Lake Ohrid
Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
Oliver Avramoski, Macedonian Project Implementation Unit, Lake Ohrid Conservation Project, Ohrid, FYR Macedonia
Sandri Kycyku, Albanian Project Implementation Unit, Lake Ohrid Conservation Project, Pogradec, Albania
Trajce Naumoski, Hydrobiological Institute, Ohrid, FYR Macedonia
Dejan Panovski, Macedonian Project Implementation Unit, Lake Ohrid Conservation Project, Ohrid, FYR Macedonia
Veli Puka, Hydrometeorological Institute, Tirana, Albania
Lirim Selfo, Ministry of Environment, Tirana, Albania
Mary Watzin*, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT, USA, mwatzin@nature.snr.uvm.edu
* Corresponding author
1.
Description of Lake Ohrid and Its Watershed
domestic tourism destination. In Albania, it is the second most
important domestic destination for recreation on lakes.
1.1
Introduction and Background
Population growth and development have impacted the lakes
Lake Ohrid is an ancient lake, formed by tectonic forces 2-3
in many ways. These include intense fi shing pressures, natural
million years ago, in the Tertiary period. Because the lake is
habitat destruction in the littoral zone, and the introduction
so old and is isolated by surrounding hills and mountains, a
of pollutants, especially phosphorus, into lake waters. The
unique collection of plants and animals have evolved. These
eutrophication that is resulting from this phosphorus threatens
include a number of relict species, or "living fossils," and the character of the lakes, their unique biodiversity, and the
many endemic species, found only in Lake Ohrid (Stankovic
crystal clear water that is Lake Ohrid's major tourist attraction.
1960). For example, 10 of the 17 identifi ed fi sh species of
the Lake Ohrid are endemic, as are many of the lake's snails,
In 1980, UNESCO declared the Macedonian side of Lake
worms, and sponges. The lakeshore reed beds and wetlands
Ohrid as a "site of cultural and natural values of the global
provide critical habitat for hundreds of thousands of wintering
patrimony." In 1994, the World Bank, in cooperation with the
water birds, including rare and threatened species such as
Republics of Albania and FYR Macedonia, began preparation
the Dalmatian pelican, ferruginous duck, spotted eagle, and
for a Global Environment Facility (GEF) grant to fund the
imperial eagle.
incremental costs of a Lake Ohrid Conservation Project (LOCP).
A Feasibility Study for the project was funded by Switzerland
People too have made the Lake Ohrid watershed their home
and carried out in 1995 (Erst Basler and Partners 1995).
for thousands of years. The ancient Illyrians maintained
settlements in the Ohrid-Prespa region in the 4th and 5th On 20 November 1996, in Tirana, representatives of the
centuries BC and in mediaeval times, the town of Ohrid was the
governments of Albania and FYR Macedonia concluded a
cultural center of the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia.
Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) concerning the Lake
The Cyrillic alphabet was developed here and a thriving Ohrid Conservation Project. The MOU established a joint Lake
university, the oldest in Europe, educated over 3,500 students
Ohrid Management Board (LOMB) that was "responsible for
on the hilltop in Ohrid in the 9th and 10th centuries AD. Today
the preparation of the regulations related to its activities"
the Ohrid watershed includes three countries--Albania, FYR
and authorized to approve projects "based on the previously
Macedonia and Greece--and numerous cities, towns and prepared Feasibility Study." The Parties agreed to "coordinate
villages.
and adopt laws and regulations necessary for the protection
of Lake Ohrid with regard to pollution prevention, water
Because of their high biodiversity and unique cultural heritage,
use and fi sheries management, etc.;" to follow appropriate
Lake Ohrid and the Prespa Lakes (Figure 1) are lakes of international pollution prevention regulations and standards;
tremendous local, regional, and international signifi cance.
to develop a long-term plan to establish separate monitoring
They are also threatened by a variety of forces (Watzin et al.
facilities; and to strengthen and develop protection
2002). Since the end of World War II, there has been a rapid
institutions. The Parties also agreed carry out the activities
increase in the number of people living in the watershed. The
needed to implement the LOCP.
population of the area now approaches 200,000 permanent
residents. These numbers increase in the summer time as tens
The LOCP is providing a total of US$1.84 million in funding to
of thousands of tourists, both domestic and foreign, come into
the Republic of Albania and US$2.26 million to FYR Macedonia.
the region. In FYR Macedonia, Lake Ohrid is the number one
The objective of the LOCP is to conserve and protect the
natural resources and biodiversity of Lake Ohrid by developing

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and supporting effective cooperation between Albania and FYR
2000). On the Albanian side, river fl ow is substantially less, but
Macedonia for the joint environmental management of the the Pogradec and Verdova Rivers are the largest contributors
watershed. The project began in late 1998 and early 1999, with
(Watzin et al. 2002). The remaining infl ow comes from the
an expected duration of three years. Positive mid-term reviews
springs that fl ow into the southern part of the lake, at St.
later led to an extension to 31 December 2003. An additional
Naum, Drilon and Tushemisht. These springs are fed by water
extension to 31 December 2004 has been implemented.
fl owing out of the porous karst mountains to the east, Galicica
and Mali i Thate. Over thousands of years, holes and channels
Despite a variety of implementation problems, the LOCP has
have formed within the mountain rock. These channels carry
been remarkably successful in stimulating and facilitating water that originates in the Prespa watershed to Lake Ohrid.
transboundary communication between FYR Macedonia and
Because Lake Prespa sits about 150 m above Lake Ohrid, its
Albania. New environmental laws and regulations are being
waters run "downhill" to Lake Ohrid through the channels in
developed and implemented in both nations. Water quality the karst.
and biological monitoring programs are also underway in
both nations. At the end
of 2002, a comprehensive
"State of the Environment
Report," the fi rst to combine
Macedonian and Albanian
data in a single analysis, was
released (Watzin et al. 2002).
Watershed Management
Committees have been
formed and have succeeded
in creating comprehensive
multi-stakeholder forums
and in initiating pilot projects
that have helped to develop
a Strategic Action Plan for the
Lake. Through activities such
as Lake Ohrid Day (21 June)
and many events sponsored
through a growing network of
environmental NGOs, public
awareness is increasing. In its
fi nal year, the LOCP is laying
the groundwork for a new era
of environmental cooperation
on Lake Ohrid.
1.2 The
Watershed
Lake Ohrid has 87.5 km of
shoreline and covers an area
of 358.2 km2. Although the
average depth of the lake is
164 m, it has a maximum depth
of 289 m. The watershed of
Lake Ohrid includes steep
mountains, as well as both
Big and Small Prespa Lakes
(Figure 1). The total area of
the watershed is about 3,921
km2. A little less than half of
the water in Lake Ohrid comes
from its tributaries. On the
Macedonian side, the Sateska
and Koselska Rivers are the
largest contributors (Naumoski
Figure 1. The Lake Ohrid Basin.
322 Lake
Ohrid

