Volta River Basin
A Programme of the Governments of the Volta River Countries, with the assistance of the
Global Environment Facility (the United Nations Environment Programme)
Volta River Basin
Preliminary
Transboundary
Diagnostic Analysis
Final Report
December 2002
Global Environment Facility-United Nations Environment Programme
Project Development Facility (PDF-B)
Table of Contents
1.0 INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................................ 1
1.1 TDA
CONTENT AND PROCESS .................................................................................................. 1
1.2 SCOPE OF THE TDA .................................................................................................................. 1
2.0 BIOGEOPHYSICAL AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC SETTING OF THE VOLTA RIVER
BASIN ................................................................................................................................................. 4
2.1 BIOGEOPHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS ....................................................................................... 4
2.1.1 Relief ................................................................................................................................ 4
2.1.2 Geology and Soils ............................................................................................................ 5
2.1.3 Hydrogeology................................................................................................................... 5
2.1.4 Soils.................................................................................................................................. 6
2.1.5 Climate............................................................................................................................. 7
2.1.6 Hydrology ........................................................................................................................ 8
2.1.7 Dams and Reservoirs ..................................................................................................... 11
2.2 ECOSYSTEMS .......................................................................................................................... 14
2.2.1 The Short Grass (Steppe) Vegetation............................................................................. 14
2.2.2 Woody and Shrub Savannah, Open Forest of Dry Type................................................ 14
2.2.3 Woody and Shrub Savannah, Open Forest of Humid Type ........................................... 14
2.2.4 Dense Forest .................................................................................................................. 14
2.2.5 Coastal Ecosystem ......................................................................................................... 15
2.2.6 Protected Areas.............................................................................................................. 15
2.3 BIODIVERSITY......................................................................................................................... 18
2.3.1 Benin .............................................................................................................................. 18
2.3.2 Burkina Faso.................................................................................................................. 18
2.3.3 Côte d'Ivoire .................................................................................................................. 21
2.3.4 Ghana............................................................................................................................. 21
2.3.5 Mali ................................................................................................................................ 26
2.3.6 Togo ............................................................................................................................... 26
3.0 SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND DEVELOPMENT SETTING.................................................... 28
3.1 POPULATION AND DEMOGRAPHIC PATTERNS.......................................................................... 28
3.2 REGIONAL ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS .............................................................................. 30
3.2.1 Agriculture ..................................................................................................................... 31
3.2.2 Livestock ........................................................................................................................ 34
3.2.3 Fisheries......................................................................................................................... 36
3.2.4 Forestry.......................................................................................................................... 37
3.2.5 Industry .......................................................................................................................... 37
3.2.6 Mining............................................................................................................................ 38
3.2.7 Tourism .......................................................................................................................... 38
3.3 ANALYSIS OF USE OF LAND AND WATER RESOURCES AND FUTURE TRENDS ......................... 38
3.3.1 Regional Land and Water Resource Availability........................................................... 38
3.3.2 Regional Land and Water Resource Demand for the Present and Future .................... 39
4.0 LEGAL AND REGULATORY SETTING ............................................................................. 43
i
4.1 BENIN ..................................................................................................................................... 43
4.2 BURKINA FASO ....................................................................................................................... 44
4.3 CÔTE D'IVOIRE ....................................................................................................................... 45
4.4 GHANA ................................................................................................................................... 46
4.5 MALI....................................................................................................................................... 48
4.6 TOGO ...................................................................................................................................... 49
4.7 OVERVIEW OF NATIONAL INSTITUTIONAL AND LEGAL FRAMEWORK FOR INTEGRATED
MANAGEMENT......................................................................................................................... 50
4.7.1 Regional Coordination................................................................................................... 50
4.7.2 International Cooperation ............................................................................................. 52
5.0 MAJOR PERCEIVED PROBLEMS AND ISSUES .............................................................. 54
5.1 LAND DEGRADATION.............................................................................................................. 57
5.2 WATER SCARCITY................................................................................................................... 67
5.3 LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY........................................................................................................... 75
5.4 FLOODING............................................................................................................................... 81
5.5 WATER-BORNE DISEASES....................................................................................................... 85
5.6 GROWTH OF AQUATIC WEEDS ................................................................................................ 88
5.7 COASTAL EROSION ................................................................................................................. 89
5.8 WATER QUALITY DEGRADATION............................................................................................ 91
5.9 EMERGING ISSUES................................................................................................................. 100
6.0 STAKEHOLDER ANALYSIS ............................................................................................... 101
6.1 LAND DEGRADATION............................................................................................................ 101
6.2 WATER SCARCITY................................................................................................................. 102
6.3 LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY......................................................................................................... 104
6.4 FLOODING............................................................................................................................. 105
6.5 WATER-BORNE DISEASES..................................................................................................... 106
6.6 GROWTH OF AQUATIC WEEDS .............................................................................................. 107
6.7 COASTAL EROSION ............................................................................................................... 108
6.8 WATER QUALITY DEGRADATION.......................................................................................... 108
7.0 ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY OBJECTIVES ................................................................. 110
7.1 ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY OBJECTIVES FOR THE VOLTA RIVER BASIN .............................. 111
7.2 ACTION AREAS AND POSSIBLE SPECIFIC ACTIONS................................................................ 111
ii
List of Figures
In Appendix D:
Figure 2.1-1.
Volta River Basin............................................................................................. D2
Figure 2.1-2.
Geology............................................................................................................ D3
Figure 2.1-3.
Major Dams in the Volta Basin ....................................................................... D4
Figure 5.1-1.
Bushfires .......................................................................................................... D5
Figure 5.1-2.
Map of High Forest and Land Degradation in the Volta Basin ....................... D6
Figure 5.2-1.
Map of the Volta Basin Showing Water Shortage Areas ................................ D7
Figure 5.3-1.
Biodiversity and Coastal Erosion..................................................................... D8
Figure 5.4-1.
Map of the Volta Basin Showing Areas Liable to Flooding............................ D9
Figure 5.5-1.
Map of the Volta Basin Showing Areas with Water-Borne Diseases ........... D10
Figure 5.6-1.
Aquatic Weeds ............................................................................................... D11
List of Tables
Table 2.1-1. Distribution of the Basin Among the Six Riparian Countries. ............................... 4
Table 2.1-2. Some Important Relief Characteristics ................................................................... 5
Table 2.1-4. Identified Soil Groups in the Basin......................................................................... 7
Table 2.1-5. Catchment Areas and River Lengths in Burkina Faso............................................ 9
Table 2.1-6. Area Coverage of Volta River Basin ...................................................................... 9
Table 2.1-7. Catchment Areas and River Lengths of Black Volta and Main Tributaries in
Ghana ...................................................................................................................... 9
Table 2.1-8. Catchment Areas and River Lengths of White Volta and Main Tributaries in
Ghana .................................................................................................................... 10
Table 2.1-9. Catchment Areas and River Lengths of Oti and Main Tributaries in Ghana........ 10
Table 2.1-10. Catchment Areas and River Lengths in Togo....................................................... 11
Table 2.1-11. Information on Dams in the Volta Basin of Cote d'Ivoire ................................... 12
Table 2.1-12. Information on Dams in the Volta Basin of Togo ................................................ 13
Table 2.2-1. Vegetation Characteristics of the Volta Basin ...................................................... 15
Table 2.2-2. List of Fauna Reserves of the Sudan Territory of the Basin................................. 15
Table 2.2-3. Protected Areas in Ghana...................................................................................... 16
Table 2.2-4. Distribution of Protected Areas in the Sub-Basin................................................. 17
Table 2.3-1. Plant Species in the Oti Basin............................................................................... 18
Table 2.3-2. Animal Species in White and Black Volta Basins in Burkina Faso ..................... 19
Table 2.3-3. Aquatic Fauna of Burkina Faso ............................................................................ 19
Table 2.3-4. Wild Terrestrial Fauna of Burkina Faso ............................................................... 19
Table 2.3-5. Status of Threatened Species at the National Level in Burkina Faso ................... 19
Table 2.3-6. Plant Species in White and Black Volta Basins in Burkina Faso ......................... 20
Table 2.3-7. Threatened Plant Species in the Northern and Central Region of Burkina Faso.. 20
Table 2.3-8. Rare and Endangered Species Inventoried in the National Park of Comoé in Côte
d'Ivoire.................................................................................................................. 21
Table 2.3-9. Endemic Flora Species of the Volta Basin ........................................................... 22
Table 2.3-10. Fauna of Global Conservation Significance within the Volta Basin in Ghana..... 23
iii
Table 2.3-11. Rare and Endangered Plant Species in the Oti Basin of Togo.............................. 26
Table 2.3-12. Threatened and Endangered Animal Species in the Oti Basin of Togo ............... 27
Table 3.1-1. Population Statistics in the Volta Basin................................................................ 28
Table 3.1-2. Population Statistics (1999) .................................................................................. 29
Table 3.2-1. Gross National Product and Average Growth Rate for the Riparian Countries ... 30
Table 3.2-2. External Debt of the Riparian Countries (1998) ................................................... 30
Table 3.2-3. Structure of Economic Output at the National Level............................................ 31
Table 3.2-4. Production Levels of Selected Crops by Regions in the Volta Basin in Ghana
(Tonnes) ................................................................................................................ 32
Table 3.2-5. Cereal Production in the Mopti Region of Mali (Tonnes).................................... 33
Table 3.2-6. Crop Production in Côte d'Ivoire (1996).............................................................. 34
Table 3.2-7. Livestock Production in Côte d'Ivoire.................................................................. 34
Table 3.2-8. Projected Livestock Production in Togo (1999-2005).......................................... 34
Table 3.2-9. Projected Livestock Production in Togo (2010-2025).......................................... 35
Table 3.2-10. Population of Major Livestock by Region Based on 1996 Livestock Census in
Ghana .................................................................................................................... 35
Table 3.2-11. Estimates of National Livestock Population in Ghana (1995 2000).................. 35
Table 3.2-12. Population of Major Livestock in the Volta Basin in Ghana................................ 36
Table 3.2-13. Annual Fish Production in Ghana......................................................................... 37
Table 3.2-14. Industry in Ghana.................................................................................................. 37
Table 3.3-1. Domestic/Industrial Water Demand of the Volta River Basin (x 106m3)............. 41
Table 3.3-2. Irrigation Water Demand of the Volta River Basin (x 106m3).............................. 41
Table 3.3-3. Water Demand for Livestock of the Volta River Basin (x 106m3) ....................... 41
Table 3.3-4. Total Consumptive Water Demand of the Volta River Basin (x 106m3).............. 42
Table 4.1-1. Ministries and Departments for Managing Land and Water Resources in Benin 43
Table 4.2-1. Departments for Managing Land and Water Resources in Burkina Faso ............ 45
Table 4.3-1. Ministries and Their Responsibilities in Côte d'Ivoire......................................... 45
Table 4.3-2. Ministries for the Management and Use of Land Resources in Côte d'Ivoire ..... 46
Table 4.4-1. Ministries and Departments Responsible for Water Resources Development and
Utilization in Ghana.............................................................................................. 47
Table 4.6-1. Ministries, Departments, and Institutions Responsible for the Management of
Water and Soils in Togo ....................................................................................... 49
Table 4.7-1. Bilateral Cooperation Among Riparian Countries................................................ 52
Table 4.7-2. Dates of Ratification of Major International Environmental Conventions........... 53
Table 5.0-1. Analysis of Prioritized Land and Water Issues..................................................... 54
Table 5.0-2. Root Causes and Major Perceived Problems and Issues ...................................... 56
Table 5.1-1. Characteristics of the Zones.................................................................................. 60
Table 5.1-2. Erosion Hazards of the Volta Basin in Ghana ...................................................... 62
Table 5.1-3. Rate of Occupation of Cultivable Land in the Basin in Togo (1,708,800 ha) ...... 66
Table 5.1-4. Evolution of Various Vegetation Formations in Togo (1979-1991) .................... 67
Table 5.2-1. Potential Surface Water Resources of the Volta Basin in Burkina Faso .............. 71
Table 5.2-2. Water Resources of the Volta River in Ghana...................................................... 73
Table 5.2-3. Minimum Recharge and Replenishable Groundwater Capacities ........................ 73
Table 5.3-1. Status of Species in Burkina Faso......................................................................... 78
Table 5.3-2. Specific Threats to Biodiversity............................................................................ 79
iv
Table 5.3-3. Estimation of the Population Change of the Ungulates in the Comoé National
Park from 1978-1998 (according to Fischer, 1999).............................................. 79
Table 5.4-1
Localization and Assessment of Floods In Burkina Faso..................................... 82
Table 5.5-1. Water-Borne and Associated Diseases and Their Vectors in the Volta Basin ..... 87
Table 5.8-1. Summary of Water Quality Parameters for Selected Rivers in the Volta Basin .. 95
Table 5.8-2. Summary of Water Quality at Kpong (1995) ....................................................... 96
Table 5.8-3. Summary of Water Quality Parameters for Groundwater in the Volta Basin ...... 96
Table 5.8-4. Physio-chemical Analysis of the Waters of the Kara River in Togo.................... 98
Table 5.8-5. Physio-chemical Analysis from the Waters of the Brewery of Benin of Kara..... 99
Table 5.8-6. Results of the Bacteriological Analysis of the Waters of the Kara River............. 99
Table 5.8-7. Amount of Chemical Products Used in the Volta Basin in Togo ......................... 99
Table 7.2-1. Environmental Quality Objectives, Targets, and Interventions.......................... 113
APPENDIXES
APPENDIX A
List of Abbreviations
APPENDIX B
Causal Chain Analysis
APPENDIX C
Bibliography
APPENDIX D
Figures
v
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
1.0 Introduction
1.1
TDA Content and Process
According to GEF guidance, the purpose of conducting a Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
(TDA) is to scale the relative importance of sources and causes, both immediate and root, of
transboundary `waters' problems, and to identify potential preventive and remedial actions. The
TDA provides the basis for development of both the National Action Plans (NAPs) and the
Strategic Action Programme (SAP) in the area of international waters of the GEF.
This TDA, therefore, summarizes information available from the region, gathered both as part of
ongoing national activities within the littoral states, as well as information made available from a
variety of internationally supported activities in the region.
The methodology for a TDA consists of the following steps, at a minimum:
· Identification of major perceived problems and issues, including status and gaps
· Classification as national or transboundary in nature
· Causal chain analysis (including root causes)
· Identification of interventions to address the root causes and primary perceived problems and
issues
Because the list of possible interventions and actions arising from the analysis of the Volta River
Basin problems is so large, a mechanism was needed in order to prioritize the interventions.
Borrowing from methodology commonly used in the European Union and other regions, the
present TDA identifies a series of Environmental Quality Objectives (EQOs), which represent
the regional perspective of major goals for the regional environment. The use of EQOs helps to
refine the TDA process by achieving consensus on the desired status of the Volta River Basin.
Within each EQO (which is a broad policy-oriented statement), several specific targets were
identified. Each target generally had a timeline associated with it, as well as a specific level of
improvement or target status. Thus, the targets illustrate the chain of logic for eventual
achievement of the EQO. Finally, specific interventions or actions were identified to permit
realization of each of the targets within the designated time frame.
In summary, this TDA follows the GEF TDA Guidelines for International Waters projects.
However, an additional step was achieved, that is, the use of EQOs to facilitate consensus on the
desired state of the Volta River Basin after the next pentade or decade. The EQOs naturally led
to the identification of specific targets to be met within the desired time frame, which then led to
the identification of specific interventions and actions that can be considered in the framework of
the NAPs and SAP.
1.2
Scope of the TDA
The present analysis covers the six countries that are located in the Volta River Basin: Benin,
Burkina Faso, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Mali, and Togo. Many institutions and experts participated
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Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
in the development of this TDA by assisting in the drafting of national reports. At least three
workshops, including one national, were held in each of the six countries to gather input for these
reports. Additionally, two meetings for national coordinators and two meetings for steering
committee members were held on the Volta River Basin. While much data were obtained
through this process, only partial information on the environmental status was provided by each
country, so this TDA is a summary of available information only. Where possible, additional
sources of data were sought.
This Preliminary TDA is drawn from the Draft Preliminary TDA prepared by Dr. Yaw Opoku-
Ankomah, national reports from the participating countries, and various technical publications
available for the region prepared by UNEP, ACOPS, and other organizations. The major sources
of information are listed in the bibliography accompanying this TDA. Gaps in information
available for this Preliminary TDA can be filled during the full GEF project.
This Preliminary TDA identifies the following list of major perceived problems and issues:
1. Land degradation
2. Water scarcity
3. Loss of biodiversity
4. Flooding
5. Water-borne diseases
6. Growth of aquatic weeds
7. Coastal erosion
8. Water quality degradation
Below, each of these problems and issues is addressed from a status perspective. It answers the
questions: What do we know about each problem/issue? What data support the quantification of
the extent of the problem/issue? Do the data support these as real problems and issues, or just as
perceptions? This analysis took place on a scientific level, including biological, hydrological,
physical, social, and other perspectives on the problem. This is in effect the "status" assessment.
The next step was to perform the causal chain analysis; the major perceived problems and issues
were analyzed to determine the primary, secondary and root causes for these problems/issues.
Identification of root causes is important because root causes tend to be more systemic and
fundamental contributors to environmental degradation. Interventions and actions directed at the
root causes tend to be more sustainable and effective than interventions directed at primary or
secondary causes. Because the linkages between root causes and solutions of the perceived
problems are often not clear to policymakers, however, interventions commonly are mistakenly
directed at primary or secondary causes.
This Preliminary TDA attempts to clarify the linkages between root causes and perceived
problems to encourage interventions at this more sustainable level. Fortunately, a number of
different perceived problems and issues have the same root causes so addressing a few root
causes may have positive effects on several problems and issues.
2
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
This Preliminary TDA faced several challenges, including a lack of complete information and
data, a short time frame for its final preparation, and limited time in the Region.
3
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
2.0 Biogeophysical and Socio-Economic Setting of the Volta River Basin
2.1 Biogeophysical
Characteristics
Physical Features
The Volta River Basin is the 9th largest in sub-Saharan Africa with an estimated area of 400,000
km2. The Volta basin stretches from approximately latitude 5 0 45' N in Ghana to 14 0N in Mali.
The widest stretch is from approximately longitude 50W to 20E along latitude 110 N, but the
basin becomes more narrow towards the coast of the Gulf of Guinea. The Volta basin is spread
over six West African countries (Figure 2.1-1 in Appendix D.)
The distribution of the area of the basin among the six riparian countries is shown in Table 2.1-1,
below.
Table 2.1-1. Distribution of the Basin Among the Six Riparian Countries.
Area Of Volta River Basin
Country
% Of Basin
% Of Country In Basin
(km2)
Benin 17,098
4.10
15.2
Burkina Faso
178,000
42.65
63.0
Côte d'Ivoire
12,500
2.99
3.9
Mali 15,392
3.69
1.2
Togo 26,700
6.40
47.3
Ghana 167,692
40.18
70.0
Total 417,382*
100%
Figures for the area of the Volta River Basin are from respective National Reports. The areas recorded from the
country reports are quite similar to those quoted from Moniod, et al. (1977). The slight differences may be due to
the scale of the topographic sheet used in estimating the area or some changes in the geomorphology of the basin.
As Table 2.1-1 indicates, the relative proportion of a basin area found within a country does not
necessarily reflect the relative importance of that part of the basin in that country. While a
country may only have a small percentage of the total basin within its borders, as in the case of
Togo, this area might comprise a significant proportion of the entire country. Additionally, the
area of the country within the basin might hold an abundance of natural resources with respect to
the entire country, such as in the case of Mali. Thus this project is of comparable importance for
each of the six riparian countries.
2.1.1 Relief
The basin is flanked by a mountain chain on its western-most section. From the sea and north-
eastwards rises the Akwapim ranges, followed by Togo Mountain, Fazao Mountain, and the
Atakora ranges in Benin. The Kwahu plateau branches north-westwards after the Akosombo
Gorge. The only other significant relief on the western part of the basin is the plateau of
Banfora.
4
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
The basin in general has a low relief with altitudes varying between 1 and 920 m. The average
mean altitude of the basin is approximately 257 m, with more than half the basin in the range of
200 300 m. The global slope index is between 25 50 cm/km. Some of the characteristics of
the relief are shown in Table 2.1-2.
Table 2.1-2. Some Important Relief Characteristics
Elevations at MSL (m)
Black Volta
White Volta
Oti
Main Volta
Minimum altitude
60
60
40
1
Maximum altitude
762
530
920
972
Average altitude
287
270
245
257
ORSTOM Hydro. Monographs edited by Moniod et al., 1977.
2.1.2
Geology and Soils
The geology of the main Volta is dominated by the Voltaian system. Other geological
formations include the Buem formation, Togo series, Dahomegan formation, and Tertiary-to-
Recent formations. The Voltaian system consists of Precambrian to Paleozoic sandstones, shales
and conglomerates. The Buem series lies between the Togo series in the east and the Voltaian
system in the west. The Buem series comprises calcareous, argillaceous, sandy and ferruginous
shales, sandstones, arkose, greywacke and agglomerates, tuffs, and jaspers. The Togo series lies
to the eastern and southern part of the main Volta and consists of alternating arenaceous and
argillaceous sediment. The Dahomeyan system occurs at the southern part of the main Volta
Basin and consists of mainly metamorphic rocks, including hornblende and biotite, gneisses,
migmatites, granulites, and schist.
The Oti Basin is underlain mainly by the Voltaian system, the Buem formation and the Togo
series.
The White Volta Basin is composed of the Birimian system and its associated granitic intrusives
and isolated patches of Tarkwaian formation. The other significant formation is the Voltaian
system. The Birimian system consists of metamorphosed lavas, pyroclastic rocks, phyllites,
schists, tuffs, and greywackes.
The Black Volta Basin consists of granite, the Birimian and Voltaian systems, and, to a minor
extent, the Tarkwaian system. The Tarkwaian formation consists of quartzites, phyllites, grits,
conglomerates, and schists.
The underlying rocks of the basin have no inherent porosity. Thus, groundwater storage occurs
only in fractured zones of the rocks.
2.1.3 Hydrogeology
As discussed above, the geological characteristics of the basin show that the rocks have no
inherent porosity. Formation of aquifers, therefore, depends upon secondary porosity created as
a result of fissuring or weathering. Weathering is a consequence of circulation of water through
joints, fractures, and quartz veins which had formed earlier in the rocks. Muscovite or
hornblende can weather to approximately 30 m, whereas the Birimian formation can weather to a
depth of approximately 73 m, thus giving rise to a thicker aquifer. The hydrogeological
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Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
characteristics are presented in Table 2.1-3. See Figure 2.1-2 in Appendix D for a map of the
geology of the Volta River Basin.
Table 2.1-3. Hydrogeological Characteristics of the Basin
Mean
Mean
Mean
Run-off
Borehole
Specific
Depths to
Depth
Depth of
Borehole
Depth of
Coefficient
Yields
Capacities
Aquifer
to
Boreholes
Yields
Borehole
(%)
(m3/h)
(m3/h/m)
(m)
Aquifer
(m)
(m3/h)
(m)
(m)
White
10.8
0.03 24.0
2.1
0.01 21.1
3.7 51.5
18.4
7.4 123.4
24.7
Volta
Black
8.3
0.1 36.0
2.2
0.02 5.28
4.3 82.5
20.6
Volta
Oti
14.8
0.6 36.0
5.2
0.06 10.45 6.0 39.0
20.6
25.0 82.0
32.9
Lower
17.0
0.02 36.0
5.7
0.05 2.99
3.0 55.0
22.7
21 129.0
44.5
Volta
Tabulated from MWH, 1998
The table indicates that run-off coefficients are in general low. This means that direct recharge
of aquifers from precipitation is less than 20% across the basin. These figures do not give a good
outlook for recharge of the groundwater resources.
The borehole yields are quite variable with a mean for all the sub-basins between 2.1 and 5.7
m3/h. These figures suggest that the groundwater yields in the basin are low.
Specific capacity is a measure of transmissivity of the aquifers. High specific capacity indicates
a high coefficient of transmissivity and similarly, a low specific capacity indicates low
transmissivity. The figures in the table show that the region has low hydraulic transmissivity.
The depth of aquifers is also variable in the basin. Studies have shown that there is no
correlation between depths to aquifer and borehole yields (WARM, 1998).
The results indicate that groundwater resources are not abundant in the basin and face threats if
not properly managed.
2.1.4 Soils
The geology, relief, and climate of locations interact to produce soils of typical characteristics.
The soils of the Main Volta Basin in the sub-humid Savannah Zones are Savannah Ochrosols,
Groundwater Laterites, Savannah Ochrosols Groundwater Laterite (GWL), Savannah Ochrosol
GWL Intergrades, Savannah Ochrosol Rubrisol Intergrades, Tropical Black Clays,
Alluviosols, Tropical Grey Earths, Sodium Vleisols, and Savannah Gleisols.
The major soil groups in the Black and White Volta are Savannah Ochrosols, Groundwater
Laterites, Savannah Ochrosols Groundwater Laterite Intergrades, Savannah Lithosol, Savannah
Gleisols, Savannah Ochrosols Rubrisol Intergrades, and Savannah Gleisol Alluviosol
Intergrades.
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Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
The soils of the Oti Basin are Savannah Ochrosols, Groundwater Laterites, Savannah Ochrosol-
GWL Intergrades, Savannah Lithosols, Savannah Gleisols, and Forest Lithosols.
Table 2.1-4. Identified Soil Groups in the Basin
Soil
Group
Predominant
Predominant
Erosion
Relief
Texture
Hazard
Savannah Ochrosols
Upper and middle
Moderately heavy to
Moderate sheet
slopes
gently
light
and
gully
undulating erosion
Groundwater Water
Near level to level
Light over concretions
Severe to very
Laterites (GWL)
lower slopes to valley
and Ironpan
severe sheet
bottoms
erosion
Savannah Ochrosols
Gently undulating to
Medium to light
Moderate to
GWL Intergrades
level middle to lower
severe sheet
slopes
erosion
Savannah Lithosols
Summits with steep
Medium to light
Severe gully
slopes
erosion
Savannah Gleisols
Near-level to level
Moderately heavy to
Slight sheet
(GLE)
lowlands
very
heavy erosion
Savannah GLE-
Lowland terraces
Light to very light
Moderate to
Alluviosol
Intergrades
slight
sheet
erosion
2.1.5 Climate
The climate of the region is controlled by two air masses: the North-East Trade Winds and the
South-West Trade Winds.
The North-East Trade Winds, or the Harmattan, blowing from the interior of the continent, are
dry. In contrast, the South-West Trade Winds, or the monsoons, are moist since they blow over
the seas. The interphase of these two air masses is called the Inter-tropical Convergence Zone
(ITCZ). There is a lot of convective activity in the region of the ITCZ, hence the region is
associated with a considerable amount of rainfall. The ITCZ moves northwards and southwards
across the basin from about March to October when rainfall is received in the region.
Three types of climatic zones can be identified in the region: the humid south with two distinct
rainy seasons; the tropical transition zone with two seasons of rainfall very close to each other;
and, the tropical climate, north of lat 9° N, with one rainfall season that peaks in August.
Average annual rainfall varies across the basin from approximately 1600 mm in the southeastern
section of the basin in Ghana, to about 400 mm in the northern part of Mali.
The annual mean temperatures vary from about 27° C to 30° C. Daily temperatures can be as
high as 32° C - 44° C, however, whereas night temperatures can be as low as 15° C. The
humidity varies between 6% and 83% depending on the season and the location.
7
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
There have been a number of changes in the precipitation patterns of some sub-catchments in the
basin, as rainfall and run-off reductions have been evident since the 1970s (Opoku-Ankomah,
2000). Some areas that used to have bi-modal type of rainfall have only one mode as the second
minor season has become very weak or non-existent. This situation means that rainfed
agriculture can only be carried out once instead of twice a year.
It has been estimated that 340 km3 of rain must fall on the catchment before run-off occurs at
significant levels. Once this threshold has been reached, approximately half of the precipitation
becomes run-off. This indicates that only small changes in rainfall could have dramatic effects
on run-off rates. Although rainfall decreased by only 5% from 1936 to 1998, run-off decreased
by 14% (Andreini, 2000).
Simulations of run-off using GCM-based climate scenarios developed by Minia (1998) showed
15.8% and 37% reduction in run-off of the White Volta Basin for the years 2020 and 2050,
respectively (Opoku-Ankomah, 2000). These projections showed that projects whose design
was based on historical records without considering climate change, such as the hydropower dam
at Akosombo, could be vulnerable.
2.1.6 Hydrology
The basin is drained by several major rivers: the Black Volta, the White Volta with the Red
Volta as its tributary, the Oti River and the Lower Volta. The mean annual flows of the Black
Volta, White Volta, and Oti River are 8,300 x 106, 8,180 x 106, and 12,606 x 106, respectively
(MWH, 1997). The Oti River with only about 18% of the total catchment area contributes
between 30% and 40% of the annual flow of the Volta River System. This situation is due to the
steep topography and the relatively high rainfall in the Oti sub-basin.
The Oti River begins in the Atakora hills of Benin at an altitude of about 600 m and flows
through Togo and Ghana. In Benin, the Oti River is referred to as the Pendjari River. Tributaries
include the Koumongou, Kéran, Kara, Mô, Kpanlé, Wawa, Ménou, and Danyi Rivers. Due to
the regularization by the Kompienga Dam in Burkina Faso, the Oti River has a permanent flow
with an annual average flow of 100 to 300 m3/s, and can reach more than 500 m3/s. Virtually all
of the tributaries stop flowing during the dry season, however, and their annual average flows are
only in the range of 5 m3/s.
The White Volta begins as the Nakanbé River in Burkina Faso. The Red Volta, referred to as
Nazinon in Burkina Faso, and Sissili, are tributaries of the White Volta and they all have their
source in Burkina Faso. The mean annual flow of the White Volta Basin is estimated to be about
300 m3/s where the percentage of flow from outside Ghana to the total flow is estimated to be
36.5%.
The Sourou from Mali and the Mouhoun from Burkina Faso join in the latter country and flow
downstream to Ghana as the Black Volta. In Burkina Faso, apart from the Mouhoun, all of the
rivers, including the Nakanbé, Nazinon and Sissili, dry up for approximately two months out of
the year. The mean annual flow of the Black Volta at Bamboi is about 200 m3/s, out of which
about 42.6% originates from outside Ghana.
8
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
In Ghana, the Black Volta, the White Volta and the Oti join the main Volta at Volta Lake, which
was created by the Akosombo Dam.
