Chilika Lagoon
Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
Asish K. Ghosh*, Center for Environment and Development, Calcutta, India, cedkolkata@sify.com
Ajit K. Pattnaik, Chilika Development Authority, Bhubaneshwar, India, ajitpattnaik@hotmail.com
* Corresponding author
1. Introduction
Unfortunately, Chilika was facing a series of problems by
the 1990s that impaired many of its uses. Major problems
The Chilika Lagoon (also referred to here as Lake Chilika, Chilika
were related to a decreased salinity in the lagoon, caused
Lake, or simply "Chilika") is the biggest lagoon on India's by a narrowing of the lagoon mouth. The gradual choking
eastern coast (see Figure 1). Its size fl uctuates substantially
of this outlet to (and inlet from) the sea was a result of the
within the course of a year, with a maximum area of 1,165 km2
accumulation of sediment entering the lagoon from the
during the monsoon season and a minimum of 906 km2 during
drainage basin. Because the tidal fl ux was disturbed, the
the dry season. It is of relatively recent origin, being formed
lagoon's salinity decreased, thereby altering the natural
several thousand years ago.
Freshwater runoff from the
drainage basin, combined with
saline water infl ows from the
ocean, result in a wide range
of fresh, brackish and saline
water environments within
the lagoon, with this spatially
and temporally diverse water
environment supporting an
exceptionally productive
ecosystem.
The lagoon is a well-known
wintering site for migrating
birds; approximately half of
the over 211 species recorded
at Chilika are intercontinental
migrants from far parts of Asia,
including the Caspian Sea,
Lake Baikal and Siberia. The
lagoon is also only one of two
lagoons in the world that is
home to the Irrawady dolphin
(the other being the Songkhla
Lagoon in Thailand). Its rich
biodiversity, along with the
beautiful scenery of the area,
attracts many bird watchers
and ecotourists. The lagoon
is also extremely important
for the local population, not
only as a source of livelihoods
(mainly though its fi sheries)
but also as a focus for
cultural, religious and spiritual
activities.
Figure 1. The Chilika Lagoon Basin.

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ecosystem. The area and depth of the lagoon decreased; 2. Background
the area covered by freshwater macrophytes increased;
biodiversity decreased; and fi sh catches declined. Some 2.1 Biophysical
Features
lands near the lakeshore also were waterlogged at certain
times because the natural release of fl oodwaters through the
The Chilika Lagoon, (19°28'­19°54' N latitude and 85°05'­
lagoon mouth was constrained. In addition to the clogging
85°38' E longitude), located in the east coast of the State of
of the lagoon mouth and the salinity-related problems, Orissa, India, is the largest lagoon in Asia (see Figure 1). It is
there also have been changes in the quantities and timing of
separated from the Bay of Bengal by a sandbar whose width
freshwater fl ows because of upstream riverine impoundments
varies between 100 m to 1.5 km; a long outer 32 km channel
for irrigation and fl ood control. There also has been a general
connects the main lagoon with the Bay of Bengal near the
increase in pollution from agricultural, aquacultural and village of Arakhukuda. The pear shaped lagoon has a maximum
domestic sources in the drainage basin.
linear axis of 64.3 km, with an average mean width of 20.1 km.
Traditional fi sherfolk were particularly hard hit by these The lagoon is spread over three coastal districts of the State:
problems. The decline in fi sh catches led many to use a Puri, Khurda and Ganjam. In the early 20th century, the lagoon
smaller mesh size, thereby putting even greater pressure area is reported to have varied between 1,165 km2 in the
on the fi sheries and further complicating the problems. monsoon season and 906 km2 in summer (Annandale 1915­
Pressure to maintain livelihoods seems to have contributed
1924); however, land reclamation for agriculture, aquaculture
to poaching of migratory birds and logging activities in the
and human settlements, along with sediment infl ow from the
watershed. Compounding the diffi cult situation was a change
catchment, had reduced the average lagoon area to 760 km2,
in government policy regarding the lease of fi shing grounds
based on late-1990s satellite images. Figure 1 depicts the
(that affected fi shing rights), resulting in the loss of access
lagoon at its lower level.
by traditional fi sherfolk to many fi shing grounds and a rise of
commercial prawn culturing. Confl icts over this issue resulted
Hydrologically, Chilika is infl uenced by three subsystems,
in violent clashes and several deaths.
including the Mahanadi river system (See Figure 4 on the
last page of this brief ), rivers fl owing in the lagoon from the
The Chilika Development Authority (CDA) was created in 1992
western catchment, and the Bay of Bengal. The lagoon receives
as a coordinating body between the wide range of institutions
freshwater from a series of 52 channels, the larger ones being
and people with a stake in the lagoon and its basin. The CDA
depicted in Figure 1. The Chilika drainage basin, including the
has worked closely with departments of the State Government
lagoon itself, covers an area of over 4,300 km2 (Das and Samal
of Orissa to improve conditions in the lagoon. The most 1988). The watershed boundaries lie between water fl owing
noticeable decision to date under the guidance of the CDA
into the Mahanadi and Chilika in the north, while areas draining
was cutting of a new opening in 2000 to the Bay of Bengal, and
into the Bhargavi River make up the northeast watershed; in
dredging the channel between the outer channel and the rest
the west and southwest, the watershed boundary lies between
of the lagoon. The result was a restoration of the fl ow regime,
streams fl owing into the Rushikulya River and those fl owing
leading to a dramatic improvement in the lagoon's salinity into Chilika (Ram et al. 1994).
conditions and amelioration of many problems caused by the
declining salinity. As examples, fi sh and crab catches (and The long shore sediment transport (littoral drift) along the
income for fi sherfolk) have markedly increased; macrophyte
coast of the Bay of Bengal is estimated to be 0.1 million metric
coverage has declined; and some rare and endangered fi sh
tons annually and tends to shift the lagoon mouth opening to
species have returned. A monitoring program was instituted,
the sea every year, thereby adversely affecting tidal exchange.
a management plan was drawn up and environmental fl ow
Although this phenomenon used to signifi cantly affect the
releases are being negotiated from the upstream irrigation salinity regime, fl ushing pattern and consequent natural
impoundments. It is notable that the decision to open the new
recruitment of biological species, a new mouth to the ocean
mouth and dredge the channel was based on both scientifi c
has since been created, ameliorating the situation. The spatial
studies and extensive stakeholder consultations.
and temporal salinity gradients, due to freshwater fl ows from
the riverine system and seasonal seawater infl ux, have given
Challenges undoubtedly remain. Addressing upstream Chilika unique characteristics of an estuarine ecosystem, and
problems (e.g., siltation, untreated sewage, changes in exercised a continuous, selective infl uence on the biota.
the hydrological regime) will require much effort. However,
confl icts over fi shing have abated mainly due to enhancement
The drainage basin in the northeast consists of a large tract
of the fi shery resource. Furthermore, it is encouraging to of alluvial land with elevations less than 30 m above sea level
note that the Chilika Lagoon, after being placed on the (asl). An area of rolling plains, located 30­150 m asl lies in
Montreux Record (Ramsar's list of sites undergoing ecological
the north. Some higher hills, reaching up to 600 m, also are
degradation) in 1993, was awarded the prestigious Ramsar recorded in the northern and western parts. In this area of
Wetland Award in 2002 in recognition of the improvements and
predominantly laterite soil, hill streams formed deep gullies
was removed from the Montreux Record due to the successful
and ravines, often interspersed with depressions fi lled with
restoration of the lagoon ecosystem by the CDA.
alluvium. The Eastern Ghat mountain range forms a part of
116 Chilika
Lagoon