---

Big and Small Prespa Lakes are fi lled mostly by the rivers Land use data on the Macedonian side are incomplete.
fl owing into them. About every 11 years, all the water in Lake
According to the Macedonian Institute for Statistics and
Prespa is replaced by new water. In contrast, it takes about 70
information provided by the forest enterprises, the land area in
years for all the water in Lake Ohrid to be replaced (Watzin et
forest, pasture and agricultural uses in the six municipalities in
al. 2002). Water fl ows out of Lake Ohrid near Struga, into the
the watershed are approximately as follows:
Black Drim River. This river eventually runs all the way to Lake
Skhodra and the Adriatic Sea.
Arable land
53,303 ha
Pasture 27,319
ha
Forests 61,225
ha
1.3
Socioeconomics of the Basin
Water (lakes only)
41,000 ha
There are about 106,000 residents in the Macedonian part of
the watershed, about 61,000 residents in the Albanian part of
In Albania, about 55% of the GDP comes from agriculture. Fruit
the watershed, and about 25,600 residents in the Greek part
(orchards and vineyards), wheat, corn and vegetables are the
of the watershed. This population is 5 or 6 times as large as it
primary agricultural products. The pastureland in Albania is
was at the end of World War II. Most residents live in several
used for a variety of livestock, most importantly, sheep, goats,
large towns--Ohrid, Struga, and Resen in FYR Macedonia and
and cattle, as well as for harvesting valuable medical plants.
Pogradec in Albania--but there are also many small villages
There are about 100 species of plants that are gathered for
and communities scattered throughout the watershed in all
medical uses.
three countries.
In FYR Macedonia, only about 12% of the GDP comes from
According to the World Bank (using IMF estimates), the GDP
agriculture. About 60% of the arable land is used to grow
per capita in 2001 was US$1,196 in Albania and US$1,678 wheat and corn, and about 25% is used for orchards and
in FYR Macedonia. Internal fi gures in both countries show vineyards. The remainder is used for vegetables, tobacco, and
relatively steady upward growth in these fi gures over the last
other crops. The pastureland in FYR Macedonia is also used for
several years.
a variety of livestock, including sheep, goats, and cattle.
Employment statistics are kept differently in each country, but
Land use data were not available for the Greek portion of the
it is clear that unemployment and/or underemployment are
watershed, but the agricultural activities in this part of the
high in both nations. In Albania, according to data compiled
watershed include intensive cultivation and animal husbandry.
by the Albanian Institute of Statistics in 1998, between 28
and 46% of the working age population in the Ohrid basin is
In Albania, the forest has experienced heavy damages from
practically unemployed. In FYR Macedonia, employment data
cutting and fi res. Most of the cutting is for fuel wood although
collected by the Macedonian Institute for Statistics for the lumber is also produced. In the hills above Pogradec, chestnuts
working age population in 1994 suggested that more than half
are harvested from the remaining forests. There is almost no
the population in the administrative units of Ohrid, Belcista,
reforestation after cutting, and erosion is a serious problem in
Kosel, Meseista, Resen, and Struga may be unemployed much of the forest. The use of the forest for pasturing goats
or underemployed (working in seasonal or other positions has also contributed to the erosion problem by overgrazing the
without benefi ts).
understory vegetation.
Pressures on the environment are greatest when socioeconomic
The forests in FYR Macedonia are in generally better condition.
conditions are diffi cult and unemployment rates are high. Yet
Cutting is regulated and the land must be left in good condition
effective water and other natural resource management is for regeneration. The volume of timber harvest has varied
essential for both sustainable growth and poverty reduction.
signifi cantly from year to year through the last decade, from
There are many causes for the socioeconomic problems in as much 100,000 m3 to as little as 30,000 m3 (Macedonian
the region, but as the political transition continues, solving
Institute for Statistics 2001). About 130-300 ha are reforested
these problems is central to healthy communities and healthy
each year, but unfortunately, much of this reforestation is with
environments.
an exotic American pine because its growth rate is 4-7 times
faster than the native species. Because of the reforestation
1.4
Land Use in the Basin
requirements, erosion in Macedonian forests is not as great
as in the Albanian portion of the watershed, but there are still
There are 27,323 hectares in the watershed in Albania. Land
bare areas that require attention, especially in the Sateska
use in this area is approximately as follows:
watershed.
Arable land
2,500 ha
Statistics about the extent and condition of the developed
Pasture 1,367
ha
land surface are incomplete on both sides of the watershed. In
Forest 10,248
ha
Economic enterprises
1,396 ha
other areas of the world, studies have shown that catchment
Built land (building, roads)
672 ha
areas that have greater than 7% impervious surface contribute
Water 11,140
ha
the highest load of pollutants to surface waters, including

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
323

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nutrients, petroleum products and a variety of trace metals
In FYR Macedonia, the Regional Sewerage System for the
and other contaminants that come from building materials.
Protection of Lake Ohrid collects wastewater from about 65%
In the future, a more complete delineation of land use could
of the Ohrid-Struga region, and delivers it to the treatment
be used to estimate the magnitude of this problem in the Lake
plant Vranista. After treatment, the wastewater is discharged
Ohrid watershed.
into the Black Drim River. The fi rst phase of the plant, which
has the capacity to treat the wastes produced by about 120,000
1.5
Human Activities in the Basin--Stresses on the
people, has been operating since June 1988. In 2001, a general
Ecosystem
development plan for the regional sewerage system through
2025 was made. In two additional construction phases, 44
1.5.1 Fertilizer and Pesticide Use on Farmland
km of sewer, which will treat most of the shoreline on the
The farmland in the basin is likely a signifi cant source of Macedonian side of the lake, will be added to the system. The
pollution to the Prespa Lakes and Lake Ohrid as fertilizers,
German DfW is fi nancing these extensions.
soil particles, and pesticides wash into rivers and streams and
eventually to the lakes. Much of the farmland in the watershed
In the Lake Prespa region, only the town of Resen has a
is irrigated, which increases the load to the lake.
sewerage collection and treatment facility. The wastewater
treatment plant Ezerani has the capacity to treat the wastes of
In Albania, about 1,500 ha of cultivated land are irrigated about 12,000 residents and serves about 80% of the town.
using water from both the Drilon River and Lake Ohrid. Most
of the drained water discharged directly or indirectly into the
1.5.3 Industry
lake. In FYR Macedonia, about 50% of the arable land can
Industry also contributes pollution to the lake in many forms.
be irrigated. The extent of irrigation each year depends on
In Pogradec, the metal parts factories discharge wastes to the
weather conditions and on the economic conditions because
lake without treatment. To the northwest of Pogradec, there are
the irrigation tax is high. The water used for irrigation comes
a number of old mines that used to produce chromium, nickel,
from Lake Ohrid, Lake Prespa and the Koselska and Sateska
iron, and coal. Only one of these remains in operation, but at
Rivers.
the mining sites, many large piles of waste material remain and
are a source of pollutants to the lake each time it rains.
In both Albania and Macedonia, fertilizer use is high, averaging
160-200 kg/ha/yr in the 1990s (Watzin et al. 2002). A variety
Industries in FYR Macedonia include automobile spare parts,
of pesticides are also used, including copper sulfate, lindane,
electrical parts, and textile, ceramic and metal processing
organophosphates, synthetic fungicides, and other chemicals.
plants. All of these industries produce waste that may be
In 2001, 8,901 kg of pesticides were applied in the Pogradec
contaminating the Sateska, Velgoska, Koselska, and Golema
district of Albania. In FYR Macedonia, agrochemicals are Rivers. Food processing plants that discharge waste such as
regulated, but many banned substances are readily obtained
apple pulp are a signifi cant problem in the Prespa watershed.
illegally and used within the country. Specifi c data on pesticide
use are not available.
1.5.4 Tourism
A healthy tourist industry requires hotels, restaurants, and
Around Big Prespa Lake, agriculture is a particular problem. In
other appropriate services for the tourists. Because the tourists
part because of intensive irrigation, the fi elds are widespread,
come to experience the water, many of these developments
the lake level is dropping, and the cultivated land extends right
are right along the shoreline. The tourists also produce wastes
down to the edge of the lake.
that must be treated and disposed of properly.
1.5.2 Sewerage
Both the Macedonian and Albanian shorelines are tourist
In Albania, human waste and wastewater is currently not destinations, and both have suffered from the political
treated in the watershed. In Pogradec, the waste generated by
instability in the wider Balkan region since 1991. In the town
about 30% of the town is collected but it is simply discharged
of Ohrid, the number of foreign tourist overnight stays has
into Lake Ohrid near Tushemisht. Because Pogradec has been reduced up to 70%. As the political situation improves,
been growing, the volume of wastewater is also increasing.
Ohrid is uniquely positioned to appeal to the growing market
In 2001, the Pogradec Water Supply, Sewerage and Drainage
in cultural tourism, with the many historic sites, monasteries,
Management Project was implemented to design and construct
and other national treasures in the area. Lake Ohrid could also
a sewerage system for the city. The German Government be promoted within the ecotourism market, but an essential
through the Kreditanstalt für Wiederaufbau (KfW) and the prerequisite for this kind of tourism is a healthy and unpolluted
Swiss Government through Staatssekretariat für Wirtschaft environment, with clean water.
(SECO) provided the necessary funds for the execution of the
project. Project planning and fi nal design is almost complete
1.5.5 Solid
Waste
and construction was to begin in 2004. Construction should be
Solid wastes can be a source of contamination to the lake
completed in 2005 or 2006, and the system is currently to go
if they are not disposed of properly. As this waste material
on line in 2006.
breaks down, highly contaminated liquids can seep down into
the underground water and adjacent streams and make its way
324 Lake
Ohrid