Table 2.1-5. Catchment Areas and River Lengths in Burkina Faso
Catchment Surface Length
Mouhoun (Black/Volta)
75,800
997
Sourou 15,200 284a
Nakanbé (White Volta)
41,000
592
Nazinon (Red Volta)
11,200
343
Sissili 7,450 184
Pendjari (Oti)
21,600
503b
a:
The Sourou, before joining the Mouhoun, begins in Burkina Faso then flows through Mali and then flows
through Burkina Faso
b:
Calculated as leaving the source while passing through Burkina Faso all the way down to the Togo-Benin
border.
Table 2.1-6. Area Coverage of Volta River Basin
Area in Ghana
Area Outside
Total Area
(km2)
Ghana (km2)
(km2)
Black Volta
35,107
113,908
149,015
White Volta
45,804
58,945
104,749
Daka 9,174
-
9,174
Oti 16,213 56,565 72,778
Lower Volta
59,414
3,237
62,651
Todzie/Aka 1,865
363
2,228
Songhor
115 - 115
Total 167,692 233,054 400,710
Table 2.1-7. Catchment Areas and River Lengths of Black Volta and Main Tributaries in
Ghana
Catchment Area
(km2) Length
(km)
Black Volta
33,000 (142,060)*
1,360
Benchi 1,450 100
Chuko 1,670 90
Chiridi 350
70
Oyoko 640 60
Laboni 3,270 160
Gbalon 1,490
60
San 390 40
Pale 1,030 60
9
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Catchment Area
(km2) Length
(km)
Dagere 340
40
Aruba 460 40
Kule 480 40
Bekpong 380
30
Kuon 290 40
Kamba 1,310
60
Tain 6,340
(7,200)* 210
( )*
Total area including catchment outside Ghana
Table 2.1-8. Catchment Areas and River Lengths of White Volta and Main Tributaries in
Ghana
Catchment Area
(km2) Length
(km)
White Volta
49,230 (106,740)*
1,140
Tamne 880
50
Morago 620
(1,610)*
80
Mole 5970 200
Kulpawn 10,600
(10,640)*
320
Sisili 5,180
(8,950)* 310
Red Volta
590 (11,370)*
310
Asibilika 1,520
(1,820)*
100
Agrumatue 1,410
(1,790)*
90
Nasia 5,240 180
Nabogo 2,960
70
( )*
Total area including catchment outside Ghana
Table 2.1-9. Catchment Areas and River Lengths of Oti and Main Tributaries in Ghana
Catchment Area
(km2) Length
(km)
Oti 16,800
(75,110)* 940
Bonjari 890
70
Afram 11,400 320
Obosom 3,620
120
Sene 5,370 210
Pru 8,730 300
Kulurakun 5,930
180
Daka 8,280 430
Asukawkaw 2,230
(4,780)*
180
Mo 680
(5,160)* 210
( )*
Total area including catchment outside Ghana
10
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Table 2.1-10. Catchment Areas and River Lengths in Togo
Name
Surface of the Basin (km2)
Length (km)
Flow (m3/s)
9,460
Kara
230 56.6
(Kara, Kpessidé, and N'Maboupi)
3,175
Mô
160 75
(route Sokodé Bassar and Bougoulou)
9,165
Kéran
85 17.7
(Titira and Naboulgou)
54,750
Oti
185 123
(Mango)
2,240
Sansargou
- 4.39
(Borgou)
202
Kama
- 4.42
(Bassar)
690
Binah
60 -
(Pouda)
Kpélou 417 -
16
6,730
Koumongou
- 106
(Koumongou)
394
Kpaya
- 34.4
(Atchangbade)
Koulougouna 990
40
6.03
52
Danyi
- 2.03
(Dzobegan)
Source: Annales hydrologiques de l'ORSTM 1983 à 1987 (données de 1987)
* Calculations carried out by Dr. GNONGBO, University of Lome from the topographic maps at a scale of
1/200,000; sheets of Dapaong, Kara, Sokodé and Atakpamé.
The estimation of direct recharge in the Volta River system is based on the assumption that
recharge occurs when actual evapotranspiration and direct run-off are balanced by precipitation.
This occurs when the soil is saturated to the field capacity, which is likely to occur when
precipitation exceeds evapotranspiration. Analyses of rainfall data from various stations within
the Volta River system indicate that the months in which precipitation exceeds the evapo-
transpiration are usually June, July, August, and September. The annual recharge for the Volta
River system ranges from 13.4% to 16.2% of the mean annual precipitation. On average, the
mean annual recharge of the Volta River system is about 14.8% of the mean annual precipitation.
2.1.7
Dams and Reservoirs
Throughout the Volta River Basin, dams and reservoirs have been created in order to mobilize
water for agricultural, industrial, and electricity-generating purposes. The amount of these large
and small dams continues to expand as population pressure grows. Increasing use of these
waters and decreasing precipitation in the region, however, threaten continued sustainable
management of the waters in the basin. Figure 2.1-3 in Appendix D indicates the location of
dams in the Volta Basin.
11
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Several large dams have been constructed throughout the Volta River Basin with the primary
purpose of generating electricity. The damming of the Volta River at Akosombo has created one
of the largest man-made lakes in the world, covering an area of approximately 8500 km2. A
smaller and shallower impoundment, the Kpong Headpond, covering an area of roughly 38 km2
with a storage capacity of 2000 x 106m3 , was completed in 1981 when another hydroelectric
dam was constructed at Kpong, 20 km downstream of Akosombo.
Benin has a hydroelectric power station on the Oti River with a storage capacity of 350 million
m3 and the capacity to produce 15 MW. Additionally, a hydroelectric power station is planned at
Pouya (Natitingou) on the Yéripao.
In recent decades there has been a great push in Burkina Faso to expand the number of dams in
the Volta River Basin and, as a result, there are now approximately 600 dams and lakes with a
total storage capacity of 4.7 billion m3. The volume stored annually in these reservoirs is 2,490
billion m3.
Cote d'Ivoire does not have any major dams in the Volta Basin since their basin is small and is
on the border with Ghana. The following minor dams are located in Cote d'Ivoire.
Table 2.1-11. Information on Dams in the Volta Basin of Cote d'Ivoire
Height
Surface of the
Storage
Name of the
of the
Year
Manager
North
West
Use
Basin
Capacity
Dam
Dike
(km²)
(1000 m3)
(m)
Sorobango 1994 Sodepra
8°09 2°43 Livestock
2,50
4,75
30
Kamala 1994 Sodepra 8°24 2°44 Livestock
3,00
5,00
36
Yerekaye 1994 Sodepra 8°21 2°49 Livestock
7,00
4,50
64
Kiendi 1994 Sodepra 8°11 2°42 Livestock
6,00
5,00
73
Poukoube 1994 Sodepra 8°23 2°42 Livestock
6,00
5,00
30
Tambi 1994 Sodepra 8°13 2°35 Livestock
6,00
4,50
37
Borombire 1989 Sodepra
8°44 3°08 Livestock
4,00
4,25
73
Imbie 1988 Sodepra 9°13 2°54 Livestock
5,50
3,90
73
Lankara 1988 Sodepra 9°11 3°02 Livestock
5,00
4,25
73
Niandegue 2
Sodepra
9°13
2°54
Livestock
5,00
73
Syaledouo 1988 Sodepra 9°03 3°01 Livestock
4,50
4,25
73
Tidio 1980 Prive 9°16 2°57 Livestock
4,50 73
Angai 1988 Sodepra 9°35 3°17 Livestock
4,50
4,25
73
Bikodidouo 1983 Sodepra
9°34 3°04 Livestock
6,00
4,25
73
Bouko 1990 Sodepra 9°28 3°13 Livestock
4,00
4,20
73
Bouna 1979 Sodepra 9°17 2°58 Livestock
6,00
4,00
73
Bromakote 1988 Sodepra
9°21 3°03 Livestock
9,50
4,25
73
Danoa 1990 Sodepra 9°41 3°16 Livestock
7,00
4,25
73
Gnonsiera 1990 Sodepra 9°37 3°04 Livestock
5,00
4,05
73
Kalamon 1988 Sodepra 9°48 3°10 Livestock
7,50
4,25
73
Kodo 1980 Sodepra 9°41 3°18 Livestock 6,00
4,00 73
Kpanzarani 1988 Sodepra
9°25 3°05 Livestock
5,00
4,00
73
Kpoladouo 1988 Sodepra
9°30 3°19 Livestock
5,00
4,25
73
Nambelessi 1988 Sodepra
9°32 3°18 Livestock
5,00
4,20
73
12
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Height
Surface of the
Storage
Name of the
of the
Year
Manager
North
West
Use
Basin
Capacity
Dam
Dike
(km²)
(1000 m3)
(m)
Niamoin 1982 Sodepra 9°37 3°27 Livestock
7,00
4,25
73
Niandegue 1 1982
Sodepra
9°16
2°54
Livestock
6,00
4,25
73
Peko 1983
Sodepra 9°31 3°02 Livestock 5,50
4,25 73
Piri 1991
Sodepra 9°29
3°11
Livestock
5,00 73
Sepedouo 1982 Sodepra 9°40 3°24 Livestock
5,00
3,50
73
Sipe
Sodepra
9°40
3°24
Livestock
73
Sipirition 1983 Sodepra 9°25 2°54 Livestock
5,50
4,25
73
Tchassondouo 1988
Sodepra
9°35
3°25
Livestock
5,50
4,25
73
Timperdouo 1990 Sodepra
9°32 3°11 Livestock
10,00
4,25
73
Didre Douagre 1990
Sodepra
9°43
3°21
Livestock
5,00
4,25
73
Minichio 1990 Sodepra 9°46 3°29 Livestock
6,00
3,90
73
Nankele 1990 Sodepra 9°52 3°23 Livestock
9,00
4,25
73
Nikindjoka 1990 Sodepra
9°43 3°17 Livestock
4,00
4,20
73
Peon 1990
Sodepra 9°45 3°24 Livestock 4,00
4,00 73
Tinkalamon Sodepra 9°49 3°38 Livestock
5,50
4,20
73
Yalo 1982
Sodepra 9°48 3°24
Livestock 7,00
4,25 73
Boromeredouo 1989
Sodepra
8°59
3°08
Livestock
4,00
4,25
73
Yonodouo
8°59 2°57 Livestock 5,60
4,25 73
Barriera 1982 Sodepra 9°53 3°27 Livestock
6,00
4,25
73
Total
2,971
In the Volta Basin in Mali, Pont-barrage of Baye is the only significant dam.
Togo has the following dams in the Volta Basin.
Table 2.1-12. Information on Dams in the Volta Basin of Togo
Dam Volume
(m3) Uses
Domestic water supply,
Dalwak 10,000,000
irrigation
Agriculture, animal
Tantiégon 762,400
husbandry, domestic water
supply
Domestic water supply,
Namiété 600,000
animal husbandry market
garden
Domestic water supply,
Magna 500,000
animal husbandry, market
gardening
Domestic water supply,
Kozah 5,000,000
animal husdandry
13
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Although there are believed to be hundreds of dams in the Volta River Basin, the data on the
locations and size of these waterworks are inadequate. Thus, it is difficult to quantify the effects
of the dams on the Volta River Basin.
2.2 Ecosystems
Four main types of ecosystems can be identified in the Volta Basin (Moniod et al., 1977).
Additionally, a coastal ecosystem can be found where the Volta River enters the ocean.
2.2.1
The Short Grass (Steppe) Vegetation
This zone is located in the extreme northwest region of the White Volta, covering some parts of
Burkina Faso and Mali. With only a minimal amount of rainfall of between 150 and 500 mm
annually, this zone can also be described as the Sudano-Sahelian sector. Trees and shrubs are
rare in this ecosystem, but a few tree species, such as Baobab, can be found.
2.2.2
Woody and Shrub Savannah, Open Forest of Dry Type
This ecosystem is found in the northern and middle sudan. The strands of forest are open and the
vegetation is generally dry. The zone covers parts of the Sourou Basin, northern White Volta,
Oti, Red Volta, and Black Volta basins. Thus, this ecosystem covers a significant part of
Burkina Faso and the northern parts of Togo and Benin.
2.2.3
Woody and Shrub Savannah, Open Forest of Humid Type
This ecosystem covers the southern sudan sector. The vegetation occupies the southwestern
region of Burkina Faso and greater parts of Ghana, Togo, and Benin. Rainfall in this zone is
between 1000 1300 mm annually. The zone is marked by forest galleries of thick vegetation
along river channels where adequate moisture is available. The tall trees found in the forest
galleries include the following: Cola laurifolia, Pterocarpus, Santalinoides, Cynometra
magalophylla, and Parinari congenis. In areas where trees have been felled at unsustainable
levels followed by incessant bushfires, few trees remain.
The following species are more commonly found in this ecosystem than in others: Burkea
africana, Isoberlina doka, Isoberlina dolziellii, Detarium microcarpum. Other species unknown
in the Woody and Shrub Savannah dry type, such as Uapaca togoensis, Parinari polyandra,
Syzyglum guineense, Lohira lanceolata, and Cussonia barteri, are found in this system.
In the southern part of this zone, a transition from the dry forest-belt to the dense rainforest
occurs.
2.2.4 Dense
Forest
The dense forest vegetation type is dependent upon abundant rainfall in the region. Since the
vegetation is also dependent upon soils, climate, and other factors, the vegetation in the region is
not uniform. In the dense forest zone, the following species are found: Milicia excelsa, Khaya
grandifoliola, Terminalia, Distemomanthus, Benthamianum, Pycnanthus angolensis,
Triplochiton scleroxylon, and Antiaris africana. The National Park of Kéran in Togo is located
in this ecosystem.
14
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
2.2.5 Coastal
Ecosystem
The Volta River delta, containing lagoons and mangroves, serves as an additional ecosystem.
The delta contains both open and closed lagoons as drought and reduction or cessation of
flooding due to the Aksombo Dam have isolated parts of the system, causing them to behave like
closed lagoons. This area contains Ghana's most species-diverse mangrove forest, which is
located at the mouth of the river and serves as a nursery site for commercial marine fishes and
shrimps. The Volta River, including its delta, is a globally significant habitat for migrating birds
and, as a result, the Keta and the Songhor Lagoons have been designated as Ramsar sites.
Table 2.2-1. Vegetation Characteristics of the Volta Basin
Sub Basin
Vegetation Type
Black Volta
Tall grassland with fire resistant trees, scattered shrubs,
patches of reserve forest (8%)
White Volta
Guinea savannah woodland (82%) interspersed by
reserved forest (18%)
Lower Volta
Mixed savannah woodland, Tall grassland with fine
Northern resistant trees
Derived savannah interspersed with semi-deciduous rain
Central forest
Semi-deciduous rain forest with patches of derived
Southern savannah
Daka
Savannah re-growth with scattered trees resulting from
extensive cultivation
Oti
Savannah re-growth with scattered trees
Semi-deciduous rain forest in southeastern corner
2.2.6 Protected
Areas
In order to preserve some of the important ecosystems and biodiversity in the basin, the riparian
countries designated a number of protected areas. Some of these are listed below.
Benin
The Pendjari National Park is located in the Volta Basin. This park has been included in the
UNESCO Biosphere Reserve program due to its unique biodiversity and ecosystem.
Burkina Faso
The following is a list of fauna reserves in Burkina Faso's basin.
Table 2.2-2. List of Fauna Reserves of the Sudan Territory of the Basin
Year of
Designation Classification
Area
(ha)
Location
Creation
Fauna reserve of Bontioli
Total
12,700
1957
Bougouriba Province
Fauna reserve of Nabéré
Partial
36,000
1957
Bougouriba Province
Fauna reserve of Bontioli
Partial
29,500
1957
Bougouriba Province
15
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Year of
Designation Classification
Area
(ha)
Location
Creation
TOTAL -
78,200
-
-
Source : National monography on biodiversity.
Côte d'Ivoire
Within the Volta Basin, there are two classified forests where development is forbidden:
Kolodio (61,000 hectares) and Nassian (19,640 hectares).
The Comoé National Park is also located in the basin with 1,150,000 hectares. Although it has
only partially been studied, the following species have been identified under the framework of
the pilot project GEPRENAF:
· 153 species of mammals
· 501 species of birds
· 35 species of amphibians
· 71 species of reptiles
· 60 species of fish
As in the majority of the protected areas, however, the true wealth of insects and other
invertebrates remains unknown.
Ghana
The conservation areas in Table 2.2-3 (below) contain a wide variety of animals of global
conservation significance. These include the elephant Loxodonta africana, many ungulates
(duikers, antelopes, bushbucks, hartebeests, warthogs), carnivores (civets, leopards, cheetahs,
hyenas, lions), primates (baboons, chimpanzees), reptiles (African python, monitor lizards, Nile
crocodiles, hinged tortoise), the rare pygmy hippo Choeropsis liberiensis, the manatee Trichehus
senegalensis, along with many birds, butterflies and other insects. Furthermore, two ungulates
thought to be extinct, namely, the Korignum in northern Ghana, and Sigataunga, the only known
ungulate inhabiting wetlands (recorded from Avu lagoon wetlands), have all been recently
sighted in the basin. Finally, a wide variety of fin and shellfishes, macroinvertebrates,
phytobenthos, and phytoplankton species, and wetland plants are found in Ghana's Volta Basin.
Table 2.2-3. Protected Areas in Ghana
IUCN
Classification Name
Area
km2
Management
Description
Category
Bui National
Areas of national or
1821 II
Park
international importance set
Digya National
aside by law to promote
National Parks
3478 II
Park
tourism, recreation, scientific
Mole National
research and education, and
4840 II
Park
recreational uses
Strict Nature
Areas set aside for nature to
Kogyae 386 Ia
Reserve
take its own course without
16
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
IUCN
Classification Name
Area
km2
Management
Description
Category
human influence, permitting
a first-hand study of primary
ecosystem dynamics
Gbele 565 VI
Areas in which habitats are
managed for sustainable
production of wildlife
Resource
products for cultural
Reserve
practices, tourism, and
Kalakpa 325 VI
trophy hunting. Other
compatible land uses may be
allowed (previously known
as game reserves)
Small areas set aside for the
protection of rare and
Wildlife
endangered species. These
Agumatsa 3 VI
Sanctuary
species may be introduced
from other reserves when
conditions are favorable
Area set aside for the
management of wetlands of
international importance for
waterfowl in which
Anlo-Keta
300
VII
compatible land uses are
Ramsar Sites
Songhor
115
VII
allowed (The Ramsar sites
in Ghana provide sanctuary
to more than 80% of the
migratory water birds
stopping in the country)
Mali
Ramsar sites in Mali include Walado Débo, Lake Horo, and the Séri plain.
Togo
Togo has designated a number of protected areas in the basin. The table below outlines the
amount of area protected by region.
Table 2.2-4. Distribution of Protected Areas in the Sub-Basin
% of the entire
Region
Number of Areas
Surfaces in ha
surface area
Plateau 33
143,726
8.5
Central 13
248,662
18.7
Kara 22
109,777
9.3
Savannahs 9
265,981
31.4
17
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
% of the entire
Region
Number of Areas
Surfaces in ha
surface area
Total 77
768,146
14.2
Source: DPCEF, Recueil des principaux textes relatifs à la protection de l'environnement, Edition 1993.
2.3 Biodiversity
The Volta Basin has a rich diversity of flora and fauna. Listed below are many of the species of
global significance, including threatened and endangered species that are found in the Volta
Basin. Although the data are lacking in some cases, the true wealth of the basin's biodiversity
can nevertheless be seen.
2.3.1 Benin
a)
Flora: The following flora can be found in the Oti (Pendjari) Basin.
Table 2.3-1. Plant Species in the Oti Basin
Species
Acacia seiberina (acacia)
Andansonia digitata (baobab)
Borassus aethiopum (rhônier)
Daniella oliveri (ledaniella)
Tamarindus indica (tamarinier)
Bombax coslatum (kapokier)
Parkia biglobosa (néré)
Diospyros mespikoformis
Khaya senegalensis
Cola laurifolia
Mitragyna inermis
Fereitia apodanthera
b)
Fauna: From the north to the south, Benin has a variety of ecological conditions
that support savannah and forest species. Elephants, Cobe de Buffon, panthers,
buffalo, lions, monkeys, and a number of birds such as the gravelot, the brush
garzette and the water hen can be found in the Oti Basin.
2.3.2 Burkina
Faso
According to the national monograph on biological diversity of Burkina Faso (February, 1999),
few systematic inventories have been undertaken, which leaves many gaps in data. The total
number of indexed species is 3,992 macro-organisms. Summaries of the taxonomic inventory of
the biological diversity in the White and Black Volta in Burkina Faso are presented below:
18
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Table 2.3-2. Animal Species in White and Black Volta Basins in Burkina Faso
Kingdom Components Families Genus
Species
Animalia
Insects
151
250
1,515
Fauna
(aquatic)
54
106
198
Fauna
(wild)
119 362 665
Fauna
(domestic)
11
14
16
Sub-Total 335 732 2,394
Table 2.3-3. Aquatic Fauna of Burkina Faso
Taxonomy Family Genus Species
Fish 24 57 118
Batrachians 5
16
30
Mollusks 10
13
23
Shellfish 5
7
6
Zooplankton 10
13
16
Total 54 106 193
Source: Traore, A.C. and S.N. Zigani, 1996, Monographie
Table 2.3-4. Wild Terrestrial Fauna of Burkina Faso
Classification Order
Family
Genus
Species
Mammals
11 33 77 128
Birds 20 76 246 477
Reptiles
4 10 39 60
Total 35 119 362 665
Source: Ouédraogo, L. and P. Kafando, 1996, Monographie
Table 2.3-5. Status of Threatened Species at the National Level in Burkina Faso
In the Process of
Category Disappeared
Threatened Vulnerable
Total
Disappearing
Damalisque
Panthère
Gazelle rufifron
Mammals Oryx
Guépard
8
Gazelle dorcas
Elephant
Lycaon
Birds
Ostrich
Calao of abyssini
Crowned Crane
3
Crocodile
Reptiles
2
Python
Fish
Protoptère
(eel)
1
Acacia senegal
Adansonia
Woody Flora
16
Dalbergia
digitata
19
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
In the Process of
Category Disappeared
Threatened Vulnerable
Total
Disappearing
melanoxylon
Bombax costatum
Pterocarpus
Ceiba will
lucens
pentandra
Vitex doniana
Anogeissus
Ximenia
leiocarpus
americana
Khaya
Dalbergia
senegalensis
melanoxylon
Prosopis africana
Parkia biglobosa
Vitellaria
paradoxa
Source: Sp-conagese
Table 2.3-6. Plant Species in White and Black Volta Basins in Burkina Faso
Kingdom Components Families
Genus
Species
Plants
Higher
8 13 28
mushrooms
Algae 32 88 191
Herbaceous
flora of the
76 118 185
humid zone
Herbaceous
flora of the
87 333 627
land
376
Woody
flora 55
214
Total 258 766
1,407
Table 2.3-7. Threatened Plant Species in the Northern and Central Region of Burkina Faso
Overexploited and Rare Species in
Rare Species Threatened with
Vulnerable Food Species
Urban Areas
Extinction
Daniella oliveri
Acacia erythrocalyx
Adansonia digitata
Diospyros mespiliformis
Annona senegalensis
Bombax costatum
Entada africana
Brachystelma simplex subsp.
Vitellaria paradoxa subsp. Parkii
banforae
Zanthoxylum xanthoxyloides
Gossypium anomalium
Detarium microcarpum
Sarcocephalus latifolius
Guibourtia will copallifera
Lannea microcarpa
Rauvolfia will vomitora
Hibiscus gourmassia
Sclerocarya birrea.
Securidaca longepedunculata
Landolphia heudolotti
Spondias mombin
Trichilia roka (= T. emetica)
Saba senegalensis variété will
glabriflora
Vitex doniana
Parkia biglobosa
20
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Overexploited and Rare Species in
Rare Species Threatened with
Vulnerable Food Species
Urban Areas
Extinction
Ximenia americana
Tamarindus indica
Source: Sp-conagese
2.3.3 Côte
d'Ivoire
The Comoé National Park serves as habitat for a great number of threatened and endangered
species, as is detailed in the table below.
Table 2.3-8. Rare and Endangered Species Inventoried in the National Park of Comoé in
Côte d'Ivoire
IUCN Status
Family
Common Name
Cercopithecidae
Cercocèbe à collier blanc
Céphalophe à bande dorsale
noire
Céphalophe bleu/C. de
7 species with least risk of extinction
Cephalophinae
Maxwell
but may be threatened soon
Céphalophe noir
Céphalophe à dos jaune
Tragulidae
Chevrotain aquatique
Tragelaphinae Bongo
Hyaenidae Hyène
tachetée
Alcelaphinae Bubale
Cephalophinae
Céphalophe à flancs roux
9 species with least risk of extinction,
Hippotraginae Antilope
rouanne
but depending on conservation
Cobe defassa
measures
Reduncinae
Cobe de Buffon
Rédunca
Neotraginae Ourébi
Bovinae Buffle
Cecopithecidae Diane
Cercopithecidae Colobe
magistrat
4 vulnerable species
Felidae Lion
Crocodylidae
Crocodile de forêt
Pongidae Chimpanzé
3 species threatened with extinction
Canidae
Chien sauvage d'Afrique
Elephantidae Eléphant
Similar table not provided for flora
2.3.4 Ghana
Most flora and fauna species of international significance are found in the wet savannah, and
wildlife and forest reserves within the basin. The Volta estuary and the Keta and Songhor
21
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
lagoons are important for their significant populations of waterfowl. These wetlands have been
designated as Ramsar sites.
Ghana's coastal region also serves as habitat for significant species. Five species of marine
turtles are found within the territorial waters of Ghana and use the beaches for nesting. These
beaches are not protected, however, and in recent years have been threatened by erosion.
Table 2.3-9. Endemic Flora Species of the Volta Basin
Species Status
Talbotiella genti
Endangered
Kyllinga echinatta
Not threatened
Aneilema setiferum
Not threatened
Gongronema obscurum
Insufficient data
Hilddergardia barteri
Insufficient data
Raphionacme vignei; var. pallidiciliatum
Not threatened
Rhinopterys angustifulia
Insufficient data
22
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Table 2.3-10. Fauna of Global Conservation Significance within the Volta Basin in Ghana
Species
Animals In Protected Areas
Status
Endangered &
Scientific
Mole
Dygya
Bui
Kogyae S.
Kalapa
Gbele R. Agumatsa
Non -
English Name
Completely
Name
N. P.
N. P.
N. P.
N. R.
R. R.
R.
W. P.
Protected
Protected
i. Probocidea
a
-
a
Loxodonta
1. Elephant
africana
a
a
-
a
ii. Primate
2. Black & White
Colobus
colobus
polykomos
a
a
a
a
-
a
Cercopithecus
3. Mona Monkey
mona
a
a
a
4. Spot-nosed
Cercopithecus
monkey
petaurista
a
a
a
a
Cercopithecus
5. Green monkey
- -
aethips
a
a
a
Erythrocebus
6. Patas monkey
patos
a
a
a
a
a
a
7. Baboon
Papio anubis
a
a
a
a
a
a
iii. Caruivora
8. Lion
Panthera leo
a
9. African civet
Vivera civetta
a
a
-
a
Atilax
10. Mongoose sp.
poludionosus
a
Crocuta
Spotted hyena
croauto
a
iv. Arritiodctyla
Hippopotamus
11. Hippopotamus
amphibius
a
a
a
-
a
12. Pygmy
Cheoropsis
-
hippopotamus
liberiusis
a
Alcelapluis
13. Hartebeest
burelophus
a
a
a
a
a
23
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Species
Animals In Protected Areas
Status
Endangered &
Scientific
Mole
Dygya
Bui
Kogyae S.
Kalapa
Gbele R. Agumatsa
Non -
English Name
Completely
Name
N. P.
N. P.
N. P.
N. R.
R. R.
R.
W. P.
Protected
Protected
14. Roan
Hippotragus
Antelope
equinus
a
a
a
a
a
a
Phacochoerus
15. Warthog
aethipicus
a
a
a
a
a
Potamochoerus
16. Red river hog
porcus
a
a
a
a
Tragelaphus
17.Bushbuck
scriptus
a
a
a
a
a
18. Buffalo
Synceras caffer
a
a
a
a
a
Redunca
19. Reedbuck
redunca
a
a
20. Waterbuck
Kobus defessa
a
a
a
a
21. Kob
Kobus kob
a
a
a
a
22. Oribi
Ourebia ourebi
a
a
a
a
23. Red-flawced
Cephalophus
duiker
rufitarus
a
a
a
a
24. Maxwell's
Cephalophus
Duiker
maxwelli
a
Sylvicapra
25 Gray Duiker
grirmmia
a
a
a
a
v. Crocodilia
26. Nile
Crocodilus
Crocodile
niloticus
a
a
a
a
a
-
a
27. Long-snoufed
Crocodilus
crocodile
cataphractus
a
a
-
a
Veranus
28. Nile Monitor
nitoticus
a
a
a
a
vi. Rodentia
29. Ground
Xerus sp.
squirrel
a
a
a
30. Tree squirrel
Heliosciurus sp.
a
a
a
a
24
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Species
Animals In Protected Areas
Status
Endangered &
Scientific
Mole
Dygya
Bui
Kogyae S.
Kalapa
Gbele R. Agumatsa
Non -
English Name
Completely
Name
N. P.
N. P.
N. P.
N. R.
R. R.
R.
W. P.
Protected
Protected
vii. Logomorpha
31. Togo hare
Lepus capensis
a
a
a
a
a
viii. Ophidia
32. African
Python sebae
python
a
a
a
a
-
33. Royal python
Python regia
a
a
a
-
25
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
2.3.5 Mali
Endemic plant species in the Basin of Mali (Samori and Seno) include the following: Voandzea
subterranean, Adansonia digitata, Acacia albida, Tamarindus indica, Parkia biglobosa,
Vitellaria paradoxa, Ficus platiphylla, Kaya senegalensis, Pterocarpus erinaceus, Lanéa
microcarpa, Combretum glutinosum, Prosopis africana, Bombax costatum, Sclerocarya birrea,
and Sterculia setigera.
Fauna are rare in the Seno sub-basin. In the Samori sub-basin, however, one can find guinea
fowl, geese, and ducks. Mammals include gazelles, hyenas, jackals, and hares.
2.3.6 Togo
The basin in Togo offers a great variety of ecological conditions favorable for the development
of biological diversity. The tables below give the state of the flora and fauna in the basin.