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the west and southwest drainage area, with an elevation of
international importance in 1981, thereby becoming a Ramsar
over 600 m and strands of forests of Sal (Shorea), Dillenia and
site. Nalabana Island was declared a bird sanctuary in 1973.
Pterospermum spp. These hilly tracts serve as the headwater
region of several streams fl owing into the lagoon (Asthana,
The lagoon system now hosts over 211 species of birds in
1979). Along with the natural forest plantations of cashews,
the peak migratory season, with 97 being intercontinental
casuarinas and eucalyptus are found around parts of the migrants from the Caspian Sea, Baikal, Aral Sea, remote parts
lagoon; the remaining catchment land is covered by human
of Russia, Kirghiz Steppes of Mognolia, Central and Southeast
settlements or cultivated land (www.chilika.com).
Asia, Ladakh and the great Himalayas (Dev 1990). Because it is
in the central Asia fl yway, this list includes some rare birds. The
The catchment has a tropical climate, with average maximum
important bird species of the lagoon are Anser clypeata, Aythya
and minimum annual temperatures of 39°C and 14°C, ferina, Anas querquedula, Anas penelope, Anas fuligula, Anser
respectively. The southwest monsoon brings much rain during
strepera, Limnodromus semipalmatus and Eurynorhynchus
June­September, while the northeast monsoon brings some
pygmeus. Other interesting and threatened species include
rain during November­December. December­February is the
the spoon-billed sandpiper (Eurynorhynchus pygmeus), Asian
winter season and March­May is the hot season. The average
Dowithcher (Limnodromus semipalmatus), spot-billed pelican
annual rainfall is over 1,200 mm (www.chilika.com). The (Pelecanus philippensis), dalmatian pelican (Pelecanus
geophysical location of the lagoon dictates that the eastern
crispus), and pallas fi shing eagle (Haliaeetus leucoryphus).
periphery of the lagoon is exposed to the vagaries of the
Bay of Bengal; the lagoon experiences the impacts of trade
The most recent account of the fl ora was made by Pattnaik
winds, as well as "Southeasters" and "Nor'westers", and the
(2003), who reported the existence of 726 species of
occasional cyclonic depression from the sea. The wind usually
angiosperms, belonging to 496 genera under 120 families
blows from the south and southwest directions from February
from the lagoon and its immediate neighborhood, including its
to September, and from the north and northwest during islands, sandbar and shorelines, which represents about one-
October to January. The southwest winds generate a clockwise
fourth of the fl ora of the State of Orissa (estimated at 2,900
circulation at the lagoon, whereas the northwest wind creates
species). The predominance of members of Leguminosae,
a counter clockwise circulation in the lagoon. The winds act as
Poaceae and Cyperaceae was a striking feature of the fl ora.
the dominant mixing force, with the tidal effects apparently
The occurrence of an apparent endemic species (Cassipourea
negligible.
ceylanica) was recorded (in badly degraded condition) from
Barkuda and Sanakuda Islands, which is also known to occur
The salinity level in the lagoon is dictated by river discharges
in the coast of Madras and Sri Lanka.
during different seasons, wind action, and the extent of tidal
infl ux carrying marine water from the Bay of Bengal. Before the
A few mangrove associates, such as Aegiceras corniculatum,
new mouth was opened, the average salinity had been reduced
Excoecaria agallocha, Salvadora persica, Pongamia pinnata,
by a third by late 1995­1996 (see section 3.1.2), severely and Cassipourea ceylanica have been recorded by Pattnaik
affecting the biota of this saline ecosystem. The seasonality
(2003). The plant species recorded from Chilika during the
of rainfall also leads to large fl uctuations in the size of the
present CDA study under the category of rare, vulnerable
lagoon. Data from 1992­1997 on the maximum and minimum
or threatened plants include Cassipourea ceylanica
depths of the lagoon are presented in Table 1, and demonstrate
(Rhizophoraceae), Colubrina asiatica (Rhamnaceae), Capparis
the wide range of depths seen throughout the year, as well as
roxburghii (Capparaceae), Maerua oblongifolia (Capparaceae),
inter-annual changes refl ecting rainfall fl uctuations between
Macrotyloma ciliatum (Fabaceae), Indigofera aspalathoides
years.
(Fabaceae), and Halophila beccarii (Hydrocharitaceae).
Lagoons generally are highly productive ecosystems, due to
Pattnaik (2003) enumerated the economic and useful plants of
large nutrient inputs from their drainage basins, as well as high
the lagoon and its environ, including medicinal and aromatic
nutrient cycling and a wide range of habitats supported by the
plants, wild relatives of cultivated species, wild plants of
salinity gradient. Chilika is no exception and, in refl ection of its
horticultural importance and interesting plant groups like
important biodiversity, the lagoon was declared a wetland of
insectivorous plants, epiphytes, parasites, and lithophytes,
among others.
Table 1. Average Depth of Chilika Lagoon (1992-1997).
The diversity and extent of seagrass distribution in Chilika
Year
Maximum (cm)
Minimum (cm)
Lagoon has been assessed by Pattnaik (2003) and the
1992­93
340
74
occurrence of fi ve species of seagrass in their true sense
(Halodule uninervis, Halodule pinifolia, Halophila ovalis,
1993­94
210
65
Halophila ovata, Halophila beccarii) have been reported.
1994­95
332
58
The occurrence of Halodule uninervis, Halodule pinifolia and
1995­96
382
60
Halophila ovata from the lagoon were new distributional
1996­97
142
42
records.
Source:
Orissa Remote Sensing Agency (ORSAC).