---

to the lake. None of the landfi lls in Albania or FYR Macedonia
refl ect the changes in water quality in the lake, and underscore
are lined or have drainage systems to collect and treat the
the need to control the pollution coming into the lake.
contaminated waste.
The fi sh in Lake Ohrid are an important part of the economy
1.6
The Ecology of Lake Ohrid
of both Albania and FYR Macedonia. There are six species
that are regularly harvested by fi shermen, including the
There are two unique communities of plants and animals in
famous Lake Ohrid trout (Salmo letnica), the smaller belvica
Lake Ohrid, the near shore, or littoral zone community, and
(Acantholingua (Salmothymus) ohridana), the bleak (Alburnus
the offshore, or pelagic community in the deep waters in the
alburnus alborella), carp (Cyprinus carpio), eel (Anguilla
middle of the lake. Each of these communities is characterized
anguilla), and roach (Rutilus rubilio ohridanus). Over the last
by different groups of organisms.
decade, between 200,000 and 300,000 kg of fi sh have been
taken from the lake each year. Recent data suggest that this
In the littoral zone, rooted plants grow up from muddy and
level of harvest may be more than the lake can sustain (Watzin
sandy bottoms and algae grow on the surface of the rocks
et al. 2002). The numbers of fi shes on the wintering grounds
and other hard surfaces. These plants often grow in distinct
and returning to the spawning grounds each year are declining
zones or belts along the shoreline. In the deeper water (5-15
noticeably. In decades past, large schools of bleak wintered
m), algae and rooted aquatic plants can grow in large beds.
in Ohrid Bay and near Peshtani and Trpejca in the east and
Among the more common species are Potamogeton spp.,
Radozda in the northwest. Today, bleak only winter near
Chara spp., Ceratophyllum spp., and Myriophyllum spp. Closer
Trpejca and Radozda. The number of Lake Ohrid trout on the
to shore, the reeds (Phragmites australis) appear and grow
spawning grounds on the Macedonian side of the lake has also
right up to the edge of the water. In many places, the colonial
changed dramatically. The average size and number of the fi sh
algae Cladophora spp. grows on most surfaces. The reed zone
has decreased and the gender balance is changing.
is an especially important habitat for many other organisms,
including young fi sh, frogs, and water birds.
The shoreline and watersheds of Lake Ohrid and Lake Prespa
also provide critical habitat for a great variety of wildlife. These
In areas of the shoreline that receive river input, runoff from
include frogs, turtles, and birds that are directly dependent
agricultural land, or sewerage, the littoral zone community can
on the lake, and many inland species that rely on the forests
be thick with aquatic plants. Those species that thrive with
and plains. The coastal wetlands provide critical habitat for
higher concentrations of phosphorus are choking out the other
hundreds of thousands of wintering water birds, including
plants. Cladophora in particular thrives when runoff carries
rare and threatened species such as the Dalmatian pelican,
phosphorus into the lake in the summertime.
ferruginous duck, spotted eagle, and imperial eagle.
Many of the bottom-dwelling animals in Lake Ohrid are 1.7
A Chronology of Major Lake Management Issues
endemic. For example, Lake Ohrid is the only place where the
and Activities
rounded sponge Ochridospongia rotunda is found. Its closest
relatives are in Lake Baikal, another ancient lake. More than
In both Albania and FYR Macedonia, the major management
85% of the snails in Lake Ohrid are also endemic. Over the last
efforts have focused on designating protected areas. For
20-25 years, the community of small organisms has changed
example, in 1999, the Albanian government proclaimed
signifi cantly in areas where human pollution has entered the
the Albanian side of Lake Ohrid as a "Protected Aquatic
lake. The implications of these changes for the fi sh and wildlife
and Soil Scenery" and established Prespa National Park
that feed on these organisms are not yet known.
for the rehabilitation and protection of critical ecosystems
of the Prespa Lakes area. In December 2002, the Albanian
Fishes in the shallow water include a variety of minnows, as
Government established the Nature Monuments of Albania.
well as fi shes sought by anglers like bleak (Alburnus alburnus
Fourteen of these monuments are in the District of Pogradec.
alborella) and carp (Cyprinus carpio). During spawning, many
other fi shes come into the littoral zone, including the Lake
In FYR Macedonia, there is a longer history. Pelister National
Ohrid trout (Salmo letnica). These fi sh are a link between the
Park was established in 1948 and Galicica National Park was
shallow water habitats and the deeper water.
established in 1958. In 1979/80, the Macedonian side of
Lake Ohrid was identifi ed as a mixed cultural/natural world
In the pelagic community, the plankton form the base of the
heritage site by UNESCO's World Heritage Committee. The
food web. Monitoring data collected over the last several Bird Sanctuary Ezerani (a Ramsar site), on the north shore of
years suggest that both the phytoplankton and zooplankton
Big Prespa Lake, was established in 1996 for the protection
communities in Lake Ohrid are changing. New species more
of migratory waterfowl and other waterbird species. In an
characteristic of nutrient enriched conditions have been international effort, the Prime Ministers of Albania, FYR
discovered, and the species composition in locations close to
Macedonia, and Greece issued a Declaration on 2 February
river inputs and near the towns and villages is changing to one
2000 announcing the creation of the "Prespa Park" as the fi rst
that is dominated by more eutrophic species. These changes
transboundary protected area in southeastern Europe.