Table 2.3-11. Rare and Endangered Plant Species in the Oti Basin of Togo
Species R
T
E
Acacia albida Del (Mimosaceae)
X
Adenim obesiun (Forssk) (Roem. 1 Schult (Apocynaceae)
X
Alafia multiflora (Stapf) Stapf (Apocynaceae)
X
X
Amorphophallus accrensis (N.E.Br. Araceae)
X
X
Balanites wilsoniana L. (Zygophilaceae)
X
X
Begonia oxyloba Welw ex Hook (Begoniaceae)
X
X
Canarium schweinfurthii Engl. (Myristicaceae)
X
Cassipourea barteri N.E. Br. (Rhizophoraceae)
X
Chaetacme aristata Planch. (Ulmaceae)
X
Chrisobalanus atacorensis A. Chev. (Chrisobalanaceae)
X
Chrysophyllum welwitschi Engl. (Sapotaceae)
X
X
Cyathea camerooniana Hook (Cyatheaceae)
X
Cyperrus mapanioides CBCI (cyperaceae)
X
Dacryodes klaineaena (pierre) H.J. Lam (Burceraceae)
X
Denettia tripetala bak F. (Menispermaceae)
X
Diospyros ferrea (Willd) Bakh (Ebenaceae)
X
X
Diospyros tricolor (schum. & Thonn.) Hier (Ebenaceae)
X
X
R -
Rare Plant Species
T -
Threatened or Endangered
E -
Extinct
The table shows that for the flora, approximately 10 species are endangered and 15 species are
rare.
26
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Table 2.3-12. Threatened and Endangered Animal Species in the Oti Basin of Togo
Legal Status of
Species Habitat
Present
Status
IUCN / CITES
Mammals
Gazella rufifrons
Keran
Probably
Damaliscus korigum
Kéran
Extinct
Hyemoschus aquaticus
Fazao
Probably
III
Neotragus pygmaerus
Extinct
Tragelaphus O. derbianus
Endangered
I
Lycaon pictus
Fazao, Kéran
Vulnerable
Acinoyx jubatu
R. Fazao
Vulnerable
Panthera pardus
Fazao
Vulnerable
Pan troglodytes
Fazao
Extinct
Loxodonta africana
Fazao et `Zone l'
Vulnerable
Reptiles
Crocodylus cataphractus
Mare de Fambuegou
Vulnerable
I
Osteolamus tereaspis
Marais du sud P. Fazao
Vulnerable
I
Python sebae
P. Fazao
Python regius
Guinea Savannah, galleries
Vulnerable
II
Forest galleries
Vulnerable
II
Birds
Balearica pavonina
Humid Zones of Oti
Vulnerable
Insects
Graphium adamastor
Guinea forest and galleries
Threatened
IUCN. 2000
Graphium antheus
Guinea forest and galleries
Threatened
IUCN. 2000
Graphium leonidas
Guinea forest and galleries
Threatened
IUCN. 2000
Graphium agamedes
Forest
Threatened
IUCN. 2000
Graphiumangolanus
Forest
Threatened
IUCN. 2000
Grasphium fulleri
Forest
Threatened
IUCN. 2000
Graphiumillyris
Forest
Threatened
IUCN. 2000
Graphium latreillatus
Forest
Threatened
IUCN. 2000
Papilio antimachus
Guinea forest and galleries
Threatened
IUCN. 2000
Papilio bromius
Guinea forest and galleries
Threatened
IUCN. 2000
Papilio cynorta
Forest
IUCN. 2000
27
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
3.0 Socio-Economic and Development Setting
3.1
Population and Demographic Patterns
Population statistics for the Volta Basin are provided in Tables 3.1-1 and 3.1-2. The total basin
population is expected to grow significantly from an estimated 18,600,000 in 2000 to
approximately 33,900,000 in 2025. This is an expected increase of 80% in a twenty-five year
period, which is very high. This high growth is due to the high average population growth rate in
the basin of 2.54%.
Further, the figures indicate that the population in the basin is generally rural, ranging from 64
88%. This population distribution suggests that people in the basin, to a large extent, depend on
the exploitation of natural resources for their livelihood. Such exploitation of natural resources
may not be environmentally sustainable.
The geographic distribution of the population is quite variable, with the population density
ranging from approximately 8 to 104 persons/km2. This means that the pressure on land and
water resources is sometimes concentrated in a particular area. For example, the population
density of Ghana's Upper East Regions is 104 persons/km2, while that of the Northern Region is
only 26 persons/km2. In Côte d'Ivoire, population density varies from 8 persons/km2 in the
north to 22 persons/km2 in the south. The location of one of the largest parks in West Africa, the
National Park of Comoé in Côte d'Ivoire, probably induces the low population density of that
part of the basin. Further, valleys of the Black Volta where onchocerciasis, or river blindness,
was prevalent have also not been heavily populated as people fled to escape the parasitic disease.
Table 3.1-1. Population Statistics in the Volta Basin
Growth
P/km2
Rate (%) Density
Country
1990 2000 2010 2020 2025
Urban Rural
2000 2000 %
%
Benin 382,328 476,775 596,000 746,000 820,000 2.27 43.4 36 64
Burkina
7,014,156 8,874,148 11,227,366 14,204,605 15,997,351
2.38
41.53 22.6 77.4
Faso
Côte
-
397,853 497,469 632,313 717,672 2.53 8
-
22 23 77
d'Ivoire
26 -
Ghana 5,198,000 6,674,376 8,570,068
11,004,185
11,696,054 2.5
16 84
104
Mali
380,000
625,000
880,000
1,140,000
1,260,000
2.78
45 - 75
12.2
87.8
Togo 1,189,900 1,594,446
2,153,719 2,891,457 3,385,266 2.80
66 30 70
Total 14,474,276 18,642,598 23,924,622 30,618,560 33,876,343
Average
2.54
48.49
23.30
76.70
28
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Table 3.1-2. Population Statistics (1999)
Life Expectancy
Death Rate
Literacy Rate
Country
(Yrs)
(%)
(%)
Benin 53 14.40 15.20
Burkina Faso
54
14.00
26.00
Côte d'Ivoire
49
12.00
35.50
Ghana 53 9.10 20.30
Mali 47 13.40 8.70
Togo 56 13.00 20.30
Average 52 12.65 21.45
There have been some population migrations in the basin. In Ghana, the decline of the fishing
industry in the Lower Volta following the establishment of the Volta Lake upstream has attracted
people to move upstream to live near the lake for their livelihood. It is unfortunate that these
settlements are often close to the banks of the lake, however. In Togo, some people in the basin
(Savannas and Kara regions) who migrated to the southern regions of the country before 1990
are now returning due to socio-political unrest.
Mali has also seen migration into the "forest" of Samori, a sub-basin of the Volta. This
movement is caused by the quest for new land for farming activities. Others moved into the
basin after the drought of 1985. Another sub-basin in Mali, the Seno, has seen such a surge in
population that there is no longer sufficient farmland to allow land to lie fallow, resulting in an
impoverishment of the land. Additionally, there has been some migration out of the basin and
into the urban areas where jobs are sought.
As noted above in Table 3.1-2, the literacy rate is in the range of 9 to 36% with a mean of
approximately 21% for the entire basin. This low level of literacy can serve as an impediment to
environmentally sustainable development. Additionally, there are significant disparities in the
schooling and literacy rates for men and women. In Togo, for example, between 43 and 83% of
women are illiterate, while the illiteracy rates for men are between 25 and 50%.
Life expectancy in the basin is fairly low, varying between 47 and 56 years with an average of 52
(Table 3.1-2). The infant mortality rate in the basin is high, estimated in 1993 to be between
68.3 and 113.7 per 1000 births in Ghana. A major factor in the short life expectancy of the
population of the Volta Basin is inadequate access to health care. Access to public health care in
the Volta Basin of Ghana is poor and significantly below the national average of 37.2% (PIP,
1990). The average of access to public health care in the basin is only approximately 15%. In
the southern rural part of the basin in Côte d'Ivoire, the doctor patient ratio is 1:18,684, while
in the north the ratio is 1:24,561. These figures are similar to those for other parts of the basin.
The tropical environment of the Volta River Basin is conducive to the growth of a wide variety
of deadly microbes and their hosts. All major water-related diseases like Bilharzias,
Onchocerciasis, Guinea worm, malaria, filariasis, etc., are prevalent in the Volta Basin.
29
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
3.2
Regional Economic Characteristics
The riparian countries of the Volta River Basin are some of the poorest in the world and have
underdeveloped economies. According to the World Development Report 2000/2001, all of the
Volta River Basin countries are considered to be in the low income category (GNP per capita of
$755 or less). Per capita GNP and economic growth rates for the riparian countries are shown in
Table 3.2-1.
Table 3.2-1. Gross National Product and Average Growth Rate for the Riparian Countries
Average Annual
GNP/Capita ($)
Country
Growth Rate (%)
(1999)
(1998 - 1999)
Benin 380
2.2
Burkina Faso
240
2.7
Côte d'Ivoire
710
1.1
Ghana 390
2.1
Mali 190
2.7
Togo 320
-0.3
(World Development Report 2000/2001, 2001)
Côte d'Ivoire has the highest GNP in the region with $710 per capita, while Mali is ranked
lowest with only $190. The average GNP/capita is $372, making this one of the world's poorest
regions. Although the figures quoted in the table are national values, the condition in the basin is
not better than the remainder of the countries. The average annual growth rates in the range of
0.3 to 2.7% of GNP/capita also show low performance of the economies of the region.
Additionally, the region is saddled with a heavy burden of external debt as indicated in Table
3.2-2.
Table 3.2-2. External Debt of the Riparian Countries (1998)
Country
Millions of Dollars
% of GNP
Benin 1,647 46
Burkina Faso
1,399
32
Côte d'Ivoire
14,852
122
Ghana 6,884 55
Mali 3,202 84
Togo 1,448 68
Average 4,905
70
(World Development Report 2000/2001, 2001)
The debt burden ranges from 32% to as high as 122% of the GNP. The average, as well as the
median, debt burden for the sub-region is about 70% of the GNP. This poor economic situation
can potentially inhibit any meaningful sound environmental development with respect to the
exploitation of natural resources for socio-economic development.
30
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Economic activities in the basin are quite similar in all of the countries: crop production,
livestock breeding, fishing, lumber, agro-industry, transportation, and tourism. These activities
can be grouped under agriculture, industry, manufacturing, and services.
Agriculture includes crop and livestock production, fisheries, and forestry, while industry
involves mining and quarrying, electricity supply, and construction; services include transport,
storage, communication, wholesale and retail trade, restaurants and hotels, government services,
etc. The economic outputs of these activities are shown in Table 3.2-3.
Table 3.2-3. Structure of Economic Output at the National Level
Gross Domestic
Value added as % of GDP
Product
Millions of $
Agriculture Industry
Manufacturing Services
Country 1990
1999 1990 1999 1990 1999 1990 1999 1990 1999
Benin 1,845 2,402 36 38 13 14 8 8 51 48
Burkina
2,765 2,643 32 32 22 27 16 21 45 41
Faso
Côte
10,796
11,223 32 24 23 24 21 20 44 52
d'Ivoire
Ghana 5,886 7,606 45 36 17 25 10 9 38 39
Mali 2,421 2,714 46 47 16 17 9 4 39 37
Togo 1,628 1,506 34 43 23 21 10 9 44 36
-
-
37.8 36.7 19.0 21.3 12.3 11.8 43.5 42.2
(World Development Report 2000/2001)
The table shows economic outputs for the countries as a percentage of GDP in 1990 and 1999.
The activity output is shown as a percentage of the GDP. From the table, it can be observed that
services and agriculture are most prominent in the sub-region, averaging 42% and 37% of GDP,
respectively (1999). Industry follows in third place. The services sector averages 19% and 21%
of GDP in 1990 and 1999, respectively. The services sector is dominant in the urban areas,
whereas agriculture dominates in the rural areas. It is worth noting that the type or intensity of
activities did not change significantly over the 1990 to 1999 period.
3.2.1 Agriculture
Accurate and specific data are not easily available on the economic output of the basin as these
data are embedded in the national figures. It may be surmised, however, that agricultural
production in the basin, which has a higher rural population than the national averages, will not
be less than 40% of the entire economic output of the basin.
To demonstrate the importance of agriculture in the basin, some information from the national
reports is presented.
In Ghana, Table 3.2-4 shows the production levels of selected staple crops by regions in the
basin.
31
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Table 3.2-4. Production Levels of Selected Crops by Regions in the Volta Basin in Ghana
(Tonnes)
% of
% of
% of
% of
Region Yam
National
Cassava
National
Maize
National
Rice
National
Total
Total
Total
Total
Upper
- -
16,280
1.6
65,379
26.3
East
Upper
263,416 7.8
-
56,725 5.6 9,281 3.7
West
Northern
518,000 15.4 68,500 0.8 81,800 8.1 71,360
28.7
Volta 112,265 3.3 424,350 5.2 48,980 4.8 14,530 5.8
Eastern*
529,014 15.7 767460 9.5 97,014 9.6 2,250 0.9
Ashanti*
186,248 5.5 373,674 4.6 12,530 1.2 706 0.3
Brong
1,000,337 29.7 854,659 10.5 91,985 9.1 32 0.0
Ahafo*
Greater*
-
38,603 0.5 2,269 0.2 8,469 3.4
Accra
Total in 2,609,280 77.6 2,527,246 31.2 407,583 40.2 172,007 69.1
Basin
National 3,363,000 8,107,000 1,013,000 249,000
Total
Source: SRID, MOFA, 2000
*Figures are totals for Districts that fall within the Volta Basin, whether wholly or partially.
From the table, it can be observed that the basin in Ghana produces 78% of the total national
output of yams, 31% of cassava, 40% of maize, and 69% of rice.
Table 3.2-5 on the following page shows the statistics of cereal production in two districts of the
Volta Basin of Mali. These regions are considered to be the granary of the Mopti region and
85% of the local population is engaged in agricultural production.
32
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Table 3.2-5. Cereal Production in the Mopti Region of Mali (Tonnes)
KORO
Cereals/Years
1990-1991 1991-1992 1992-1993 1993-1994 1994-1995 1995-1996 1996-1997 1997-1998 1998-1999 1999-2000 2000-2001
Millet
67930 64770 66440 67800 67800 66735 65500 68225 68400 68700 69000
Sorghum 3500 3950 3660 3760 4400 4400 4275 4300 4600 4650
Paddy rice
320
270
270
360
330
380
350
4150
Niébé
1545 3245 3640 980
1950 1700 2320 2370 2426
Fonio
5020 4190 4264 4990 5350 4530 3380 4030 1940 1940 2000
Groundnuts 1620 5470 5750 5520
5985 5670 6150 5975 6030 6324
BANKASS
Cereals/Years 1990-1991 1991-1992 1992-1993 1993-1994 1994-1995 1995-1996 1996-1997 1997-1998 1998-1999 1999-2000 2000-2001
Millet
48700 42600 44300 45800 45900 45600 46900 46800 47500 48000 48945
Sorghum 6300 8100 8300 8500 9230 9900 9900 9800 9800 10500
Paddy
rice 170
275 1050 1600 1900 3250 3800 3900 5600 5400 4150
Niébé
2490 4200 4000 1600 1450 1360 1500 1700 1800 1875 2050
Fonio
4900 4650 4850 4900 4825 4330 4100 3950 3500 3500 3335
Groundnuts 1760 4750 4800 5800 5800 4900 5650 5100 5850 5750 5880
33
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
The production of crops in Côte d'Ivoire is presented in Table 3.2-6.
Table 3.2-6. Crop Production in Côte d'Ivoire (1996)
Produce
Quantity (Tonnes)
Cocoa 816
Coffee 1,099
Cotton 1,511
Cashew nut
12,482
"Roucou" 1,951
Yams 225,703
Maize 14,500
Cassava 42,695
Rice 2,341
Groundnut 4,330
Irrigated land as a percentage of cropland for 199597 for Benin, Burkina Faso, Côte d'Ivoire,
Ghana, Mali, and Togo are 0.8, 0.7, 1.0, 0.2, 2.1, and 0.3, respectively (World Development
Report 2000/2001, 2001). Thus, crop production under irrigation is negligible in the sub-region
as most arable farming is predominantly rainfed. With current climate change, rainfall is
believed to be becoming more variable and unreliable. Extensive crop farming coupled with
variable and unreliable rainfall patterns in a region where poverty is predominant has far-
reaching implications on the environment and food security.
3.2.2 Livestock
The rich savannah grassland provides good fodder for livestock production. Animal husbandry
data for some of the riparian countries are shown in the following tables.
Table 3.2-7. Livestock Production in Côte d'Ivoire
Type Cattle
Sheep
Goats
Pig
Poultry
Number
117,173 253,646 205,199 5,612 1,504,614
Table 3.2-8. Projected Livestock Production in Togo (1999-2005)
Annual
1999 2001 2003
2005
Production
Cattle 299,970 318,239 337,619 340,136
Sheep / Goats
5,158,621
5,472,781
5,806,073
7,292,244
Pigs 408,755 433,648 460,057 464,762
Poultry 1,216,278 12,903,494 13,689,317 16,612,295
Source: Programme de Développement de l'Elevage au Togo/September 1996
34
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Table 3.2-9. Projected Livestock Production in Togo (2010-2025)
Annual
2010 2015
2020 2025
Production
Cattle 346,509 353,003
359,684 366,365
Sheep / Goats
12,891,380
17,447,658
28,869,040
40,290,422
Pigs 595,997
639,269
819,759
1,000,249
Poultry 26,949,411
37,188,484
56,985,036
76,781,587
Table 3.2-10. Population of Major Livestock by Region Based on 1996 Livestock Census in
Ghana
Cattle Sheep
Goats Pigs
Poultry
Region
No. %. No. % No. % No. % No. %.
Upper
East 214,717 17.2 211,670 9.1 192,689 7.6 36,767 10.4 811,925 5.6
Upper
West 284,162 22.8 231,819 10.0 542,316 21.4 68,886 19.4 1,005,733 6.9
Northern 429,460 34.4 339,406 14.6 365,314 14.4 45,727 12.9 1,559,865 10.7
Volta 112,926 9.1 369,544 15.9 432,025 17.1 47,792 13.5 970,845 6.7
Brong
50,009
4.0 226,074 9.7 233,388 9.2 36,756 10.4 797,146 5.5
Ahafo
Ashanti 21,668 1.7 240,073 10.4 184,939 7.3 19,019 5.4 2,286,841
15.7
Eastern 53,918 4.3 226,083 9.8 197,654 7.8 18,972 5.3 826,940 5.7
Greater
68,098 5.5 114,781 5.0 104,145 4.1 20,657 5.8 5,341,120
36.6
Accra
Western 4,796
0.4 230,379 9.9 153,081 6.0 43,641 12.3 304,110 2.1
Central 8,107
0.6 128,909 5.6 127,159 5.0 16,461 4.6 684,778 4.7
National
1,247,861 100 2,418,738
100
2,632,710
100
354,678
100
14,589,303
100
Total
Source: Animal Production Department, MOFA, 2001
Table 3.2-11. Estimates of National Livestock Population in Ghana (1995 2000)
Year Cattle Sheep Goats Pigs Poultry
1995 1,122,730 2,010,147 2,155,938 365,339 13,082,252
1996 1,247,861 2,418,738 2,532,710 354,678 14,558,970
1997 1,203,132 2,330,386 2,458,307 339,808 15,878,568
1998 1,209,317 2,366,407 2,523,004 325,884 17,281,997
1999 1,215,534 2,402,985 2,589,404 312,531 18,809,469
2000 1,221,783 2,440,128 2,657,551 299,725 20,472,222
Source: Animal Production Department, MOFA, 2001
35
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Table 3.2-12. Population of Major Livestock in the Volta Basin in Ghana
Livestock
Population
% of National Total
Cattle 1,111,707 89.1
Sheep 1,672,395 69.1
Goats 1,854,749 70.5
Pigs 231,760 65.3
Poultry 5,479,352 37.5
Four regions, including the Upper-East, Upper-West, Northern and Volta, which fall exclusively
in the basin, account for 83.5%, 57.7%, 64.1%, and 68.8% of cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs,
respectively.
3.2.3 Fisheries
Fish production is also an important para-agricultural activity in the basin. In the Oti River in
Benin, fish are abundant. Downstream in Togo, fishing is also found to be a secondary activity
of the population.
During the drought of the 1970s, fishing gained importance as an economic activity and as a
source of food in Burkina Faso. Fishing is done in rivers (Mouhoun, Oti, Kompienga, Comoé,
Léraba, Béli, Faga, Garoual, Sirba, and Tapoa) and in reservoirs (Kompienga, Bagré, Sourou,
Moussodougou, Zega, Loumbila, and Kanazoé). Families of fish that are exploited include
Cichlidae, Centropomidae, Mochokidae, Clariidae, Bagridae, Clatoteidae, Characidae,
Mormyridae, and Osteoglossidae. Although this area has not been studied adequately, it is
estimated that between 8,000 and 8,500 tons of fish are caught annually at a national level, and
that this amount constitutes roughly 60-70% of biological capacity. The fish resources are being
modified and threatened by overexploitation in certain areas due to the degradation of
waterways, however.
Fish farming and fishing in Côte d'Ivoire experienced a takeoff in 1978 with a fishery
development project. A provisioning center of 8 ponds with a capacity of 60,000 alevins per
year and 52 fish farming ponds were established. The fish farming activity has strongly
regressed since 1993, however, largely due to inadequate water resources and the slowdown in
farming.
In Ghana, the Volta Lake created by the Akosombo Dam produced about 87,500 metric tons of
fish in 2000. It is stated that the Volta Lake produces about 98% of the inland fresh water fish in
Ghana (Braimah, 2001). The increases in fish landings from the Volta Lake in the last half-
decade (Table 3.2-13) are the result of deployment of active gear, such as the winch net, with
unapproved mesh sizes in the lake. This situation is extremely dangerous for a fishery that is
already experiencing over-exploitation. If the current practices are not regulated, the Volta Lake
fishery could crash in the near future.
36
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Table 3.2-13. Annual Fish Production in Ghana
1996 1997 1998 1999
2000
Source
No. % No. % No. % No. % No. %
Marine 378,000 84 377,600 80 336,700 74.3 384,700 83.7 421,320 82.8
Inland 74,000 16 94,400 20 116,200 25.7 75,000 16.3 87,500 17.2
Total
452,000 472,000 452,900 459,700 508,820
Source: SRID, MOFA, 2001
Prior to the construction of the dam on the Mouhoun in Burkina Faso, fishing in Mali was done
using rudimentary equipment and the activity did not provide a significant source of income.
When the waters rose, however, several villages moved to the edge of the river and fishing
became a more important activity. The industry has since moved from subsistence to
commercial.
3.2.4 Forestry
Forests in the basin are cut to provide firewood and charcoal for local populations. Additionally,
forests are developed to provide lumber. For example, the forests in the Togo section of the
basin provide more than half of the country's production of sawlog (Togo National Report).
Forests in the region have been severely overexploited, however, and are threatened.
3.2.5 Industry
While industrial development is not extensive in the region, some industries, including
hydropower generation, are important. In Ghana, production of hydropower in the basin for
distribution among the neighboring riparian countries is a critical economic activity. The
installed capacity of hydroelectric plants at Akosombo and Kpong amounts to 1072 MW.
Balgré and Kompienga dams in Burkina Faso generate hydropower with an installed capacity of
14.4 MW and 12.3 MW. In 1996, they produced 72.5 GWh of electrical energy. Some other
hydropower schemes are planned in other parts of the basin.
In Burkina Faso, a number of industries are located in the basin that both use large quantities of
water and emit waste into waterways. These include agro-processing (breweries, slaughter-
houses, and soap factories), chemical (pesticides), and textiles (tanning and sewing).
Industries in the basin in Ghana, with the exception of a few large textile factories located near
the dams, are generally small-scale. They typically employ between two and six workers and
use local raw materials. Industries in the following categories are scattered throughout the basin
in Ghana.
Table 3.2-14. Industry in Ghana
Category Specific
Activities
Agro processing
Cassava processing
Sheabutter extraction
Grain milling
Groundnut oil extraction
37
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Category Specific
Activities
Pito brewing
Fish smoking
Liquor distillery
Tobacco curing
Bakery
Wood carving
Charcoal burning
Wood Based
Carpentry and joinery
Charcoal burning
Canoe building
Shoemaking
Leather works
Leather tanning
Blacksmithing
Metal
Vehicle mechanic
Mat weaving
Textile
Straw hat & basket weaving
Tailoring, Dressmaking
3.2.6 Mining
The Volta River Basin is rich in mining resources, such as phosphate, uranium, gold, and iron,
but few resources have yet been developed. In Togo, only iron has been exploited and it is
generally done artisanally. Small-scale surface mining for gold has developed recently in the
Upper East section of the basin in Ghana, with potential environmental effects. Gold is extracted
artisanally in several areas of Burkina Faso, including Kaya, Bittou, and Yako. Additionally,
several national and foreign mining companies prospect or exploit licenses that were conceded to
them in the basin.
3.2.7 Tourism
While there are many natural and cultural attractions in the Volta River Basin, tourism remains
underdeveloped. An area that attracts visitors, however, includes the Pendjari National Park of
Benin, which receives between 2,000 and 2,500 visitors annually. Côte d'Ivoire also has a
number of points of interest, which are primarily located in the northeast. These include the
Comoé National Park (the largest of West Africa), although the current condition of the trails and
facilities in the park are not conducive to tourists. Additionally, Togo has a number of areas in
the basin visited by tourists.
3.3
Analysis of Use of Land and Water Resources and Future Trends
3.3.1
Regional Land and Water Resource Availability
3.3.1.1 Water Resources
Water is available for use from three sources: precipitation, streamflow, and groundwater.
38
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
The distribution of precipitation follows the climatic patterns as described in section 2.1.5. Some
parts of the basin have a single annual peak of rainfall of short duration, whereas other areas
have double maxima. Annual rainfall varies from about 1600 mm to 400 mm across the basin.
Rainfall distribution is not uniform throughout the year and, instead, is strongly seasonal. Some
of the drier areas in the northern section of the basin receive rainfall during three months of the
year, while the other nine months are dry.
Streamflow, or run-off, naturally relates to the magnitudes of rainfall and evapo-transpiration in
the locality or the sub-catchment. Rainfall in the upper reaches or higher latitudes of the
catchment are low and thus run-off is also limited.
Water resources in general diminish from the southern to the northern part of the basin.
3.3.1.2 Land Resources
As agriculture and animal husbandry are the primary economic activities in the basin, land
resources are critical to the basin inhabitants. The resources currently meet these needs, but the
growing population pressure that will require additional land, combined with the anthropogenic
and climatic threats to land resources detailed in Section 5.1, suggest that this might not always
be the case.
Land ownership in the region remains primarily traditional, meaning that lands are often owned
or managed by local elders or leaders. As a result, the major institutions involved in land
administration are the traditional leaders in some countries. Thus, a significant problem
associated with land resources is the institutional and legal framework governing the release of
land for use.
Some lands are also preserved as natural habitats for flora and fauna and are unavailable for use;
however, illegal exploitation of the land resources has reduced their value.
Additionally, some lands are already degraded to the point of non-productivity. For example, in
the Lower Volta Basin, the establishment of the Akosombo Dam has rendered some of the soils
in the area more acidic. As a result, the yields from farms in the region have been reduced
considerably. The potential of such lands has been reduced and will require remedial measures.
3.3.2
Regional Land and Water Resource Demand for the Present and Future
3.3.2.1 Water Resources
Water resources are needed for various purposes, such as for the production of food, industry and
energy production, domestic water supply, sanitation, transportation, as well as for the
maintenance of the ecosystem.
Quantities of water needed for domestic and industrial activities, irrigation, and livestock
production are referred to as the water demand for the sector. These uses are, in general,
indicated as consumptive uses since they are not available for other uses.
39
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Water for hydropower generation is, on the other hand, non-consumptive since the water passing
through the turbines can be used for other purposes. However, non-consumptive use such as
hydropower generation also has some losses of water through increased evaporation from
reservoirs. Both consumptive and non-consumptive uses are relevant for integrated management
of the basin.
The basin demand for water is an aggregation of the demands from the riparian countries over a
period of time. The country demand, in turn, is dependent on the types of economic activities
undertaken, as well as the level of the country's development as more advanced economies will
demand more water than less advanced ones. Population is also a factor in determining the
quantity of water needed for domestic use.
Projections for water demand are thus based on growth of population and the activities envisaged
to be carried out under the country's development plans. The projected water demand outlined
in this section was synthesized from country reports.
Table 3.3-1 shows the water demand for domestic and industrial activities. These are projected
to increase due to the rapid population increase and envisaged industrial expansion, both of
which will require an increased use of water. The domestic/industrial water demand for Benin
was, however, very high and may be due to planned economic development activities.
Table 3.3-2 presents water demand data for irrigation in the basin. In Ghana and Benin, the
increases expected are quite high. The percentage increases of year 2020 demand over year 2000
are 538% and 706% for Ghana and Benin, respectively. The high projections of water demand
for irrigation in the basin stem from the fact that rain-fed agriculture is becoming more
precarious and less reliable under climate change and the ensuing variable precipitation. Further,
the need to produce adequate food to feed the rising populations is a major concern of the
countries in the sub-region.
Table 3.3-3 presents the information on water demand for livestock production. It is observed
again that the demand for water needed for livestock will increase by several times by the year
2025 to meet the protein requirements of the basin population and for export.
The information provided in Table 3.3-4 for the total water demand shows drastic increases of
62% to 1221% in year 2020 over year 2000 water demands. The sharp increases are, however,
largely driven by the high irrigation water demand projected for the future.
While significantly higher demands have been projected for the near future, current demands are
not now being met in most countries. For example, the water resource supply for the Volta
Basin in Ghana for 2000 was 245 x 106m3 (WARM, 1998). This implies that for a demand of
about 729 x 106m3, only 34% was met. The problem of not being able to meet the consumptive
water demand depends, to a large extent, upon inadequate infrastructure of water supply systems.
This means that there are not sufficient financial resources to store, treat, and distribute water.
40
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Seasonal variations also hinder the ability to supply needed water resources. For example, in the
upper reaches of the catchment, such as in Mali and some sections of Burkina Faso, river flows
are not year round and some wells and groundwater boreholes go dry during certain months.
Thus, water-resources availability becomes a problem.
Hydropower generation is an important economic activity in the basin, especially for Ghana.
The power is sold among some of the riparian countries: Togo, Benin, and Burkina Faso. In
Ghana, Akosombo and Kpong generate hydropower and the combined capacity of the two
schemes is 1060 MW. Water demand for the two for generation is approximately 37.8 billion
m3.
