Lake Xingkai/Khanka
Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
Jin Xiangcan*, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing, China, jinxc@craes.org.cn
Zhai Pingyang, Heilongjiang Environmental Safeguard Science Academy, Harbin, China
* Corresponding author
1. Introduction
high turbidity, as well as a fragmented institutional authority
responsible for its management. The lake experiences large
Lake Xingkai/Khanka, a transboundary lake shared by the seasonal and annual fl uctuations in size, with the maximum
People's Republic of China (China) and the Russian Federation
and minimum area, depth and volume being 4,510 km2,
(Russia), is the largest freshwater lake in Northeast Asia. The
3,940 km2, 10.6 m and 22.6 km3, respectively. The lake is
lake supports high biodiversity (especially migratory birds) and
called Lake Xingkai in China and Khanka Lake in Russia; it
is characterized by complex hydrology and naturally-occurring
will be referred to here as Lake Xingkai/Khanka to highlight
Figure 1. The Lake Xingkai/Khanka Basin

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its transboundary nature, with no preference implicit in the
been established to gather information in a consistent manner.
order of the names. Its basin is a part of the Wusuli/Ussuri
Thus, equivalent data are not available for all topics discussed
drainage basin, which is part of the larger Heilong/Amur basin
in this report. Further, both China and Russia have established
(also given in Chinese/Russian order), ultimately draining into
separate special nature protected areas in the drainage basin
the Sea of Okhotsk. The lake actually consists of two lakes: the
(i.e., Khankaisky State Nature Reserve in Russia; Xingkai Lake
small, northern Chinese Xiaoxingkai (small Xingkai) and the
Nature Reserve in China). Important new cooperative efforts
main Lake Xingkai/Khanka.
include the UNEP Diagnostic Analysis (2001), conducted
by a joint team of Chinese and Russian scientists (and from
Although the lake is located in a relatively remote area, its
which this report draws heavily), as well as a proposed Global
basin is a signifi cant source of agricultural products for both
Environment Facility project called "Integrated Management of
countries, providing livelihoods and water resources for the
the Amur/Heilong River Basin", which will have a signifi cant
local inhabitants. There is evidence that the basin has been
component addressing Lake Xingkai/Khanka issues.
settled since Neolithic times. Much of the land use in the basin
is either forest or agriculture. The lake is also important for its
2. Background
biodiversity and role as a habitat for animal and plant species,
including the red-crowned crane (Grus japonensis), white-
The landscape of Lake Xingkai/Khanka and its basin differs
neped crane (Grus vipio), and oriental white stork (Ciconia
from other regions of Northeast Asia. The basin contains
boyciana).
widespread meadow vegetative communities and grassy bogs.
The wetlands at the eastern coast of Lake Xingkai/Khanka
The most important features affecting the ecological have unique vegetation and fauna, with no analogs in the
uniqueness of the Lake Xingkai/Khanka drainage basin region. As a whole, the Lake Xingkai/Khanka drainage basin
include the territory's relief characteristics and geological is characterized by substantial biodiversity. The availability
structure; the distinctive monsoon climate with its constant
of a large freshwater source (the lake) has resulted in a huge
possibility for catastrophic sequences of different natural abundance of waterfowl and near-water birds. There also are
phenomena (fl oods, typhoons, soil erosion); the uneven many freshwater species of fi sh and other aquatic species in
nature of its economic development; and the concentration
Lake Xingkai/Khanka, and a signifi cant number of rare and
of anthropogenic pressures in the region conducive to zones
endangered species of plants grow in its waters and adjacent
of ecological distress. Because of the environmental and territory.
economic importance of the Lake Xingkai/Khanka Basin to
both China and Russia, crucial issues for the population of the
2.1 Biophysical
Features
region include: wetland conservation and management; water
quality control (particularly nutrients and pesticides from 2.1.1 The Lake and its Drainage Basin
agricultural runoff ); groundwater protection; and water use for
Lake Xingkai/Khanka was formed by the breaking and sinking
irrigation, drinking water and fi shing.
of the Earth's crust. The lake later shrank in the late Pleistocene
era, with plate-like and belt-like sand mounds appearing and
According to current information, the main environmental separating the lake into to two parts, as well as separating
problems facing Lake Xingkai/Khanka include the following:
the Muling River basin from the Lake Xingkai/Khanka basin.
The lake area varies between 3,940­4,510 km2, refl ecting
·
Its wetlands and moorlands are vanishing quickly due
rainfall variations between seasons and years. The average
to over-reclamation, causing destruction of the eco-
lake depth and volume are 4.5 m and 18.3 km3, respectively,
environment and aggravating soil erosion;
with its maximum depth and volume being 10.6 m and 22.6
km3, respectively. Table 1 presents a summary of some key
·
Precious animal and plant resources are being destroyed
morphological characteristics of the lake and its basin.
in the catchment, with the numbers of rare wild animals
and plants falling rapidly; for example, the oriental Lake Xingkai/Khanka is shallow, with the greater depth in
white stork (Ciconia boyciana), red-crowned crane (Grus
the northern part, and shallower depth in the southern part.
japonensis) and Xingkai pine on the verge of extinction;
Although some areas along the western shore of the lake have
and,
steep, rocky cliffs (a few tens of meters high), most of the
lakeshore is low and swampy, refl ecting the fl uctuating nature
·
Parts of the lake have been seriously polluted because
of the lake's surface area. The topography of the lake's drainage
of increasing human activities and the resulting high basin is characterized by a transition from mountainous ridges
pollution loads from around the lake.
of middle mountainous and low mountainous relief, to a zone
of tumulus and hummocky relief and, subsequently, to high
The management response to these issues is still in an early
and low accumulative plains. Overall, the basin is quite fl at,
phase, with most work being done on an individual country
especially in the northern and eastern parts, contributing to
basis. The reader will note that many of the statistics given in this
the complex hydrology of the area.
report are given separately for the Chinese and Russian sides
of the lake, primarily because no comprehensive program has
448 Lake
Xingkai/Khanka