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
325

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In 1978, the fi rst Law for Protection of Lakes Ohrid, Prespa and
to enable the effective and sustainable implementation of the
Dojran was passed in FYR Macedonia. The law was revised
LOCP.
in 1993. This law regulates construction and prohibits the
introduction of non-native species. It also controls water use
The LOCP is the fi rst GEF project of its kind in Southeastern
and sand removal. Binational cooperation on Lake Ohrid began
Europe. At a conference hosted by Greece, during its
in 1996, when the Memorandum of Understanding establishing
Presidency of the European Union, and the World Bank in
the Lake Ohrid Management Board was signed by Albania and
Athens in May 2003, the LOCP was recognized as a successful
FYR Macedonia. In 1998, the LOCP was initiated by the World
model of bilateral management of transboundary resources
Bank, providing a total of US$1.84 million in funding to Albania
in the region. In its "Athens Declaration," the conference
and US$2.26 million in funding to FYR Macedonia.
recommended that future programs in the region use the
lessons learned in the LOCP to help guide their projects,
The LOCP seeks to provide a transboundary, comprehensive
especially noting how joint activities at the local level had
approach to the management of the Lake Ohrid watershed,
signifi cantly strengthened the collaboration between the two
combining restoration, conservation and protection of countries (World Bank 2003).
the lake with sustainable use of its natural resources. The
project has four major components (Figure 2). Component 2.
Threats to Sustainable Use of the Lake
A, the institutional strengthening component, focused on
increasing the capacity of public offi cials at all levels in the
2.1 Eutrophication
Lake Ohrid watershed for effective enforcement of each
country's environmental laws, regulations, standards and One of the most serious threats to the sustainable use of Lake
policies. Component B, the monitoring component, focused
Ohrid and the Prespa Lakes comes from nutrient loading.
on establishing a comprehensive binational monitoring Lake Ohrid and the Prespa Lakes are being fertilized by
program to inform the public and local offi cials about the nutrients in detergents and human and animal waste, and
condition of the lake and to provide the environmental by nutrients in runoff from the land. As a result, the lakes
information necessary for effective and rational planning and
are becoming more eutrophic. Historically, Lake Ohrid was
decision-making. Component C, the participatory watershed
known as an "oligotrophic" or clear water lake. It is likely that
management component, aimed to mobilize groups within Lake Ohrid may have "aged" by thousands of years in just the
the watershed to create a strategic action plan. Component D,
last few decades because the actions of people have greatly
the public awareness and participation component, aimed to
accelerated eutrophication.
create public awareness and increase community participation
Figure 2. The Organization of the Lake Ohrid Conservation Project.
326 Lake
Ohrid

---

The Monitoring Component of the LOCP has been tracking Lake Ohrid. The load of phosphorus coming from the Sateska
the eutrophication rate in Lake Ohrid and Big Prespa Lake,
River may be about the same as that currently coming from the
starting by measuring the concentration of phosphorus in the
sewerage of Pogradec (Watzin et al. 2002).
lakes. The concentration of phosphorus in Big Prespa Lake
shows that this lake is already eutrophic. The concentration
The rivers in the Prespa basin, including Golema, Brajcinska,
of phosphorus in the middle of Lake Ohrid is still low enough
and Kranska, also carry very high phosphorus loads. Because
for this lake to be considered "oligotrophic," but the amount
of all the nutrient loading, the oxygen concentration in the
has been increasing over time. The concentration now may
Prespa lakes decreases dramatically in summer. The waters
be 3 or 4 times the concentration measured before World War
in much of the lakes are also green with phytoplankton in the
II. Considering the very large volume of water in Lake Ohrid,
summer. Submerged plants also grow thick in the nearshore
this is a very signifi cant change. If this trend is verifi ed by
zone. This situation will not change until the phosphorus
additional monitoring, Lake Ohrid can be expected to change
inputs to the lakes are reduced substantially.
dramatically in the next few decades.
The near shore waters of Lake Ohrid adjacent to Pogradec
The water in the area around Pogradec represents the and Tushemisht also show obvious phytoplankton and
single largest source of phosphorus, as untreated sewage aquatic plant growth in the summer. In fact, in many near
fl ows directly into the lake. The new sewerage system being
shore locations on both the Albanian and Macedonian sides
developed for the Pogradec area will treat the wastewater of the lake, these plants have been responding to fertilization
of about 60% of the homes and businesses in the region. A
by phosphorus. In the last several years, both Albanian
possible extension after 2010 would add a second plant and
and Macedonian scientists have documented a shift in the
would allow the treatment of all the wastewater produced in
composition of the plants to favor those species that grow well
the Pogradec area.
in more eutrophic conditions. Species that prefer oligotrophic
conditions are becoming less abundant (Watzin et al. 2002).
The total phosphorus load delivered to the treatment plant
These changes provide further evidence that the Lake Ohrid
from all sources when it opens in 2006 is estimated to be 166
ecosystem is changing and underscore the need to reduce the
kg P/day, or about 60.6 tons/year. The treatment plant has
phosphorus inputs to the lake.
been designed to remove about 80% of the phosphorus that
is delivered to it (about 48.5 tons), therefore, the annual load
2.2 Bacterial
Pollution
from these sources to Lake Ohrid after treatment would be
reduced to 12.1 tons.
One of the biggest potential risks to human health for the
communities living along Lake Ohrid is contamination with
In 1999, representatives of the Macedonian and Albanian disease-causing bacteria and viruses that enter the lake
governments signed a joint statement endorsing the plans in human sewage. In 1988, the fi rst phase of the sewage
for the Pogradec wastewater treatment project. Although collection and treatment system was completed along the
the Macedonian delegation would have preferred that the shoreline in Ohrid Bay, FYR Macedonia. After this system
wastewater be pumped outside of the Ohrid basin, this option
began operating, there were dramatic improvements in the
was not judged feasible in the fi rst phase. The parties agreed
water quality in Ohrid Bay. The number of harmful bacteria in
that if the necessary improvements in the water quality of the water decreased one thousand fold. The water in Ohrid Bay
Lake Ohrid do not occur after the new system has come on
is now generally safe for both drinking and swimming (Watzin
line, then both parties will join their efforts to fi nd additional
et al. 2002). These improvements make a strong case for
funding for the construction of additional measures to take the
continuing to implement sewage treatment systems along the
waste outside the catchment area. The parties further agreed
entire shoreline of the lake.
that the discharge of treated water shall comply with European
Community discharge requirements for treated wastewater in
On the Albanian side of the lake, the highest level of bacterial
sensitive water bodies (EU 91/271/EWG). These requirements
pollution occurs near the town of Pogradec, where raw
specify a discharge concentration <2 mg/L, which is the current
sewerage fl ows directly into the lake. Large numbers of harmful
design specifi cation.
bacteria have been found up to 200 m from the shoreline. In the
years 1996 to 2000, Albanian scientists found an increase in
Preliminary estimates of the total load of phosphorus to Lake
the abundance of harmful bacteria in Lake Ohrid waters close
Ohrid made in 1995 suggest that the lake's total load may
to shore. This is probably because the population has been
be 3-5 times greater than it should be to keep Lake Ohrid
increasing in Pogradec. This situation will not improve until the
in an oligotrophic state (Ernst Basler and Partners 1995), sewerage collection and treatment facility is constructed for
therefore, other sources of phosphorus loading will also the town. But once the system is completed, the improvement
require reduction to protect the lake. On the Albanian side of
along the Pogradec shoreline should be rapid, mirroring the
the lake, other important sources of phosphorus include the
improvements found in Ohrid Bay in the late 1980s.
Cerava and Pogradec River basins, and Drilon Springs. On the
Macedonian side, the Velgoska, Koselska, and Sateska Rivers
Away from the major towns, bacteria pollution is most
and the springs at Saint Naum deliver the most phosphorus to
commonly found where streams and rivers discharge into