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
117

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2.2
Political and Socio-Economic Features
of the fi shery sources of the lagoon with the non fi shermen
communities and 70% with the fi shermen communities. The
The lagoon has a history spanning more than fi ve thousand
local fi shermen resented this as the non-fi shermen introduced
years, during which it provided livelihoods for local inhabitants,
shrimp culture by virtue of this order. However in the mean
as well as inspiration for philosophers, poets and naturalists
time the Supreme Court of India (the apex court) imposed
with its picturesque beauty and panoramic view of the Eastern
a complete ban on ban on shrimp culture in the lagoon and
Ghats (hills) in the background. Tourists are drawn by the within 1000 meters periphery in 1996.
thousands every year. The lagoon was once a part of the Bay
of Bengal and was created through the process of embayment
2.3
Institutional and Management Features
due to the long shore sediment transport. The lagoon mouth
used to serve as an excellent port. Commercial boats used to
Until 1992, management of Chilika Lagoon was basically
sail from the lagoon to Cambodia and Indonesia. To this day,
related to the activities of two major stakeholder departments,
the villagers around Chilika observe an annual festival ("Bali
namely, the State Fisheries and the State Tourism Departments.
Yatra", which means "Journey to Bali" in Indonesian). A place
In addition, the State Forest (Wildlife) Division was entrusted
called Manikpatna is considered as the port.
with responsibility for the Nalabana Sanctuary within Chilika.
The lagoon was included in Ramsar's Montreux Record
The local community also has deep religious attachments, due to change in the ecological character and degradation
with the Kalijai temple situated on yet another island at the
of the lagoon ecosystem. In response, the Government of
middle of the lagoon; the goddess Kalijai is venerated in Orissa created the Chilika Development Authority in 1992.
folklore and legend. Ancient deities (e.g., Nabagraha located
CDA is a registered society borne under the administrative
near the village Berhampur along the lagoon's outer channel;
jurisdiction of the Forest and Environment Department of the
the Shiva temple in the village Alupatna in the same area) also
Government of Orissa. It is governed by a governing body
are venerated.
chaired by the Chief Minister of the State. Secretaries from
the key departments, experts, eminent scientists, people's
The Chilika Lagoon remains a vital lifeline for more than representatives (members of parliament and legislative
200,000 people who live around the lagoon in 141 villages.
assembly) and representative of fi sherfolk communities are
The historical records indicate the use of the lagoon system for
members of the governing body. The CDA's mandate includes:
capture fi sheries through the formation of 92 primary fi shery
cooperatives. Six types of traditional fi shing methods used ·
To protect the lagoon ecosystem and its genetic
in practice (Table 2). The steady fi sh landing records provide
biodiversity;
evidence of a sustainable fi shing strategy, using ecological
zones, different contraptions and traditional experience.
·
To survey, plan and prepare a proposal for integrated
resource management in, and around, the lagoon;
In early 1990 the non-fi shermen communities of Chilika fi led a
petition in the High Court of Orissa to recognize their fi shing
·
To understand multi-dimensional and multi-disciplinary
rights in Chilika, challenging the principle of the State of
development activities;
Orissa's Revenue Department which used to lease out the
fi shing rights only to the traditional fi shermen. The high court
·
To cooperate and collaborate with other institutions for
in a 1992 verdict, directed the state government to settle 30%
development of the lagoon; and,
Table 2. Traditional Fishery Methods in Chilika.
Name
Method
Period
"Bahani"
Net fi shing
Throughout year
"Jano"
Enclosure in shallow region by spilt bamboo and net
September­October
(Leased August­
February)
Trap fi shery "Dhaudi" & "Baja"
Box-type bamboo basket with or without lead line;
Throughout year
Dhaudi is a large box; Baja is a small box.
"Dian"
Upland near Jano areas (for non-fi shermen
June­July
communities), 100­200 yards from the shore.
"Uthapani"
Near shore; in shallow water both by fi shers and non-
June­July
fi shers.
Prawn Khatties
For capturing prawns; a total of 70 were operative
March­August
Notes:
"Jano" and "Dhaudi-Baja" have been replaced by "Khonda", popularly called "Disco-nets, "Khonda" has a "Barh" (wing) 20­60 cm
length net of 20­25 mm mesh that meet Bichni -- a ten meter semi-circular net area with "zero-mesh" (very fi ne size) net with two
box type trap or puda (2 m x 1.5 m x 1.5m) with net of 10­15 mm mesh. The Bahani method also is being displaced by gill­cum­drag
netting.
118 Chilika
Lagoon