Table 3.3-1. Domestic/Industrial Water Demand of the Volta River Basin (x 106m3)
Country 1990 2000 2010 2020
2025
Benin 56
196
336
448
Burkina Faso
67
85
106
132
149
Côte d'Ivoire
-
4
5
12
14
Ghana 82 138 192 272
284
Mali 5 9 13
16
18
Togo 51 68 92 123
145
Table 3.3-2. Irrigation Water Demand of the Volta River Basin (x 106m3)
Country 1990
2000 2010 2020
2025
Benin 152 548
1,225
1,600
Burkina Faso
43
203
384
554
639
Côte d'Ivoire
-
19
57
166
276
Ghana 75 565 1,871
3,605
3,733
Mali 126 180 219 291
311
Togo 43 50 91 133
171
Table 3.3-3. Water Demand for Livestock of the Volta River Basin (x 106m3)
Country 1990
2000
2010 2020 2025
Benin 40 94 133 175
Burkina Faso
37
46
61
78
88
Côte d'Ivoire
-
1
2
3
3
Ghana 18
26 41 63 67
Mali 4 34 74 123 142
Togo 15
19
22 30 36
41
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Table 3.3-4. Total Consumptive Water Demand of the Volta River Basin (x 106m3)
% Increase
Country 1990 2000 2010 2020 2025 2020/2000
Benin -
249
838
1,694
2,223 583
Burkina Faso
147
335
550
764
876
128
Côte d'Ivoire
-
24
64
181
293
1,221
Ghana 175 729
2,104
3,940 4,084
424
Mali 136
223
306 430 471
93
Togo 109
137 205 286 351
62
3.3.2.2 Land Resources
Information on demand for land resources is inadequate in the basin. Statistics of land use were
given, for example, in Togo and out of a basin area of 2,670,000 ha only 428,000 (16%) were put
under cultivation in 1995, while an area of 528,420 ha (19%) were under forest reserve. Fertility
of the soils was not discussed, but this could be a limiting factor due to the expansion of
agricultural lands. For the Volta Basin in Burkina Faso, 3,905,500 ha, representing 22.5% of the
basin area is under cultivation. It was indicated that land availability in that area for farming is
becoming limited but is not yet in a crisis situation. Throughout the basin, the loss of soil
fertility due to erosion, over-use, over-use of manure, and uncontrolled bushfires were identified
as problematic issues.
Farming practices could determine the size of land needed for future activities. With the increase
in population, the available data and information suggest that demand for land for farming will
increase with the view to achieving food self-sufficiency in the basin, as well as increasing food
exports. Population pressure has not only expanded pasturage, but also reduced its quality due to
reduced crop rotation and not allowing sufficient time for croplands to lie fallow to regenerate
essential nutrients.
42
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
4.0 Legal and Regulatory Setting
Institutional structures and legal frameworks have been established to some degree in the
riparian countries for environmental management, as documented in the various country reports.
A summary of the various national institutional structures and legal frameworks is presented in
tables below. The institutions charged with transboundary water resources issues are then
discussed in greater detail. A short summary of legal and institutional constraints follows.
4.1 Benin
Benin has developed a number of laws and institutions to address the environmental impacts of
activities in the country, which are outlined in the following table.
Table 4.1-1. Ministries and Departments for Managing Land and Water Resources in Benin
Ministry Departments
Responsibilities
Ministry of Environment,
Environment, Sanitation,
Management of the
Settlements, and Urban
and Urban Roads,
Environment
Development
Administration of
Territories
Ministry of Agriculture,
Rural Development, Forest Management of Natural
Livestock, and Fishing
and Natural
Resources, Water, and
Resources, Agriculture,
Soils
Fishing, Livestock
Ministry of Mines, Energy, and
Mining, Beninois Society
Management of Mineral
Hydraulics
of Electricity and Water,
Resources, Management
Hydraulics
and Distribution of Water
Resources at the National
Level
Ministry of State in Charge of
-
Identification of projects
Coordination of Government Act,
and programmes that will
Forecasting, and
have positive impacts on
Development
the environment. Follow-
up of projects and
programmes and their
actual impacts on the land,
and in particular the
environment
Ministry of Interior and
Department of Territorial Environmental issues
Security and Decentralization
Administration;
Department of Local
Community;
National Commission of
State Affairs; Department
of Prevention and Soil
Protection
43
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Ministry Departments
Responsibilities
Ministry of Law and Justice and
Department of Law and
Support of the legal
Human Rights
Codification
framework
Ministry of Finance and
-
Development of policies
Economy
for improving the
environment, e.g., tax
incentives
Ministry of Public Health
Department of Hygiene and Implementation of
Sanitation
national policies in matters
of hygiene and health
Ministry of Higher Education and
National University of
Concern about
Scientific Research
Benin; Committee of Man
environmental policies
and Biosphere; Beninois
National
Commission of UNESCO;
Beninois Center of
Scientific
Research and Technique
Apart from the Ministries having some roles in managing water and land resources, the Beninois
government has put in place measures that give roles to the local communities concerning
sanitation, public health, and roads.
Several legislative texts have been passed for rational management of the natural resources of the
country. Some of these include:
1. Decree No. 82-435; December 30, 1982 against bushfires and setting fires to plantations.
2. The Law No. 87-016; Water Code.
3. The Law No. 98-030; February 12, 1999 on legal framework for the environment of the
republic of Benin.
4.2 Burkina
Faso
The overall vision of the country's framework for managing natural resources, expressed in the
document "Policies and Strategies in Water Matters" adopted by the Burkinabe government in
1998, is of sustainable human development. This means providing economic security, health,
food security, and a sound environment, among other things. The following laws are in
existence for the management of the environment and land resources:
1. Act No. 005/97/ADP
2. Act No. 0014/96/ADP of 23 May 1996
Table 4.2-1 gives the responsibilities of the various government ministries and departments
associated with the management of land and water resources in Burkina Faso.
44
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Table 4.2-1. Departments for Managing Land and Water Resources in Burkina Faso
Department Responsibilities
Foreign Affairs
To implement framework of
agreements of international
cooperation
Administration of Territories/Lands
Land administration
Energy and Mines
Production of hydropower and
utilization of mineral resources
Tertiary and Secondary Education and
Education and training
Scientific Research
Public Works, Settlements and Urban
Road infrastructure and urban
Development
sanitation
Agriculture
Enhance irrigation development
Animal Resources
Management of pastoral zones
Health
Public Health
Transport and Tourism
Collection of climatological data
Social Action and the Family
Management of risk linked to water
Authorities for managing valleys
AMVS, MOB
Other actors associated with the land and water resources management include NGOs, the
private sector, and development partners.
Some difficulties encountered in institutional management include sectoral management of
natural resources and inadequate management of human and financial resources.
4.3 Côte d'Ivoire
In Côte d'Ivoire, numerous institutions are charged with the responsibility of managing and
using water resources. This situation has led to fragmentation and dispersion of functions among
the institutions.
The functions of main actors in water resources are divided into two main groups: managers and
users. The law that created this division was Law No. 98 755. There are two codes regulating,
protecting, and guiding the use of water: environment and water codes.
The ministry with overall responsibility for managing water resources is the Ministry of Water
and Forests. It is the authority in charge of policies for managing water resources. Additional
ministries include:
Table 4.3-1. Ministries and Their Responsibilities in Côte d'Ivoire
Ministry Responsibilities
Ministry of Water and Forests
Management of water resources
Ministry of Economic Infrastructure
Provision of potable water
Ministry of Agriculture and Animal
Agropastoral and fishing
45
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Ministry Responsibilities
Resources
Ministry of Mines and Energy
Generation of hydroelectricity
Ministry of Transport
River and maritime transport
Ministry of Construction and Urban
Sanitation
Development
Ministry of Environment and Life
Protection of water
Ministry of Economy and Finances
Financing of water projects
Ministry of Planning and Development
Scheduling of projects
Ministry of Public Health
Protection against diseases associated with
water
Ministry of Industry
Industry
Ministry of Tourism
Tourism
Ministry of Interior and
Decentralisation
Ministries in charge of management and use of land resources are given in Table 4.3-2.
Table 4.3-2. Ministries for the Management and Use of Land Resources in Côte d'Ivoire
Ministry Responsibilities
Ministries of Water and Forests
Protection of soils and fight against
desertification
Ministry of Environment and Life
Protection of Ecosystems
Ministry of Construction and Urban
Management of urban areas
Development
Ministry of Agriculture and Animal
Agricultural development and management of
Resources
rural areas
Ministry of Mines and Energy
Mineral exploitation
A legal framework that came into force in December 1998, the Rural Land Code, allows for the
registration and security of rural lands.
4.4 Ghana
Acts establishing new institutions and strengthening existing ones for managing water resources
in Ghana, and in particular the Volta Basin, are as follows:
· Act 46 of 1961 (Volta River Development Act) sets up the Volta River Authority (VRA).
The VRA has the mandate to plan, execute and manage development of the Volta River.
The primary function of the VRA is to generate power for the country's industrialization.
· Act 490 of 1994 establishes the Environmental Protection Agency.
· Act 522 of 1996 establishes the Water Resources Commission.
· Act 462 of 1993 establishes the District Assemblies.
46
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Land ownership is basically traditional, except in areas demarcated and controlled by
government agencies, such as the Volta River Authority and Departments of Forestry and
Wildlife. Families and individuals have access to and control of resources through birth.
Government departments and agencies charged with responsibilities of usage or management of
water resources are presented in Table 4.4-1.
Table 4.4-1. Ministries and Departments Responsible for Water Resources Development and
Utilization in Ghana
Ministry Department/Institutions
Responsibilities
Ministry of Works and
Water Resources *
Planning and regulation of
Housing (MWH)
Commission
the development and use of
freshwater resources in
Ghana
Ministry of Environment
Environmental Protection
Management of the country's
and Science (MES)
Agency (EPA) *
environment, collaborating
with relevant state
institutions and international
bodies in ensuring
sustainable development of
the country's natural
resources
Ministry of Lands and
Forestry Commission *
Control and planning of
Forestry
forestry resources
Ministry of Mines
Mineral Commission*
Granting of mining rights
Public Utilities Regulatory
Regulate the supply,
Commission *
transmission, and
distribution of treated water
Ministry of Energy (ME)
Volta River Authority
Plan, execute and manage the
(VRA) **
development of the Volta
River for hydropower
generation
Ministry of Food and
Irrigation Development
Development of irrigation
Agriculture
Authority **
in the country
Ministry of Works and
Ghana Water Company Ltd. ** Provision of potable water
Housing
for urban settlement
Ministry of Works and
Community Water and
Provision of potable water
Housing
Sanitation **
for rural communities
Ministry of Roads and
Meteorological Services
Assessment of
Transport
Department ***
Atmospheric Water
Resources
Ministry of Works and
Hydrological Services
Collection of hydrological
Housing
Division ***
data
Ministry of Environment
Water Research Institute
Assessment of surface and
47
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Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Ministry Department/Institutions
Responsibilities
and Science
of CSIR ***
groundwater
resources in quantity
and quality.
*
Organization involved primarily in the regulation of the environment and natural resources.
**
Organization involved mainly in the development and use of water resources.
***
Organization involved mainly in the data collection and processing of
data/information for water resources management.
There are two existing laws relating to land management in Ghana. These are:
· Land Planning and Soil Conservation (Amendment Act 1975 and Land Planning and Soil
Conservation Ordinance, 1953).
· Control of Bushfire Law PNDCL 46.
State agencies that have key responsibilities in land administration in the country are:
· Land Commission established by Act 483 of 1994
· Administrator of School Lands
· Land Valuation Board
· Survey Department
· Land Title Registry
· Town and Country Planning Departments
4.5 Mali
In Mali, the water sector is under the Ministry of Mines, Energy, and Water. Its function is
carried out by the National Department of Hydraulics, which was established by the law No. 99-
023 of June 11, 1999.
The functions of the department, among other things, include the assessment of potential water
resources in the country, supervision of works and appraisal of projects in the water sector, and
promotion of sub-regional cooperation in the domain of water resources management.
A number of departments are also involved in the management of water resources. To avoid
duplication and harmonize activities, a Committee of Interministerial Coordination of Water
Sector and Sanitation was established by decree No. 95-447/PM-RM. The composition of the
Committee reflects the ministries involved in water issues:
· The Ministry in Charge of Hydraulics
· The Ministry in Charge of Planning
· The Ministry in Charge of International Cooperation
· The Ministry in Charge of Public Health
· The Ministry in Charge of Agriculture
· The Ministry in Charge of Livestock
48
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
· The Ministry in Charge of Environment
· The Ministry in Charge of Territorial Administration
· The Ministry in Charge of Finances
· The Ministry in Charge of Industry
· The Ministry in Charge of Cottage Industry
The Ministry in Charge of the Environment is responsible for all issues affecting the
environment. However, the management of the environment is shared among ministerial
departments, which include: Rural Development, Health, Hydraulics, Transport, Urban
Development, Industries, Education, Public Works, and Territorial Administration.
A number of laws regulate economic and social activity in order to protect the environment. The
Preamble to the Malian Constitution states that the people of Mali must insure the cultural
inheritance and environmental protection. Some of the laws and regulations governing the water
sector in Mali include the (i) The Water Code, (ii) National Policy on Water, (iii) The Code on
Decentralised Territorial Communities, and (iv) National Strategy on Development of Potable
Water Supply and Sanitation. Other laws governing the environmental sector include Law No.
91-047/an-rm and the Law No. 89-6/an-rm. Other laws govern land ownership and the
management of forest resources.
4.6 Togo
In Togo, a number of institutions are involved in the management of water and soils. The
various ministries and departments involved are presented in Table 4.6-1.
Table 4.6-1. Ministries, Departments, and Institutions Responsible for the Management of
Water and Soils in Togo
Ministry Department/Institution
Responsibility
Ministry of Equipment,
General Department of
Implementation of
Mines, and Hydraulic
Hydraulics
programmes, formulation of
Resources
laws and regulations with
respect to water resources and
sanitation
Ministry of Public
Division of Public Health and Public hygiene and sanitation
Health
Sanitary Engineering
Ministry of Public
National Institute of
Analysis of water
Health
Hygiene
Ministry of Agriculture,
Department of Managing
Management of surface
Animal Husbandry, and
Rural Equipment
water, Agro land laws
Fishing
Ministry of Environment and Department of General
Control of withdrawal of
Forest Resources
Ecology and Rehabilitation of water from water courses,
the Environment
aquifers, lagoons, and the sea
for industrial and agricultural
purposes
49
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Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Ministry Department/Institution
Responsibility
Ministry of Agriculture,
Togolese Institute of
Conservation, studies, and
Animal Husbandry, and
Agricultural Research (ITRA) mapping out of soil types
Fishing
Ministry of Planning and
Department of Urban
Control of the management of
Management of Territories,
Development and Habitat
urban lands
Habitat, and Urban
Development
Ministry of National
Education, University of
Lome
Ministry of Cooperation and
Foreign Affairs
The legal framework governing the management of land and water resources is the Code for the
Environment, the decree of 5 February 1933, and Code for Water, which is to be finalized under
the management of water resources, and the Mining Code.
4.7
Overview of national institutional and legal framework for integrated management
In the riparian countries, many institutions are charged with the responsibilities of managing
water and soil resources. This results in the overlapping of responsibilities and difficulties in
coordination. Coordination of activities among the institutions was found to be generally weak,
and in some cases is only on an ad hoc basis for crisis situations. In order for the management of
water and soil resources to be effective, it should be integrated at the local and national level,
with emphasis on intersectoral coordination.
The effectiveness of the laws governing resources poses another problem as the laws and
regulations established for the management of water and soil resources appear to be weak and
ineffective. In some instances, the laws are adequate but they are not adhered to or enforced
either due to lack of institutional capacity or political commitment. The knowledge base of the
state of natural resources, rate of depletion, and consequent future impact is poor, and probably
contributes to the weak political commitment on the parts of governments and general apathy on
the part of the populace.
4.7.1 Regional
Coordination
Several initiatives have been undertaken at the regional level to manage water resources. One
such process initiated by the Government of Burkina Faso, with the support of DANIDA (Danish
International Development Agency), brought together official delegations from 16 West African
countries to form the West African Regional Action Plan for Integrated Water Resources
Management (WARAP IWRM). Begun in 1997, this regional cooperation arrangement within
the Economic Community of West Africa States (ECOWAS) has proposed the establishment of
a regional structure for coordination and monitoring of the West African Regional Initiatives for
Integrated Water Resources Management. Some of the IWRM country initiatives identified for
support include:
50
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
· GIRE (IWRM) in Burkina Faso
· Water resources management in Benin
· WRIS project for water resources monitoring in Ghana
· Establishing the Water Resources Commission in Ghana
· The sub-regional action plan for combating desertification adopted in 1999 by the
environment ministers
Another regional cooperation effort for integrated management of water resources is being
developed by the Global Water Partnership and its technical group, the West African Technical
Advisory Committee (GWP/WATAC). Their aim is to prepare regional Programmes of Action
to implement the West African Water Vision for the twenty-first century.
A sub-regional initiative, Comité Permanent Inter Etats de Lutte Contre la Sécheresse (CILSS),
limited to the Sahel region, considers how to fight drought and desertification with the view to
promoting food self-sufficiency in the region.
Green Cross International, with its sub-regional head in Burkina Faso, is also undertaking a
basin-wide initiative with the objective to develop basin principles, agreements, and management
policies in order to promote peace.
Other initiatives in the region include:
· GLOWA Volta Project on Integrated Assessment of Feedback Mechanism Between Climate
Land Use, and Hydrology
· World Bank
· Agence Francaise de Développement
· West and Central Africa Action Plan for Abidjan Convention (WACAF)
· Land-Ocean Interactions in the Coastal Zones (LOICZ Afribasins project)
· Center for Africa Wetlands (CAW)
Two other regional initiatives have direct bearing on the Volta River Basin environment. The
New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD) is a comprehensive integrated framework
for the socio-economic development of Africa, and contains a strong environmental component.
Additionally, two basin countries (Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana) participate in the African Process.
Implemented through a GEF Medium Sized Project by UNEP, the African Process has
developed a series of concrete projects that effectively address problems identified as having
adverse impacts on the sustainable development of the marine and coastal environment in sub-
Saharan Africa. This TDA and the ensuing Strategic Action Programme draw upon the
interventions developed under these two programs.
Bilateral cooperation also exists among the riparian countries for mitigating some environmental
issues and problems. Such cooperation efforts include the Burkina Faso Ghana Joint
Committee for managing the water resources of the Volta Basin; Burkina Faso Côte d'Ivoire
Committee for the development of programmes for integrated management of water and
cooperation in matters of the environment and forest, etc. Table 4.7-1 provides details of some
of the existing bilateral cooperation efforts.
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Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Table 4.7-1. Bilateral Cooperation Among Riparian Countries
Countries
Areas of Cooperation
· Demarcation of borders
· Cooperation in matters of the environment and forest
Burkina Faso - Côte d'Ivoire
· Harmonization of geological cartography of border zones
· Development of programmes of integrated management of
water resources
· Transhumance and sanitation issues
· Finalization of border demarcation
· Fight against epidemics
Burkina Faso - Ghana
· Pipeline project
· Creation of joint commission on the management of water
in the Volta Basin
· The dam project of Noumbiel
· Rehabilitation of transnational highways
Burkina Faso - Benin
· Transhumance and sanitary issues
· Poaching
· Transhumance and sanitary issues
Burkina Faso - Togo
· Demarcation of tripartite boundary
· Exchange of experience in matters of soil and water
· Fight against bushfires
· Protection of elephants of Gourma and the management of
Burkina Faso - Mali
their movement
· Fight against desertification
· Roads
Regional institutions, such as the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and
the Economic and Monetary Union of West Africa (UEMOA), all have within their purview the
promotion of the integrated management of the natural resources of the region for social and
economic development. At the moment, though, a coordinated framework for holistic
management of the natural resources (water and land resources) and the ecosystem of the Volta
Basin for sustainable development does not exist.
4.7.2 International
Cooperation
The riparian countries are also party to a number of international agreements that are relevant to
the protection of the environment in the Volta River Basin. All six of the Volta countries are
parties to the conventions listed in the table on the next page (Table 4.7-2).
Additionally, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana and Togo are parties to Tropical Timber Agreement 83 and
Tropical Timber Agreement 94. Benin, Mali, and Togo are parties to the Convention on
Conservation of Migratory Species. Finally, all of the riparian countries except Togo and Ghana
are parties to the Basel Convention on Hazardous Waste.
None of the countries, however, is party to the Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment
in a Transboundary Context (Espoo Convention).
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Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Table 4.7-2. Dates of Ratification of Major International Environmental Conventions
Biological
Climate
Montreal
CBD
Ramsar
CITES World
Heritage Desertification
Diversity
Change
Protocol
Benin 30/06/94
24/05/00**
30/06/94
01/07/93*
28/02/84*
14/06/82 29/08/96
Burkina Faso
02/09/93
27/10/90**
02/09/93
20/07/89
13/10/89*
02/04/87
26/01/96
Côte d'Ivoire
29/11/94
27/06/96**
29/11/94
05/04/93*
21/11/94*
09/01/81
04/03/97
Ghana
29/08/94 22/06/88** 06/09/95 24/07/89 14/11/75 04/07/75
27/12/96
Mali 29/03/95
25/09/87**
28/12/94
28/10/94*
18/07/94*
05/04/77***
31/10/95
Togo
04/10/94*
04/11/95** 08/03/95 25/02/91 23/10/78 15/04/98*** 04/10/95***
* accession
**
entry into force
*** acceptance
53
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
5.0 Major Perceived Problems and Issues
The identification of the major perceived1 problems and issues (MPPI) is a first step in the TDA
process and it constitutes the justification for the subsequent in-depth analyses. The significance
of the perceived issues and problems should be substantiated on scientific, environmental,
economic, social, and cultural grounds. The MPPIs should represent the perceptions of the
scientific and expert community on the priority environmental issues of the region. The experts
may come from the scientific community, the NGO community, government, and other
stakeholder groups.
This section of the TDA analyzes the MPPIs to identify the technical basis supporting or refuting
each MPPI as a priority issue in the Volta River Basin. The intent is to provide a technical
rationale for prioritizing the MPPIs, to help guide the direction of future interventions to improve
the Volta River Basin environment. It will be of no use to identify major intervention efforts for
an MPPI if the technical basis supporting its priority is missing. In such a case, either the MPPI
can be dismissed as a non-priority issue, or just as importantly, gaps in knowledge can be
identified, and filling the gaps can become the next step towards addressing that particular MPPI.
This section, therefore, relies on the literature generated in the national reports, to determine the
technical basis for each MPPI. The major sources of information are listed within each
individual section as well as in the References accompanying this TDA. Given the limited size
of this TDA, not all information available in the region can be included in this section.
The following list of major perceived problems and issues was finalized at the second regional
meeting of the national coordinators. The National Coordinators prioritized the MPPIs as is
indicated in the following table. A summary analysis of each MPPI follows.
Table 5.0-1. Analysis of Prioritized Land and Water Issues
Burkina
Côte
Basin
Problem/Issue Benin
Ghana Mali Togo
Rank
Faso
d'Ivoire
Average
Land Degradation
8.5
7.5
8.5
8
10
9
8.6
1
Flooding 5.5
6 4.5
5
10
7
6.3
6
Water Scarcity
8.5
9.5
8
7
9
9
8.5
2
Growth of Aquatic
5.5 6 5 7 7 7 6.3 7
Weeds
Loss of Biodiversity
7.5
7.5
8
7
9
8
7.8
4
Water Quality
6 8 7.5 6 9
8 7.4 5
Degradation
Water-Borne
8 8.5 8 7 9 8 8.1 3
Diseases
Coastal Erosion
6
-
-
5
-
6
5.7
8
1 "Perceived" is used to include issues which may not have been identified or proved to be major problems as yet due to data gaps or lack
of analysis or which are expected to lead to major problems in the future under prevailing conditions.
54
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
The regional prioritization indicates that land degradation, water shortage, water borne diseases
and loss of biodiversity are of great concern to the riparian countries. Water quality degradation,
waterweed infestation, flooding and coastal erosion are also of concern, but to a lesser degree.
Additionally, two emerging problems and issues were identified: urbanization and an increase in
industrial and mining activities.
Below, each of these problems and issues is addressed from a status perspective. This is
followed by a causal chain analysis that determines the primary, secondary and root causes for
the problems/issues. This TDA attempts to clarify the linkages between root causes and
perceived problems, to encourage interventions at this more sustainable level. Fortunately, root
causes are common to a number of different perceived problems and issues, so addressing a few
key root causes may have positive effects on several problems and issues (Table 5.0-2).
55
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Table 5.0-2. Root Causes and Major Perceived Problems and Issues
Root Causes
Perceived Problems
MPPI 1
MPPI 2
MPPI 3
MPPI 4
MPPI 5
MPPI 6
MPPI 7
MPPI 8
Land
Loss of
Water-Borne
Growth of
Water Quality
Water Scarcity
Flooding
Coastal Erosion
Degradation
Biodiversity
Diseases
Aquatic Weeds
Degradation
Insufficient scientific
capacity
Low government
priority on environment
Abuse of power
Poverty
Insufficient knowledge
/ understanding
Population pressure
Inadequate legal /
regulatory basis
Inadequate technical
infrastructure
Insufficient
demonstration projects
Inadequate intersectoral
coordination
Insufficient economic
incentives
Inadequate political will
Inadequate water basin
management
Insufficient regional
agreements
Drought
Inadequate human
capacity
Inadequate institutions
Inadequate technology
Insufficient government
power
Inadequate training
56
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
5.1 Land
Degradation
a.
Status of the problem/issue
The problem of land degradation in the basin encompasses soil degradation, intense erosion and
desertification. As discussed in Section 3 above, the basin's population is heavily dependent
upon the land resources of the region for subsistence agriculture and livestock breeding. The
increasing demographic pressures have resulted in the overuse and misuse of land resources.
Soil degradation, erosion, and desertification processes manifest themselves in low agricultural
productivity, destruction of the soil's natural productive capacity, compacting of the soil,
degradation of water quality, and loss or reduction in vegetation cover. The increased mobility
of sediments also affects reservoir capacities and their useful lives.
Farming and animal husbandry are significant contributors to land degradation in the basin.
Agricultural practices in the basin have in the past included crop rotation and leaving fields
fallow for a period of time. With rising population, however, the fallow periods have been
reduced and crop rotation declined, leading to the loss of soil fertility and less food production
per unit area of cultivated land. Increasing livestock production has resulted in the loosening of
soils and the degradation of vegetation, both of which exacerbate erosion.
Increased exploitation of forested areas is also a significant contributor to soil degradation and
erosion. Forested areas are cut to provide additional lands for agriculture and animal husbandry,
and to provide fuel. Additionally, timber resources are over-exploited in many parts of the basin.
This is done to meet rising demands for foreign exchange, as well as to meet increasing domestic
needs. Unfortunately, the timber exploited is not processed for higher value and thus more
volume of timber is required to be exported for adequate foreign exchange receipts for the
countries' socio-economic development. In the long-term, these practices are not sustainable and
have detrimental effects on both land and water resources in the region.
See Figure 5.1-1 in Appendix D for a map of areas experiencing bushfires, and Figure 5.1-2 in
Appendix D for a map of areas experiencing land degradation in the basin.
b. Transboundary
elements
The problem of land degradation in the region has both transboundary causes and effects.
Transhumance, defined as the movement of cattle, sheep, and people across national boundaries,
is common within the basin. This phenomenon is usually accompanied by reckless destruction
of vegetation, watering sources, etc. The situation also creates social tension and disruption of
socio-economic activities, sometimes proving fatal.
Bushfires have no respect for national boundaries and can move from one country to another
country in the basin. This phenomenon of bushfire across frontiers does happen in the basin and
constitutes a transboundary cause. While controlled bushfires are used to enhance the fertility of
agricultural lands, many of the bushfires intentionally or unintentionally occurring in the region
can quickly get out of control and burn large areas.
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Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Deforestation occurs across frontiers, particularly where transhumance is a major problem as in
the basin. The animals being moved are fed on leaves of trees illegally cut down by the
herdsmen. Additionally, the pounding of the soils by the hooves of the animals renders the soil
loose for erosion. Deforestation also occurs across borders when there are inadequate laws in
neighboring countries. For example, people from Burkina Faso travel to Mali because the laws
are less strict there.
Population pressures in countries with a weak economic base, as in the basin, induce
unsustainable use of forest and land resources. The easy movement of people across national
boundaries in the sub-region under the ECOWAS protocol makes population pressure a
transboundary cause of the above-mentioned environmental problems in the basin.
The transboundary nature of the effects of soil degradation and erosion arise mainly in the
sediment transport and degradation of water quality. Due to erosion occurring upstream,
sediments are filling river channels and reservoirs, and decreasing water quality. Additionally,
the transhumance of livestock occurs when new pastures must be found due to land degradation.
c.
Environmental impacts
Major environmental impacts of land degradation include:
· High concentration of suspended solids
· Siltation of waterways and reservoirs
· Increased stormwater run-off
· Reduced water infiltration into soil and aquifers
· Degradation of water quality from increased use and run-off of fertilizers
· Loss of habitats and biodiversity
· Desertification
· Reduction of soil productivity, reduced animal and crop production
d. Socio-economic
impacts
Soil degradation, intense erosion and desertification have significant socio-economic impacts in
the basin. Some of these include:
· Reduction in water for irrigation and human needs
· Reduction in productivity of agricultural lands
· Reduction in productivity of pasture lands
· Decreased availability of agricultural and pasture lands
· Decreased forestry resources
· Loss of medicinal plants
· Increased competition over land resources
· Migration of populations to find fertile lands
· Decreased food security and ensuing effects on human health
· Reduction in hydroelectric power capabilities
· Increased poverty and disease
58
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Socio-economic impacts related to land degradation are extensive, but difficult to assess. Land
degradation, however, has serious consequences on the ability to produce food in the region,
which in turn has serious consequences on human health and security.
e.
Causal chain analysis
See Appendix B.
Major root causes include:
· Insufficient scientific capacity
· Low government priority on environment
· Abuse of power
· Poverty
· Insufficient knowledge/understanding
· Inadequate institutions
· Population pressure
· Inadequate legal/regulatory basis
· Inadequate technical infrastructure
· Insufficient demonstration projects
· Inadequate intersectoral coordination
· Insufficient economic incentives
· Inadequate political will
· Inadequate water basin management
· Insufficient government power
f.
Sectors and stakeholders
Some of the stakeholders in the region include:
· Subsistence farmers in the basin
· Population dependent on forestry resources
· Basin population engaged in animal husbandry
· Hydroelectric power authorities and users
· Agencies and institutions responsible for environmental protection
· Companies and basin population engaged in mining activities
g.
Supporting Data
Benin
Only a small amount of land is suitable for agriculture, livestock, and for dwellings in the Volta
Basin of Benin. As a result, competition exists over these finite resources and the region is
experiencing significant demographic pressure. This land pressure is also hindering economic
development in the region.
The majority of land in the basin is owned and is passed down through families, rather than sold
to outsiders. Additionally, communes remain under the control of managers who determine how
lands are divided. Thus, the land tenure system remains somewhat traditional as local leaders
have significant control.