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
327

---

the lake. These streams carry human waste and animal waste
needed. A coordinated approach that manages urban growth,
from the inland villages to the lake. All of these sources must
agricultural impacts, and industry must be developed.
be considered in order to keep Lake Ohrid waters clean for
everyone's use and enjoyment.
In FYR Macedonia, problems in the littoral zone are evident in
the regions of Struga, Ohrid, and the shoreline to the south
2.3
Metal Pollution from Old Mining Sites
to Saint Naum. Impacts are also apparent where the larger
tributaries discharge into the lake, especially the Sateska,
In addition to eutrophication, Lake Ohrid also shows metal
Velgoska, and Koselska Rivers. Where nutrient inputs are high,
pollution near the sites of the old chromium, iron, nickel and
the growth of submerged plants is much greater. At the mouth
coal mines outside Pogradec. The preliminary samples that
of the Sateska River, sedimentation is fi lling in the littoral
Albanian scientists have collected at the Guri i Kuq mine show
zone.
concentrations of metals in the near shore lake water that are
very high. It is likely that the muds and sands in these near
The plankton and benthic invertebrates also show altered
shore locations are also contaminated, and this may pose a
communities in these developed littoral zone areas. Both the
risk to the invertebrates, fi sh and birds living in this section of
phytoplankton and the zooplankton species compositions are
the lake. People who catch and eat fi sh in the area may also be
changing to ones dominated by mesotrophic and eutrophic
at risk and it is possible that local drinking water sources have
taxa. These changes will have signifi cant impacts for the rest of
been contaminated. Long-term exposure to elevated levels of
the biota in Lake Ohrid that depend on the plankton as food.
chromium, copper, cobalt, nickel, and other metals have been
shown to have harmful effects on human health.
The shoreline of Lake Ohrid once contained long stretches
of reeds, but it has been greatly altered by the human
2.4
Zones of Pollution and Habitat Destruction along
populations living around it. Historically, the reeds were
the Lake Shoreline
used for many purposes. One of the best-known uses was for
roofi ng material for houses. Despite the changes in lifestyle
Because the littoral zone receives the direct impacts of the
and the predominance of new materials and technology, the
population living along the shoreline, it tends to be the reeds continue to be used in a variety of ways in the modern
most impacted environment in most lakes. Lake Ohrid is era. They are also simply burned or cut away to provide better
no exception to this pattern. The habitat destruction and views and to provide beaches and easier recreational access
water quality impairment is most severe in the littoral zone,
to the lake. Around Lake Prespa, old land practices such as
especially in those areas adjacent to the population centers in
grazing, cutting and burning the reeds have also had impacts.
both FYR Macedonia and Albania.
In all these areas, sediment erosion and loss of wildlife are
common.
In Albania, the littoral zone adjacent to the town of Pogradec is
heavily impacted. Impacts are also apparent to the northeast,
Several laws passed between 1973 and 1996 now protect the
to Tushemisht, and to the west and northwest to Lin. In the
reed zones on the Macedonian side of the lake, but there are
region around Pogradec, the nutrients and bacteria in the no such laws on the Albanian side of the lake. Population
untreated sewage that is discharged directly into the lake growth and socioeconomic pressures are leading to continued
compromise the water quality and threaten the health of all
destruction of the reeds, especially in the areas around
who use the water. The shoreline around Pogradec is also the
Pogradec and Tushemisht village. The importance of these
prime area for tourism on the Albanian side of the lake, so the
environments for both wildlife and human welfare is still not
water pollution from sewerage has signifi cant economic, as
refl ected in economic planning and decision-making.
well as ecological impacts.
2.5 Signifi cant Declines in the Fish Catch from Lake
Evidence of the ecological impacts of human activities is
Ohrid
apparent in both the aquatic plant community and the
phytoplankton in the near shore waters. In the region of It is very clear that the fi sheries in Lake Ohrid are in immediate
Pogradec, phytoplankton densities are much higher than danger and rapid management action is required. All the data
elsewhere along the shoreline, and the submerged plant suggest that the trout populations are severely stressed
community has high densities of pollution tolerant taxa. In the
and the bleak and carp populations are also threatened.
mining area of Memelisht and Guri i Kuq, these plants show
Overfi shing seems to be the major cause of the decline of the
evidence of metal contamination and stunted growth.
trout population. The socio-economic pressures that have led
to overfi shing have impacted the trout more than other fi sh
The population in the Pogradec areas has been growing stocks because of the greater demand and higher economic
rapidly, and as this growth continues, the pressures on the lake
value of this fi sh.
will continue to increase. To accommodate this growth, and
the economic development necessary to improve the quality
Although the overall catch of trout has only declined slightly
of life in the region, aggressive management actions will be
in the last several years, there has been a dramatic shift in the
harvest. Beginning in 1992, the landings in Albania increased
328 Lake
Ohrid

---

dramatically, while those in FYR Macedonia began to fall (Figure
slope of Black Drim River through the town of Struga and the
3). The differences in fi shing pressures in the two countries are
agricultural area around the town. An overfl ow structure that
the results of differences in the social and political situation in
controls the fl ow of water out of Lake Ohrid and into the Black
each country and the fi shing regulations in each country. While
Drim River was constructed in Struga, and water fl ows were
there have been limits on the catch in FYR Macedonia for the
controlled in order to develop the potential of the "Globocica"
last decade through concessions and licenses granted by the
and "Spilje" electrical power generation stations in FYR
government, in Albania, such limits have just begun with the
Macedonia.
establishment of the Association for Fishery Management in
Pogradec in 2002.
Currently, extraction of sand and gravel from the riverbed
is uncontrolled. This extraction infl uences water fl ow and
In addition to harvest pressures and habitat loss, especially
the sediment load, and the resulting erosion of riverbed is
of the reed beds, the native fi sh of Lake Ohrid are also substantial. When the Sateska was diverted, antierosion
threatened by the introduction of non-native species into the
measures intended to reduce sediment suspension in the river
lake. Rainbow trout represents a particular concern because
and the input of sediment to Lake Ohrid were put in place.
it may displace the native trout. Although this fi sh was fi rst
These measures were initially effective, but they were later
introduced in the 1970s, the development of fi sh farms in the
terminated. Since then, sediment has since accumulated in the
basin offer new potential threats.
constructed riverbed, the channel has degraded, and shoreline
vegetation has been lost.
There is also some preliminary evidence that the pesticides
used by farmers in the watershed may threaten fi sh in the
The suspended load into Lake Ohrid is large and a delta has
lake. These pesticides have been found in the tissues of fi sh
formed the in the receiving waters. The load also includes a lot
collected from the lake. Not only are these pesticides harmful
of organic material. Decomposition of this organic matter has
to the fi sh themselves, but they also pose hazards to the reduced the dissolved oxygen concentrations in the receiving
people who eat the fi sh, especially women of childbearing age
waters and changed the distribution of fl ora and fauna in this
and small children.
section of the lake.
2.6
Altered Flow of the Sateska River
In 1988, a study to investigate the impacts of sediment from
the Sateska on Lake Ohrid, on the lowlands in the vicinity
Before 1961, the Sateska River fl owed into the Black Drim of Struga, on the Black Drim River channel, and on the
River, about 3 km beyond the latter's outfl ow from Lake Ohrid.
power stations on the Black Drim River was undertaken by
In 1962, it was diverted to drain the Struga marshland, which
the Institute of Energetics in Skopje. This study looked at
is used for farming, and to make use of Lake Ohrid water for
rediverting the Sateska River back into the Black Drim and the
hydroelectric power generation. The diversion of the Sateska
"Globocica" Reservoir. Implementation of the project would
increased the size of the Lake Ohrid subwatershed by about
both improve the ecological health of the river and reduce the
174%. It drained about 2,500 ha and regulated the course and
impacts on Lake Ohrid.
200,000
Albania
FYR Macedonia
1 50,000
1 00,000
Trout catch (kg)
50,000
0
5
0
7
9
970
980
985
995
1
19
1
1
19
1
2000
Year
Figure 3. Annual Trout Catch by Country.