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Table 1. Main Morphological Characteristics of Lake Xingkai/Khanka Basin.
Water area (lowest; average; highest)
3,940; 4,070; 4,510 km2
Average depth (lowest; average; highest)
3.22; 4.50; 4.51 m
Volume of water (lowest; average; highest)
12.7; 18.3; 22.6 km3
Altitude above sea level (at average level)
68.9 m
Length of shoreline (average long-term water level)
308 km
Basin area (not including Muling River basin)
21,766 km2
Ratio of lake volume (average long-term water level) to annual infl ow of water
9.4
Source: Based on Table 2.3, p. 25 in UNEP (2001), with corrections and additions.
It is challenging to accurately specify the Lake Xingkai/Khanka
Lake Xingaki/Khanka, whereas the latter path takes a more
drainage basin, due to both natural conditions and the effects
northeasterly path, avoiding the lake itself.
of human interventions. In the absence of any diversion
projects, the natural drainage basin of the lake is illustrated as
Approximately 0.65 km3 of water fl ows into the Dongdihe canal
the darker-colored area in Figure 1; namely, the area containing
from the Muling River each year. Since the Muling River water
rivers that naturally drain into the lake. This "main basin," with
fl ow is controlled by precipitation, the water fl ow of Hubei gate
an area of 21,766 km2, contains approximately 23 rivers fl owing
varies distinctively, both seasonally and annually. In dry years,
into the lake; 8 drain from China and 15 drain from Russia. The
there is no fl ow through the Hubei sluice gate. Considering all
Song'acha River is the only river that fl ows out of the lake,
of the relevant factors, including the large evaporation from
subsequently fl owing to the Wusuli/Ussuri River and on to the
wetland and bog surfaces, it is estimated that 0.4 km3 of fl ood
Heilong/Amur River system, fi nally emptying into the Pacifi c
water enters the small lake (Xiaoxingkai) from the Dongdihe
Ocean at the Tatar Strait.
Canal annually.
The construction of fl ood diversion canals and sluice gates
In regard to the connection between the smaller and larger
on the Muling River (indicated in lighter color in Figure 1) lakes (i.e. between Xiaoxingkai and Xingkai/Khanka), there is
dramatically altered the hydrology of the Xingkai/Khanka a natural sand mound lying between Xiaoxingkai and Xingkai/
Basin by allowing part of the fl ood waters of the Muling River
Khanka. The mound is approximately 35 km long, 75 m above
basin to enter the Xingkai/Khanka basin. The Muling River sea level (5-6 m above the average lake level), 10 m wide at
originates from the Woji Mountains and fl ows through several
the top and 60-70 m wide at the base, with primitive forests
major cities and towns, including Muling, Jixi, Jidong, Mishan,
growing on it. However, a large-scale hydraulic engineering-
and Huling, and converges into the Wusuli/Ussuri River. The
fl ood-diversion sluice was constructed between the large and
Muling River, with a basin area of 15,184 km2, has an annual
small lake in September 1976, making it possible for the Muling
runoff of 2.2 km3. Unfortunately, there is very little wastewater
River to fl ow into Xingkai/Khanka Lake. The water enters Lake
treatment in this basin.
Xiaoxingkai through three main paths, including (a) discharge
from rivers in the "main" basin (0.12 km3); (b) diversion
Flood control dams were constructed along the banks of the
from Dongdihe Canal (0.4 km3); and (c) direct precipitation
Muling River, in order to prevent the fl ooding of farmland (0.08 km3). Water leaves Lake Xiaoxingkai via four main paths,
during the wet period. Furthermore, and most important including (a) fl ow through a fl ood-diversion sluice gate to Lake
for Lake Xingkai/Khanka, a fl ood-diversion sluice gate was Xingkai/Khanka (0.31 km3); (b) irrigation (0.25 km3); (c) fl ow to
constructed nearby Hubei Village (20 km East of Yanggang)
the Xingkailiu River (0.02 km3); and (d) evaporation (0.17 km3).
to protect cultivated land in the downstream Muling basin
(the areas north and northeast of Lake Xingkai/Khanka in The total infl ow and outfl ow of Lake Xiaoxingkai does not add
Figure 1). This diversion is called the Muxing fl ood-diversion
up precisely, indicating the need for further study. Nevertheless,
course or the Hubei sluice gate. The fl ood-diversion sluice it seems reasonable to conclude that over 75% of the diverted
gate is opened when the Muling River water level exceeds
Muling River fl ood fl ows end up in Lake Xingkai/Khanka. The
the warning stage. The fl ood waters are diverted into either
total annual infl ows to Lake Xingkai/Khanka were estimated by
of two distinct paths: (a) through the Muxing fl ood diversion
UNEP (2001, p. 28) to be 0.696 km3 from the Chinese side, and
course, Dongdihe Canal, wetlands, Lake Xiaoxingkai, Lake 3.4 km3 from the Russian side. Although these numbers also
Xingkai/Khanka, Song'acha River or (b) through the Muxing
must be treated with caution, they nevertheless indicate that
fl ood diversion course, Dongdihe Canal, wetlands, Galatong
much of the infl ow to Lake Xingkai/Khanka comes from the
River and Song'acha River. What path is used depends on the
Russian side of its drainage basin. Thus, one signifi cant factor
seasonal conditions: the Dongdihe Canal fl ows into the small
regarding the Muling River fl ood infl ows is not so much their
lake through wetlands and moorlands during the wet season,
quantity, but rather the fact that they come from an urbanized
but fl ows into the Galatong River through wetlands and bogs
area with virtually no sewage treatment.
in the normal and dry seasons. It should be noted that only
the former path leads to the direct discharge of waters into