59
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Land resources in the basin are seriously threatened by anthropogenic activities, and this in turn
threatens waterways. The overexploitation of the vegetation occurs as a result of overgrazing of
livestock caused by the increasing density of the zone's population. The abusive use of artificial
fertilizers and pesticides, the reduction of the duration of fallow periods, and other poor
agricultural practices scour the land and deplete the soil's minerals. Bushfires accompanied by
hard rains and strong winds further accentuate erosion and add to the sedimentation of
waterways. Further, the destruction of forests and the deforestation of riverbanks exacerbate the
degradation of the land and threaten the Oti River.
Table 5.1-1. Characteristics of the Zones
Ecological Practices of
Agro Zones
Problems Causes
Agricultural Systems
· Burning of biomass · Degradation of
· Farming practices
· West
· Farming of hollows
the soils and
· Demographic
Atacora
· No use of mineral
vegetation cover
pressure
manure
· Food security
· Ferruginous soils
· Cotton
· Food crops:
· No market for
with inadequate
sorghum and millet,
groundnut and
water and poor
· Oti National
niébé, groundnut,
rice
fertility except in
Park
fonio, voandzou,
· Conflicts
the hollows
yam, maize, and
between
· Lack of water
rice
livestock
sources and pasture
· Breeding: system
breeders and
of breeding based
farmers
on transhumance
and changing
pastures
Burkina Faso
Land in Burkina Faso is threatened by agricultural practices, deforestation, and, in some areas,
by mining activities.
In the Mouhoun Basin, land tenure is based on social stratification. It is also based on the right
of collective appropriation distributed between the founders of a village and the right of
temporary or permanent use of the land allotted to an individual. Individual appropriation does
not exist, however, and land rights can only remain within the social group.
In the Nakanbé Basin, land tenure is related to the existing structure. The area is occupied
primarily by animal herders who require a large amount of land for pasture, but the land is not
used intensively. The land is collectively owned by the group, and they do not have the right to
refuse an outsider use of the land if they have valid reason.
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Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Forested areas in Burkina Faso are shrinking significantly as population pressure in the region
increases. In the National Action Plan for the Fight Against Desertification (1999), it is noted
that forested areas decreased by 1.26 million hectares between 1980 and 1992.
In short, the occupied surfaces in the basin are:
· agriculture: 3,000,000 hectares
· water reserves: 83,000 hectares
· human habitats: (not estimated)
· roads: 34,000 hectares
· classified forests: 788,500 hectares
· For a total of: 3,905,500 hectares.
This surface represents 22.5% of the total surface of the basin.
Côte d'Ivoire
The rural areas in the basin tend to follow the traditional system of tend tenure. At the village
level, each "great family" has a field on which the members cultivate. The appropriation of the
ground is thus collective, but its exploitation is individual.
Today, land and water resources are subjected to the modern system of land tenure defined by
the laws of the Rural Land Code and Water Code promulgated in December 1998. These laws
aim to protect the resources from overexploitation.
As in the rest of the basin, agriculture is the dominant economic activity and a significant
contributor to land degradation in the Volta Basin of Côte d'Ivoire. Cotton is a main crop in the
area, as well as anacarde, corn, sorghum, rice, and groundnuts.
The area is also used as pastureland to a significant extent. Herders come from Mali and Burkina
Faso to use lands in Côte d'Ivoire.
Bushfires are used extensively in the region in hunting, managing pastures, preparing agricultural
lands, and for other purposes. Uncontrolled bushfires contribute to land degradation.
The lands in the basin are occupied approximately in the following manner:
3%
Infrastructure, urban areas, water, and rocky zones
12% State-owned land: national parks and reserves
75% Rural areas (50% savannah and forest, 25% cultivated)
Ghana
Land ownership within the basin is basically traditional except for areas demarcated for control
by the government agencies, such as the Volta River Authority, as well as forest reserves,
wildlife, and national parks. The details of traditional ownership vary from place to place. As
the system vests all resources under the control of the traditional authorities. Families and
individuals have both access and control of resources through birth into a particular community
61
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
or after payment of certain amounts either in kind or cash (Nyankpala Agricultural Research
Station (NAES), 1989) In the northern sector of the Volta Basin, usufruct rights to land might
not necessarily include rights to economic trees like the dawadawa and shea trees (NAES, 1989).
While individuals and families might own lands along riverbanks, the rivers always remain
communal or public property and are used as such.
Agriculture is the dominant economic activity within the Volta River Basin. As in other areas of
the basin, soil is being rapidly degraded as a result of shortened fallow periods. This is
especially pronounced in the northern parts of the basin
Environmental problems arising from livestock production are becoming sources of great
concern. The maintenance of large herds of livestock has tended to exceed the carrying capacity
of the ecosystem, particularly in the northern part of the basin where mean annual rainfall is
about 1000-1200 mm. During the dry season of November to April, large herds of cattle cross
from the neighboring countries to graze on the limited fodder available. This severely exposes
the soil to erosion, and watersheds to rapid evaporation. The prolonged exposure of the soil
renders it susceptible to erosion and reduces its regenerative capacity. In the northern parts of
the basin, large tracts of arable land have become infertile and crop yields have declined
tremendously.
Table 5.1-2. Erosion Hazards of the Volta Basin in Ghana
Volta Basin
Erosion Hazard
System
· Northern Section: slight to moderate sheet erosion.
· South-western Section: A combination of moderate to severe sheet and
Black Volta
gully erosion but more of the latter with areas of very severe sheet and
gully erosion.
· SE Section: A combination of moderate to severe sheet and gully
erosion but more of the latter.
White Volta
· Same as in the Black Volta Basin
Daka
· Combination of sheet and gully erosion but more of the former.
Oti
· Combination of moderate to severe sheet and gully erosion but more of
the latter, especially within the central and southern sections
· NS Combination of moderate to severe sheet and gully erosion,
especially the southern parts. The extreme northern part is however
subject to slight sheet erosion.
Lower Volta
· CS Moderate to severe sheet and gully erosion but more of the latter.
· SS Slight to moderate sheet erosion within the savannah areas and
severe to very severe gully erosion within the forest and highland areas.
· ES Severe to very severe sheet and gully erosion but more of the latter.
As increasing populations look for additional lands to farm, deforestation often occurs.
Although figures are not known for the Volta basin, nationally deforestation occurs at a rate of
62
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
2.5-5% annually in areas that are not forest reserves. Within forest reserves, deforestation occurs
annually at a rate of 1.3%.
Bush burning, used to clear land for agricultural purposes, hunting, creating fire belts at the onset
of the dry season, and inducing rapid re-growth of rangeland during the dry season, often results
in enormous damage to vegetation, wildlife, and properties because they typically are not
controlled. The risk of bushfires are highest on the grazing lands in the savannah zones of the
basin where as many as 120 to 150 outbreaks can occur within a single year. Along the border
areas of the savannah zone, particularly in the Oti, White Volta, and Daka Basins, the problem of
bushfires is especially severe, probably as a result of the association with transhumance.
Urbanization in Ghana is another cause of land degradation in several areas within the basin that
are becoming population nodes as people migrate from the rural areas to urban centres in search
of a better livelihood and to escape tribal conflicts. Settlement growth in areas of the basin
considered to be potential biodiversity conservation priority areas, particularly in the White
Volta and Lower Volta Basin, is of great concern as important habitat is lost. Although no
population statistics are available, however, it is believed that the population in designated
protected areas within the basin has not changed significantly over the past decade.
Another problem associated with rapid urbanization is that infrastructure development often lags
behind population growth resulting in the development of poor sanitation situations that
adversely affect surface water resources. A report by EPA (2001) shows that surface water
resources close to urban centres have exceptionally high fecal coliform counts.
Mining is a final cause of land degradation. Several small-scale artisanal groups carry out gold
mining in areas underlain by the Birimian formation with little regard for environmental
protection. As a result, their operations have led to serious degradation of the land in portions of
the Black Volta and White Volta Basin. Limestone mining in the Black Volta basin and in the
Lower Volta is also causing damage to land.
White Volta Basin
Predominant land use is extensive land cultivation two-to-six miles from the village on upland
areas (NAES, 1993), with widespread grazing of large numbers of cattle and other livestock up
to 100 cattle/km2 (FAO, 1991); and compound cropping (home gardening) around the house
(Wills, 1962; Adu, 1967: USAID/ADB, 1979; FAO, 1963; NAES, 1993). Estimates of land use
and land cover in 1989 showed that about 50% of the land in the northeast and northern parts of
the basin were in the compound and bush fallow cultivation cycle (IFAD, 1990). Farm sizes are
usually less than 3 acres. Grazing lands including those obtainable under natural condition are
generally poor. Annual bush burning further reduces the quality and quantity of fodder.
Extensive valley bottoms in many parts of the basin, particularly in the guinea savannah areas,
have in recent years been cultivated for rice under rain-fed conditions. In the north and
northeast, the best agricultural soils are derived from granites, sandstones, and greenstones.
These areas remain the most densely populated.
63
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
A long period of overcrowding in the upland areas away from the valley bottoms, which had
been infested with the Onchocerciasis simulium vector, and the intensive cultivation and grazing
without proper management practices have led to widespread soil erosion and loss of fertility of
the upland soils (Hunter, 1967, Samba, 1994). Outcrops of rocks, iron pan soils, as well as the
scarps are usually avoided by farmers and may be uninhabited or only sparsely inhabited.
Fuelwood and other wild produce gathering is widespread.
Urban land use is small and most intensive in such centres as Bolgatanga, Bawku, Wa,
Navrongo, Tamale, and Tumu. Due to the decentralisation of administration to the district level,
urban type land use is becoming important in some of the district capitals, especially those along
major trunk roads (Walewale).
Black Volta Basin
The major land use is agriculture with food crop cultivation under extensive bush fallow. The
major food crops include yam, cassava, maize, sorghum, millet, groundnuts, and beans. Animal
grazing on the free range is a significant activity. Animal numbers are large in the northern and
middle parts of the basin in Ghana.
In the northwest of the basin, particularly the Lawra district, lands are highly degraded both in
terms of physical status and fertility levels and can hardly support meaningful crop cultivation.
Vegetation has also been degraded due to the incidence of annual bushfires. This has led to
seasonal human migration and great reduction in the number of livestock.
Lower Volta Basin
Current land use is short bush fallow cultivation along the immediate banks of the river, and less
intensive bush fallow cultivation elsewhere. Animal grazing is common while the lakeshores are
extensively settled by fishing families. Charcoal burning involving the cutting of wood has
become an extensive economic activity in the southern dry forest and transitional environments
(e.g., various parts of the Afram sub-basin.)
The Afram plains and other areas in the south have been the focus of increasing settlement and
agricultural development since the 1960s, having been generally thinly populated in the past as
part of the empty "middle belt" (Dickson and Benneh, 1987). The forest and transitional areas
are intensively farmed with cocoa, coffee, plantain, cocoyam, cassava, oil palm, and maize on
small bush fallow plots. A large modern commercial farm at Ejura specialises in maize
production. Some timber extraction takes place in these areas.
Recent developments, particularly below the Akosombo Dam, include irrigated rice, sugar, and
vegetable cultivation in the areas immediately adjoining the Volta River. The construction of the
Akosombo Dam has reduced the annual flooding in the Lower Volta lands.
The areas around the coastal lagoons, such as the Songhor, are used for salt mining. Urban land
use is limited to a few towns including Kpandu, Kwamekrom, Akuse Sogakpe, and Ada-Foah.
64
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Oti Basin
Current land use and land cover are extensive bush fallow cultivation and grazing with tree
savannah regrowth and small patches of reserved forest areas on the hills in the southeast. The
main crops that are grown in the basin include yams, guinea corn, maize, rice, millet, and
groundnuts.
Fishing is common along the river while grazing, as in other parts of the savannah, is commonly
practiced. Settlements within the basin are small.
Daka Basin
The predominant land use is bush fallow cultivation of yams, maize, and guinea corn with free
grazing animals. A recent land use problem within the greater part of the Volta basin especially
in Black Volta, White Volta, Afram, Dakar, and Oti sub-basins is the activity of alien herdsmen
who graze their large herds of cattle indiscriminately, leading to widespread destruction of
vegetation and even crop farms. In some cases bushfires are set to hasten to re-growth of fresh
vegetation leading to high rates of soil erosion and loss of soil productivity.
Mali
Land in Mali officially belongs to the state. This ownership, however, does not preclude the
traditional authority, which manages land ownership according to the following criteria:
· The water and land belong to the head of the land (first occupants and their descendants).
This title can be passed down through the family.
· These grounds can then be yielded, lent, pawned or sold to a third party.
· Village leaders play an important role in resolving land disputes.
Approximately 80% of the land in the basin is used for agriculture, livestock, or dwellings. The
high population density in the region places enormous pressure on the land. There is competition
between the livestock breeders and the farmers for scarce land and water resources. Resulting in
part from the increasing population pressure on the land, agricultural practices are not
sustainable. Lands are no longer allowed to lie fallow for a sufficient amount of time before they
are replanted.
The basin of the Sourou River is considered to be the granary of the country, but poor
agricultural practices have steadily degraded the land. The lands are now no longer very fertile
and are prone to wind erosion. The degradation of the soil in Mali has resulted in a decline in
production from 4 to 20% in the sahel zone and 8 to 20% in the soudan zone.
There is a great deal of competition for resources between those engaged in agriculture and those
raising livestock. The droughts in the northern region of Mali have resulted in livestock herders
migrating into the Sourou region to find water. This transhumance results in significant
destruction of the forests of Samori.
Togo
In Togo, the land resources are governed by a combination of local and tribal leaders and the
national government.
65
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Degradation of the land in Togo results from a variety of factors. First, trees are harvested at an
unsustainable rate in some areas as the demand for wood has increased. This increases erosion
and desertification as the land cover is removed. Second, poor agricultural practices, such as the
misuse or overuse of pesticides and fertilizers, have damaged soil resources. Finally,
overgrazing of the land further exacerbates the problems of erosion and desertification.
Forest resources in Togo have experienced extensive degradation in recent decades due to
population increase, unsustainable cutting of trees for firewood and charcoal, unsustainable
cutting of sawlogs, clearing for agricultural use, and bushfires. The forests of the Volta Basin
provide more than half of the national production of sawlog, and during the political crisis of the
1990s, much illegal cutting of forests took place. At the national level, it is estimated that forest
cover is degraded at the rate of 15,000 ha/year.
While there are significant protected areas in Togo, these have been threatened by encroachment
from those populations living around the reserves. In 1992, a national commission was formed
to examine the areas facing the greatest threats, which suggested turning towards participatory
management of protected areas.
Since 1970 when coffee and cacao trees and cotton production were introduced into the region,
vegetation cover in the region has changed. During that period, there was significant
immigration into the region as people came to grow these products. Considerable amounts of
land were cleared in order to make way for agriculture and livestock production. The
agricultural practices, including shortened fallow periods, used in the region often result in land
degradation. The following graph shows that the areas under cultivation will continue to
increase over the next decade:
Table 5.1-3. Rate of Occupation of Cultivable Land in the Basin in Togo (1,708,800 ha)
Years
Cultivable Area (ha)
Cultivated Area (ha)
Rate in %
1990 1,456,188 264,030 15.45
2000 1,291,759 434,014 25.39
2010 1,087,310 646,784 37.85
2020 782,632 963,862 56.4
2025 578,179
1,176,
637
68.85
Source : Projection à partir des données des Recensements Nationaux de l'Agriculture
(1972, 1982, 1996 DESA)
Livestock are also taking a significant toll on soil productivity in the region. Although there are
little data on the specific effects of livestock, it is clear that they are negatively influencing the
area.
The areas that have experienced the most severe degradation include the Savannah and Kara
region. The areas of Plateau (Danyi), the Central region (Fazao), Kara (Kantè), and Savannah
(Dapaong) have experienced strong degradation. The areas of Plateau (Danyi), Power Station,
and of Kara experienced average degradation. The zones with weak degradation extend around
66
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
the Togo Mountains, in the Plateau area (Danyi and Wawa), in the Savannah area (Mandouri),
and Kara (National Park of Kéran).
Table 5.1-4. Evolution of Various Vegetation Formations in Togo (1979-1991)
Area (km²)
Variation in % of
Vegetation
1979 1991
the area
- Dense
forests
2931
1264
- 56
%
- Mountainous
forests
863
525
- 39
%
- Dry dense forests
677
315
- 53
%
- Regrown
forests
1159
615
- 47
%
- Savannahs with trees
12922
6048
- 53
%
- Shrub
savannahs
5138
2720
- 47
%
- Agriculture zones and others
1840
1944
+ 5,6 %
In the area of strongly degraded savannah, the soil erosion was evaluated in 1969 to be between
1,500 and 2,000 tons per km2 annually. The prefecture of Oti has records from the same time
period showing from 600 to 1,500 tons per km2. These figures can be multiplied by as much as
four or six times to account for the current level of degradation (Kpongou, 1994).
The zones with weaker degradation are currently threatened by the phenomenon of savannisation
and from impoverishment of the soil due to the disappearance of forests.
h.
Data and information gaps
While the causes and effects of land degradation have been described well, supporting data has
been provided only sporadically and will need to be augmented in the Final TDA. For many
countries, information has not been provided on the areas that are experiencing the most severe
degradation, the amount of soil lost to erosion annually, and rates of deforestation and
desertification. Nor has a quantification of the loss of productivity of lands been provided for all
countries. Additionally, information on demand for land resources in the future has not been
given, except in the case of Togo.
5.2 Water
Scarcity
a.
Status of the problem/issue
As is outlined in the Water Demand Section above, the water resources in the basin do not
currently meet the needs of the population. As the basin population may increase by as much as
80% over the next 25 years, water resources are going to become even more scarce. This
scarcity is likely to be even further exacerbated by decreased availability of water resources due
to climatic and anthropogenic factors.
Changes in the region's climate, largely perceived to result from the emission of greenhouse
gases and changes in the hydrological cycle caused by other anthropogenic factors, have and will
continue to play a critical role in determining the availability of water resources in the region.
Water scarcity arises largely as a result of diminishing precipitation, reduction in river flows,
falling water tables, and an increase in the amount of evapotranspiration. Over the past two
67
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
decades the basin has seen a reduction in the amount of precipitation and river flows (Gyau-
Boakye and Tumbulto, 2000). Lowering of the water tables has also been observed in large parts
of the basin. Evidence of a rise in temperatures in the White Volta Basin over a thirty-year
period has emerged during a study of climate change impact on water resources (Opoku-
Ankomah, 2000).
Human activity in the region also plays a critical role in the availability of water resources. For
example, the removal of vegetative cover from land surfaces can reduce infiltration of rainwater
to recharge the aquifer system. Thus, stormwater peaks are enhanced while low flows or dry
season flows are much reduced. This latter situation can create problems of water scarcity for
those who depend on such water resources (i.e., instream flows without adequate storage).
Massive deforestation has occurred in the basin and if appropriate measures such as aforestation
are not embarked upon, the situation will create drying up of streams and rivers; the use of water
resources will therefore not be sustainable.
Reservoirs with large surface areas and shallow depths created for irrigation or hydropower
generation have the potential to lose a large amount of water to evaporation. A number of small
reservoirs, whose precise number and areas are unknown (more than 400 exist in Burkina Faso
alone), have been created in the basin and their losses of water to evaporation cannot be
accurately estimated. Continuing construction of these reservoirs into the future without
adequate planning and control will lead to the unsustainable use of surface water resources in the
basin.
The overuse and misuse of water resources in the region also decreases the availability of water.
In the water resources sector, an aspect of over-exploitation in the basin occurs through the
excessive pumping of groundwater without due regard to the recharge characteristics of the
aquifer system. This situation leads to lack of water during the dry season when water
availability is scarce as in the drier parts of the basin in or near the Sahel Zone. Groundwater
over-exploitation can lead to saltwater intrusion in the southern parts of the basin near the Gulf
of Guinea Coast.
The inefficient use of water resources in the region has exacerbated the problem of scarcity. For
example, flooding is the most common irrigation practice in the basin. This approach is very
inefficient, however, as it results in water losses through evaporation and deep seepage. More
efficient types, such as sprinklers and drip irrigation, may have to be introduced to cut down the
water usage.
Water supply systems for domestic and industrial uses have large transmission losses due to
leakages, which could be as high as 50%. The expansion of water supply systems for
domestic/industrial use does not always match the water demands. The limitation in expansion
is due to unavailable financial resources.
While each of the countries forecasts increased demand for water over the next decades, the
trends in water use pattern among some of the riparian countries are quite different. For
example, there has been a rapid expansion of irrigation in the last 15 years in Burkina Faso of
about 934%, while Ghana only experienced an expansion of 95% (Andreini et al., 2002). Ghana,
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Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
on the other hand, plans to expand its hydropower generation by constructing the Bui Dam.
Thus Burkina Faso, an upstream, agriculturally-oriented country hopes to develop the country's
irrigation potential while Ghana, downstream, aims to develop use of hydropower. The trends in
water use patterns can potentially generate conflict if the resources are not managed in an
integrated fashion.
Please see Figure 5.2-1 in Appendix D for a map of areas showing water shortages in the Volta
River Basin.
b. Transboundary
elements
Many of the causes and effects of water scarcity are transboundary in nature as water resources
are shared among the six countries in the Volta River Basin.
The emission of greenhouse gases in the riparian countries of the basin will be far less than the
carbon sinks. Thus the cause of climate change to water scarcity may come completely from
outside the basin.
The drying up of streams in the upper sub-catchment of the basin can induce drying up or
reduction of flows in the downstream rivers in other countries. Streams upstream can dry up as a
result of human induced actions such as deforestation of the headwaters and the forest gallery
along the river channels. Thus, altering land surfaces and stream flows in such a way that results
in the drying up of streams is a transboundary issue.
Changes of land cover and poor precipitation reduce recharge of aquifer systems. In the basin,
some of the scarce aquifers are shared among the riparian countries and human activities in the
recharge zone can be a transboundary problem. Also, over-exploitation of groundwater
resources through poor water resources development and planning can also create transboundary
causes to water scarcity.
Impoundments and reservoirs lose water through evaporation; the larger the surface area of the
reservoir, the greater the evaporation. Reservoir systems constructed with large surface areas
and shallow depths because of lack of suitable topography can potentially lose large amounts of
water and create water deficits downstream.
The effects of water scarcity can also be of a transboundary nature. When there is inadequate
water for hydroelectric generation, electricity cannot be exported to those countries in need in the
basin, resulting in economic loss. Inadequate water supplies for people and livestock can induce
migration across boundaries in search of water resources.
c.
Environmental impacts
Major environmental impacts of water scarcity include:
· Loss of biodiversity, including modification or destruction of habitats
· Loss of productivity of soils
· Reduction of fisheries resources
· Reduction in groundwater
69
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
d. Socio-economic
impacts
The socio-economic impacts of water scarcity are immense. Some of these include:
· Reduction in agricultural production
· Shortage of drinking water
· Increased cost of alternative water supplies
· Decline in drinking water quality
· Effects on human health
· Decrease in forestry resources
· Decrease in animal husbandry
· Reduction in hydroelectric generation
· Increased costs of electricity
· Migration/transhumance
· Increased poverty and disease
The effects and symptoms of this water scarcity are the drying up of rivers that had hitherto been
perennial during the dry seasons, women and children walking long distances to fetch water, and
people using polluted sources. Other major effects on some of the economies could be reduction
in hydropower generation with resultant power curtailment for industrial activities.
e.
Causal chain analysis
See Appendix B.
Major root causes include:
· Inadequate technology
· Drought
· Low government priority on environment
· Abuse of power
· Poverty
· Insufficient demonstration projects
· Inadequate legal/regulatory basis
· Insufficient economic incentives
· Inadequate intersectoral coordination
· Insufficient regional agreements
· Insufficient knowledge/understanding
· Inadequate institutions
· Insufficient government power
f.
Sectors and stakeholders
Some stakeholders include:
· Population of the basin dependent on water resources for drinking water, agriculture, and
animal husbandry
· Population of the basin dependent on forestry resources
· Hydroelectric energy authorities and users
· Government institutions and authorities responsible for water management
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Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
g.
Supporting data
Benin
The average annual rainfall in the Oti River Basin in Benin is approximately 1100 mm. In
normal years, flows are around 58.6 m3/s, which is equivalent to an annual flow volume of
approximately 1.85 x 109m3.
Estimation of groundwater resources in the Oti Basin is difficult since these resources are almost
inseparable from the groundwater resources of the Niger basin in Benin. The two basins together
have a potential recharge of about 2.5 x 109m3 per year.
Burkina Faso
The Volta Basin in Burkina Faso is comprised of two main sub-basins: Mouhoun (Black Volta)
and Nakanbé (White Volta). Mean annual rainfall in the sub-basins varies from approximately
900 mm to less than 600 mm. Over the past forty years, the precipitation patterns have been of
increased dryness, especially between 1970 and 1980. While rainfall increased between 1985
and 1995, the last decades are still marked by the following trends: decrease in river flow,
decreased availability of groundwater, the drying up of source waters, and degradation of
vegetation cover.
The surface water resources of the basin are made up of stream flows and water in reservoirs.
Table 5.2-1 illustrates the distribution of the available surface water resources.
Table 5.2-1. Potential Surface Water Resources of the Volta Basin in Burkina Faso
Annual Flow
Volume in
Potential in the
Sub-basin
Volume
Reservoirs
Basin
(x 109m3)
(x 109m3)
(x 109m3)
Mouhoun (Black Volta
2.64
0.29
2.75
Nakambé (White Volta)
2.44
2.20
3.32
Total 5.08 2.49 6.07
Source: Etat des lieux des resources en eau et de leur cadre de gestion
The estimation of groundwater resources is not very accurate due to the unavailability of data.
The total adopted value for the entire basin in Burkina Faso is approximately 20.8 x 109 m3.
The document on Strategies with Regard to Water evaluated the theoretical availability of the
renewable resources to be 1,750 m3/yr/person for the entire country, with the threshold of
shortage usually fixed at 1,000 m3/yr/person.
In the Volta Basin, according to new estimates, however, there will be available only 3.25 billion
m3 in a typical year and 1.54 billion m3 in a dry year for a population of 8 million persons, which
gives 406 m3/yr/person and 193 m3/yr/person, respectively. This volume is indicative of severe
water shortages.
71
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Côte d'Ivoire
The lack of hydrometeorological, hydrogeologic, hydroclimatic, water quality, and sediment
transport data for the Black Volta Basin makes it difficult to accurately evaluate the surface and
subsoil waters in the area.
Surface water resources
Average annual rainfall over the basin is approximately 1000 mm. The surface water resources
derived from the Black Volta are about 0.788 x 109m3/yr.
There are 43 dams established in the basin, with a storage capacity of 3 million m3.
Groundwater resources
From drilling undertaken in the basin, the following estimates have been given for the
availability of groundwater resources:
· The chances of success for achieving a flow of 0.7m3/h is between 65 and 80% for a
depth for a depth of 65 to 45 meters.
· The potential flow lies between 2 and 5 m3/h for the withdrawal zone of 21 meters.
· The index of contribution: annual average effective rain is 150 to 325 mm/yr (Peff),
providing the local reserve between 150 and 225 million m3/km².
With regard to the replenishment of the underground layer, the results of the study made by F.
Lelong in 1966 show replenishment expressed as a percentage for:
· Annual rainfall of 1,200 mm: 24% of this replenishes the groundwater layer.
· Annual rainfall of 1,000 mm: 17% of this replenishes the groundwater layer.
In short, the water resources are estimated to be:
· Annual average rainfall: 1000 mm; or 12,500,000,000 m3
· Annual historical river discharge: 63 mm; or 787,500,000 m3
· Recharge of the groundwater: 170 mm; or 2,125,000,000 m3
· Total available: 2,912,500,000 m3
This is far short of projected increased demand over the next several decades, indicating that
there will be an increased scarcity of water.
Ghana
All the tributaries of the Volta River enter Ghana and converge in the Lower Volta Basin.
Rainfall in the basin varies from approximately 1000 mm to 1600 mm.
The surface water resources received annually from outside and within the country are shown in
Table 5.2-2.
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Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Table 5.2-2. Water Resources of the Volta River in Ghana
Mean Annual Flow (x
River
Mean Flows (m3/s)
109m3)
Water resources that
White Volta
110.7
3.49
originate from outside
Black Volta
103.75
3.27
the country
Oti 276.4 8.72
SUB-TOTAL
490.85
15.49
White Volta
192.57
6.08
Water resources from
Black Volta
139.55
4.40
within the country
Oti 89.1 2.81
Lower Volta
289
9.12
SUB-TOTAL
710.22
22.41
TOTAL
FLOW
1,201.07
37.90
Source: (Opoku-Ankomah, 1998)
The flows into the Lower Volta were based on specific yield of the catchment and may not be
very accurate. Approximately 54% of the flows of the transboundary tributary originate from
outside the country. An earlier estimation by Nathan Consortium (1970) puts this figure around
70%. This may be explained by the reduction of rainfall magnitudes in the Sahel in the high
latitudes of West Africa since the 1970s (Nicholson, 1983). Further, in the case of the Oti River,
approximately 76% of the water resources originate from outside the country. The total mean
annual flow of the entire river system is estimated to be 37.9 billion m3.
The groundwater resources, as in the rest of the basin, are controlled by secondary porosities.
Aquifers are semi-confined or confined. Yields from boreholes in the country are from about 0.1
m3/h to 36 m3/h.
The minimum recharge for the sub-basins within the Volta Basin and replenishable groundwater
capacities are presented in Table 5.2-3.
Table 5.2-3. Minimum Recharge and Replenishable Groundwater Capacities
Replenishable Groundwater
Minimum Recharge
Sub-Basin
Capacities
(mm)
(x 109m3)
White Volta
151
6.6
Black Volta
205
3.4
Oti 175 3.7
Lower Volta
205
8.2
Interpretation of the information given in the foregoing discussion as to water resources
availability should be handled with care as the figures given are annual figures and do not reveal
73
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
the seasonal deficits in water resources in the basin. Most riparian countries have deficits of run-
off during the greater part of the year. Inter-annual variations of rainfall and run-off are
characterized by severe droughts and water shortages.
Mali
Very little data are available on water resources in Mali. Water has been in such short supply in
the region that the first priority has been to provide water to the inhabitants, while research was
overlooked.
The Sourou River is the main source of surface water in the region. Annual rainfall is
approximately 400 mm and surface flows are only ephemeral as streams dry up after 3 to 5
months of the rainfall season. Discharge measurements are limited and available data could not
allow for quantitative assessment of surface water resources. However, about 52% of the
villages in the region depend on surface water (i.e., streams, lakes, ponds, etc.) for short periods.
The level of water of the Sourou River in Mali increased significantly after a dam was
constructed in Burkina Faso in 1989. The valley of Sourou now forms the northern end of the
reservoir created by the dam.