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
329

---

Based on this work, the Water Development Institute of FYR
create the infrastructure for more systematic enforcement
Macedonia has prepared a project proposal for restoration of environmental legislation. In January 2003, the Albania
of the Sateska River. Although it is currently unclear as to Government adopted its new Law on Environmental Impact
when or if the full rediversion project might be implemented,
Assessment. This law aims to provide: a) a general, integrated
some erosion control measures were implemented in the and timely assessment of environmental impacts from
Sateska River bed in November 2002 as part of the LOCP. This
proposed projects or other activities in order to prevent or
reforestation is designed to stabilize the riverbanks and reduce
mitigate the negative impacts on the environment; and b)
the sedimentation rate in the middle reaches of the Sateska.
a process of open assessment, managed with equitability,
through participation of central and local authorities, the
3.
Policy, Legislative, and Institutional
public, NGOs, and representative of the project. Plans for
Reforms to Address These Threats
energy, mining, industrial, transportation, agricultural, forestry,
waste management, and other natural resources projects are
From the beginning, one of the principal goals of the LOCP
subject to the EIA process. Decisions based on the EIA will be
was to establish an appropriate legal framework for better made by the Ministry of the Environment.
management of Lake Ohrid and its watershed. The Institutional
Strengthening Task Force focused its activities on assessing
Both countries need land use planning initiatives urgently.
what legal and institutional reforms were needed and on These are the only tools that will help stem the tide of
mobilizing stakeholder support for these reforms. Both inappropriate development and the destruction of natural
the government of Albania and FYR Macedonia recognized habitats and nonpoint source pollution that can result from
the extraordinary opportunity that the LOCP provided for that development. Unguided development can also threaten
integrating their separate legal and institutional approaches
other goals, such as designation as a UNESCO World Heritage
with international agreements that would strengthen site of signifi cance. In Albania, an international consultant
transboundary cooperation.
recently submitted a legal analysis and draft "Law on the
Preparation of a Land Use Plan for the Lake Ohrid Watershed
In 2000, a preliminary draft "Agreement for the Protection and
Region." Both the report and the draft law will be submitted to
Sustainable Development of Lake Ohrid and its Watershed"
the appropriate Ministries for comments. On 17 May 2003, the
was developed and both Ministries began working to present
Territory Adjustment Council of the Municipality of Pogradec
a mutually acceptable refi ned version for adoption by their
adopted Terms of Reference for preparation of a new Urban
respective Governments. The intent of this agreement is to
Plan for the Central Area of the town of Pogradec. This plan will
acknowledge very explicitly that Lake Ohrid and its watershed
include 55 ha, more than 50% of the total area of the town.
constitutes a single ecosystem and thus must be managed
jointly by all the jurisdictions in the watershed. The draft Because the increasing eutrophication of Lake Ohrid is a major
agreement calls for international management through a management concern and water current mix nutrients across
"Lake Ohrid Management Agency" that would cover the the international borders, negotiations and commitment
whole watershed area, including, in the future, Greece, as a
concerning the loadings reductions needed to protect the
full partner in the management regime. This draft Agreement
water quality of Lake Ohrid are needed to mitigate this threat.
is now in fi nal review in the Ministries in Albania and FYR These negotiations have not yet begun. Likewise, for Lake
Macedonia and should move forward into the bilateral policy
Prespa, negotiations about not only pollutant loads, but also
dialogue soon.
water withdrawals are urgently needed to protect this lake.
Environmental regulation and enforcement are currently weak
Coordinated fi sheries regulations are urgently needed to
in both Albania and FYR Macedonia. Within each country, a
deal with the decline in the fi sheries of Lake Ohrid. Controls
variety of legislative reforms have helped decentralize the on the number and size of fi sh must be implemented and
environmental enforcement functions and given limited coordinated on both sides of the lake. Because the fi sh in the
authority to the local governments. Although the LOCP has
lake are one single, linked population, they must be managed
initiated a number of environmental enforcement actions collectively, with similar requirements in both FYR Macedonia
over the last few years, there is general agreement that and Albania. Government offi cials and fi sheries experts in both
additional measures are needed. These might include countries have agreed to a unifi cation of some of the fi sheries
updating regulations, educating the public about key legal regulation; in 2001, both countries agreed to keep the same
provisions and the appropriate enforcement agents in allowable net size.
their areas (including judges, administrators, educators,
NGOs, and others), and establishing clear and enforceable In FYR Macedonia, the fi shing industry is managed through
requirements for environmental reporting, the right of access
fi ve-year concessions granted by the government to fi shing
to environmental information, and an effective sanctioning companies. A company that is granted a concession must
process to deter or punish violators.
restock the lake through an approved plan and must pay 10%
of the wholesale value of the catch to the government for the
Both countries are also drafting and/or implementing new purposes of improving the fi shing conditions on the lake.
Environmental Impact Assessment legislation that will
330 Lake
Ohrid