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·
To restore the lagoon and its catchment with active a strategic framework for organizing existing scientifi c
community participation.
information and knowledge about the lagoon ecosystem for
its incorporation into the planning of the restoration process.
Though created in 1992, CDA was almost in a moribund The adaptive management planning process for developing a
condition due to lack of effective networking, partnership and
management plan was based on an explicit set of assumptions
coordinated action. To make more fl exible procedures and and hypothesis about the elements and components of the
quicker decisions, an executive committee was constituted lagoon ecosystem as well as man-made systems and how
in 1998 with adequate delegation of fi nancial power. The they function and interact. The fl exible adaptive management
CDA is headed by a Chief Executive Offi cer (CEO) nominated
plan provided an opportunity for learning by doing instead of
by the authorities for a fi xed-term period; the current CEO waiting for the outputs from long-term scientifi c studies, which
(as of September 2005) is on deputation from the State are both time and cost intensive. The CDA achievements to
Forest Department, having served in the position since from
date are discussed in Sections 4.1 and 4.2.
November 1997. This institutional structure has facilitated
integration and coordination between the stakeholder 3. Biophysical
Environment
departments and organizations.
3.1
Past and the Present Conditions
The CDA executive body currently is delegated with adequate
fi nancial power to make quick decisions. The institutional 3.1.1 Biodiversity
development was facilitated with additional funding support
Chilika Lagoon's faunal diversity was fi rst studied between
received from the National Government's 10th and 11th Finance
1915-1924 by Annandale and his colleagues from the Indian
Commissions (see sections 4.1 and 4.7). The restoration Museum and Zoological Survey of India. Their study results
was carried out through an adaptive planning process with
indicate nearly 600 species exist in the aquatic, island and
active community participation. This was achieved through shore areas of the lagoon; the past records of 428 species
Table 3. Faunal Diversity in Lagoon Chilika: A Changing Profi le (1914-15 to 1985-87).
Type
Annandale (ed.)
Ghosh (ed.)
Comments
(1915­1924)
(1995)
Protozoa
Few 61
Porifera
7
2
Due to decline in salinity
Coelenterate
6
7
Platyhelminthes Digenia
N.A.
29
2 new genera, 8 new species
Nematode
4
37
5 new species
Polychaetes
N.A.
31
Crustacea Stmatopod
3
2
Due to decline in salinity
Crustecea Brachyura
36*
28
*[29 described as new by Kemp, 1915]
Crustacea Decapoda (Prawn
30
17
& Shrimps)
Animuran (Hermit Crabs)
N.A.
8
Mollusks
74
87
Type locality for 60 species; 3 freshwater mollusks not
present in 1995 due to declining salinity; 50 species
recorded in 1916 not found now.
Sipuncula
N.A. 1
Echiura
1
3
Echinodermata
5 [other study]
1
Protochordate
N.A.
1
Pisces
217 [all sources]
69*
[*24 freshwater species]
Amphibian & Reptiles
4
7
Amphibia
Reptilia
22
23*
*8 species of 1915-24 not found in 1995
Birds N.A.
156
Mammals
18
18*
[*5 new entrant in place of 5 earlier records]
Sources: Annandale (1915-1924) and Ghosh (1995).