The only other sources of surface water are small temporary ponds that appear in Seno during the
winter. There are 12 ponds in the southern zone (Dioura) and 9 others in the District of Bankass.
They dry up, however, after 3 to 5 months.
The chemical and bacteriological quality of the surface water is generally bad, in large part due
to fecal contamination. The polluted water is a source of water-borne diseases.
While those living near surface water resources must depend on groundwater during the dry
season, a significant amount of the population must depend on groundwater year-round as they
live far from the Sourou River. The depth of the groundwater is estimated to be between 35 and
85m in Seno and 35 and 65m in Samori (PIRT, 1983). Thus, building a reliable well is difficult
and expensive.
The number of wells in the region are:
Bankass
343 traditional wells
30 improved wells
46 truck farming traditional wells
Koro
633 traditional wells
68 improved wells
154 truck farming traditional wells.
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Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Nitrates are frequently found in subsoil waters, but at levels below WHO standards for water
consumption. Iron has been found at levels above WHO standards. In general, water quality is
neutral to basic.
Togo
Togo's water shortage is projected to be exacerbated by the effects of climate change. It is
estimated that by 2025, average monthly temperatures will rise from South to North 0.48 to
0.58%, which is 0.8 to 1° C over 1995 levels. Precipitation is expected to decrease 0.1 to 0.3%.
The northern section of the basin receives between 1000 and 1200 mm of rainfall annually, while
the southwest region receives from 1000 to 1500 mm per year.
Surface water resources estimated for the basin are about 4.71 x 109m3 per year. Most streams
dry up during the dry seasons due to high evapo-transpiration. In the northern part of the basin,
the Oti, enlarged by its tributaries, and Mô exceed 100 m3/s in the Savannah region and 100 to
300 m3/s in the area of Kara. The extreme variability of the flows between the wet and dry
seasons makes depending on the surface water for irrigation difficult. In the southwestern
section of the basin, the Menou, Wawa, and Danyi have much smaller flows of between 1 and 6
m3/s, but these are perennial flows as the climate is wetter.
The groundwater resources are estimated to be 4.38 x 109m3 per year. Groundwater, as in the
rest of the basin, is found in discontinuous aquifers.
h.
Data and information gaps
Although there are a number of international projects to evaluate the region's water resources
underway, such as the DHI Water and Environment projects, the information on this topic
provided by some countries was insufficient. While information on projected demand for water
is quite extensive, data on currently available surface and groundwater resources are not as
comprehensive. In particular, the Final TDA will need to include additional data on groundwater
resources and more extensive data on which areas are experiencing shortages.
5.3
Loss of Biodiversity
a.
Status of the problem/issue
The Volta River Basin has a globally significant biodiversity and diverse habitats that are
threatened by anthropogenic sources. Perhaps the greatest threat comes from the clearing of land
for farming and animal husbandry, as well as from forestry practices. Some farmers use
bushfires for land preparation, re-growth of vegetation for cattle grazing, and for hunting
purposes, etc., at the expense of the environment. This practice enhances the destruction of
habitats, loss of biodiversity, as well as deterioration of biotic resources.
Further, the creation of dams or impoundments can alter hydrological regimes of rivers and
streams, and thus alter habitats. Downstream sections of a river below a dam that had been
flooded occasionally could completely lose these floodwaters, resulting in the curtailment of
growth of organisms associated with these events.
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Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Unsustainable fishing practices in the region result in a reduction in the fisheries. In some areas,
destructive fishing gear has been introduced. An interim inventory of biodiversity points to the
loss of some fishery species in the basin. This situation is a threat to the food security of the
region. Additionally, exotic species have been introduced through fishing practices and as
ornamental plants and have caused the destruction of biodiversity.
Excessive hunting and poaching of wildlife in protected areas also occurs and has pushed some
species to the brink of extinction. The strengthening of national institutions charged with the
responsibility of managing these resources and the enforcement of existing rules and regulations
for managing wildlife are required to halt the unsustainable exploitation of these natural
resources.
See Figure 5.3-1 in Appendix D for a map of the areas experiencing biodiversity loss in the Volta
River Basin.
b. Transboundary
elements
The loss of biodiversity and destruction of habitats has transboundary causes and effects. Some
of these include:
· Destruction of habitats through bushfires and deforestation occur across borders
· Some forest reserves and protected areas are located at country borders and are
vulnerable to poaching and other cross border activities
· Damming of rivers upstream affects the freshwater quality and resources downstream
· Damming of rivers upstream affects the floodplain downstream
· Damming of rivers alters the sediment balance
· Damage to transboundary ecosystems
c.
Environmental impacts
Some of the environmental effects of the destruction of habitats and the loss of biodiversity
include:
· Loss of natural productivity
· Reduction of fish stocks and other species
· Loss of globally significant biodiversity
· Degradation of forest ecosystems
· Degradation of river ecosystems
· Changes to the hydrological regimes
· Increased delta and coastal erosion
d. Socio-economic
impacts
The destruction of habitats by a rapidly expanding basin population leads to a reduction in biotic
resources and threatened food security. Some of the socio-economic impacts include:
· Reduction in income from fisheries and hunting
· Changes in employment
· Loss of aesthetic value
· Loss of income from tourism industry
· Loss of cultural heritage
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Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
· Loss of use of medicinal plants
e.
Causal chain analysis
See Appendix B.
Major root causes include:
· Inadequate national and regional legal/regulatory basis
· Poverty
· Inadequate technical infrastructure
· Inadequate political will
· Inadequate human capacity
· Inadequate institutions
· Inadequate scientific capacity
· Low government priority on environment
· Abuse of power
· Insufficient economic incentives
· Insufficient government power
f.
Sectors and stakeholders
Some of the stakeholders associated with the destruction of habitats and loss of biodiversity
include:
· Basin population engaged in farming and animal husbandry
· Basin population engaged in fishing
· Institutions responsible for managing protected areas
· Tourism industry
· Hydroelectric power authorities
g.
Supporting Data
Benin
Poaching is prevalent in Benin's protected areas. During the dry season, fauna gather in the
vicinity of the Oti River. Poachers from Benin, Ghana, and Burkina Faso take advantage of this
situation by camping on the banks of the river and then easily preying on the large wild animals.
The poaching in the reserves and parks constitutes the principal problem of the Oti National
Park. The park's perimeter is not well controlled in part because the park borders both Burkina
Faso and Togo. These zones facilitate the penetration of the park by poachers, resulting in the
removal of many species. When park inspections occur, confrontations often take place between
poachers and foresters. This results in the loss of human life and the reduction in tourist income.
The fundamental problem now lies in the manner of reconciling the respect of the integrity of the
protected areas and the increasing pressure exerted on them. Several aspects must be considered
with regard to the impacts on the protected areas. These areas face both internal pressures from
the visitors to the parks who do sport hunting and often leave garbage behind, and external
pressures from the neighboring populations.
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Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Other threats to habitats and biodiversity in Benin include damage from the practice of bushfires,
clearing of the land, and the removal of trees. Additionally, human activities threaten the river
ecosystems from the use of artificial fertilizers on farmland that run-off into the waterways.
Burkina Faso
As Table 5.3-1 shows, there are a number of threatened and vulnerable species in Burkina Faso.
The results show that the mammal Oryx has disappeared from that country. The ostrich is also
near disappearance.
Table 5.3-1. Status of Species in Burkina Faso
On the Way to
Type Extinct
Threatened Vulnerable
Total
Disappearance
· Oryx
· Panther
· Damalisque
· Cheetah
· Gazelle rufifron
Mammal
·
10
Elephant
· Gazelle dorcas
· Lycaon
Birds
· Ostrich
· Calao
· Grue couronnée
3
d'abyssini
· Crocodile
Reptiles
·
2
Python
Fish
· Protoptère
1
(anguille)
· Celtis
· Acacia
· Adansonia
integrifoli
senegal
digitata
a
· Dalbergia
· Bombax
Adenium
melanoxyl
costatum
obesum
on
· Ceiba pentandra
· Pterocarpus · Anogeissus
Woody
lucens
leiocarpus
15
Plants
· Vitex
· Khaya
doniana
senegalensis
· Ximenia
· Prosopis africana
americana
· Parkia biglobosa
· Butyrospermum
· Paradoxum
Source: National Monograph on biological diversity
Threats to biodiversity can be categorized as climatic and anthropogenic. The table below
outlines some of these threats.
78
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Table 5.3-2. Specific Threats to Biodiversity
Threats to Flora
Threats to Fauna
Overexploitation of vegetation
Poaching, as well as the insecurity of the
agents of the protection of fauna
Overgrazing and trampling of the herbaceous Overexploitation of resources by hunting
layer by cattle
and halieutics
Uncontrolled agro-pastoral practices
Genetic erosion through the abandonment
of local breeds
Introduction of invasive species, which prevent Adoption of new breeds of larger size
the development of other species in the long run (sheep, goats, hens) to the detriment of local
(water hyacinth)
breeds
The itinerant culture that results in clearing new The absence of domestic animal gene
lands when old ones become less productive
banks
Water pollution from pesticides that kill certain Repression or disappearance of water fauna
aquatic plants
due to the reduction in the quantity of water
The excessive cutting of wood
Destruction of habitats
Genetic erosion following the abandonment of Changing of the water levels, siltation
local varieties
Changing of the water levels, siltation
Water pollution following the use of
pesticides resulting in the death of certain
aquatic species
Côte d'Ivoire
The Comoé National Park has seen significant biodiversity loss in recent decades, as is outlined
in Table 5.3-2. The species that were the most widespread in the beginning experienced the most
significant reductions, some greater than 90%. Some species such as the Cobe de Buffon and the
Guib are water dependent and remain close to waterways. This has made them vulnerable to
poachers who would usually set up camp at the edge of a river.
The majority of the species experienced losses greater than 75% in only 20 years. The Bubale,
Hippotraque and Buffalo proved to be the exception, however. Their ability to survive could be
related to the fact that they are less dependent on water than other species and this allowed them
to better escape poachers.
Table 5.3-3. Estimation of the Population Change of the Ungulates in the Comoé National
Park from 1978-1998 (according to Fischer, 1999)
Years
Variation
Species
1978 1987 1995 1998
1998/1978
Cobe de Buffon
50,000
55,700
9,400
4,400
-91%
Ourébi 26,000
31,000
4,300
2,200
-92%
Bubale 13,000
18,300
5,400
5,200
-60%
Céphalophe à flancs roux
15,000
5,500
5,200
1,600
-89%
Guib harnaché
10,000
3,100
2,600
900
-91%
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Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Years
Variation
Species
1978 1987 1995 1998
1998/1978
Céphalophe bleu
6,000
900 ?
2,300
500
-92%
Phacochère 4,900
5,200
2,500
700
-86%
Céphalophe de Grimm
3,600
4,000
1,000
300
-92%
Buffalo 3,000
900
?
8,200
4,600
+53%
Hippotrague 1,700
1,100
1,200
500
-71%
Cobe defassa
1,200
900
400
300
-75%
Total 11 species
134,400
126,600
42,500
21,200
-84%
Density per km²
11.7
11.0
3.7
1.8
"Plan of installation of the National Park of Comoé and of development of its periphery 2002-2011".
Ghana
Several areas within the basin are becoming population nodes as people migrate from the rural
areas to urban centres in search of a better livelihood and to escape tribal conflicts. The growth
of settlements in areas of the basin, which are considered potential biodiversity conservation
priority areas, particularly in the White Volta and Lower Volta basin, is of great concern. As a
result of urban growth, habitats that could serve to conserve wildlife of international significance
are being lost and this is leading to the decimation of biodiversity. Probably the greatest threat to
biodiversity is water pollution arising from the urban wastewater. Most urban areas close to
wetlands and discharge untreated or poorly treated domestic waste into these wetlands, thereby
harming aquatic biodiversity. Interestingly, populations in areas within the basin that have been
designated as protected areas have not experienced any significant change over the past decade.
Mali
In Seno, more than 90% of the lands are occupied by settlements or agriculture, leaving little
room for biodiversity. Vegetation is sparse and reproduces with difficulty. Fauna are rare and
are rapidly disappearing due to habitat loss and poaching. Aquatic species do not flourish due to
the temporary nature of the surface water.
In Samori, however, there is strong biological diversity. The vast forests support a great many
flora species. Avifauna dominates the forests, especially guinea fowls and ducks. Additionally,
gazelles, hyenas, jackals, and hares can be found in the region. The Sourou River supports
several fish species and is important habitat for hippopotamuses.
Togo
The uncontrolled practice of bushfires, deforestation, pollution, poaching, and the variations of
river flows are resulting in the degradation of habitat and loss of biodiversity in Togo. Political
and social upheaval in the early 1990s resulted in the invasion of national parks and reserves by
neighboring populations. This caused significant destruction of the country's biodiversity.
h.
Data and information gaps
Significant information, much of which can be found in Section 2.3, was provided on the
endangered species in the basin, particularly terrestrial fauna. Little information was provided
on aquatic species, however. Additionally, wetlands and aquatic habitats were either not
discussed or were not elaborated upon. These areas will need to be expanded in the Final TDA.
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Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
5.4 Flooding
a.
Status of the problem/issue
Flooding is another problem observed in the Volta River Basin. Extremely high rainfall rates
and the creation of uncoordinated dams without appropriate management practices are normally
blamed for the flooding. Land-use conversions can also exacerbate the problem. Soils with
significantly reduced vegetation cover that are exposed to atmospheric elements have little
infiltration capacities to reduce stormwater run-off. These floods affect the environment of the
basin, but also cause significant loss of human life and economic loss.
See Figure 5.4-1 in Appendix D for a map of areas in the basin prone to flooding.
b. Transboundary
elements
Flooding has a transboundary cause in the basin as it results from uncontrolled dam releases
from the upper part of the basin, e.g., from Burkina Faso to Ghana on the White Volta, from
Burkina Faso to Togo on the Oualé, and also from Burkina Faso to Mali on the Sorou River as
the backwater effect from the management of the Léry dam.
Flooding also causes transboundary migration of people escaping rising waters.
c.
Environmental impacts
Some of the environmental impacts of flooding include:
· Inundation of lands
· Erosion
· Loss of habitat
· Degradation of water quality
d. Socio-economic
impacts
Where unforeseen flooding occurs, the socio-economic impacts can be devastating. Some of the
impacts that have been observed in parts of the basin are:
· Loss of human life
· Loss of infrastructure
· Water-borne diseases
· Effects on human health
· Loss of agricultural productivity
· Migration
· Disruption of transportation infrastructure
· Increased poverty
e.
Causal chain analysis
See Appendix B.
Major root causes include:
· Insufficient regional agreements on water
· Insufficient scientific capacity
· Low government priority on environment
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Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
· Abuse of power
· Poverty
· Insufficient economic incentives
· Inadequate technical infrastructure
· Insufficient knowledge/understanding
· Inadequate legal/regulatory basis
· Inadequate political will
· Inadequate institutions
· Insufficient government power
· Insufficient demonstration projects
f.
Sectors and stakeholders
Some of the stakeholders include:
· Hydroelectric dam authorities
· Residents of the affected area
g.
Supporting Data
Benin
The surface water causes the scouring of the lands already weakened by harmful cultivation
methods (bushfire, misuse of manure, etc.) and collects in areas to form great marshy zones.
These "dead" zones (Béréna in Wama language) serve as true obstacles to accessing neighboring
areas and make roads impassable from July to October.
Additionally, these marshy zones are larval lodgings of various insects causing diseases such as
malaria, river blindness, and diarrhea.
The large number of temporary rivers in the basin makes the practice of cultivating riverbeds
possible. This is dangerous, however, as floods can come quickly from upstream. Lives and
harvests have been lost as result of these practices.
Burkina Faso
Flooding occurs often in Burkina Faso. In recent years, the worst floods were experienced I
1988, 1992, 1994, and 1999. Only the provinces of Zondoma on Nakanbé are spared floods.
Table 5.4-1
Localization and Assessment of Floods In Burkina Faso
Year
Provinces
Localities
Persons Affected
Loss / Damage
Bam
Sect. 4 and 6
966
Bazega
T.Dassouri
993
Comoe
Banfora
1,192
Houet
Satiri
11,223
1988
Houses, Fields, and Poultry
Kadiogo
Sect.8,17,
-
Kenedougou
22
1,443
Namentenga
N' Dorola
450
Oubritenga
Nagbingou
344
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Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Year
Provinces
Localities
Persons Affected
Loss / Damage
Oudalan
Sect.1, 2,3,4
48
Seno
Gorom
514
Soum
Dori
300
Yatenga
Leri
1,953
Kossi
-
-
Kouritenga
Kouka
40
Mouhoun
Goughin
-
Tapoa
Bondokouy
1,500
Nahouri
Tenbaga
471
Sourou
14 Villages
137
Poni
Bomboro
150
Gourma
-
150
Ganzourgou
-
-
Sanmatenga
-
-
-
Bam
20 Localities
5,748
Houses, Fences, Wells, and Fields
Bazega
02 Localities
1,938
Houses
Boulgou
17 Localities
2,300
Houses and Fields
Ganzourgou
05 Localities
1,340
Houses and Fields
1992
Gourma
03 Localities
825
Houses
Oubritenga
09 Localities
11,713
Houses, Dams, and Cattle
Sanmatenga
01 Localities
57
Houses and Fences
Tapoa
02 Localities
59
Houses and Cattle
Zoundweogo
02 Localities
86
Houses and Fields
Bam
Sabcé
500
Sourou
Di
7,500
Seno
Dori
500
Kouritenga
Poutenga
2,500
Oudalan
Tinacof
560
Boulkiende
Siglé
200
Ganzourgou
Mobtédo
9,500
Namentenga
Boulsa
2,600
Boulgou
Bittou
2,200
Houet
Bama
450
1994
Gourma
Fada
5,900
Houses, Fields, and Cattle
Kossi
Konadougou
7,800
Mouhoun
Ouarkoye
2,500
Tapoa
Kantchari
10,800
Gnagna
Bogandé
500
Zoundweogo
Stuffed
121
Bazega
Sapné
4,510
Sanguie
Didyr
500
Sissili
Léo
1,500
Passore
Arbollé
-
Kenedougou
Djiguéra
40
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Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Year
Provinces
Localities
Persons Affected
Loss / Damage
Nahouri
Pô
81
Bougouriba
Koper
201
Oubritenga
Loumbila
1,800
Kourwéogo
Toéghin
120
Kadiogo
Sector 29
19
Houet
Bama
-
Nayala
Des Villages
-
Louroum
Des Villages
1,211
Oudalan
-
1,522
Oubritenga
-
130
Basle
-
-
Kossi
Des Secteurs 122 Households
Kenedougou
-
10 Families
Tuy
-
1324
Sanmatenga
Des Secteurs
-
1999
Sourou
Sourou
-
Houses, Fields, and Cattle
Seno
Des Villages
-
Bam
Kiella
100
Banwa
Gossin
39,136
Mouhoun
Kassakongo
360
Passore
-
45
Ziro
-
220
Ioba
Des Villages
2,438
Bougouriba
Des Villages
136 Families
Nahouri
Des Villages
2,115
Tapoa
-
-
Konandjari
Des Secteurs
176
Gourma
Nagré
1,010
Source: CONASUR
Ghana
Regional flood frequency curves have been approximately derived for the entire country of
Ghana, but these were based on data from a limited period of time and data that are full of gaps
(Ontoyin, 1985). In order to apply the Index-flood method, the country was divided into five
provisional hydrologically homogenous regions based on rainfall, topography, and geology. The
derived equations must be used with caution and the results should be treated as only provisional
since they are primarily based on limited data. Only very few stations have continuous records
of 20 years or more, giving rise to many inter-station correlation estimates.
Mali
Since 1989, the valley of Sourou has experienced unforeseen floods due to the management of
the Léry Dam built in Burkina Faso. These floods often compromise harvests on the rice
plantations.
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Volta River Basin
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Togo
Floods in Togo result from strong precipitation and from the release of water from the
Kompienga Dam in Burkina Faso. Flooding results in the loss of human lives, destruction of
infrastructure and property, and the outbreak of water-borne diseases. The damage recorded
from the 1999 flood was evaluated at approximately $42 million.
h.
Data and information gaps
More complete data on the frequency, severity, locations, causes, and consequences (both human
and economic losses) of floods will need to be included in the Final TDA. This, however, will
be hampered by the lack of historical data necessary to estimate floods, as was found to be the
case with Ghana's flood frequency curves. Nonetheless, additional information will need to be
provided in order to address the problem of flooding through appropriate interventions.
5.5 Water-Borne
Diseases
a.
Status of the problem/issue
Water-borne diseases have arisen in the basin largely as a result of the creation of dams and
ponds and of flooding. The natural flow rates of the streams and rivers before impoundments are
altered (slowed) to suit the breeding of the disease vectors at the banks of the rivers.
Additionally, the proliferation of aquatic weeds exacerbates the problem of water-borne diseases
as the weeds serve as hosts for disease-causing parasites.
Segments of the society in the basin suffer from a variety of diseases such as river blindness and
sleeping sickness. Water-borne diseases affect economic activities as the workforce becomes ill
and as parasites sometimes cause changes to occur in fish resources in sections of the rivers.
See Figure 5.5-1 in Appendix D for a map of areas where water-borne diseases are prevalent.
b. Transboundary
elements
Water-borne diseases can be transboundary because of the movement and spread of disease
vectors in the basin. Diseases have been eradicated in one part of the basin, only to be re-
infected from another area of the basin. Additionally, water-borne diseases have been
exacerbated by transboundary activities such as the damming of rivers.
c.
Environmental impacts
· Possible damage to fish resources
· Possible decline in biodiversity
d. Socio-economic
impacts
· Loss of human life
· Effects on human health
· Migration of populations to escape water-borne diseases
· Economic loss due to illness in workforce
· Increased poverty and disease
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Volta River Basin
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e.
Causal chain analysis
See Appendix B.
Major root causes include:
· Inadequate legal/regulatory basis
· Insufficient scientific capacity
· Low government priority on environment
· Abuse of power
· Poverty
· Insufficient economic incentives
· Inadequate technical infrastructure
· Inadequate political will
· Insufficient demonstration projects
· Inadequate intersectoral coordination
· Insufficient knowledge/understanding
· Inadequate technology
· Inadequate training
· Population pressure
f.
Sectors and stakeholders
Some of the stakeholders include:
· Basin population
· Public health authorities
· Local authorities
g.
Supporting Data
Benin
No information provided.
Burkina Faso
Water-borne diseases are prevalent in Burkina Faso and have become more widespread as more
dams have been built. 52% of medical consultations in Ouagadougou are a result of water
either water-borne diseases or illnesses relating to contaminated water with malaria topping the
list of reasons that people visit doctors in the region. Other diseases commonly found in the
region include dracunculose and schistosomiases. Onchocercose and trypanosomiase are also
found, but they are under better control.
Côte d'Ivoire
Water-borne diseases have a high human and economic cost in the Volta River Basin. Prevalent
diseases include malaria, Bilharzia, Guinea worm, as well as a number of others. These diseases
occur primarily when waters are stagnant and there is inadequate drainage or water treatment,
largely due to inadequate investment in infrastructure. The diseases are generally localized in
the cities and villages.
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· Malaria is the primary cause of death (20%) with a frequency of 0.12/1000 persons.
· Diarrhea represented the second most common cause of death (15%) with a frequency of
18.1/1000.
· Guinea worm has a frequency of 0.9/1000.
· Ulcer of Buruli has a frequency of 0.24/1000.
· Bilharzia has a frequency of 0.225/1000.
· Onchocercose whose habitat is along the rivers has caused the abandonment of
productive activities and depopulated border zones.
Ghana
All of the water-related diseases occurring in Ghana are prevalent in the Volta Basin. These
include Bilharzia, which is very widespread in all four sub-basins, except the Daka. Other
diseases include onchocerciasis (except in the Lower Volta), Guinea worm, malaria, filariasis,
which is particularly common in the White Volta Basin, and diarrhea. Yaws has also been
recorded in all five basins.
Table 5.5-1. Water-Borne and Associated Diseases and Their Vectors in the Volta Basin
Guinea
Schristo
Oncho
Malaria Filariasis Cholera Diarh Yaws
worm
Black Volta
+
+
+
+
?
?
+
+
White Volta
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Daka +
+
+
+ ? ?
+
+
Oti -
+
+
+
? ?
+
+
Lower Volta
+
-
+
+
+
?
+
+
Source: Nii Consult (1998)
+
Diseases and vector recorded in area (1980-1996)
-
Disease vector not recorded
?
No specific study undertaken
Mali
The access and use of the same water sources by humans and animals has resulted in a number of
human health problems. As a result, water-borne diseases are prevalent in the region. Guinea
worm, diarrhea, cholera, skin diseases, and other infections are widespread.
Togo
Togo also suffers enormously from water-borne diseases in the Volta River Basin.
h.
Data and information gaps
While the types of water-borne diseases and their causes have been provided, only Cote d'Ivoire
provided data on the number of people affected. Additional data should be provided on the
geographic extent and the number of inhabitants infected in order to assess and address this
issue. Further, two countries provided no data on this issue.
87
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
5.6
Growth of Aquatic Weeds
a.
Status of the problem/issue
The growth of aquatic weeds has been noted as an increasing problem in the Volta River Basin.
This has been of particular concern on some of the tributaries, especially on the Oti River. The
weeds were probably inadvertently introduced into the basin as ornamental plants. A tributary
of the Black Volta in Burkina Faso has also been infested with water hyacinth. The growth of
the weeds has been exacerbated by the contamination of the waterways with fertilizers and other
pollutants.
The effects of aquatic weeds on the environment include the rise in water-borne diseases,
reduction in fish-catch, disruption of lake/river transportation, and disruption to hydropower
generation.
See Figure 5.6-1 in Appendix D for a map of the areas affected by aquatic weeds in the basin.
b. Transboundary
elements
The causes of aquatic weeds include introduction of alien weeds into the basin, transfer of
watercrafts and fishing gear as a result of migration. Additionally, the run-off of fertilizers and
nutrients from farmlands exacerbates the growth of the weeds.
In the Oti Basin, aquatic weeds are located in both Togo and Ghana and this could be a
transboundary issue.
c.
Environmental impacts
· Reduction in biodiversity
· Degradation of water quality
· Reduction of fisheries
· Increase in water lost through evapotranspiration
d. Socio-economic
impacts
· Reduction in transport along the waterways
· Reduction in power-generating capabilities of hydroelectric plants
· Exacerbation of water-borne diseases
· Increased poverty through loss of income to fishermen
e.
Causal chain analysis
See Appendix B.
Major root causes include:
· Insufficient knowledge/understanding
· Inadequate legal/regulatory basis
· Insufficient government power
· Inadequate institutions
· Insufficient regional agreements
· Abuse of power
· Poverty
88
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
· Insufficient economic incentives
· Inadequate technical infrastructure
· Inadequate political will
f.
Sectors and stakeholders
Some of the stakeholders include:
· Basin population engaged in fishing
· Basin population engaged in transport
· Hydroelectric dam authorities
· Basin population affected by water-borne diseases
g.
Supporting Data
The damming of the rivers in the Volta River Basin is viewed as a significant contributor to the
proliferation of aquatic weeds. Several hydraulic structures have been erected along waterways
within the basin. Notable among these are the Akosombo and Kpong hydropower dams, and the
Vea and Tono reservoirs. These together have the potential to generate about 4,800 GWh/year
of energy and some of this power is supplied to Togo and Benin. The reduction in flow rate due
to the dams has promoted the proliferation of aquatic weeds in the Lower Volta. This has
resulted in high incidence of bilharzia, as weeds provide sanctuary for snail hosts of schistosoma.
Although not many exotic species have been introduced into the basin, the accidental
introduction of water hyacinth into the Oti River is quickly becoming a significant threat to the
integrity of the hydropower dam at Akosombo. Within three years after the first report of the
incidence of water hyacinth on the Oti, the weed had spread to cover more than an estimated
2,000 ha of lake surface. Control measures have cost more than 170 million cedis annually
(approximately 20,000 USD). The presence of the weed is hampering lake transport and fishing.
It may also be contributing to the siltation of the lake, as well as to the reduction in the water
availability for hydropower generation.
Harmful aquatic plants have begun to develop in the waters near the Mali border with Burkina
Faso as well. Although these are not yet a serious problem, they could become more of a threat
in the future.
h.
Data and information gaps
While the countries provided a map of areas where aquatic weeds were becoming prevalent, little
additional data was given on the extent of the problem. The one exception was that information
was given on the Oti River and the threats to Akosombo Dam. Further information on other
areas should be given, however.
5.7 Coastal
Erosion
a.
Status of the problem/issue
Some coastal countries observed high coastal erosion, some as a probable result of creation of
the Akosombo Dam with the attendant deficit of sediments reaching the coast.
See Figure 5.3-1 in Appendix D for a map of areas experiencing coastal erosion.
89
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
b. Transboundary
elements
· Upstream dams are affecting the downstream coastline
· Several countries use the electricity generated from the Akosombo Dam, the prime
contributor to coastal erosion
· Migratory species' habitat is being degraded
c.
Environmental impacts
· Degradation of coastal habitats, including migratory bird habitats
· Destruction of sandy beaches used as nesting sites by endangered marine turtles
· Change in coastal waters
· Loss of productivity of waterways
· Reduction in biodiversity
· Degradation of water quality
d. Socio-economic
impacts
· Loss of fish landing sites
· Loss of aesthetic value and tourism
· Loss of coastal resources
· Increased storm damage
· Loss or damage to human life or infrastructure
e.
Causal chain analysis
See Appendix B.
Major root causes include:
· Insufficient scientific capacity
· Low government priority on environment
· Abuse of power
· Insufficient demonstration projects
· Poverty
· Inadequate political will
f.
Sectors and stakeholders
Some of the stakeholders include:
· Coastal and river-side residents
· Population engaged in fishing in coastal waters
· Tourist industry
g.
Supporting Data
Burkina Faso and Mali
These are inland countries and therefore have no coasts.
90
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Côte d'Ivoire
Côte d'Ivoire has experienced substantial coastal recession. Up to 2 m/year has been recorded in
Grand Lahon, with degradation of historic sites. Around Abidjan, tourist infrastructures are
threatened by erosion of 1.5 m/year (UNEP RSRS 1999). While erosion takes place naturally
due to storms and swells, man-made construction and activities have greatly exacerbated the
problem. The main anthropogenic factors are the construction of jetties to protect the Abidjan
harbor and the Vridi Canal and coastal sand mining.
Ghana
Approximately 99% of sandy sediments are held back by the Akosombo Dam in the Volta Lake
(Cheng, 1980). This contributes significantly to the erosion of the coastal areas at the mouth of
the Volta River, ranging from 5 to 20 m per year (Blivi, 1993).