---

Fishing inspectors in the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and
treatment plant in Pogradec were specifi ed based on the EU
Water Works enforce the fi shing regulations.
Standards for Sensitive Waters. In FYR Macedonia, a review of
the capacities of the Ministry of the Environment and Planning
In Albania, the fi shing industry is in the process of being are underway to meet EU requirements. A draft version of a
organized into fi shing associations by village. An Association
new Law on Waters, which has been prepared based on the
has been formed in Pogradec, and others will be formed in
EU Water Framework Directive, is under review. According to
Lin, Hudenischt and Tushemischt. The regulations that will this draft law, all waters in FYR Macedonia will be managed
govern these associations are still being developed. In 2002,
on a watershed or river basin level. Also, changes in the Law
the Ministry of Agriculture and Food gave permits through the
on Air and the Law on Nature provide a basis for qualitative
Association for Fishery Management in Pogradec to only 137
management of these natural resources.
boats.
4. Lessons
Learned
To set appropriate fi shery limits, stock estimates based
upon a jointly conducted, independent sampling effort must
A transboundary resource needs an international board
be prepared. Discussions about how to conduct this stock or agency to establish priorities, facilitate cross-boarder
assessment are underway. It must include an evaluation of the
communication, and coordinate an integrated action plan.
spawning population and as well as the forage base available
From the beginning, the LOCP has served as a vehicle to bring
to support the trout population. With this information a offi cials from the governments of Albania and FYR Macedonia
sustainable level of harvest might be estimated and the together, and it continues to do so. Before the LOCP was
harvest regulations in both Albania and FYR Macedonia can
initiated, a MOU was signed to bring the governments together
be harmonized to ensure that these levels are achieved. in a Management Board focused on the lake. However, as the
Vigorous enforcement of the appropriate regulations will also
project has unfolded, it has become clear that the current
be necessary.
membership and authority of the Management Board is
insuffi cient. The Board needs to be expanded, peopled
Both countries have pursued implementation of appropriate
with high-level representatives of all major stakeholders on
international environmental conventions, which bring the lake, including Greece, and empowered with specifi c
international credibility, and support the core objectives authorities. The representatives of both the Ministries and the
of the LOCP. Albania is a party to the UNECE Convention municipalities must be able to participate in Board meetings
on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and the activities of the LOCP on a regular basis in order to
and International Lakes and the UNECE Convention on understand the complexity of the issues on the lake to make
Transboundary Accidents. Both Albania and FYR Macedonia are
the diffi cult decisions that must be made.
signatories to the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic
Pollutants. The Macedonian side of Lake Ohrid has been The draft "Joint Agreement for the Protection and Sustainable
designated as a mixed cultural/natural world heritage site by
Develop of Lake Ohrid and Its Watershed" would be a major
UNESCO's World Heritage Committee, and FYR Macedonia is
step forward by establishing an international Lake Ohrid
working to preserve this designation. Albania is hoping to add
Management Agency and empowering it with legal authority
old town Pogradec to this designation.
in Albania, FYR Macedonia, and in the future, Greece, as a full
partner in the management regime.
Although Albania signed the Aarhus Convention on Access
to Information, Public Participation in Decision-making, and
To be effective, a management program needs a long-term
Access to Justice in Environmental Matters in 1998, and ratifi ed
vision and a comprehensive management plan with specifi c
it in 2000, FYR Macedonia has not yet done the same. Both
goals and objectives. This plan must be prepared with the
countries are still struggling with public access to information
input and concurrence of all the major stakeholders in the
and public input, but as new laws are implemented, hopefully
basin so that all parties recognize where they have roles and
this situation will improve. The new Law on Environmental responsibilities. The Joint Watershed Committee of the LOCP
Impact Assessment in Albania has specifi c provisions that has developed a "Transboundary Watershed Action Plan"
emphasize public and NGO participation in all steps of the
that outlines some of the actions needed and the roles of the
environmental impact assessment process, including decision-
stakeholders at both the national and local levels. This Action
making.
Plan was endorsed by the Lake Ohrid Management Board in
October 2003.
Both Albania and FYR Macedonia are working towards future
admission into the European Union (EU). In Albania, new The Action Plan stresses working in partnership, using an
environmental legislation has been prepared based on the EU
ecosystem-based, watershed approach that integrates
Directives. For example, the new Albanian Law on Air Protection
environmental and economic goals, pollution prevention, a
from Pollution has been based the emission standards in consensus-based, collaborative approach to management,
the EU Directives for new industrial activities. A new draft and fl exibility. The four primary action items include:
law on Environmental Management of Urban Wastewater is
being prepared, and the discharge limits for the new sewage

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
331

---

·
Reduction of point source pollution through actions that
communities contributed to the problems, and their sense
stress septic system management and maintenance, of values, priorities, and potential contributions to solutions
homeowner education, and management of solid (Avramovski 2002).
waste;
With the fi nancial support of the Lake Ohrid Project, the
·
Reduction of non-point source pollution through actions
NGOs in both FYR Macedonia and Albania have carried out a
that focus on implementing conservation practices on
variety of activities including summer eco-camps, education
farms and restoring impaired stream reaches;
in the schools, clean-ups along the shoreline of Lake Ohrid,
reforestation on tributary streams in the watershed, the
·
Habitat protection and restoration through wetlands production and distribution of public education materials,
inventory and the establishment of a no-net-loss policy,
hosting round table discussions and workshops, and marking
identifi cation and protection of fi sh spawning habitat,
hiking trails in Galicica National Park in FYR Macedonia. In
and inventories of the native fl ora and fauna in the Albania, 51 grants were made. In FYR Macedonia, 49 grants
watershed; and,
were made. Nine projects involved participating NGOs from
both Albania and FYR Macedonia, but no projects included
·
Comprehensive planning through the establishment of
Greece.
micro-watershed planning committees, and by creating
a GIS system and building the planning capabilities Several larger scale pilot projects have been planned by the
within the municipalities.
Watershed Management Committees, but implementation
has been slow because of administrative challenges.
Implementation of the plan will begin in 2004.
In Albania, a video "Ohrid, Pearl of the Centuries" was
produced and distributed, but other projects focused on
Stakeholder involvement and public participation are key to
reducing pollution from nonpoint sources, improving solid
effective action. The LOCP has been highly effective in raising
waste management and disposal, and promoting the use of
public awareness about the ecology of the lake and some of
phosphate free detergents have not yet been implemented. In
the threats to sustainable use. In the critical fi rst years of the
FYR Macedonia, projects to reduce the use of agro-chemicals,
project, considerable effort went into increasing the number
establish a nursery to produce local tree seedlings for riparian
and capability of citizen groups in the basin. Workshops reforestation, and other pollution reduction projects are also
were held to build the capacity of the NGOs, focusing on awaiting implementation.
organization skills, meeting facilitation skills, public outreach
and involvement, and other topics. "Green Centers" were Ultimately, the success of the LOCP hinges on the involvement
established in Struga and Ohrid in FYR Macedonia and of all the citizens of the basin. While the grants to NGOs
Pogradec in Albania. The Centers serve as clearinghouses to
publicized the NGO sector, they were only moderately
connect the NGOs to each other and to provide the critical
successful in involving a wider cross section of the public in
information they need to mobilize public interest and public
their activities. Since the last grant session within the LOCP
action. As a result of this effort, the number of NGOs on has ended, there has been a decrease in NGO activities in
the Albanian side has increased from 13 to 19, and on the
the region. If appropriate ongoing support is provided, the
Macedonian side, from 19 to 42.
momentum and interest that has been established will carry
into future efforts. In large part, it is the actions of these citizens
Early in the program, the LOMB declared 21 June as "Lake
that will determine the future state of the environment.
Ohrid Day." Beginning in 2000, a variety of activities to raise
public awareness and to clean up the lake have been held, and
Administrative training and capacity building to meet World
thousands of citizens have been involved.
Bank, GEF, Ministry and other administrative requirements is
critical as early as possible in the project. The administration
Build local capacity and use local groups for implementing
of the LOCP was established through Project Implementation
watershed management projects. To bring local groups Units in both Albania and FYR Macedonia. Project Directors
together and involve them in implementation of the LOCP, were hired to coordinate the administration of all four
Watershed Management Committees were established in components of the project. Progress in the early years of
both Albania and FYR Macedonia to develop a series of the LOCP was slowed because these administrators were
pilot projects and catalytic measures designed to test and not familiar with World Bank, GEF, and other administrative
demonstrate affordable and cost-effective measures for policies and requirements. Because these offi cials had to
improving the environmental conditions in the watershed. work both within their respective Ministries and within the
Because the LOCP was the fi rst of its kind in the Balkan region,
frameworks established by the World Bank, many challenges
there was little or no experience in watershed management in
were encountered.
the region. This was initially a challenge, requiring repeated
consultation and cultivation, but also an opportunity for new
A required early, intensive training program for project
groups to learn from each other and to grow as they learned
administrators could be established that would greatly reduce
about each others perspectives of the problems, how their
these problems and help to get new projects and project
332 Lake
Ohrid