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
449

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2.1.2 Climate
2.2
Political and Socio-economic Features
The Lake Xingkai/Khanka basin is located in the continental
monsoon climatic zone, with the climatic characteristics of the
2.2.1 The Jurisdictional Features
region being affected by the monsoon character of the air mass
As noted above, the Lake Xingkai/Khanka basin is shared by
circulation. The lake basin territory is predominantly infl uenced
Russia and China, with both countries being riparian to the
by very cold, dry air masses forming in the area of strong Asian
lake. At the provincial level, the lake is within the Heilongjiang
anticyclones. During this period, the weather is primarily Province in China and Primorsky Kray in Russia. Within China,
clear and frosty. The cold period is approximately 200 days
the lake belongs to the People's Government of Mishan City
in length, with the coldest month being January (an average
(which includes 2 towns and 6 villages), the Xingkaihu State
monthly air temperature lower than -18°C). The duration of
Farm, the Xingkaihu Agriculture Factory of Heilongjiang
the frost-free period in the lake drainage basin is 153-161 days
Province and the Army. On the Russian side, Primorsky Kray
over the annual cycle. The annual precipitation in the Lake
consists of 6 administrative districts (Khankaisky, Spassky,
Xingkai/Khanka drainage basin averages between 530-630 Pogranichny, Khorolsky, Mikhailovsky and Chernigovsky) with
mm, decreasing progressively from south to the northwest.
one major city, Spassk-Dalny, situated in the lake basin.
Strong winds are common, and cause signifi cant mixing of this
shallow lake, thereby leading in part to high turbidity and low
2.2.2 The Political Signifi cance
transparency.
The Lake Xingkai/Khanka drainage basin is relatively remote
from the main center of each country, with a population of
2.1.3 Biota
approximately 345,500 people (1998); about 68.7% of the
There are unique natural complexes of international population lives in rural areas. There are only two main cities in
signifi cance in the lake's drainage basin, comprising wetlands,
the drainage basin; namely Spassk-Dalny in Russia and Mishan
stepped oak forests and light forests (including Pinus
in China. However, the area is a major agricultural zone for both
densifl ora). Residual Ussuriiskii deciduous-cedar forests still
countries, with farming dominating the economy. Fisheries also
exist in the southeastern part of the basin. The Khankaiskii
represent an important economic activity in the lake's drainage
State Natural Reserve is a special protected natural area.
basin. The Russian lake shoreline contains two fi sh-breeding
enterprises and one fi sh-processing factory. Fishing activities
Suitable climatic conditions and fertile lands have favored in China are conducted in the lake, as well as the river, channels
the agricultural development of the Xingkai/Khanka drainage
and reservoirs. Some mining, industry, forestry and tourism
basin. The agricultural area in the six Russian lake districts is
also take place in the basin.
4,642 km2, with soybeans, rice, vegetables and potatoes being
important crops, in addition to fodder areas. The total farmland
2.2.3 The Past Social and Economic Development
area is approximately 1,669 km2 in the Chinese portion of the
History
drainage basin, abounding in soybean, rice, corn and wheat, as
Although the Lake Xingkai/Khanka drainage basin is sparsely
well as industrial beet crops. Mechanized agriculture is used in
populated, its suitable climatic conditions and fertile land
about 85% of the farmland area in the Chinese portion of the
favor agricultural development.
drainage basin.
Chinese Side of Basin. The population in the Chinese portion of
The highly-productive ecosystems in the lake drainage basin
the Lake Xingkai/Khanka drainage basin is smaller than that in
are the source of many species and population-genetic the Russian portion, with about 73,500 people living near the
diversity. They consist of many valuable species of plants lake (not including the population in the Muling River basin).
and animals with outstanding landscape-forming, climate, Most people in the region are engaged in agricultural activities,
economic, recreational and aesthetic signifi cance. Lake while the urban population is primarily engaged in business,
Xingkai/Khanka is the major fi shery resource for the region,
manufacturing and agricultural management activities.
and contains 65 species of fi sh. The major species include
cyprinidae (Cyprians carpio, Carassius aurutus, Erythroculter
Although a State Farm was established for large-scale land
erythropterus, Erythroculter mongolicus, etc.). Forests cover reclamation in 1945, the area was not developed on a large
approximately one-third of the area of the Lake Xingkai/Khanka
scale until after 1949. A fi rst-grade port (Mishan port) was built
"main" drainage basin.
in the town of Dangbidian in 1988. The irrigated area around
the lake is approximately 233 km2. A breeding farm was set up
2.1.4 Other
Resources
in the northern bank of the small lake (Xiaoxingkai) in 1955,
Although the Lake Xingkai/Khanka drainage basin does with a maximum fi sh catch of 1,046 tons/year. Animals such as
not contain a wide range of natural resources, there are mink are also raised in the lake basin. The Xingkaihu State Farm
signifi cant deposits of coal, cement raw materials, and is located in the northeast part of Lake Xingkai/Khanka, and
fl uorspar raw materials. There is comparatively little industry
contained a paper mill which has recently been shut down.
on the drainage-basin scale, with most of the existing industry
concentrated on the Russian side of the basin.
Russian Side of Basin. The Tury Rog military post was created
on the boundary of Khanka Lake and Manchuria in 1859, and
the fi rst Russian ploughmen arrived in 1862. The development
450 Lake
Xingkai/Khanka

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of both the Khanka Lake basin and practically all Primorsky
the Prikhankaiskaya Lowland. Further, 225 species of the 287
Kray began from that point, with the basin being mainly an
species protected under Soviet-Japanese (1973) and Russian-
agricultural area from the beginning of its settlement.
Korean (1998) conventions dwell in the Lake Xingkai/Khanka
drainage basin.
The population in the Russian portion of the Lake Xingkai/
Khanka drainage basin is relatively small (approximately 3.1.1 Forests
272,000 residents), with 61% living in rural areas. The Russian
The forests in the drainage basin belong to the temperate-cold
portion of the drainage basin is the most developed territory
forestall sub-zone. Broadleaf forests of Quercus mongolica,
(primarily agriculture) in Primorsky Kray. Of particular interest
Tilia amurensis, Fraxinus mandshurica, Phellodendron
is the reduction in the Russian population density since the
amurensis, Populus davidiana, Betula platphylla. Ulmus
1980s, which is attributed both to a decrease in the birth rate
propinkua, Mongolian Scotch pine, Manchurian walnut, maple
and the migration of people to other areas.
and lndigobush amorpha occupy the largest area. The bush and
liana include fi lbert, shrub lespedeza, prikly rose, Mongolian
2.3
Institutional and Managerial Features
willow, Amur grape, Marlyprickle acanthopanlax, Fimbriate
orostachys, Mongolian ephedra, Chinese magnoliavine,
There currently is no unifi ed plan or authoritative organization
fourleaf ginseng and lily of the valley, as well as more than 20
to manage the lake. Instead, programs and responsibilities are
healing plants.
divided between the two countries, and also divided within
the countries themselves. On the other hand, both China and
According to Chinese experts, the fl ora in the Chinese portion
Russia have established special nature protected areas in the
of the lake's drainage basin comprises plants of 53 orders, 104
drainage basin (Russian Federation Khankaisky State Nature
families, 477 genera and more than 1,060 species. Industrial
Reserve; Xingkai Lake Nature Reserve of the People's Republic
forests in the Chinese portion of the drainage basin, as well as
of China). Nevertheless, substantial irrigation and industrial
water protection zones or forest belts, comprise Korean cedar,
activity takes place in these protected areas, being one of the
Chinese juniper, various species of spruce, larch, fi r, tree-like
main reasons for the environment problems in the lake and its
willow, poplar, pine (Pinus silvestris), and Manchurian nut
basin.
chozenia (Chosenia macrolepis).
3. Biophysical
Environment
3.1.2 Fauna
Biodiversity
The Lake Xingkai/Khanka drainage basin is estimated to
The Lake Xingkai/Khanka drainage basin is recognized by the
contain one-third to one-half of the species known in Russia.
international scientifi c community as one of the world's most
Focusing on the Russian Far East, the drainage basin contains
important regions in regard to its biodiversity characteristics. It
61.5% of the mammal species, 65% of the bird species, 80%
was included in the list of the Ramsar Convention for Russia as
of the amphibian species, and 45.4% of the reptile species.
one of the largest wetlands in Northeast Asia, and as a nesting
These totals include 498 species of Vertebrata of Chordata,
center for rare and endangered bird species.
comprising 6 classes, 37 orders, 104 families, and 291 genera.
Considering only mammals, there are 61 registered species
The drainage basin has a striking diversity of plant and of 44 genera of 18 families of 6 orders. The Chinese portion
animal species. The Chinese portion of the drainage basin, for
of the Lake Xingkai/Khanka drainage basin has relatively
example, contains 1,460 species of plants and 282 species of
fewer groups of animals, primarily because of the degraded
wild animals. Based on preliminary data, the Russia portion of
remaining natural biotopes, as well as an apparently high
the drainage basin contains at least 620 species of vascular
degree of anthropogenic transformation and fragmentation
plants, 61 species of mammals and 342 species of birds. Fifty-
of sites.
eight of the bird species have the status of being rare species
in the territory. Forty-four species are included in the Red Book
The current ornitho-fauna in the Lake Xingkai/Khanka drainage
of Russia, and 12 species are included in the International Red
basin is comprised of 342 bird species. Of this number, 185
Book.
have been determined as authentically nesting in the basin,
with an additional 7 species thought to nest there. During the
3.1
Past and Current Conditions
winter period, 93 species were observed, with 28 other species
being occasional visitors, and the remaining species appearing
The biodiversity in the Lake Xingkai/Khanka drainage basin
only during seasonal migrations. In regard to the nesting
is connected historically with intensive geological processes,
habits of bird species in the Russian portion of the drainage
resulting in a unique mixture of fl ora and fauna. The area basin, 333 species of birds have been recorded at the Khanka
contains grassy swamps (red-sedge swamps, sedge bogs, and
Nature Reserve up to the present time. Forty-four of these
large-grass swamps) and meadow vegetative communities, species are included in the Red Book of Russia and 12 in the
being of fundamental importance to the bird communities. No
Red Book of the International Union for Nature Conservation,
comparable-sized areas in Russia contain as large a number
which is a record for Russia.
of bird communities. Of the 48 endangered bird species of
the Russian Far Eastern territory, 10 species are unique to