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
119

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shows a positive trend of species diversity, although earlier
habitat change. At least 1 species of algae (Rosenvingea)
investigations on Platyhelminthes, Polychaetes, and birds and a species of mangrove Aegiceras corriculatum also are
have never been carried out systematically. At least 3 species
considered threatened.
of brackish water porifera and a number of crustaceans
(Brachyura, Decapods) have disappeared over the past 60 At least 63 species and sub-species of plants reported
years. Of 74 species of mollusks, at least 50 species could
between 1913­1988, could not be traced during the 1996­2000
not be traced during these year-long surveys, even though the
period, with at least 15 being aquatic or semi-aquatic plants.
total number of species increased to 87. Of the 69 species of
The impact of opening the mouth and increasing the salinity is
fi shes noted in the lagoon during the 1980s, 24 species were
likely to cause some changes in the aquatic vegetation of the
freshwater fi shes -- the decline in total fi sh diversity from the
lagoon; only future research can provide information on the
earlier-recorded 217 species to 69 is perhaps most startling.
changing profi le. Because of the increasing salinity, the area
While the lagoon generally has been known as a type locality
occupied by freshwater invasive species in the northern sector
(the place where a given species was fi rst discovered) for is declining. Similarly, smaller fl uctuations in salinity favored
nearly 30 species of crustaceans, and 60 species of mollusks
the growth of seagrass in the central sector.
(besides others in the past that are no longer present), the
profi le of species diversity has clearly changed over 60 years.
The lagoon also provided a unique habitat for both resident
It may be noteworthy that, even in the 1980s, 8 new species
and migratory avian fauna, which led to establishing the
of Platyhelminthes and 5 species of Nematode have been Nalabana Sanctuary. The peak bird population varied between
discovered in the lagoon (see Table 3). It also should be noted
447,511 (1985) to 756,396 (in 1993); according to Wetlands
that the Irrawady dolphin (Orcaella brevirostris) is found in the
International, it reached 1,454,186 in 1996 (noting that the
lagoon and is considered a "fl agship" species.
arrival of the migratory species is determined by many factors
starting from their home land that it is not wise to draw a
Similar accounts of fl ora over time unfortunately are not conclusion based on their number during a particular season).
available. However, the most recent account (Roy 2001) The tourists visiting the lagoon during the same period
of fl oral diversity (before the new mouth was opened in obtained the greatest benefi t from the vast wetland habitat,
September 2000) provides a listing of 72 phytoplankton as did the waterfowl. At least 20 species of reptiles, birds
genera and 8 seaweed genera from different sectors of the
and mammals recorded in Chilika, however, are considered
lagoon in different seasons, which plays a key role in the threatened or vulnerable.
food chain of the lagoon ecosystem. The phytoplankton
genera include Bacillariophyceae (35), Chlorophyceae (20), 3.1.2 Salinity
Myxophyceae (12), Dinophyceae (3) and Xanthophyceae Salinity is the most dominant factor determining the lagoon's
(1). The seaweeds comprise 12 species under 8 genera ecology. As mentioned earlier, the lagoon is connected to the
belonging to Chlorophyceae (7 spp), Charophyceae (1 spp) Bay of Bengal by a narrow inlet and constricted outer channel.
and Rhodophyceae (7 spp) located only in the marine and In the past, the inlet frequently tended to shift to the north,
brackish water zone. The seagrasses include Halophila and
affecting the tidal infl ux into the main lagoon. The mean
Ruppia. Aquatic macrophytes comprise Vittate (9), Rosulate
surface salinity is affected by an infl ux of freshwater from
(1), Ptenstophyte (12), Epihydate (6), Hyperhydate (6) the western catchment (approximate average of 536 m3/s)
and Helophyte (33) growth classes, a total of 67 species. and from the distributaries of the Mahanadi River (mainly
Macrophyte concentration seems to be most dense in the the Daya, Nuna, Bhargavi Rivers; approximately average of
northern sector, followed by the outer channel and southern
850 m3/s). The sediment buildup at the mouth of Chilika and
sector.
the Palur Canal in the Ganjam District connecting the lagoon
with the ocean had reduced the saline water infl ux over time,
It is further reported (Roy 2001) that the Chilika Lagoon system
as illustrated in Table 4.
harbors at least 185 species of plants in the aquatic and
terrestrial islands of known medicinal properties. Of the total
The reduced salinity has caused a signifi cant change in the
fl oral diversity in the lagoon area, at least 10 species are used
fi sh catch composition and quantity (see section 4.2.2).
as local vegetables, 15 as fodder, 6 for thatching, 12 as fi sh
Such changes can be attributed to the gradual decline in the
food, 56 for bird feeding and nesting, in addition to the 185 for
medicinal purposes. Such use plant resources provide a vital
Table 4. Overall Average Salinity for the Whole of Chilika
resource base for the local community, as well as for birds,
Lagoon.
fi shes and other biota.
Year Salinity
(ppt, parts per thousand)
In summary, of 389 species of fl ora, (Dicots ­ 288, Monocots
1957-58
22.3 ppt
­ 80, Pterydophytes ­ 9, Seaweeds ­ 12), 84 species belong
1960-61
13.2 ppt
strictly to aquatic plant categories. Of the aquatic plants, 5
species of sea grasses (Halophila becarii, Halophila minor,
1961-64
9.4­11.8 ppt
Halophila ovalis, Ramamurtiaoa, Ruppia maritima) are 1995
1.4­6.3 ppt
considered threatened from extensive prawn culture and Source: Chilika Development Authority.
120 Chilika
Lagoon