---

directors off to a stronger start. If possible, a consistent were underway to restructure the monitoring program so that
responsible party with the Ministry would also greatly reduce
it could become part of the state monitoring effort in each
implementation problems within each country.
country and that it is sustainable over the long term.
Research and monitoring is essential to assess baseline As the Lake Ohrid Management Board is reorganized into
conditions in the ecosystem and provide the information an International Management Agency, the Ministries should
necessary to guide decision-makers. From the beginning, consider adding a scientist to the Agency that can communicate
the monitoring program was considered essential to provide
effectively with managers. The goals of the monitoring project
a scientifi c basis for guiding the work of other project should be refi ned to focus on the data needed to answer
components. For a transboundary resource, only joint critical management questions, and funding must be suffi cient
monitoring makes sense because both jurisdictions must trust
to ensure that high quality data that can withstand legal review
the data and agree on its interpretation. This was recognized
are being collected. This is not a trivial task when trends
immediately in the LOCP and Monitoring Task Forces were detection is required. An ecological indicators program could
established in both FYR Macedonia and Albania to develop
also be developed to track management effectiveness.
such a joint program. As a result, a joint sampling plan was
prepared and endorsed by both sides in the fi rst year of the
An ongoing mechanism should be established to publish
project.
monitoring and research results, both in the technical
literature (to build the credibility of the program) and in the
There were signifi cant delays in collecting data, however, popular or layperson's press. Public understanding of their
because infrastructure improvements were needed in both unique resource builds pride and is key to mobilizing support
countries. In FYR Macedonia, the Hydrobiological Institute for protection and management. Likewise, managers must
was already located on the lake, in Ohrid, but infrastructure
understand the magnitude and causes of environmental
improvements and equipment purchases were urgently problems in order to address them and eventually solve them.
needed to support the new work. In Albania, there was no
on-lake laboratory, so one had to be established in Pogradec.
Use early successes to draw new investments. Seek a broad
First, a suitable building was located, and then laboratories for
base of support and funding, capitalizing on a transboundary
chemical, physical, and biological analysis were established.
awareness and constituency. To build sustainability, a broadly
In both FYR Macedonia and Albania, these laboratory based and strategic program of investments and commitments
improvement efforts proved challenging and there were must be developed so that funding levels are stable from year
signifi cant delays in developing specifi cations and acquiring
to year. Potential investors need to see successes; therefore,
the necessary equipment. In both cases, an early emphasis
a program that is constructed in discrete pieces, each with
on capacity-building and training for the scientists would help
achievable short term as well as long term goals, will be
surmount these problems in future projects.
most successful. These pieces must include administrative,
institutional and technical components. Funders must see
It is essential that a research and monitoring program a strong political will, institutional capacity, and real results
established to support management provides the data needed
among the population and in the environment.
by policy-makers to make key decisions. In order to do this,
the lead scientists collecting the data must communicate In the LOCP, administrative challenges have been great,
regularly with the managers. This communication has been
and institutional capacity building has been slow to come.
challenging in the LOCP. In the early years of the project, data
However, a number of small on-the-ground efforts to improve
were not interpreted and presented to the managers in ways
environmental awareness and public participation have been
that were easy for them to understand. To solve this problem,
very successful. Larger demonstration projects have struggled,
considerable time and attention were directed to preparing a
but a baseline state of the environment report can now inform
"State of the Environment" report in 2002, including hiring
some of the critical choices that must be made. There has been
an outside expert to facilitate communication between the a shift in emphasis to the long term, and there is a clear focus
Macedonian and Albanian teams and to focus the analysis on implementing the newly completed watershed action plan.
on key management concerns. This effort culminated in the
publication of "Lake Ohrid and its Watershed: A State of the
As transboundary communication and collaboration improves,
Environment Report" in October 2002. This report represents
a whole basin, ecosystem understanding that spans the
the fi rst time that Albanian and Macedonian data were used
political boundaries of the three countries may develop. The
in a common assessment of the ecological conditions in the
development of such a transboundary public, where all citizens
basin. Forty-nine Albanian and Macedonian scientists and recognize their connections and work as a single constituency,
other specialists contributed to this report and through its will ignite investments at all levels for a sustainable long term
preparation, got to know each other and learned to work program.
together more effectively. This kind of collaboration is
essential for the ecosystem-level assessments needed for
comprehensive management of a large watershed and lake
system. As the project was moving into its fi nal year, plans

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
333

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5. References
Avramovski, O. 2002. Analysis of the public participation
practices in ecosystem approaches to environmental
management in the ration of Ohrid and Prespa Lakes (Albania,
Greece and Macedonia). Masters Thesis, Department
of Environmental Sciences and Policy, Central European
University, Budapest.
Ernst Basler and Partners. 1995. The World Bank Feasibility
Study on the Lake Ohrid Conservation Project. Zollikon.
Macedonian Institute for Statistics. 2001. Yearly book 2001.
Skopje, FYR Macedonia.
Naumoski, T. B. 2000. Phosphorus loading of Lake Ohrid
(In Macedonian). Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Ciryl and
Metodij, NSF, Biology Department.
Stankovic, S. 1960. The Balkan Lake Ohrid and its Living World.
Monographiae Biologiae Vol. IX. Uitgeverij Dr. W. Junk: Den
Haag, the Netherlands.
Watzin, M.C, V. Puka and T.B. Naumoski (eds.). 2002. Lake
Ohrid and its Watershed, State of the Environment Report.
Lake Ohrid Conservation Project: Tirana, Albania and Ohrid,
FYR Macedonia.
World Bank. 2003. Water Resources Management in South
Eastern Europe, Vol. I. Issues and Directions. World Bank:
Washington, DC, USA.
Disclaimer
The fi ndings, interpretations and conclusions expressed
in this report are the views of the authors and do not
necessarily represent the views of The World Bank and its
Board of Directors, or the countries they represent, nor do
they necessarily represent the view of the organizations,
agencies or governments to which any of the authors are
associated. Also, the colors, boundaries, denominations, and
classifi cations in this report do not imply, on the part of The
World Bank and its Board of Directors, or the countries they
represent, and the organizations, agencies or governments to
which any of the authors are associated, any judgment on the
legal or other status of any territory, or any endorsement or
acceptance of any boundary.
334 Lake
Ohrid

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