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
451

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The Lake Xingkai/Khanka drainage basin has 8 permanent In winter and spring, diatoms comprise the main phytoplankton
species of amphibians, representing two orders: Caudata biomass and species vary in the lake. In summer and autumn,
(Salamandrella keyserlingi) and Anura (representatives of 4 the number of Chlorophyta species increases, with their
families). Ten species of reptiles from two orders, 2 species of
biomass becoming comparable to that of diatoms. In July and
lizards, and 7 species of snakes also have been recorded.
October, the phytoplankton biomass consists of approximately
equal biomasses of the following species: Snowella rosea,
Lake Xingkai/Khanka also contains a diversifi ed ichthyofauna,
species of diatom genera Stephanodisvus, Cyclotela, Nitzschia,
primarily because of the lake's shallow depth and hydrological
Navicula, Aulacoseira, Schroederia setigera, Ulothrix tenerriam,
regime. The ichthyofauna includes 1 species of Petromyzonidae,
species of Chlorophyta and Chrysophyta from Ankistrodesmus,
and 73 species of fi shes incorporated in 58 genera, 18 families
Monoraphidium, Scenedesmus dinobryon and Mallomonas
and 8 orders. The Lake Xingkai/Khanka drainage basin tonsurata.
contains about one-quarter of all representatives of freshwater
fi sh fauna in Russia. The diversity of the freshwater fi sh fauna
3.1.4 Water Quantity and Quality
in the lake's basin has no analog either in Russia or in the entire
The drainage basin's water resources are used for a variety of
Paleoarctic region. Some of the fi sh species comprise important
human activities. The annual runoff to the lake totals about
fi sheries, including Erythroculter erythropterus, Erythroculter
4.1 km3. The majority of the water input from the Chinese
mongolicus, Erythroculter oxycephalus, Hypophthalmichthys portion of the basin is from the Muling River's fl oodwater. The
molitrix and Chinese perch, accounting for about 70% of the
water use in the basin in 1995­1996 indicates that, of the total
total fi sh catch. The autochthonous species of Lake Xingkai/
water use of 0.739 km3/year, about 0.693 km3/year is used for
Khanka can be grouped as follows:
irrigation purposes.
·
Eurasian species, for which the Amur/Heilong River Lake Xingkai/Khanka is characterized by high concentrations
Basin represents their marginal, extreme southeastern
of suspended solids and low water transparency. Typical
extent (20%);
transparencies are less than a meter, and sometimes decrease
to less than 10 centimeters, primarily because of the winds,
·
Endemic species of the Amur/Heilong River Basin (Amur
which easily mix this shallow lake, causing the suspension
Province, without Sakhalin) (17%);
of materials in the water column. Although human-induced
land use changes, as well as direct pollution, undoubtedly
·
Species spread only in the Amur (Manchurian) transition
affect the lake's water quality, it is diffi cult to discern the
region, or that visit Northern China through the Yellow
magnitude of this problem, given the paucity of long-term
(Huanghe) River (21%); and,
data. UNEP (2001) identifi es soil erosion caused by "irrational
exploitation" of land in both the main and Muling River basins
·
Sino-Indian species, for which the Amur/Heilong River
as a very serious problem. The annual average suspended
Basin is the border of their northern extent (42%).
solid concentrations are illustrated in Figure 2. It is noted that
values for the Russian side of the basin are much lower, which
The mollusks in Lake Xingkai/Khanka include 84 species of
may refl ect different methods for measuring suspended solids,
28 genera and 15 families. Gastropoda comprise 55 species
as much as it represents actual differences in the lake's quality.
of 28 genera and 15 families, while large bivalves comprise 21
Nevertheless, although relatively high for a lake, the values are
species of 7 genera and 2 families, and small bivalves comprise
characteristic of Lake Xingkai/Khanka.
8 species of 4 genera and 3 families.
Because of the lack of wastewater treatment in either the main
3.1.3 Phytoplankton
basin, or the Muling River basin, one may expect high organic
The phytoplankton in Lake Xingkai/Khanka is characterized loadings to the lake. The Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD5)
by the relatively constant presence of diatoms, being most
and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) values for Lake Xingkai/
abundant in autumn. The most abundant phytoplankton Khanka are illustrated in Figures 3 and 4. Although the COD is
in summer include Cyanophyta of the genera Microcystis,
quite high, the BOD5 is fairly low. It should be noted that the
Gloeocapsa, Aphanothece and especially Anabaena, whose methods for measuring COD are different in China and Russia,
growth usually continues until late autumn. Algal blooms so the data are not directly comparable. Despite this apparently
attributed to the mass development of Cyanophyta and
high organic loading, however, the dissolved oxygen level of
colonial fi lamentous algae, coupled with diatoms, also have
the lake is relatively high, as shown in Figure 5.
been observed.
Because of the lack of wastewater treatment in the drainage
Based on 1995 data, the Lake Xingkai/Khanka basin contained
basin, pathogenic contamination also is a likely problem in the
180 species and intra-species of algae, including Cyanophyta
lake. Unfortunately, however, there is little hard data to support
(26 species), Euglenophyta (9 species), Dinophyta (1
or refute this claim. The Muling River water quality parameters
specie), Cryptophyta (4 species), Chrysophyta (12 species), indicate the river is suffering from serious organic pollution
Bacillariophyta (64 species), Xanlhophyta (1 species) and originating from Mishan City (see UNEP 2001, p. 38­39 for
Chlorophyta (62 species).
further discussion on Muling River water quality).
452 Lake
Xingkai/Khanka