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recruitment rate of marine elements, due to blockade at the
Siltation, declining salinity and nutrient infl ows led to
mouth and the inhospitable habitat of lower salinity.
extensive macrophyte growth. Free-fl oating invasive species
(e.g., Azolla, Eichhornia, Pistia) and emerging species (e.g.,
3.1.3 Sedimentation
Ipomea) have become a common sight. Weed infestation
The major silt load to the lagoon is carried by the Daya, increased from 20 km2 in 1973 to 440 km2 in 1998. Paspalum
Bhargavi and Nuna Rivers, distributaries of the Mahanadi vaginatum, Paspalidium punctatum, Potamogetom nodosus,
River system. A sediment fl ow monitoring program initiated
and Potamogeton pectinatus dominate the macrophyte
by the Department of Water Resources in fi ve rivers (Bhargavi,
community; Potamogeton alone accounts for 78% of the
Daya and Malaguni in the northern sector; Kusumi and Salia
invasion. A Utkal University study (1998) indicated that,
in the western sector) showed that approximately 1.5 million
while a positive correlation can be established between
tons/year of sediment enters the lagoon in the north from the
macrophyte growth and total phosphorus and nitrate-nitrogen
distributaries of the Mahanadi River and 0.3 million tons/year
concentrations, the pH level had no apparent infl uence
enter the lagoon from the Western Catchment (Pattnaik 2002).
on macrophyte growths (CDA monitoring shows that the
The vertical accumulation of sediment has exceeded the nitrate-nitrogen concentration is 0.0062 to 1.321 mg/L and
relative sea level (RSL) rise. The fate of the lagoon depends
orthophosphate is 0.003 to 0.533 mg/L (CDA 2005)).
on a combination of accretion and the local RSL rise, which
determines the lagoon's volumetric capacity.
Finally, to make an assessment of the impact of the
proposed Naraj barrage upstream of the River Kathajuri, an
The upstream erosion and sedimentation process in the environmental fl ow assessment study is being carried out to
lagoon directly contributed to the loss of lagoon bed depth, as
assess the amount of fresh water essential to maintain the
well as the choking of the mouth. In turn, this led to a declining
ecological integrity of the lagoon.
salinity. Further, introduction of prawn culture, gheri or bund
fi shery in 1991 led the process of changes in hydrology and
3.2
Lake and Drainage Basin Resource Confl icts
sediment transport, due largely to the use of split bamboo
and very fi ne mesh nets, encircling the culture area, which
A major confl ict in the Chilika Lagoon resulted from a
prevented free sediment fl ow.
reallocation of fi shing rights from traditional fi shermen to
include the local non-fi shermen. Table 5 summarizes four main
The siltation and reduced salinity resulted in rapid growth of
phases of allocation of the fi shing rights at Chilika. Before
the invasive weed species in the northern sector, and restricted
the change in the allocation of the fi shery sources (1990s),
the free movement of juveniles of prawns and mullets from
traditional fi sherfolk had developed a complex system of rights
the sea into the lagoon. The breeding and spawning grounds
and restrictions (on techniques, gear, etc.) that led to more-or-
of many important fi shes, mollusks and paenid prawns have
less sustainable fi shing in the lagoon. Over time, however,
been affected due to siltation.
prawn farming became more and more lucrative because of
the signifi cant increase of the price of the tiger prawn in the
3.1.4 Other
Issues
international market, attracting the interest of outsiders. In the
High nitrate concentrations are observed in winter months,
lagoon area itself, confl ict began with a change in basic policy,
resulting from land drainage carrying agricultural fertilizers.
entitling the non-fi shermen community to use water-spread
Data collected at 8 monitoring stations for the years 1986­87
areas for traditional culture fi shery. Major confl icts began
to 1997­98 indicate that the use of fertilizer has nearly doubled
when large investments poured in from other parts of the State
within a decade. Agriculture runoff became severe, due to of Orissa and even outside the State. The functioning of the
lack of adequate soil conservation measures. Additionally, Primary Fishermen Co-operative Societies gradually deceased,
untreated wastewater from the capital city in Bhubaneshwar
almost ceasing to work.
fi nds its way to the lagoon. However, as with agricultural
runoff, it is diffi cult to estimate how much of the amount The agitated fi shermen made writ petition, organized
generated makes it to the lagoon and how much is settled out
themselves under the banner of "The Chilika Matsyajibi
or otherwise transformed along the way.
Mahasangh", submitted a memorandum to the government
demanding abolition of unauthorized shrimp culture within
the water-spread area of the lagoon. The national Supreme
Table 5. Major Changes in Fishery Rights in Chilika.
Period System
Zamindar & Jagirdary period (British colonial rule)
Royalty to Raja of Purikud, Raja of Kalikote, Jagirdars.
Anchal Adhikari of Chilika (1953­1959)
Open auction lease mostly to fi shermen.
Central Fishermen Cooperative Marketing Society (CFCMS)
Lease out to Primary Fishermen Co-operative Societies;
(1959­1988)
Limited access to non-fi shermen.
Orissa High Court verdict in 1992
30% of rights to non-fi shermen.
Source: Ghosh
(1999b).

