefs
succinct
developed
and
disseminated.
[A]
Prepare treatise on each of the
Academia; NGOs;
Comprehensive review
12 M
40
PI indicator
Risk = low
Critical Habitats contributing to
specialists; post-
and description of
Comprehensi
baseline assessment & current status graduate students
critical habitats in
ve documents
of Critical Habitats
WIO, their status,
that will be
vulnerability and risks.
recognised as
the
authoritative
review of
Critical
Habitats in
the WIO
83
Document Outline
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