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The nutrient concentrations (phosphorus, nitrogen) for Lake
on available data, several species of birds, including Nipponia
Xingkai/Khanka are presented in Figures 6 and 7, respectively,
nippon, Cygnus olor, Lyrurus tetri, and Otis tarda, have either
being indicative of a eutrophic status. There does not appear
disappeared, or have been greatly reduced in number in the
to be a discernable trend in total phosphorus concentrations.
basin, due to hunting and human-induced habitat changes.
There has been a substantial decrease, however, in the
ammonia (NH4-N) concentration on the Russian side (the only
There also has been a decrease in fi sh catches. By 1987,
side for which nitrogen data is available), refl ecting a sharp
fi sheries production had dropped by about 10 times the
decrease in fertilizer use on the Russian side since the early
level of 50 years before then (UNEP 2001, p. 16). Overall,
1990s.
the fi sheries are reported to be in relatively poor condition,
due to anthropogenic pollution and overfi shing (especially
Toxic contamination is more of an issue on the Russian side
economically-important fi sh).
than on the Chinese side, given its relatively higher industrial
and mining activities. UNEP (2001) reports a wide range 3.3
Lake and Drainage Basin Resource Confl icts
of contaminants, including heavy metals, pesticides (DDT,
HCCH), phenol, and oil. It is noted that the level of copper
Open confl ict over resource use has not yet become a feature
found in certain areas (Kamen-Rybolov) is about 100 times the
of the Lake Xingkai/Khanka drainage basin. That is not to say,
maximum allowable concentration of 1 mg/L. Unfortunately,
however, that various users of the lake and its resources do not
neither the sources nor time trends of these pollutants are
negatively affect other users. Industrial pollution, for example,
known.
affects the quality of fi sh. Overfi shing compromises the ability
of future users to earn a livelihood. Pathogenic contamination
3.2
History of Lake Degradation
from upstream users may be impairing the health of
downstream users, and so on. Nevertheless, and perhaps
The Lake Xingkai/Khanka drainage basin has undergone refl ecting the remoteness of the lake basin, the two riparian
signifi cant economic development, including agricultural countries have not experienced serious confl icts over the lake
activities, over the past 140 years. This development basin resources. Nevertheless, a further, sudden reduction in
has resulted in negative ecological impacts, including
the lake's quality or biodiversity could put much more pressure
contamination of surface waters and (partly) groundwater;
on users and ultimately lead to possible confl icts.
soil cover erosion; and reduced communities of rushes in
wetlands and related biodiversity degradation. The occurrence
4. Management
Environment
of natural calamities in the region further exacerbates such
negative impacts.
4.1
Lake Management Programs and Processes
UNEP (2001) identifi es the main reasons for biodiversity The management of Lake Xingkai/Khanka and its drainage
degradation in the Lake Xingkai/Khanka drainage basin basin is characterized by fragmentation at all governmental
as: draining of swamps; lowering of the lake's water level; levels. Although no unifi ed plan exists for the basin,
agricultural development (particularly affecting bird nesting this situation may change in the future, with the further
areas); stress due to the noise and other impacts of technical
development of a proposed GEF project, which could ultimately
facilities; large-scale environmental contamination; cutting lead to the development of a drainage-basin scale Strategic
forests; and reduction and/or elimination of ecological Action Program.
corridors.
The Lake Xingkai/Khankai Natural Reserve has already been
Although deciduous forests of poplar, birch, oak, linden, elm,
brought into an integral strategic system for ecological
and walnut on typical brown soils once existed in the foothills of
protection of China, Russia and the whole world. The countries
the Eastern-Manchurian Mountains, many have subsequently
fi rst signed the world's wetland protection convention, and
been clear-cut and transformed into agricultural fi elds.
subsequently the Agreement on Lake Xingkai/Khanka on
22 April 1996 in Beijing. On 7 March 1997, approval to enter
Economic development of the coastal zone, and water the northeastern crane network was obtained. In 1998, the lake
pollution related primarily to agrochemicals, has resulted in
was listed as one of the demonstration engineering regions for
major biotic changes. Seven species of birds that previously
biodiversity protection and sustainable utilization of a Chinese
bred in the Russian portion of the drainage basin, for example,
wetland by the GEF project.
have subsequently disappeared, including three listed in the
Russian Red Book. Four other species also are on the verge of
4.1.1 Chinese Side of Basin
extinction.
According to Environmental Protection Laws, Mishan City
applied for approval to establish the Lake Xingkai Natural
Because birds have high ecological integrity, unlimited mobility,
Reserve, receiving approval on 27 April 1986 from the
and respond to changes in habitat environment, the dynamics
Heilongjiang Province to set up a provincial natural protection
of the former and existing bird populations in the drainage
zone, and being ratifi ed as a national natural reserve in 5
basin provide a model for estimating biodiversity loss. Based
April 1996. Mishan City drafted Environmental Management

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
453

---

Chinese Side: Xingkai
Chinese Side: Xingkai
250
13
Chinese Side: Xiaoxingkai
Chinese Side: Xiaoxingkai
Russian Side: Khanka
Russian Side: Khanka
200
12
150
11
x
ygen (mg/L)
10
100
ed O
Suspended Solids (mg/L)
9
50
Dissolv
8
0
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
Year
Year
Figure 2. Annual Average Suspended Solids Concentration
Figure 5. Annual Average Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
(mg/L) (Source: Derived from UNEP 2001, p. 30.).
Concentration (mg/L) (Source: Derived from UNEP
2001, p. 30 with additional data provided by author).
0.08
Chinese Side: Xingkai
3.0
Chinese Side: Xiaoxingkai
0.07
Russian Side: Khanka
2.5
0.06
2.0
0.05
(mg/L)
5
0.04
1.5
D
BO
0.03
1.0
Chinese Side: Xingkai
0.02
Chinese Side: Xiaoxingkai
T
otal Phosphorus (mg/L)
0.5
Russian Side: Khanka
0.01
0.0
0.00
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
1984
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
Year
Year
Figure 3. Annual Average Biochemical Oxygen Demand
Figure 6. Annual Average Total Phosphorus Concentration
(BOD5) Concentration (mg/L) (Source: Derived
(mg/L) (Source: Derived from UNEP 2001, p. 30.).
from UNEP 2001, p. 30, with additional data provided by
author).
Chinese Side: Xingkai
Chinese Side: Xiaoxingkai
8
Russian Side: Khanka
32
1
30
CO
D
28 Cr
6
(mg/L) for R
26
r Chinese Side
o
24
0.1
u
4
22
ssian Side
ation (mg/L)
(mg/L) F
20
MnD
18
CO
Concentr 0.01
NH4-N in Khanka Lake
2
16
NO3-N in Khanka Lake
14
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
1984
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
Year
Year
Figure 4. Annual Average Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
Figure 7. Annual Average Ammonia (NH4-N) and Nitrate
Concentration (mg/L) (Source: Derived from UNEP
(NO3-N) Concentrations (mg/L) (Source: Derived
2001, p. 30 with additional data provided by author).
from UNEP 2001, p. 45.).
454 Lake
Xingkai/Khanka