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
121

---

Court (through their 1996 verdict) banned the shrimp culture
declined signifi cantly, adversely affecting the livelihood of the
in the lagoon and within 1,000 meters from the high water line
local communities.
of Chilika; however, the State Government unfortunately could
not implement the courts order effectively. Implementation 4. Management
Environment
of this restriction could have stopped all prawn culture
activities. This brewed discontent among the fi shermen as 4.1
Lake Management Programs and Processes
the unauthorized shrimp culture is mostly carried out by the
non-fi shermen. Two incidences of police fi ring leading to loss
Management issues associated with restoration of this
of life (the last one in May 1999), led the Government to issue
complex ecosystem were so vast in scale ecologically,
an executive instruction banning all culture fi shery in the hydrologically and socio-economically, that meticulous
lagoon in 1999. During this period (in early 1990s), the house
integrated planning was necessary to address them. Until the
of Tata's, one of the top three industrial houses, had proposed
mid-1990s, lagoon management activities were limited and
a large aquaculture project. Local agitation, however, forced
fragmented. To address this, CDA facilitated a consultation
the government and the investor to withdraw. The conversion
process at national and international level with an objective
of capture fi shery (locally called "Jano") in fringe areas of the
to initiate key targeted studies essential to a management-
lagoon in Puri district during 1988­92 led to 61 new culture
directed understanding of the ecosystem and to trace out
ponds; the district administration in Puri allowed 30% of the
the root cause of its degradation, and appropriate corrective
area to be changed to culture fi sheries, which also fuelled
measures to restore the ecological integrity and functionality
agitation by traditional fi shermen.
of the lagoon and its drainage basin.
Overall, the repetitive administrative failure to arrive at a fi rm
An integrated management plan was formulated with wide
policy decision, alleged nexus between politicians and prawn
stakeholder consultation with an adaptive approach. It relied
culturists, and denial of rights to the traditional fi shermen
heavily on the participation of stakeholders to establish goals
community for their livelihood sustenance, led to gunfi re on 29
and targets, to manage competing objectives, and to weigh
May 1999, resulting in the death of 4 fi shermen.
options and tradeoffs. Formulation of a credible management
plan paved the way for funding support from the Government
Finally, several upstream-downstream issues also may be of India. CDA received an amount of 270 million INR from
seen as "resource confl icts". For example, land-use practices
a "special problem grant" from the Ministry of Finance,
in the upper catchment that lead to high sedimentation Government of India under the 10th Finance Commission
rates in the lagoon adversely affected the direct uses of the
(1996-2000) for restoration of the lagoon. This was followed
lagoon. Additionally, changes in the hydrological regime, due
up by a further grant of 300 million INR from the 11th Finance
to barrages on upstream rivers, also have an impact on the
Commission for consolidation of the activities carried out with
natural lagoon ecosystem. Although these issues have not the support from the 10th Finance Commission. The strategy
caused bloody confl icts, like the fi shing rights issue, they adopted was for a more ecologically benefi cial hydrologic
nevertheless represent different users impacting each other
regime to improve water quality, recovery of the lost habitat
in unfavorable ways. Due to land degradation and the change
of the important species, enhancement of the productivity and
in the land use pattern in the drainage basin, productivity had
controlling the invasive species in the lagoon and an integrated
Table 6. Consolidated Plan of Action for Chilika Lagoon as per Recommendation of the 10th Finance Commission (1996­
2000).
No.
Activities
Cost (106 Indian
Rupees)
1
Catchment area treatment; Control of silt-load by plantations and soil moisture conservation

24.78
measure with the active participation of local community.
2
Improvement of water exchange and salinity gradient including cost of dredging equipment.

151.24
3
Restoration of ecosystem of Nalabana Island for migratory birds.

4.68
4
Creation of mass awareness and publicity program including environmental education.

5.00
5
Improvement of socio-economic condition and allied economic activities by providing

10.00
communication facilities.
6
Improvement of road network and construction of bridges.

47.00
7
Fishery development including training for avoiding gherries and prawn culture.

4.30
8
Research Center of Wetland Management at Balugaon near Chilika shore.

21.00
9
Weed management.

2.00
Total 270.00 (approx.
US$6.0 million at
1 US$ = 45 INR)
122 Chilika
Lagoon

---

water resource management practice in the drainage basin.
formally adopted, many of its components were nevertheless
The results of these programs are presented in Section 4.2.
taken up.
Details of activities carried out under these two major grants
can be found in Table 6 and Table 7, respectively.
The restoration strategy adopted by CDA derives its
uniqueness from the strong participation by local communities,
Additionally, the World Bank-supported Orissa Water Resource
grassroot-level NGOs, Community Based Organizations,
Consolidation Project (OWRCP) recognized "Lake Chilika" as a
strategic partnerships with various national and international
component of the OWRCP, allocating funds for hydrobiological
organizations and experts, government agencies and
monitoring of the lagoon with an objective to assess the stakeholder government institutions. The key to the success
impact of the Naraj barrage by the water Resource Department
has been strategic partnership built up through networking,
with the funding. In addition to this, a specialist consultancy
consultation and coordination with the stakeholders. For
to prepare an "Integrated Management Action Plan for Chilika
example, Chilika Development Authority maintains institutional
Lagoon" was also supported. Although that plan was not linkages with 7 state government organizations, 33 NGOs and
CBOs, 3 national government ministries, 6 other national
Table 7. Consolidated Plan of Action for Chilika Lagoon as per Recommendation of the 11th Finance Commission (2001­
2004).
No.
Activities
Cost (106 Indian
Rupees)
1
Catchment area treatment; Control of silt-load by plantations and soil moisture conservation

47.29
measure with the active participation of local community.
2
Desiltation of the outer channel of the lagoon for improvement of the Water Exchange and

180.33
Salinity gradient including excavation of Palur Canal and procurement of dredging equipment.
3
Restoration of Nalabana (Chilika) Sanctuary.

6.77
4
Creation of mass awareness and publicity program including environmental education.

11.15
5
Socio-economic development; Construction of salinity embankment, jetties, fi sh-landing

15.05
centers etc.
6
Weed management through remote sensing application studies in collaboration with NRSA,

2.95
Hyderabad and SAC, Ahmedabad.
7
Fishery resources development; Fish stock assessment study and carrying capacity through

7.55
CIFRI, Barrakpore; Removal of illegal prawn gherries through district administration.
8
Communication network; Provision of ferry services between Satapada and Janhikuda.