The construction of the Akosombo and Kpong dams has precipitated serious environmental
problems. The regulated flow regime engendered by the operations of the dam caused a
reduction in the hydrological thrust at the estuary, which tends to minimise the effect of wave
action on the coast, and also constitutes a kind of hydrological groyne which breaks the force of
wave action against the coast. The apparent decay of this groyne has also increased the rate of
coastal erosion along the eastern side of the estuary. It is estimated that in the Keta area, the rate
of coastal erosion is about 4 metres per year (Armah and Amlalo 1998). This coastal erosion has
led to the destruction of nesting sites for endangered marine turtles.
Togo and Benin
The construction of large breakwaters for the Ports of Lome and Cotonou has caused extensive
erosion, sometimes exceeding 150 m east of Lome. East of the Port of Cotonou, recession of
more than 300-500m has been observed (UNEP RSRS 1999).
h.
Data and information gaps
According to the limited data provided, only Ghana's coasts are affected by the Volta River.
Additional information will need to be provided on the relationship between the Volta River and
coastal erosion occurring in countries other than Ghana in order to establish this as a priority
issue.
5.8
Water Quality Degradation
a.
Status of the problem/issue
Although there is little data on the problem, water quality degradation has been identified as an
important issue in the basin.
Some of the causes of water quality degradation include poor farming practices, improper land
use, intensive grazing activities of cattle and sheep, and bushfires. Improper application of
fertilizers to agricultural lands promotes leaching into the waterbodies. These chemicals are
transferred downstream into other countries without any possible restriction. Sediment transport
across the riparian countries is the major source of degradation of shared water resources.
91
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Discharge from untreated industrial effluents are not significantly present in the basin due to
limited industrial activities, but some untreated sewage is discharged into the waters.
Additionally, humans and animals defecating and bathing in rivers and water sources adds to the
degradation of water quality. Another significant cause of water quality degradation is the
introduction of urban waste, particularly from run-off from inland port communities and urban
settlements located near banks of the rivers and reservoirs.
b. Transboundary
elements
Surface water resources are shared throughout the basin, making the degradation of water quality
a strongly transboundary problem.
· Pollution is distributed throughout the waterways
· Land clearing in upstream countries has downstream effects
c.
Environmental impacts
· Loss of biodiversity
· Loss of fisheries
· Harmful effects on coastal waters
· Occasional harmful algal blooms
d. Socio-economic
impacts
· Scarcity of potable drinking water
· Scarcity of non-polluted water for agriculture and animal husbandry
· Effects on human health
· Water-borne diseases
· Loss of fisheries
e.
Causal chain analysis
Water pollution originates from industry, crop farming, fishing, raising of livestock, and
unsanitary conditions around human settlements.
The socio-economic root causes are poor control or supervision of industrial activities, poor
farming practices including application of chemical fertilizers, poor awareness and education
about public health, poor planning of settlements, population pressure and urbanization, lack of
effective legal systems for controlling discharge of effluents and lack of financial resources.
See Appendix B.
Major root causes include:
·
Insufficient regional agreements
·
Inadequate legal/regulatory basis
·
Insufficient knowledge/understanding
·
Insufficient government power
·
Inadequate institutions
·
Abuse of power
·
Poverty
·
Inadequate national legal/regulatory basis
92
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
·
Inadequate technology
·
Inadequate training
·
Population pressure
·
Insufficient demonstration projects
·
Inadequate intersectoral coordination
·
Insufficient economic incentives
·
Inadequate political will
f.
Sectors and stakeholders
Some of the stakeholders associated with water quality degradation include:
·
Basin population engaged in farming and animal husbandry
·
Basin population engaged in fishing
·
Basin population dependent on surface water resources for daily needs
·
Industry
g.
Supporting Data
Benin
Water pollution in the Volta Basin in Benin is derived primarily from human waste, from the use
of fertilizers in agriculture, and from livestock breeding. The human and agricultural waste,
along with soils, is washed or blown from the land into the tributaries of the Oti River (Sarga,
Kounne, and Tirgou). This causes the siltation of the rivers, the destruction of aquatic fauna and
its habitat, and the invasion of these rivers by aquatic weeds. This state of affairs decreases the
biological river resources and constitutes a threat to the aquatic habitat.
Burkina Faso
According to the document "Etats de lieux des ressources en eau et de leur cadre de gestion",
representative data on quality and quantity of water poses a problem. The limited data available,
however, indicate the following:
Quality of Groundwater
Groundwater is in general potable. Ninety percent of the values are lower than the WHO
recommendations for drinking water. There are areas in the southwest, though, where the acidity
level of the water is not in conformity with WHO standards. Additionally, there are some areas
in the southeast where 72% of samples have higher conductivity than WHO recommendations.
Drilling in the area of Mogtédo (in the basin of Nakanbé) produced water with a high arsenic
content, which was naturally contaminated by minerals rich in arsenic. The recorded maximum
values are quite localized, however.
Quality of Surface Water
Only the ONEA (National office of Water and the Cleansing) has reliable data on surface water.
Whereas the quality is declining in general, it continues to be generally of good physicochemical
quality. Suspended matter is present throughout the basin, however, and significant quantities of
iron and phosphates can be found in the water. Suspended matter is of particular concern in
Nakambé, especially at the Loumbila, Poutytenga, and Ouagadougou dams. In all of the basins,
93
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
iron is the most alarming variable, followed by phosphates. The other parameters meet
acceptable levels.
The bacteria and parasites in the water also pose a serious health risk. Bacteria often results from
the proximity of cattle and human settlements to water sources. Eutrophication could not be
evaluated using the limited available data, but the risk is evident in the growth of water hyacinth.
A number of industries in the basin emit waste into the waterways, with the agro-processing
industry among these. The Brakina brewery emits water rich in detergents that sometimes has a
pH of 11.6. The slaughterhouses (in Ougadougou and Bobo Dioulasso) dump solid waste
including manure and blood into the waterways, as well as wastewater that is rich in grease,
proteins, and phosphates. In 1997, the slaughterhouses of Ouagadougou consumed 48.7 million
m3 of water and produced approximately 10 tons of waste per day. Soap factories and oil mills
emit solid waste and wastewater that is very basic.
There are also a number of industrial chemical facilities located primarily in Ouagadougou and
Sore, including plants the produce plastics, cosmetics, drugs, paint, mattress foam, and matches.
The most significant of these are Saphyto, Sofapil, Fasoplast, and Sap. Saphyto, producing
pesticides and insecticides, emits chemicals into the atmosphere. Sofapil, producing dry cells,
emits metals.
Textile and tanning factories in the basin also threaten water quality. The most prominent of
these are Sofitex, SBMS, and Aliz, which are located in Ouagadougou, Sore, Koudougou,
Dédougou, Fada Gourma and Houndé. The Sofitex factory emits significant amounts of air
pollution. The leather manufacturer SBMC dumps 150 to 190 tons of chemicals annually
without primary treatment. Effluents from the tanning company Aliz are contaminated with
chemicals and proteins.
There are also two gold mines in the basin that affect water quality. Poura, an industrial mine,
and Essakane, a semi-industrial mine, have resulted in the destruction of lands, the introduction
of chemicals such as cyanide to the environment, and deforestation.
As agricultural production in Burkina Faso is still traditional, much less fertilizer and pesticides
are used there than in developed countries, 8 kg/h as opposed to 240-250 kg/h.
Côte d'Ivoire
The water quality in Côte d'Ivoire is threatened by increasing urbanization and agriculture in the
basin, as well as by pollution produced by households.
Ghana
Surface Water
The water quality of the major rivers within the Volta Basin is generally good for general
purposes, although localized pollution occurs close to developed areas. On the Oti River, for
example, mean pH values vary from 6.9 to 7.5 (WARM 1998). Mean suspended solid
concentrations are generally less than 2000 mg/l. The dissolved oxygen concentrations generally
indicate low levels of pollution since super saturation conditions are mostly noted. Values
94
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
ranged from 5.0 to 7.5mg/l. The waters are generally soft with total hardness not exceeding
25.0mg/l. Alkalinity, on the other hand, ranges from 19 to 52.0mg/l.
There are not many major industries in the Volta Basin, and those that do exist are generally
small in scale. There are, however, two major textile factories in the basin. A fruit-processing
factory, which processes tomatoes, also used to operate in the basin. These industries discharge
their effluent, most of which is insufficiently treated, directly into water systems. Effluent
quality from the Juapong factory is generally within EPA permissible standards, but has high
BOD. The Akosombo factory's effluent contains high pH and a considerable amount of dye
material. This could lead to the deterioration of water quality.
Table 5.8-1. Summary of Water Quality Parameters for Selected Rivers in the Volta Basin
Suface Water Quality
Parameters
White Volta
Black Volta
Lower Volta
Oti (Sabare)
(Dalon)
(Bamboi)
(Sogakope)
Dissolved Oxygen (mg/l)
6.5
11.2
9.9
7.1
pH 7.1
7.0
7.0
7.3
Conductivity (µS/cm)
7.7
201
280
7.3
Total Dissolved Solids (mg/l)
87.2
59.2
Suspended solids (mg/l)
165
78
Alkalinity (mg/l)
39.8
Hardness (mg/l)
28.5
Silica
(mg/l)
11.2 11.8
Nitrate-N (mg/l)
0.4
5.6
Phosphate-P (mg/l)
0.1
0.1
Chloride (mg/l)
17.5
7.0
5.4
10.4
Sulphate (mg/l)
19.9
7.0
5.7
2.7
Bicarbonate (mg/l)
35.3
46.2
Sodium (mg/l)
9.3
9.8
Potassium (mg/l)
2.8
Calcium (mg/l)
4.7
10.1
4.8
9.4
Magnesium (mg/l)
2.5
8.3
4.5
4.7
Iron (mg/l)
Biochemical Oxygen Demand
4.0
(mg/l)
Chemical Oxygen Demand
0.3
(mg/l)
Cadmium (mg/l)
0.03
<0.03
Lead (mg/l)
0.1
<0.03
Nickel (mg/l)
<0.03
Mercury (mg/l)
<0.03
Zinc (mg/l)
0.11
<0.03
Copper (mg/l)
0.11
<0.03
Total Coliforms (c/100ml)
Faecal Coliforms (c/100ml)
16
18
95
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Table 5.8-2. Summary of Water Quality at Kpong (1995)
Parameter Mean Std
Dev.
PH
7.0
0.2
Temperature
28.2
1.4
Alkalinity
40.1
12.9
Total Hardness
21.6
3.4
Silica
10.6
6.0
Chloride
7.1
5.6
Sulphate
2.4
4.4
Calcium
7.5
4.0
Magnesium
2.1
1.1
Nitrate
0.2
0.4
Iron
0.1
0.1
Manganese
1.5
3.0
Suspended Solids
4.7
4.1
Groundwater
The quality of groundwater is generally good for multipurpose use, except for the presence of
low pH (3.5-6.0) waters, high levels of iron, manganese, and fluoride in certain localities, as well
as occasional high mineralisation with TDS in the range of 2000-1458 mg/l in the southeastern
coastal aquifers.
Iron originates partially from the attack of low pH waters on corrosive pump parts and partly
from the aquifers. The percentage of iron derived from the aquifers is, however, unknown. High
fluoride values in the range 1.5-5.0mg/l, on the other hand, are found in boreholes located in the
granitic formation of the Upper East and West Regions.
The waters in many hand-dug wells are turbid and polluted as they contain high levels of nitrate,
in the range of (30-60) mg/l, and abundant coliform. This could be avoided to some extent
through improved construction and adequate protection of the well sites from surface run-off and
animal droppings.
Table 5.8-3. Summary of Water Quality Parameters for Groundwater in the Volta Basin
Ground Water Quality
Parameters
White Volta
Lower Volta
Dissolved Oxygen (mg/l)
-
-
PH 6.70
6.18
6.96
Conductivity (µS/cm)
482
259 -2960
Total Dissolved Solids (mg/l)
-
233 - 1192
Suspended solids (mg/l)
-
-
Alkalinity (mg/l)
-
106 -1744
Hardness (mg/l)
-
146 - 303
Silica (mg/l)
29.1
32 - 485
96
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Ground Water Quality
Parameters
White Volta
Lower Volta
Nitrate-N (mg/l)
2.91
2.6 19.0
Phosphate-P (mg/l)
0.21
1.0 -0.37
Chloride (mg/l)
3.6
98 981
Sulphate (mg/l)
2.5
10 - 96
Bicarbonate (mg/l)
179
94.0 148.0
Sodium (mg/l)
22.0
30.0 431.0
Potassium (mg/l)
1.7
5.0 19.0
Calcium (mg/l)
31.74
30.0 122.0
Magnesium (mg/l)
10.97
9.0 63.0
Iron (mg/l)
0 -
0 5.0
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (mg/l)
Chemical Oxygen Demand (mg/l)
Cadmium (mg/l)
0.16
<0.03
Lead (mg/l)
0.0003
<0.03
Nickel (mg/l)
0.0014
<0.03
Mercury (mg/l)
0.0018
<0.03
Zinc (mg/l)
0.04
<0.03
Copper (mg/l)
0.001
<0.03
Total Coliforms (c/100ml)
11
8
Fecal Coliforms (c/100ml)
0
0
Mali
Water in Mali is polluted from human, livestock, and agricultural waste. Fungicides, pesticides,
and fertilizers are increasingly being used in the region and are being washed into waterways
during the rainy season. Some prohibited and extremely detrimental chemicals, such as DDT,
are even being used in the area, though exact data are missing. Limited data available on the
Souron River show:
· PH : >8,2
· Turbidity : 40
· Incubation à 44oC : No fecal coliforms,
· Incubation à 37oC : numerous total coliforms, bacillus bacteria (both gram positive and
negative)
Nitrates are frequently found in subsoil waters, but at levels below WHO standards for water
consumption. Iron has been found at levels above WHO standards. In general, water quality is
neutral to basic.
Togo
While data on water quality are insufficient, it is known that surface water quality in Togo has
been degraded by a number of anthropogenic activities taking place in the Volta River Basin.
97
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Water pollution in Togo comes from three sources: industry, agriculture, and transport.
Industrial pollution can be found in the area of Kara where oils leak from the power station and
the Brewery of Benin discharges its waste into the surrounding brooks. In other cities in the
basin, garages and mechanical workshop leak oils into the rivers.
Agricultural practices used in riverbeds further pollute the waterways. Fertilizers and other
chemicals used on the crops are washed into the waterways. The growing of cotton increases
this threat as even greater amounts of artificial fertilizers and pesticides must be used to grow
this crop than are needed for others.
The old automobiles that are used in the Volta Basin add to the pollution of the waterways. The
trucks and cars emit significant amounts of particulate matter that are washed into the rivers.
Domestic and solid wastes further contribute to water quality degradation in the basin.
Inhabitants of rural areas typically defecate outdoors, and often do so near water sources (wells,
rivers, or reservoirs). At the same time, people use the rivers and waterways for bathing.
Additionally, household garbage is usually not disposed of properly and often ends up in
waterways. Urban areas do not have adequate wastewater treatment facilities.
While the data in the tables below on water quality in the Kara River show that organic matter,
nitrites, and nitrates are not too high, there is a definite bacteriological problem.
Table 5.8-4. Physio-chemical Analysis of the Waters of the Kara River in Togo
M.O.
Suspended Putrescibility KMn
Nitrites Nitrates
N° Date Origin Color matter
PH
Comments
5 days
04
mg/1
mg/1
mg/1
mg/1
K2 28/12/88 Toundè
Clear
-
13,1 7,2 traces
5,3
Niveau
K3 " nouveau
«
-
12,8
6,8
0,58
6,0
TogoElectricité
pont
Q.
K4 "
«
-
10,3
6,8
0
1,2
COFAC
Ancien
Amont
K5 "
« -
- 11,1
6,5
Traces
6,1
pont
Aval
K6 "
«
«
-
-
10,6
6,7 0,3 1,32
Q.
K7 "
« -
- 10,1
7,1
traces
2,3
Bataskom
Source :SOTED,1989 Etude pour l'Amélioration du cadre de vie de la population au Togo
98
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Table 5.8-5. Physio-chemical Analysis from the Waters of the Brewery of Benin of Kara
Suspende
M.O.
Putrescibili
N° Date
Origin
Color
d matter
KMn 04 PH Nitrites Nitrates Comments
ty 5 days
mg/1
Mg/1
28/1
Very
B1
Decanted water
White
1250
++++
132
9.52
30.21
133.8
2/88
degraded
After
B2 ,,
White 1035 ++ 102.5
8.05
28.02
124.1
Degraded
neutralization
B3 ,, After
aeration Yellow 1215
+
14.9 8.03 0.00 Traces Degraded
Water from
Light
K1 ,,
1200 - 10.2
7.91
0.10
0.44 -
Kpiyinboa
yellow
Source :SOTED,1989 Etude pour l'Amélioration du cadre de vie de la population au Togo
Table 5.8-6. Results of the Bacteriological Analysis of the Waters of the Kara River
Nbre
MPN
MPS
Total
MPN
Sulf-
N° Date Origin
E.
Str.
Salmonella Nitrates Comments
Numbers
coliformes
red
Coli fécaux
/ml
K2 28/12/88 Tomdè 2,500,000
250
90
8
50
+
Amoebae
Niveau
nouveau
Giardia
K3 "
1,750,000 600 50 70 12 0
pont /(C E
algues
E T)
Quartier
K4 "
3,250,000 900 60 0 25 +
-
COFAC
Amont
K5 "
2,000,000 1200 0 0 20
0
-
ancien pont
Aval
K6 "
500,000 2000 5 12 30 0
Giardia
ancien pont
Quartier
Giardia
K7 "
3,500,000 600 120 50 0
0
Batascom
Amoebae
Source :SOTED,1989 Etude pour l'Amélioration du cadre de vie de la population au Togo
Table 5.8-7. Amount of Chemical Products Used in the Volta Basin in Togo
Manure
Urée
NPK
NPKSB
Super
Insecticides Fungicides Herbicides Fumigants
(Kg)
(Kg)
(Kg)
Triple
Savannah
165.138 - 10 - 848.550
1.204.150
7.270.050
-
Region
Kara
119.527 - 295 - 304.634
757.750
4.379.550
-
Region
Sotouboua 38.950
-
-
-
(canton
144
Fazao)
Plateau
132.326 -
-
- 956.870
179.500
3.571.400
-
Region
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Manure
Urée
NPK
NPKSB
Super
Insecticides Fungicides Herbicides Fumigants
(Kg)
(Kg)
(Kg)
Triple
Wawa
10.545 - - - 85.050 - 277.700
-
Kloto
24.617 - - - 353.450 - 950.870
-
Dayes
- - - - - - -
-
Blitta 35.871 - - - 123.300 - 845.000
-
(Adélé)
Agou
7.368 - - - 77.500 - 293.550
-
Total
534.531
305
2.750.357 2.141.400 17.588.120
h.
Data and information gaps
Sufficient data to accurately assess the status of water quality in the basin were not provided.
Limited data were given by Ghana and Togo on the effects of industry on water quality, but
additional information needs to be included from all countries on the fecal coliform levels and
degradation resulting from agriculture. More information should also be given on potential
contaminant loads, such as the amount fertilizers and pesticides used in the basin. Additionally,
eutrophication needs to be examined.
5.9 Emerging
Issues
5.9.1 Urbanization
Problems associated with urbanization relate to increasing populations, including overall national
population growth migration into urban areas. These changes will have significant consequences
for waste management and the threat of degradation and scarcity of water supplies.
5.9.2
Increase in Industrial and Mining Activities
While industrial development has been slow in the Volta River Basin, it will continue to
increase, particularly as the population expands. This industrial growth can be expected to
produce potential new point sources of pollution that will have impacts on land and water
resources in the basin. Mining activities in the basin, although currently relatively small in scale,
could expand and pose an even greater threat to the environment than they currently do.
The rising population growth and increasing industrial development raise the demand for
hydroelectric power. The general tendency in the region will be to continue impounding river
basins for electricity generation. This threatens future availability of water resources, as well as
the coastline of Ghana.
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6.0 Stakeholder Analysis
TDA Guidance Documents recommend a stakeholder analysis be performed in support of the
TDA, including "a description of all the stakeholders, including institutions, organizations,
ministries, agencies, and industry related to the perceived issues should also be incorporated. The
information pertaining to this list would include the effect of the issue on stakeholders, the nature
and effectiveness of the interactions between the stakeholders as well as their strengths and
weaknesses in view of their actual and/or potential role in managing water and water dependent
resources."
Identification of the stakeholders and stakeholder groups provides a unique level of analysis of
those most profoundly affected by environmental issues in the Volta River Basin. During the
course of the project, a full stakeholder analysis should be undertaken following the Agenda 21
guidelines.
The National Reports revealed the following major stakeholders of the identified problems:
6.1 Land
Degradation
Benin
· Ministry of Environment, Settlements and Urban Development
· Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fishing
· Ministry of Interior and Security and Decentralization
· Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research
· Green Space NGO
· Protection of the Environment and Struggle Against Illiteracy (PELCA BENIN)
· RE/PAT ONG
· TIM-TIM ONG
· ODEX
Burkina Faso
· Ministry of Environment and Water
· Department of Agriculture
· Ministry in Charge of Animal Husbandry
· Department of Administration of Territories/Lands
· The regional and provincial councils of regional planning
· PNGT The National Programme of Management of the Soils
· National Waters and Sanitation Office (ONEA)
· Burkina National Electricity Company (SONABEL)
· Valleys Development Authority (AMVS, MOB)
Côte d'Ivoire
· Ministry of Water and Forests
· Ministry of Agriculture and Animal Resources
· Ministry of Environment and Life
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· Ministry of Interior and Decentralization
· Professional agricultural organizations, CIDT and ANADER.
Ghana
· Ministry of Interior/Ghana National Fire Service
· Ministry of Works and Housing/Water Resources Commission
· Ministry of Environment and Science/Environmental Protection Agency
· Ministry of Food and Agriculture/Irrigation Development Authority
· Ministry of Environment and Science/Water Research Institute of CSIR
· Ministry of Lands and Forestry/Forestry Commission
· The Lands Commission established by Act 483 of 1994
· Land Valuation Board
· Survey Department
· Land Title Registry
· Ministry of Local Governments
Mali
· Ministry in Charge of Agriculture
· Ministry in Charge of Livestock
· Ministry in Charge of Environment
· Ministry in Charge of Territorial Administration
· Ministry in Charge of Planning
· Ministry in Charge of International Cooperation
Togo
· Women are particularly involved in the management of land, particularly with regards to
the use of land for subsistence agriculture, as women have the ultimate responsibility to
nourish their children.
· Village Committees of Development (VCD) address the issue of development in the rural
areas, including environmental questions.
· Ministry of the Interior, Security and Decentralization
· Ministry of Equipment, Mines, Energy, Post and Telecommunication
· Ministry of Environment and Forest Resources/Department of General Ecology and
Rehabilitation of the Environment
· Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Husbandry and Fishing
6.2 Water
Scarcity
Benin
· Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fishing
· Ministry of Mines, Energy and Hydraulics
· Ministry of Public Health
· Ministry of Interior and Security and Decentralization
· Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research
· Ministry of Finance and Economy
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· Protection of the Environment and Struggle Against Illiteracy (PELCA BENIN)
Burkina Faso
· Ministry of the Environment and Water
· Department of Energy and Mines
· Department of Agriculture
· Ministry in Charge of Animal Resources
· Department of Public Health
· Department of Transport and Tourism
· Department of Social Action and the Family
· National Water and Sanitation Office (ONEA)
· The regional and provincial councils of regional planning
· Green Cross International
· Burkina National Electricity Company (SONABEL)
· Valleys Development Authority (AMVS, MOB)
· Producers (Assocation)
Côte d'Ivoire
· Ministry of Water and Forests
· Ministry of Economic Infrastructure
· Ministry of Agriculture and Animal Resources
· Ministry of Mines and Energy
· Ministry of Environment and Life
· Ministry of Economy and Finances
· SODECI, Water Distribution Corporation, is responsible for supplying potable water to
urban communities.
Ghana
· Ministry of Works and Housing/Water Resources Commission
· Ministry of Works and Housing/Community Water and Sanitation
· Ministry of Works and Housing/Hydrological Services Division
· Ministry of Environment and Science/Environmental Protection Agency
· Ministry of Food and Agriculture/Irrigation Development Authority
· Ministry of Environment and Science/Water Research Institute of CSIR
· Ministry of Mines/Public Utilities Regulatory Commission
· Ministry of Energy/Volta River Authority
· Ministry of Roads and Transport/Meteorological Services Department
Mali
· Ministry in Charge of Hydraulics
· Ministry in Charge of International Cooperation
· Ministry in Charge of Public Health
· Ministry in Charge of Livestock
· Ministry in Charge of Agriculture
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· Ministry in Charge of Environment
· Women are the primary users of water for domestic needs.
· Regional and Local Water Councils
· Committees of Basin or Sub-Basin
Togo
· Women are very involved in the management of water resources. They are involved in
drawing up water for domestic consumption and for agricultural production. When water
is scarce, it is the task of women to traverse long distances in order to find water.
· Village Committees of Development (VCD) address the issue of development in the rural
areas, including environmental questions.
· Ministry of Equipment, Mines and Hydraulic Resources/General Department of
Hydraulics
· Ministry of Public Health
· Ministry of Environment and Forest Resources
· Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Husbandry and Fishing
· Ministry of Interior, Security, and Decentralization
6.3
Loss of Biodiversity
Benin
· Ministry of Environment, Settlements and Urban Development
· Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fishing
· Ministry of Interior and Security and Decentralization
· Green Space NGO
Burkina Faso
· Ministry of Environment and Water
· Ministry of Agriculture
· Ministry in Charge of Animal Husbandry
· Department of Public Works, Settlements and Urban Development
· The regional and provincial councils of regional planning
Côte d'Ivoire
· Ministry of Water and Forests
· Ministry of Agriculture and Animal Resources
· Ministry of Environment and Life
Ghana
· Ministry of Environment and Science/Environmental Protection Agency
· Ministry of Lands and Forestry/Forestry Commission
· Ministry of Mines/Mineral Commission
· Ministry of Food and Agriculture
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Mali
· Ministry in Charge of Environment
· Ministry in Charge of Agriculture
· Ministry in Charge of Livestock
· Ministry in Charge of Territorial Administration
· Ministry in Charge of Planning
· Women are primarily responsible for deforestation for firewood
Togo
· Women are the primary users of firewood and charcoal so they play an important role in
the management of forests.
· Ministry of Environment and Forest Resources
· Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Husbandry and Fishing
6.4 Flooding
Benin
· Ministry of Environment, Settlements and Urban Development
· Ministry of Public Health
· Ministry of Mines, Energy and Hydraulics
· Ministry of Interior and Security and Decentralization
Burkina Faso
· Ministry of Environment and Water
· Department of Energy and Mines
· Department of Public Health
· Department of Transport and Tourism
· National Water and Sanitation Office (ONEA)
Côte d'Ivoire
· Ministry of Water and Forests
· Ministry of Economic Infrastructure
· Ministry of Mines and Energy
· Ministry of Transport
· Ministry of Environment and Life
· Ministry of Economy and Finances
· Ministry of Public Health
Ghana
· Ministry of Works and Housing/Water Resources Commission
· Ministry of Works and Housing/Hydrological Service Department
· National Disaster Management Organisation
· Ministry of Environment and Science/Environmental Protection Agency
· Ministry of Energy/Volta River Authority
· Ministry of Food and Agriculture/Irrigation Development Authority
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· Ministry of Environment and Science/Water Research Institute of CSIR
· Ministry of Local Governments
Mali
· Ministry in Charge of Hydraulics
· Ministry in Charge of Environment
· Ministry in Charge of Agriculture
Togo
· The National Committee of Emergency Assistance was created in 1995 to address
catastrophes such as floods. In 1997 the committee drafted a plan of Organization of
Assistance in the Event of Catastrophes (Plan ORSEC). This committee is placed under
the supervision of the Ministry for the Interior and Decentralization.
· Ministry of Equipment, Mines and Hydraulic Resources
· Ministry of Public Health
· Ministry of Environment and Forest Resources
· Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Husbandry and Fishing
· Ministry of Cooperation and Foreign Affairs
6.5 Water-Borne
Diseases
Benin
· Ministry of Environment, Settlements and Urban Development
· Ministry of Public Health
· Association for the Social Integration of Poor Children (AISED)
Burkina Faso
· Department of Public Health
· Department of Transport and Tourism
· Department of Social Action and the Family
· National Water and Sanitation Office (ONEA)
Côte d'Ivoire
· Ministry of Water and Forests
· Ministry of Environment and Life
· Ministry of Public Health
Ghana
· Ministry of Environment and Sciences/Environmental Protection Agency
· Volta River Authority
· University of Ghana/Nogouchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research
· Ministry of Local Governments
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Mali
· Ministry in Charge of Environment
· Ministry in Charge of Public Health
Togo
· Ministry of Public Health
· Ministry of Equipment, Mines and Hydraulic Resources
· Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Husbandry and Fishing
· Ministry of Environment and Forest Resources
· Ministry of Social Affairs and Promotion of Women
6.6
Growth of Aquatic Weeds
Benin
· Ministry of Environment, Settlements and Urban Development
· Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fishing
· Ministry of Mines, Energy and Hydraulics
· Ministry of Interior and Security and Decentralization
Burkina Faso
· Department of Energy and Mines
· Ministry of Environment and Water
· Department of Transport and Tourism
· National and Water Sanitation Office (ONEA)
Côte d'Ivoire
· Ministry of Water and Forests
· Ministry of Mines and Energy
· Ministry of Transport
· Ministry of Agriculture and Animal Resources
· Ministry of Public Health
Ghana
· Ministry of Environment and Science/Environmental Protection Agency
· Ministry of Energy/Volta River Authority
· University of Ghana/Department of Zoology
· Ministry of Works and Housing/Hydrological Services Department
· Ministry of Environment and Science/Water Research Institute
· Water Resources Commission
Mali
· Ministry in Charge of Hydraulics
· Ministry in Charge of Environment
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Togo
· Ministry of Equipment, Mines and Hydraulic Resources
· Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Husbandry and Fishing
· Ministry of Environment and Forest Resources
6.7 Coastal
Erosion
Benin
· Ministry of Environment, Settlements and Urban Development
· Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fishing
Burkina Faso
· Ministry of Environment and Water
· Department of Administration of Territories/Lands
Côte d'Ivoire
· Ministry of Environment and Life
· Ministry of Tourism
Ghana
· Ministry of Environment and Science/Environmental Protection Agency
Mali
Togo
· Ministry of Equipment, Mines and Hydraulic Resources
· Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Husbandry and Fishing
· Ministry of Environment and Forest Resources
· University of Lome
6.8
Water Quality Degradation
Benin
· Ministry of Environment, Settlements and Urban Development
· Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fishing
· Ministry of Public Health
· Ministry of Interior and Security and Decentralization
· Association for the Social Integration of Poor Children (AISED)
Burkina Faso
· Ministry of Environment and Water
· Department of Agriculture
· Department of Public Health
· Department of Transport and Tourism
· Department of Social Action and the Family
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· National Water and Sanitation Office (ONEA)
Côte d'Ivoire
· Ministry of Water and Forests
· Ministry of Economic Infrastructure
· Ministry of Agriculture and Animal Resources
· Ministry of Environment and Life
· Ministry of Economy and Finances
· Ministry of Public Health
Ghana
· Ministry of Works and Housing/Water Resources Commission
· Ministry of Environment and Science/Environmental Protection Agency
· Ministry of Mines/Public Utilities Regulatory Commission
· Ministry of Food and Agriculture/Irrigation Development Authority
· Ministry of Works and Housing/Ghana Water Company, Ltd.