---

measures for the Lake Xingkai Natural Reserve in 1994, based
of the Russian economy, which led to lower industrial and
on national laws and regulations.
agricultural production on the Russian side, as well as a degree
of de-population. Nutrient, pesticide and toxic contamination
Based on the present condition of the lake and its wild animals
on the Russian side of the drainage basin is reported to have
and plants, the protection zone is divided into 3 functional
decreased as a result of this downturn. Water consumption for
zones: kernel zone, buffer zone and experimental zone. irrigation was reportedly 80% lower than previous levels in the
The kernel zone is further sub-divided into two sub-zones: Khankaisky district.
Psammophyte kernel zone and swamp­wetland­waterbird
kernel zone. The main protection species in the Psammophyte
There have been moves on the Chinese side to relocate the
kernel Zone include Xingkai pine and other famous and Xingkaihu Farm, which is located in the center of the protection
precious plants. The main protection species in the swamp­
area, and to restore the reclaimed area. The Lake Xingkai
wetland­waterbird kernel zone include Oriental white stork,
Paper Mill, which was located in a key wetland area, has been
red-crown crane, gold eagle and white-tailed sea eagle. The
closed.
experimental zone is a base for wild animals. The function of
the buffer zone is to prevent outside infl uences and damage
Nevertheless, because much of the basin still lacks wastewater
to the kernel zone, as well as for experimental production treatment facilities, as well as other pollution control measures,
research.
the total stresses on the lake cannot be considered as being
controlled in a sustainable fashion.
4.1.2 Russian Side of Basin
The specifi c protected natural territories in the Lake Khanka
Some current activities that may help reduce stresses to the
drainage basin are presently represented by three categories:
lake include the following.
the Khankaisky State Nature Reserve, nature monuments and
wetlands of international meaning.
4.2.1 Chinese Side of Basin
Construction of Qinglongshan Reservior in Jixi. The main
Lake Khanka "wetland of international meaning". The
function of this project is to prevent fl ooding, facilitate
administration of Primorsky Kray enacted the decree "About
irrigation and reduce pollution.
wetlands of Lake Khanka of international meaning," and the
appropriate regulations about these wetlands of international
Wastewater treatment projects. A reed culturing and irrigation
meaning, in 1995. Unfortunately, the borders of the given project (23.3 km2) is being carried out on the basis of the present
wetlands are still not legalized. The wetland borders probably
oxidizing pond (0.2 km2). After this project is implemented, the
will not spread outside of the limits of the buffer protected
wastewater can be treated to reach discharge standards, and
zones of the Khankaisky Reserve.
the superfi cial wastewater discharged into the escape canal
and subsequently fl owing into Galatong River and eventually
The Khankaisky State Nature Reserve. The reserve was into Song'acha River. As a result, the wastewater impacts on
established by the Russian party for the purpose of fulfi lling
Xingkai Lake will be reduced.
obligations under the Ramsar Convention "On wetlands of
international meaning mainly as habitats of waterfowl." During
Coordination activity. The Lake Xingkai Natural Reserve
the signing of the Ramsar Convention, the amelioration of is managed by 4 separate units. It is suggested that,
wetlands in Lake Khanka drainage basin had not yet been under the direction of the local government, a unifi ed
conducted, so the former Soviet Union had declared an area of
protection committee must be organized. In this manner, the
310,000 hectares in the Khanka Lake basin as falling under the
administration of the Lake Xingkai Natural Reserve can be
convention. By the time the reserve was created (1989­1990),
carried out smoothly and effectively.
the main part of the wetlands was ameliorated.
Strictly enforcing the law. According to the administration
Thus, a nature protection complex consisting of protected methods of Lake Xingkai Natural Reserve, it is necessary to
nature sites of four gradations was created, including sites
carry out investigations of environmental protection activities.
of the Khankaisky State Nature Reserve; specifi c protected As an example, all activities regarding tree felling and
zones; protected zone of special assignment; and protected
agriculture are forbidden.
zone of common assignment. Each protected zone has its own
objects and appropriate protection regime. However, because
Participating in international coordination. Because the lake
of the fragmentation of protected zones, as well as a lack of
is a boundary water of Russia and China, it is necessary to
enforcement, the prohibited activities in these areas have not
conduct coordinated research, with both countries doing their
yet been signifi cantly curtailed.
best to protect the common environment.
4.2
Reduction of Lake Stresses
Constructing scientifi c research and studying the biodiversity
base of the reserve. Relevant activities include studying the
The most important reduction in stresses on the lake came
migrating regularity of wild animals and birds, developing
unexpectedly in the early 1990s, a result of the downturn protective countermeasures, while at the same time carrying

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
455

---

out basic investigations and research work, scientifi c
conducted in the theory, practice, engineering and technology
appraisals and effective habitat protection.
of environmental protection. The environmental protection
industry also is developing rather quickly.
4.2.2 Russian Side of Basin
To reduce the risk of disastrous fl oods within the framework
Relevant environmentally-related laws, acts and criteria are as
of federal target programs for protecting the population, a follows:
number of measures are planned for the Khanka Lake drainage
basin. Realization of the elaborated program will signifi cantly
·
Environmental Protection Law of People's Republic of
reduce the potential losses from disastrous fl oods. A major
China (PRC);
problem in implementing the considered program, however, is
a funding defi ciency.
·
Anti-Water Pollution Laws of PRC;
4.3. Environmental
Status
·
Forest Laws of PRC;
The environmental status of Lake Xingkai/Khanka and its ·
Quality Criterion of Surface Water Environment (GB
drainage basin was previously discussed in Section 3.1.
3838­2003);
4.4 Enabling
Environment
·
Comprehensive Criteria for Effl uent-Discharging; and,
4.4.1 The Critical Policy and Institutional Framework for
·
Administration Regulation for Natural Reserves of
Management
Xingkai Lake.
Russian Side of Basin. The main document defi ning correct
uses of water resources is the Water Code of the Russian 4.4.2 Quality of Lake Management Programs
Federation, adopted by the State Duma of the Russian Considering the Russian side, the rather small area of the
Federation in 3 October 1995. The adoption of the Water Code,
reserved territory was inadequate to ensure the proper
however, only began the process of shaping a new state system
conditions for preserving the biodiversity. On the other hand,
of water legislation. Its goal is the regulation of relations (and
it was all territory that had no economic value at the time the
contradictions) between the Federation and its subjects, and
reserve was organized. Two-thirds of the main protected species
between the subjects located in one river basin.
of the reserve, for example, are located outside the reserve,
including Grus japonensis, Grus vipio, Ciconia boyciana, etc.
The main law that defi nes forest use is the Forest Code of the
Accordingly, protected zones with various regimes of nature
Russian Federation, adopted by the State Duma of the Russian
use were created in the reserve. They represent the buffers
Federation in 22 January 1997. The regulation of forest use, and
between territories intensively used for economic purposes,
the protection and reproduction of forests, are assigned to the
and territories with reserved regimes and a complete absence
united republican specialized Federal Forest Service, fi nanced
of economic activity.
mainly from the federal budget.
There are numerous settlements in the Khanka Lake basin,
The exploitation of fi sh resources is determined by the federal
including cities and urban settlements, whose inhabitants
target program, "Development of Fishery of the Russian became accustomed from generation to generation to using
Federation", and legal acts of the Committee of the Russian
the available natural resources for their own needs. As a result,
Federation on fi shery, as well as "Rules for fi shery in Far there were intense social-political circumstances around
Eastern reservoirs."
the reserve, being further aggravated by the fact that these
territories have no practical natural-orienting marks of relief.
The exploitation of animal resources is determined by the
federal law "On fauna", which determines the state ownership
Another complicating factor is the regular fl uctuations of the
of objects of fauna, restrictions and interdictions for use of
lake level. In this regard, there is no constant shoreline for the
objects of fauna, conditions for habitat preservation, protection
lake. Rather, the descriptions of the reserve are characterized
of fauna, regulation of census of fauna objects, and conditions
by such notions as "water's edge", "coastline", etc. Further, the
for economic activity.
borders of the reserve and protected zones are not clear for
a large mass of the local population. There also is a diffi culty
Chinese Side of Basin. Since the 1970s, China has paid more
with the understanding of the regime of nature use in each
attention to environmental protection of the Lake Xingkai specifi c site.
basin, as displayed in the implementation of a series of integral
systems for laws, and regulations and management systems of
The current intense social-economic situation in the country
organization. At present, environmental protection is identifi ed
is refl ected in the aggravation of the atmosphere around the
in the master plans and annual plans for national economic
reserve. The local inhabitants are now largely compelled to
development. Categories of natural protection zones are ensure their vital needs, using the local natural resources.
established, and a great deal of scientifi c research has been
456 Lake
Xingkai/Khanka