· Ministry of Works and Housing/Community Water and Sanitation
· Ministry of Environment and Science/Water Research Institute of CSIR
· Ministry of Local Governments
Mali
· Ministry in Charge of Hydraulics
· Ministry in Charge of Environment
· Ministry in Charge of Public Health
· Ministry in Charge of Agriculture
· Ministry in Charge of Livestock
Togo
· Village Committees of Development (VCD) address the issue of development in the rural
areas, including environmental questions.
· Ministry of Public Health
· Ministry of Equipment, Mines and Hydraulic Resources
· Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Husbandry and Fishing
· Ministry of Environment and Forest Resources
In addition, common Stakeholders for nearly all of these problems are:
· Women
· Children
· Inhabitants
· Resource users
· Academia
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7.0 Environmental Quality Objectives
This section describes the major interventions and actions that are technical inputs for
consideration by the six riparian countries as they develop and agree upon their Strategic Action
Programme. These interventions were developed using Environmental Quality Objectives as
tools, which were then assigned specific targets that were achievable over a 5-10 year period.
Specific interventions and actions that would lead to achievement of these targets were
identified.
The use of EQOs, targets, and interventions is consistent with the GEF approach for TDAs,
although framed in a slightly different fashion. The EQOs are broad, policy-level statements of
the desired condition of the Volta River Basin environment. Targets are specific, time-
dependent and quantifiable steps towards achieving the EQOs. Finally, interventions or
activities represent a list of steps necessary to achieve the target in the time frame and at the level
specified. Consistent with GEF guidance, each Target and each Intervention/Activity is assigned
an environmental indicator. GEF specifies three types of indicators, as follows:
Process Indicator
A step/activity which provides for future environmental improvements, but actually does not
deliver any, e.g.:
· TDA
· NCAP/SAP
· Convention agreed, ratified, and comes into force
· Public awareness increases
Stress Reduction Indicator
A step/activity that actually reduces stress on the environment, e.g.:
· Municipal wastewater treatment plant built and operating
· Buffer zones created around river banks
· Farmers reduce use of fertilizer or pesticides
· Protected areas established and functional
· ICZM plan implemented
· Fishing quotas obeyed and/or enforced
Environment Status Indicator
An environmental parameter whose level can actually be measured to show improvement (or
not), e.g.:
· Overall level of biodiversity increases
· Endangered/threatened species taken off list
· Fisheries yield stable or increasing and sustainable
· Concentration of pollutants in the Sea or basin river water or sediments decreases
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The use of environmental indicators is a means to specify a priori the expected output or result
of that activity or intervention. Therefore, activities such as new laws or regulations may
represent a process indicator, improved industrial processes resulting from the new laws and
regulations represent a Stress Reduction Indicator, and reduced levels of contaminants in the
Volta River will represent an Environmental Status Indicator. Similarly, the targets can be
classified by a series of environmental indicators.
Therefore, the use of EQOs and Targets is simply a novel step taken to develop an expert
consensus on priority interventions/actions, complete with environmental indicators, as a step
towards creation of the NCAPs and SAP.
7.1
Environmental Quality Objectives for the Volta River Basin
One of the final goals of the TDA is to identify possible interventions to address the major
perceived issues through the root causes. Numerous possible interventions have been identified
in the various National Reports. Lacking a framework to organize these interventions, and to
facilitate their ranking and ordering, the concept of environmental quality objectives was used.
The three EQOs and their associated targets for the TDA /SAP process are:
1. Balanced aquatic ecosystem
- Achieve adequate surface water quality by 2012
- Restore natural surface water flow by 2012
- Achieve sustainable fisheries development by 2012
- Arrest wetland loss by 2012
- Begin implementation of riverine biodiversity conservation strategy by 2008
2. Stabilized high-quality freshwater supplies
- Achieve adequate freshwater quantity by 2012
- Achieve adequate groundwater quality and quantity by 2012
3. Sustainable land use
- Reduce rate of land degradation by 20% 2012
- Reduce coastal erosion rates by 25% by 2012
7.2 Action Areas and Possible Specific Actions
Targets for each of the EQOs were identified. In addition, specific actions/ interventions were
also determined.
Table 7.2-1 outlines targets, specific actions/interventions, and estimated costs identified. This
table also categorizes the intervention by type. Categories of intervention were defined as:
· Legal / Regulatory
· Baseline investment
· Incremental investment
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· Institutional strengthening
· Policy
· Scientific investigation
· Capacity building
· Data management
Although some actions / interventions may span several categories, the dominant category was
selected as representative. In some cases, a single action / intervention was assigned to two
categories, when no dominant type was apparent.
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Table 7.2-1. Environmental Quality Objectives, Targets, and Interventions
Environmental
Type of
Quality
Targets Activities
Interventions
Root Cause
Intervention
Objectives
Balanced
Achieve adequate
Establish common methods for Develop guidelines for methods of water, sediment,
Legislative/
Insufficient
Aquatic
surface water quality
assessing water and sediment and biota monitoring and assessment (including
Regulatory
scientific capacity
Ecosystem
by 2012
quality, including bioassays of sampling, analysis, risk assessment)
coastal biota
Implement a first periodic assessment (3-year
Investment
interval) of the river quality and trends
Develop and establish national/regional land-based
Data Management
activities data and information management system
as a tool for contaminant assessment and
management
Fill gaps in knowledge of
Conduct regional assessment of priority land-based
Scientific
Insufficient
priority pollutants
activities, sources of contaminants, and pollutant
Investigation
scientific capacity
(contaminant levels) and major levels in water and sediments
sources of pollutants
(contaminant inputs)
Conduct routine targeted monitoring of riverine
Investment
sediments and biota for purposes of identifying
major hot spots of pollution and land-based activities
Exchange environmental data
Develop agreements and technology basis for the
Data Management
Insufficient
and information
free and regular exchange of environmental data and
scientific capacity;
information within the region
Inadequate
technical
infrastructure
Reduce impacts of urban areas Construct or extend sewage collection systems in all
Investment
on water quality
major cities in the basin and route discharges to
treatment plant
Upgrade/renovate existing treatment plants for
Investment
mechanical and biological treatment
Expand solid waste collection in all major cities and
Investment
improve disposal methods so waste does not run-off
or leach into waterways
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Environmental
Type of
Quality
Targets Activities
Interventions
Root Cause
Intervention
Objectives
Reduce impacts of industry
Develop and enforce regulations on the disposal of
Legislative/
Inadequate legal/
and mining on water quality
industrial and mining effluents
Regulatory
regulatory basis;
Inadequate
institutions;
Insufficient
demonstration
projects;
Inadequate of
technology
Strengthen the capacity of institutions to enforce
Institutional
mining and industry regulations
Strengthening
Implement demonstration projects to bring best
Investment
technology and practice to industrial discharges (e.g.,
pre-treatment, source control, process control)
Identify major pollutants affecting water quality, and
Scientific
regulatory levels for those pollutants
Investigation
Halt the spread of aquatic
Improve knowledge of distribution of aquatic weeds
Scientific
Insufficient
weeds by 2010
using regional working groups
Investigation
knowledge/
understanding;
Inadequate legal/
regulatory basis;
Inadequate river
basin management
Develop national and regional aquatic weed
Policy
management strategies/plans/frameworks combined
with monitoring and GIS capabilities
Establish and implement a control system for the
Legislative/
import and export of exotic species into and from the Regulatory
Volta River Basin
Restore
natural
Improve water basin
Agree regionally on extraction of river water and
Legislative/
Inadequate water
surface water flow by
management
control of river flow regimes
Regulatory
basin management;
2012
Insufficient
regional
agreements;
Inadequate
intersectoral
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Environmental
Type of
Quality
Targets Activities
Interventions
Root Cause
Intervention
Objectives
coordination
Conduct baseline investigation to establish the
Scientific
minimum threshold required for ecosystem function.
Investiation
Manage water release from hydro-electric dams in
Legislative/
accordance with natural requirements
Regulatory
Manage water usage for agriculture and other uses in
Legislative/
order to maintain more natural river water level and
Regulatory
prevent detrimental impact on the ecosystem
Develop a regional commission with appropriate
Policy
policy/legal basis to monitor regional water quantity
and quality
Implement regional EIA for water management
Legislative/
projects, perhaps through the ESPOO Convention, to Regulatory
enhance broad stakeholder involvement in major
water projects
Develop regional basin water management plan of
Policy
action
Strengthen the capacity of institutions to implement
Institutional
regional basin water management plan of action.
Strengthening
Achieve
sustainable
Strengthen legal basis
Assure that legislation regulating fishing gear,
Legislative/
Inadequate legal/
fisheries development
quotas, size limits, seasons and allowed fishing areas
Regulatory
regulatory basis;
by 2012
are in place
Insufficient
scientific capacity;
Insufficient
regional
agreements;
Inadequate
institutions
Strengthen enforcement of quotas, size limits,
Policy
seasons, etc., relying on community-based fishery
management activities
Help harmonize fishing regulations amongst Volta
Policy
River Basin countries
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Environmental
Type of
Quality
Targets Activities
Interventions
Root Cause
Intervention
Objectives
Strengthen capacity of institutions to enforce
Institutional
fisheries regulations
Strengthening
Establish "no take zones" either geographically or
Legislative/
seasonally
Regulatory
Establish criteria for "healthy" fisheries situation
Scientific
Investigation
Develop site-specific or
Develop management plans, and implement and
Legislative/
Inadequate legal/
species-specific management
monitor them with local communities and user
Regulatory
regulatory basis;
plans that promote sustainable
groups
Insufficient
utilization and protect nursery
economic
or reproduction areas
incentives;
Inadequate
institutions
Strengthen capacity of local communities to
Institutional
implement and monitor management plans
Strengthening
Provide
alternative
Develop and demonstrate mechanisms to reduce by-
Policy Inadequate
technologies
catch
technology
Arrest wetland loss
Fill gaps in knowledge of
Undertake inventory of selected wetlands sites in the
Scientific
Insufficient
by 2012
priorities in protecting
basin to establish extent and condition of habitat and
Investigation
scientific capacity;
wetlands
management challenges
Insufficient
knowledge/
understanding
Strengthen regional legal basis Review, harmonize, and strengthen relevant local,
Legislative/
Inadequate legal/
for protection of wetlands
national, regional, and international legislation and
Regulatory
regulatory basis;
conventions relevant to the conservation and
Insufficient
management of wetlands
regional
agreements
Develop management plans
Develop national wetlands management strategies/
Policy Inadequate
legal/
for selected wetlands sites of
plans/ frameworks (including community
regulatory basis;
global and ecological
participation and empowerment)
Inadequate human
importance by 2007
capacity;
Inadequate
institutions
Strengthen the capacity of local conservation groups
Institutional
to conserve wetlands
Strengthening
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Environmental
Type of
Quality
Targets Activities
Interventions
Root Cause
Intervention
Objectives
Begin Develop and implement
Prepare a regional biodiversity strategy document,
Policy Insufficient
implementation of
regional biodiversity strategy
including a gap analysis, and obtain endorsement by
regional
riverine biodiversity
riparian states
agreements;
conservation strategy
Inadequate water
by 2008
basin management;
Insufficient
knowledge/
understanding
Implement biodiversity strategy, including species
Scientific
specific action plans
Investigation/
Investment
Prevention of adverse human
Evaluate sensitivity of areas and habitats in the Volta Scientific
Insufficient
activity on sensitive areas
River Basin and evaluate levels of human impacts on
Investigation
knowledge/
them
understanding;
Inadequate legal/
regulatory basis
If necessary, develop legislation for the protection of
Legislative/
areas not currently covered or included in protected
Regulatory
zones
Develop and implement action plans for those
Investment
sensitive areas where human impact is adverse
Reduce impacts of agriculture, Implement alternatives to agricultural expansion,
Investment Insufficient
land grazing, and hunting on
unchecked grazing, and poor hunting practices,
economic
loss of biodiversity
including bushfires and poaching, to conserve
incentives
biodiversity
Stabilized high-
Achieve adequate
Rationing of water use through Review and strengthen existing regional river system
Legislative/
Inadequate legal/
quality
freshwater quantity
international agreements on
agreements; develop new agreements
Regulatory
regulatory basis;
freshwater
by 2012
shared water basins
Insufficient
supplies
knowledge/
understanding;
Insufficient
economic
incentives;
Inadequate water
basin management
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Environmental
Type of
Quality
Targets Activities
Interventions
Root Cause
Intervention
Objectives
Harmonize environmental and economic policy
Policy
regarding water use
Monitor supply and quality of water in major rivers
Investment
Prepare environmental impact assessments (EIAs)
Investment
for major investments that may affect water quantity
or quality
Support freshwater resource tenure and valuation
Investment
Achieve
adequate
Fill gaps in knowledge
Develop common guidelines for periodic assessment
Scientific
Insufficient
groundwater quality
of groundwater quality and quantity trends
Investigations
scientific capacity;
and quantity by 2012
Insufficient
knowledge/
understanding
Develop and implement a groundwater quality trend
Investment
monitoring programme
Conduct the first periodic assessment of groundwater Investment
quality and its trends
Evaluate sustainable groundwater use rates, and
Scientific
appropriate monitoring systems
Investigations
Improve efficiency and
Based on the sustainable groundwater use rates,
Investment Inadequate
availability of high-quality
improve water extraction and transport systems to
technical
well water
rural and urban areas
infrastructure;
Insufficient
economic
incentives;
Insufficient
demonstration
projects
Institute a water use fee structure for all water users
Investment
Reduce evaporative losses in
Rationalize the use of small dams and barrages for
Policy Inadequate
drainage basin
local communities
technical
infrastructure
Revegetate (reforest, replant) the drainage basin to
Investment
increase natural evapotranspiration processes
118
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Environmental
Type of
Quality
Targets Activities
Interventions
Root Cause
Intervention
Objectives
Sustainable land Reduce rate of land
Strengthen regional legal basis National review of policy, legal, and regulatory
Legislative/
Inadequate legal/
use
degradation by 20%
for preventing land
frameworks, and institutional structure for addressing Regulatory
regulatory basis;
by 2012
degradation
land-based activities (including international
Insufficient
conventions such as climate change)
regional
agreements; Low
government
priority on
environment
Draft Regional EIA process review in a regional
Legislative/
workshop; adopt regional EIA
Regulatory
Develop realistic National Plans of Action for land-
Capacity
based sources and activities
Building
Develop common regional guidelines containing
Scientific
appropriate recommendations for decision makers
Investigation
for management of land-based point and non-point
pollutant sources
Strengthen capacity of institutions to implement
Institutional
National Plans of Action and EIA process review
Strengthening
Strengthen
monitoring
Develop a regional commission with appropriate
Policy Insufficient
capacity for evaluating land
policy/legal basis to monitor regional land
regional
degradation rates
degradation
agreements;
Inadequate
training;
Inadequate human
capacity;
Inadequate
institutions
Develop training and educational programs to train
Capacity Building
regional personnel on monitoring and use of GIS as a
planning tool
Develop regional and national institutions to perform Investment
ongoing monitoring of land degradation, including
geographic areas, causes, and rates
119
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Environmental
Type of
Quality
Targets Activities
Interventions
Root Cause
Intervention
Objectives
Involve stakeholders, including NGOs and natural
Capacity Building
resource users, by communicating the results of
monitoring and communicating alternative strategies
for resource use
Determine and satisfy training
Conduct survey on training needs and conduct
Capacity
Inadequate
needs in region for land-based
training on land-based activities and sources (for
Building
training;
activities and sources
high officials, mid-level government, community,
Inadequate human
resource users, experts, industry, etc.)
capacity
Improve
Stakeholder
Develop outreach and public awareness program
Investment Insufficient
knowledge of causes of land
regarding land degradation
knowledge/
degradation, and involve the
understanding
stakeholders in its solution
Create community-based agent network to educate
Investment
and advise stakeholders on alternatives to traditional,
harmful activities causing land degradation
Develop educational programs Conduct survey on educational needs to support
Capacity Building
Insufficient
at all levels on land-based
reduction of land-based activities and sources and
knowledge/
activities and sources
implement the activities to address three top priority
understanding;
regional educational needs, in appropriate languages
Inadequate
training;
Inadequate
technology
Develop necessary training at different levels on
Capacity Building
public awareness, applying Best and Cost Effective
Technology, Best Agricultural Practices, Integrated
Pest Management, increasing irrigation efficiency
and fertilizer use, etc.
Develop
Regional/
Integrate private sector into activities of this project,
Policy Insufficient
Governmental/ Private Sector
as appropriate, as sub-contractor, consultant, or co-
economic
partnerships on LB activities
sponsor of specific activities
incentives
and sources
Strengthen legal basis and
Develop and enforce land use codes for agriculture
Legislative/
Inadequate legal/
institutional capacity to reduce and animal husbandry
Regulatory
regulatory basis;
impacts of agriculture and
Inadequate
animal husbandry
institutions
120
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Environmental
Type of
Quality
Targets Activities
Interventions
Root Cause
Intervention
Objectives
Strengthen institutional capacity to support rangeland Institutional
management; develop community rangelands
Capacity
Develop programs to reduce
Riparian countries agree to a list of banned
Legislative/
Insufficient
impacts of agriculture and
agrochemicals and develop a program to destroy
Regulatory
regional
animal husbandry
stored banned products
agreements;
Inadequate
training;
Inadequate legal/
regulatory basis;
Inadequate
technology;
Insufficient
scientific capacity
Riparian countries agree on limits to the application
Legislative/
of agrochemicals and develop strategies to encourage Regulatory
the sustainable use of organic manure fertilizer
Riparian countries agree on regional controls on
Policy
bushfires for agriculture, pasturage, and hunting, and
enforce the controls
Conduct training courses at farmer and industry level Capacity Building
to apply the most appropriate and new findings in
their practice by 2008
Strengthen and enforce regulations on the disposal of Legislative/
animal waste
Regulatory
Develop more efficient ways to use existing land,
Investment
increasing yields through better land management,
crop rotation, or crop selection
Develop basin-wide corridors for seasonal migration
Policy
of livestock through adjacent countries, based on
historical common use zones
Develop community-based agricultural/ animal
Institutional
husbandry networks for transfer of technology and
Strengthening
best practice
121
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Environmental
Type of
Quality
Targets Activities
Interventions
Root Cause
Intervention
Objectives
Establish regional and national capacities to monitor, Investment
examine causes, and map (using GIS) geographic
locations of agriculture and animal husbandry,
including protection objectives. Broadly disseminate
the results to rural inhabitants.
Establish and maintain a
Establish a functioning regional protected area
Institutional
Inadequate
network of well-managed
working group for protection and management
Strengthening
institutions;
protected areas in the Volta
functions, financial arrangements, recommending
Insufficient
River Basin
new protected areas and addressing management of
regional
protected areas located along international borders
agreements;
Insufficient
knowledge/
understanding;
Inadequate legal/
regulatory basis;
Insufficient
economic
incentives;
Inadequate
training;
Insufficient
scientific capacity
Obtain government endorsement for the
Policy
recommended protected areas
Evaluate the priority targets for protection in each
Scientific
protected area and how these fit into regional
Investigation
priorities
Review and propose revisions for national legislation Legislative/
on protected areas to permit environmentally friendly Regulatory
uses of the protected areas
Allocate a zone within protected areas or adjacent to
Legislative/
them for ecotourism activities
Regulatory
Provide training in national protected area
Capacity Building
management and development of ecotourism
122
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Environmental
Type of
Quality
Targets Activities
Interventions
Root Cause
Intervention
Objectives
Reduce poaching in protected areas by ensuring that
Legislative/
legislation regulating hunting equipment, quotas,
Regulatory
seasons and allowed hunting areas are in place and
strengthening enforcement of these regulations
Increase stakeholder participation, including
Capacity Building
community ownership, of protected areas
Establish regional and national capacities to monitor, Investment
examine causes, and map (using GIS) geographic
locations of protected areas, including protection
objectives. Broadly disseminate the results to rural
inhabitants.
Reduce rates of deforestation
Identify main contributors to deforestation, including Scientific
Insufficient
public and private sector, as well as legal and
Investigation
demonstration
regulatory failures
projects
Insufficient
economic
incentives;
Insufficient
knowledge/
understanding;
Inadequate legal/
regulatory basis;
Inadequate human
capacity
Identify alternative sources for products historically
Scientific
produced from forests, and link with appropriate
Investigation
incentives and disincentives
Identify means to increase efficiency and reduce
Investment
waste in use of forest products, through
demonstration projects
Establish legislation to reduce rates of deforestation
Legislative/
based on economic incentives and disincentives
Regulatory
Establish reforestation programs and begin their
Investment
implementation in affected areas, at village,
community, national, and regional levels
123
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Environmental
Type of
Quality
Targets Activities
Interventions
Root Cause
Intervention
Objectives
Establish regional and national capacities to monitor, Investment
examine causes, and map (using GIS) rates and
geographic locations of deforestation and
reforestation. Broadly disseminate the results to
rural inhabitants.
Reduce rates of loss of land to
Increase awareness of local populations of the
Capacity Building
Insufficient
desertification
desertification process, perhaps working through
knowledge/
existing mechanisms
understanding;
Inadequate legal/
regulatory basis;
Insufficient
scientific capacity;
Insufficient
demonstration
projects
Improve legal basis in each country for combating
Legislative/
desertification, including: criteria to define land
Regulatory
degradation; amended laws on forestry, water
resources and land; and, strengthened legal
mechanisms such as EIA and planning procedures
Develop a desertification monitoring system and
Capacity Building
widely disseminate results
Demonstrate ways to reverse desertification
Investment
Reduce land degradation due
Evaluate national legislation addressing mining and
Scientific
Inadequate legal/
to mining
use of non-living resources
Investigation
regulatory basis;
Inadequate
intersectoral
coordination;
Insufficient
regional
agreements;
Insufficient
demonstration
projects
124
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Environmental
Type of
Quality
Targets Activities
Interventions
Root Cause
Intervention
Objectives
Create regional working group on land degradation
Policy
due to mining, and recommend specific common
regional improvements to policy and legislation
Implement recommendations of regional working
Legislative/
group in national laws and regulations
Regulatory
Perform demonstration projects of ways to avoid
Investment
adverse environmental impacts of mining
Develop
culturally-adapted
Perform investigation of the policy, legal, and
Scientific
Inadequate legal/
improvements to land tenure
cultural basis for land tenure policies in the Volta
Investigation
regulatory basis;
systems/property rights in the
River Basin
Insufficient
region
economic
incentives
Develop more effective methods of land tenure to
Policy
reduce tendency for migration to fresh lands, and to
encourage "investment" in lands (e.g., efficient
irrigation, improved crop methods)
Implement environmentally sustainable land tenure
Investment
systems in the region, perhaps as a "special planning
zone"
Reduce
coastal
Fill gaps in knowledge
Conduct assessment of the effects of Akosombo
Scientific
Insufficient
erosion rates by 25%
Dam on coastal erosion on the Gulf of Guinea coast
Investigation
knowledge/
by 2012
understanding
Develop coastal erosion
Promote environmental and community-based
Capacity Building
Insufficient
management plan through a
tourism
economic
participatory process
incentives;
inadequate human
capacity
Strengthen legal basis for
Review, harmonize and strengthen relevant local and
Legislative/
Inadequate legal/
protection of coastline
national policies and legislation regarding coastal
Regulatory
regulatory basis;
zone and river basin management
Inadequate
intersectoral
coordination
125
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Appendix A
List of Abbreviations
Appendix A - 1
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
ACOPS
Advisory Committee on Protection of the Sea
BOD
Biological Oxygen Demand
CAF
Center for Africa Wetlands
CILSS
Comité Permanent Inter Etats de Lutte Contre la Sécheresse
CITES
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna
and Flora
DANIDA
Danish International Development Agency
ECOWAS
Economic Community of West African States
EPA
Environmental
Protection
Agency
EQO
Environmental
Quality
Objective
FAO
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
GDP
Gross
Domestic
Product
GEF
Global
Environment
Facility
GEPRENAF
Project for the Participative Management of Natural Resources and Fauna
GNP
Gross
National
Product
GWL
Groundwater
Laterite
GWP/WATAC
Global Water Partnership/West African Technical Advisory Committee
ICARM
Integrated Coastal Area and River Basin Management
ITCZ
Inter-Tropical
Coverage
Zone
IUCN
The World Conservation Union
LOICZ
Land-Ocean Interactions in the Coastal Zones
MPPI
Major Perceived Problem and Issue
NAP
National
Action
Plan
NEPAD
New Partnership for Africa's Development
NGO
Non-Governmental
Organization
SAP
Strategic
Action
Programme
TDA
Transboundary
Diagnostic
Analysis
UEMOA
Economic and Monetary Union of West Africa
UNEP
United Nations Environment Programme
UNESCO
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
UNIDO
United Nations International Development Organization
USAID
Untied States Agency for International Development
VRA
Volta
River
Authority
WACAF
West and Central Africa Action Plan for Abidjan Convention
WARAP-IWRM
Regional Action Plan for Integrated Water Resources Management
WHO
World
Health
Organization
2
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Appendix C
Bibliography
Appendix C - 1
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
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(2002)
ACOPS. WGPIA (Working Group on Integrated Problem Analysis): WGPIA I (2000); WGPI-
II (2001); WGPI-III (2001).
Andreini M., Vlek, P. D. Nick van de Giesen, 2002. Water sharing in the Volta basin. FRIEND
2002 Regional Hydrology: Bridging the Gap between Research and practice. IAHS Publ. No.
274.
Andreini M., van de Geisen, N., van Edig, A., Fosu, M. and W. Andah, 2000. Volta Basin Water
Balance. ZEF Discussion Papers on Development and Policy No. 21.
Armah, A.K. and D.S. Amlao. 1998. Coastal Zone Profile of Ghana. Gulf of Guinea Large
Marine Ecosystem Project. Ministry of Environment, Science and Technology. Accra, Ghana.
CONAGESE 10 BP 6486 Ouagadougou 10 National Action Plan for the Fight Against
Desertification, Burkina Faso 1999.
Cote d'Ivoire, 2001. Plan of Installation of the National Park of Comoé and of Development of
its Periphery, 2002-2001.
Gyau-Boakye and P. Tumbulto, 2000. The Volta Lake and declining rainfall and streamflow in
the Volta River basin. Environment, Development, and Sustainability, 2, 1 10.
GCLME. UNIDO/UNDP/NOAA/UNEP Guinea Current Large Marine Ecosystem, Review of
Existing Information and Recommendations on Transboundary Priority Issues: Regional Report
for Stocktaking Meeting, May 2001.
GCLME. INTEGRATED ENVIRONMENTAL AND LIVING RESOURCES
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Proceedings of the first Regional Symposium on the Gulf of Guinea Large Marine Ecosystem.
GOG (1998).
GCLME. PERSPECTIVES IN INTEGRATED COASTAL AREAS MANAGEMENT IN THE
GULF OF GUINEA. Gulf of Guinea Large Marine Ecosystem Project. GOG (1998).
GCLME. STATE OF THE COASTAL AND MARINE ENVIRONMENT OF THE GULF OF
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GCLME. TOWARDS INTEGRATED COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT IN THE GULF OF
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GCLME. GEF: REGIONAL REPORT FROM THE STOCKTAKING WORKSHOP (May
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Large Marine Ecosystem (GCLME)"
Appendix C - 2
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Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
Mali, 1983. Inventory Project of Terrestrial Resources.
Minister of Environment and Water (BURKINA FASO).- National Monograph on the Biological
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Moniod, F., B. Pouyaud, and P. Sechet, 1977. Le Bassin du Fleuve Volta. Monogaphies
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Nathan Consortium, 1970. Framework for River Basin Planning. Ghana Sector Studies. Interim
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Nicholson, S.E., 1983. Sub-Saharan rainfall in the years 1976 80 : Evidence of continued
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Opoku-Ankomah, Y., 2000. Impacts of Potential Climate Change on River Discharge in Climate
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Research Institute (CSIR), Accra. Ghana.
Opoku-Ankomah, Y., 1998. Volta Basin System Surface Water Resources in Water Resources
Management Study. Information Building Block. Part II, Vol. 2. Ministry of Works and
Housing. Accra. Ghana.
UNEP, 2001. Ghana Country Report for the Integrated Management of the Volta River Basin
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UNEP, 2001. Mali Country Report for the Integrated Management of the Volta River Basin
Project, Accra.
UNEP, 2001. Togo Country Report for the Integrated Management of the Volta River Basin
Project, Accra.
UNEP, 2001. Benin Country Report for the Integrated Management of the Volta River Basin
Project, Accra.
UNEP, 2001. Burkina Faso Country Report for the Integrated Management of the Volta River
Basin Project, Accra.
UNEP, 2001. Cote d'Ivoire Country Report for the Integrated Management of the Volta River
Basin Project, Accra.
UNEP, 2001. Report of the first Regional Meeting of the National Coordinators for the
Preparatory Process of a full GEF Project Proposal, Accra, Ghana, June 5 8.
UNEP, 2001. Some Technical Information and country Reports, Integrated Management of the
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Appendix C - 3
Volta River Basin
Preliminary Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
UNEP, 2001. Presentations on other Initiatives. First Regional Meeting of the National
Coordinators. Integrated Management of the Volta River Basin, PDF B. Accra, Ghana, June 5
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UNEP, 2001. Proceedings of the first Steering Committee Meeting. Integrated Management of
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UNEP, 2001. Report on the Second Regional Meeting of the National Coordinators. Integrated
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27 30.
UNEP, 2001. Some technical Information. Second Regional Meeting of the National
Coordinators. Integrated Management of the Volta River Basin, PDF B. Accra, Ghana
November 27 30.
UNEP, 2001. Proceedings of the Second Steering Committee Meeting. Integrated Management
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UNEP, 1999. Regional Seas Reports and Studies No. 171, "Overview of Land-based Sources
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Appendix C - 4