---

The above-noted problems confronting the reserve have with a focus on "joint planning of the coordinated system of
resulted in necessary revision of the boundaries of the protection facilities." This Memorandum of Understanding
protected zones and their regime. The negative infl uence
also set a goal of initiating applied scientifi c exchange in the
of existing conditions was reinforced by the fact that, in the
areas of hydrology, watershed management, and related fi elds
Federal Law "On specially protected natural territories", only
to devise plans for enhancing and maintaining water quality
one protected zone around the reserve is mentioned (i.e., and fi shery resources in Wusuli/Ussuri River and adjacent
creation of a complex of protected zones is not stipulated). At
waterways. It also was proposed to the respective national
present, some coordination between the administrations of all
governments through the Memorandum that the International
districts on the protected zones has been carried out. A draft of
Ussuli Commission (IUC) be established. Further, both the
a decree about the zones was prepared by the Primorsky Kray
Lake Xingkai National Nature Reserve (China) and Khankaisky
Governor, including agreement on expansion of the reserve
National Nature Reserve (Russian Federation) agreed to
territory in the Khorolsky district.
take steps to establish a joint international reserve for Lake
Xingkai/Khanka, and to exchange scientifi c information and
Overall, the system of specially-protected natural territories
experiences.
in the Russian part of the Khanka Lake basin requires further
development. It requires an expansion of the reserve, and then
4.4.5 Successes and Failures
solutions to confl ict problems in its protected zones, as well
Unfortunately, regional cooperation for environmental
as maintenance of a special protection regime, and creation of
protection and management has a short history in northeast
new protection of the existing monuments of nature. Additional
Asia. Regional cooperation for Lake Xingkai/Khanka to improve
fi nancial resources will be required for all these activities.
relevant environmental, strategic policy and institutional
coordination arrangements has not been achieved. The UNEP-
4.4.3 Stakeholder Involvement
sponsored Diagnostic Analysis produced an analysis of the
There are some NGO activities, notably the Khanka Lake current state of the environment, and identifi ed current and
Organization on the Russian side of the lake basin. Stakeholder
emerging environmental issues in the basin. Based on the
participation in the overall management of the lake basin, information in the Diagnostic Analysis, a Regional Workshop
however, is not high. On the other hand, at the international
was organized in Mishan, People's Republic of China, resulting
level, Chinese and Russian scientists were brought together
in the development of recommendations for possible follow-up
within the context of the UNEP Diagnostic Analysis. It is hoped
action.
this sort of activity will continue to be further used to promote
international cooperation and wider participation.
The cooperative and collaborative spirit already demonstrated
by the two riparian countries in these initial activities highlights
The governments of the two riparian countries worked with
their willingness to consider these and other possibilities. As
key stakeholders in both countries. Stakeholder consultation
previously noted, the continued cooperation of UNEP and its
was organized 3 times during the project to discuss an action
sister agencies within the United Nations system also would
program and cooperation between the two riparian countries.
facilitate the blueprint of such activities, building on the
Through the project, the two riparian countries identifi ed
excellent cooperative work already completed between China,
issues for environmental management and the sustainable Russia and UNEP.
development of the lake basin through regional cooperation.
Two institutes were designated by their respective national
The two riparian countries also developed their own monitoring
governments as focal institutes, including the Chinese and information management system. A lack of adequate
Research Academy of Environmental Sciences (CRAES), and
technical and institutional capacity to collect, collate, analyze
the Pacifi c Geographical Institute (PGI) Far-Eastern Branch, and store relevant data and information on the basin, however,
Russia Academy of Sciences in the Russian Federation.
hinders this effort. Further, a lack of dialogue on the monitoring
and information exchange and joint planning for the basin has
4.4.4 Linkages
prevented harmonized and cost-effective management actions
A number of regional cooperation activities have been regarding transboundary environmental issues.
carried out near the lake, including the USAID-US National
Committee on US-China Relation project on land-use in 4.4.6 Public Awareness Programs and Access to
the Wusuli/Ussuri River watershed, and WWF activities for
Information
biodiversity conservation in the Russian Federation. Specifi c
The UNEP (2001) report noted that in the basin, as
agreement among the Provincial and Kray administration in the
elsewhere, people and organizations alike often engage in
Wusuli/Ussuri River watershed includes articles on regional
environmentally-unsustainable socio-economic development
cooperation for Lake Xingkai/Khanka. The two riparian activities simply because of an inadequate awareness of the
countries agreed to select joint actions through various potential environmental damage of such activities. Thus,
international forums and agreements, such as the Memorandum
the two riparian countries must undertake public education
of Understanding (25 May 1998) on the Wusuli/Ussuri River
and awareness activities directed to both identifying how
Basin among the Primorsky and Khabarovsky Kray (both in
people and organizations can cause environmental problems,
the Russian Federation) and Heilongjiang Province (in China),

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
457

---

and identifying their potential role in helping solve these In short, the most signifi cant problem affecting the sustainable
problems.
use of Lake Xingkai/Khanka is the lack of a central, unifi ed
authority to manage the lake and its resources throughout
The UNEP-sponsored Diagnostic Analysis project afforded its drainage basin, resulting in a fragmented management
some avenues for public awareness and education activities,
approach.
including the written and electronic media, extension
programs, school instruction, and work-related training.
5.2
Humans Can Profoundly Change the Scope
of a Drainage Basin
4.4.7 Past and Ongoing Financial Investment
Although the two riparian countries want to support more The term drainage basin itself is not straightforward in the
protection for the lake and its drainage basin, they lack the
Lake Xingkai/Khanka case. Construction of the fl ood diversion
fi nancial resources to effectively do so. In fact, international
canals and sluice gates on the Muling River have dramatically
support has been critical thus far. In 1998, in addition to altered the natural hydrology and extent of the Lake Xingkai/
supporting the Diagnostic Analysis of the Lake Xingkai/Khanka
Khanka basin by allowing part of the fl ood waters from the
Basin, UNEP also proposed a new full-sized project for funding
Muling River basin to enter the lake. In particular, fl ood
by the Global Environment Facility (GEF), addressing land-
waters entering through the Muxing fl ood diversion course
based threats to the Lake Xingkai/Khanka Basin Ecosystem
can eventually enter Lake Xingkai/Khanka. Although this
within the Regional Framework for the Amur/Heilongjiang engineering effort was initiated to provide fl ood protection
River Basin and Associated Continental and Sakhalin Island
to the citizens and crops in the downstream river basin, the
Coastal Area (Global Environment Facility 2003).
river fl ows through a number of major cities and towns in its
journey to the lake, receiving wastewaters from these cities
5. Lessons
Learned
along its journey. Unfortunately, there is very little wastewater
treatment in the basin, resulting in the potential of causing
5.1
Fragmentation of Responsibility Complicates
both health and environmental impacts on the lake with the
Lake Basin Management
infl ux of fl oodwaters. The absence of adequate wastewater
treatment in the relatively highly populated cities and towns
The border of China and Russia runs straight through Lake
along the Muling River means that such inputs can dramatically
Xingkai/Khanka and both countries have approached the change the lake's water quality and hydrology.
assessment and management of the lake and its resources
primarily within the context of their national boundaries. One
5.3
For Protected Areas, Designation Must Be
example of this is that many of the statistics in this report are
Followed by Enforcement
given separately for the Chinese and Russian sides of the
basin, making their interpretation and understanding within
One of the unfortunate themes running through the brief for
the context of the entire lake system diffi cult to comprehend.
both sides of the basin is the lack of enforcement of rules
Not only do the citizens on each side of the border speak designed to conserve protected areas. Cynically, it seems
a different language, but even the scientists use different easier to designate an area "protected" than to take painful
methods, as illustrated in the different types of COD tests socio-economic measures to actually protect it. Both sides
reported (COD versus COD ). Furthermore, this report have designated Ramsar sites and nature reserves. However,
Cr
Mn
compiled the individual maps of the partial lake basins from
as noted above, prohibited activities in these areas have not
the two countries to provide the map of the lake and its entire
yet been signifi cantly curtailed. For example, substantial
drainage basin, as illustrated in Figure 1. Previous reports such
irrigation and industrial activity takes place in some of these
as the UNEP (2002) Diagnostic Analysis have shown the lake
protected areas.
basin divided into two parts, with the lake cut in the middle.
The protected areas themselves suffer from poor designation,
However, even without international borders, fragmentation
which is in part due to the natural situation at the lake, which
exists at the national levels. As noted above, within China,
experiences seasonal fl uctuations in water area and lacks
the lake belongs to the People's Government of Mishan City
practical natural-orienting marks of relief. The brief noted that
(including 2 towns and 6 villages), Xingkaihu State Farm, diffi culty defi ning a "water's edge" or "coastline" contributes
Xingkaihu Agriculture Factory of Heilongjiang Province and to the confusion of the local population. All of this is taking
the Army. On the Russian side, Primorsky Kray consists of six
place against the backdrop of poor economic conditions facing
administrative districts (Khankaisky, Spassky, Pogranichny, people who traditionally used the areas. It is not surprising
Khorolsky, Mikhailovsky and Chernigovsky) with one major that illegal activities continue to occur.
city, Spassk-Dalny, situated in the lake basin. Even the
relatively small Lake Xingkai Nature Reserve on the Chinese
5.4
The State of Future Stresses is Hard to
side is managed by four different administrative units. This
Predict
sort of fragmentation of authority and responsibility greatly
hinders effective management of Lake Xingkai/Khanka and its
The decline in economic activity on the Russian side of the
resources.
basin following the dissolution of the Soviet Union has led to
458 Lake
Xingkai/Khanka

---

a decrease in industrial and agricultural pollution loads from
Disclaimer
the Russian side. While this might be good from a water quality
perspective, the social and economic pain has been great. The fi ndings, interpretations and conclusions expressed
Birth rates have dropped and people have migrated from the
in this report are the views of the authors and do not
area. This sort of major change in the stresses facing a lake was
necessarily represent the views of The World Bank and its
certainly diffi cult to foresee and somewhat humbling for any
Board of Directors, or the countries they represent, nor do
manager trying to plan for the future. It is certainly possible
they necessarily represent the view of the organizations,
that some new and unexpected development completely out
agencies or governments to which any of the authors are
of the control of the local lake basin could happen again with
associated. Also, the colors, boundaries, denominations, and
either positive or negative effects on the lake.
classifi cations in this report do not imply, on the part of The
World Bank and its Board of Directors, or the countries they
5.5
International Agencies Can Play a Key
represent, and the organizations, agencies or governments to
Catalytic Role
which any of the authors are associated, any judgment on the
legal or other status of any territory, or any endorsement or
Although the two riparian countries wish to support more acceptance of any boundary.
protection for the lake and its drainage basin, they lack the
fi nancial resources to effectively do so, particularly over
the long term. To this end, international support has been
critical thus far in studying the lake, identifying its problems
and proposing solutions to them, especially with regard to
maintaining the rich biodiversity. The previously-noted UNEP
Diagnostic Analysis of Lake Xingkai/Khanka and its drainage
basin represents a signifi cant example of such needed support
in analyzing the environmental problems of the lake and its
drainage basin. Furthermore, in addition to supporting the
Diagnostic Analysis, UNEP has proposed a new, full-sized
project for funding by the Global Environment Facility (GEF),
addressing land-based threats to the Lake Xingkai/Khanka
Basin Ecosystem within the Regional Framework for the
Amur/Heilongjiang River Basin and Associated Continental
and Sakhalin Island Coastal Area.
In view of the limited fi nancial resources of the two riparian
countries directed to this lake and its resources, further
efforts along this line are essential to the sustainable use
of this valuable aquatic resource. It is hoped that relevant
international donor agencies and similar fi nancial sources
will be forthcoming to further such essential monitoring,
assessment and management efforts.
6. References
This report draws heavily from the four sources listed below:
Global Environment Facility. 2003. Concept Paper for a Full
size GEF Project: Integrated Management of the Amur/Heilong
River Basin. Available at http://www.gefonline.org/projectDet
ails.cfm?projID=2361
Jin, Xiangcan et al. 1999. Diagnostic Analysis of the Lake
Xingkai/Khanka Basin (Chinese Portion of Basin).
Kachur, Anatoly N. et al. 1999. Diagnostic Analysis of the Lake
Xingkai/Khanka Basin (Russian Portion of Basin).
UNEP. 2001. Diagnostic Analysis of the Lake Xingkai/Khanka
Basin (People's Republic of China and Russian Federation).
United Nations Environment Programme: Nairobi, Kenya.

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