9.86
9
Center for Wetland Management; Completion of the Wetland Research and Training Center and
19.05
installation of laboratory in situ research.
Total 300.00 (approx.
US$6.7 million at
1 US$ = 45 INR)
Table 8. Activities of the Chilika Development Authority in Collaboration with Other Organizations.
Activities
Groups Engaged
Improvement of water exchange and salinity gradient by
Central Water and Power Research Station­Pune (CWPRS­
dredging, with support of mathematical model and bathymetry
Pune), Ocean Engineering Center, IIT Chennai, CDA
data
Environmental Impact Assessment of Chilika Lagoon for dredging National Institute of Oceanography in Goa (NIO), CDA
of outer channel by water and sediment quantity study, eco-
biological quality study and circulation of siltation process
Weed Management and Eutrophication study
RRL (Regional Research Laboratory) (CSIR), Bhubaneshwar
Catchment area afforestation and soil conservation
State Forest Department, Soil Conservation Department,
Watershed associations
Public Awareness, eco-development in peripheral areas
CDA/CEE (Center for Environment Education), Community
Based organizations, NGOs
Research and training
CDA
Fisheries development
Fisheries Department, stakeholders, CIFRI (Central Inland
Fishery Research Institute)
Bird sanctuary management
Forest Department, Bombay Natural History Society

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
123

---

organizations, 11 international organizations, 13 research organizations and NGOs at the outset, and a series of need-
institutions, and 55 different categories of community groups.
based training programs to facilitate an integrated and holistic
This diffi cult task of coordinating and strategic partnership management of micro-watersheds by the community. The
could be accomplished through strong net working. Table 8
goal was to facilitate the community to manage and reverse
identifi es some major groups involved in different activities.
degradation of life support systems within the watershed,
particularly land and water, to enhance the productivity,
Additionally, an innovative participatory micro-watershed resulting in alleviation of poverty and promoting improvements
management concept was adopted with a "sustainable rural
in livelihood of agricultural communities. To achieve this, an
livelihood" approach for holistic management of natural innovative grassroots approach was adopted by the CDA, by
resources. The drainage basin of the lagoon that spreads formulating a micro-plan, blended with indigenous knowledge
over 4,100 km2 was the logical starting point for planning and appropriate experts' input, for optimum utilization of the
and management actions for sustainable management. The
natural resources in a sustainable manner and to increase
objective of this concept was to facilitate the community productivity and provide equal opportunity for livelihood for
through empowerment to take decisions and build capacity
the landless, marginal farmers and women.
to work collectively. The participation of local communities
and stakeholders in planning and implementing management
CDA also addressed the issue of illegal bird hunting by working
of natural resources and in sharing the responsibilities of with local NGOs and CBOs and the wildlife wing of the Forest
decision-making is a key feature of the ecosystem approach
Department of Orissa to form "Bird Protection Committees"
adopted by CDA for management of the drainage basin. The
which has assisted in developing alternative economic
local community has considerable, relevant knowledge of the
activities through soft loans. The current CDA policy to link
ecosystem and ways in which it can be sustainably managed.
socio-economic activities in support of local communities
The basic approach was to create an enabling environment,
has been commended by a Ramsar Mission visiting Chilika
through capacity building of the community, community-based
from 9­13 December 2001, which stated "CDA has developed
Figure 2a. Salinity Variation in Chilika Lagoon in May 2000 (Source: Chilika Development Authority).
124 Chilika
Lagoon

---

an integrated approach to managing the lagoon which can water to spawn) (Pattnaik 2000). Detailed improvements in the
be regarded as an excellent example of the whole ecosystem
lagoon environment are discussed below.
approach." The previously discussed participatory micro-
watershed management is one such program.
4.2.1 Improved Flow Regime
4.2
Reduction in Stressed and Lake Environment
Dredging of the lead channel, and opening the new mouth on
Improvements
23 September 2000, have signifi cantly changed the lagoon's
hydrology, returning it to a more natural state than existed
The basic program of opening a new lagoon mouth, a major
before excessive siltation affected the tidal fl ows in and out
recommendation from studies by the National Institute of of the lagoon. The management intervention to improve the
Oceanography (NIO) and Central Water and Power Research
tidal infl ux and salinity in the lagoon can be assessed by the
Station (CWPRS), can be considered a fi rst step in improving
remarkable change in salinity between May 2000 (shown in
the lagoon environment. Interestingly, this was also a long-
Figure 2a) and May 2001 (in Figure 2b).
standing demand of the local communities, refl ecting the
value of local knowledge. Environmental Impact Assessments,
Furthermore, the opening of the mouth, and consequent
undertaken before and after the artifi cial mouth was opened,
changes in tidal fl ux, led to signifi cant fl ushing of sediment
showed marked improvement in terms of salinity fl ux, weed-
from the channel, thereby increasing its depth to the 30­45 cm
free areas, recruitment of marine elements, fl ushing of silts and,
level. The newly-restored hydrological system also led to rapid
fi nally, increasing productivity for both fi sh and shellfi sh. The
freshwater discharges through the new mouth. Consequently,
new mouth also reduced the distance between the lagoon and
peripheral and island villages were not affected by fl oods and
the sea by 18 km, facilitating migration of both catadromous
water-logged land after 2001. Before the intervention, the
species (fi sh that migrate from fresh to saline water to spawn)
peripheral villages suffered from inundation, especially in the
and anadromous species (fi sh that migrate from saline to fresh
Figure 2b. Salinity Variation in Chilika Lagoon in May 2001 (Source: Chilika Development Authority).

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
125

---

Kanas and Bramhagri Development Block areas, leading to (approximately US$15.1 million). The average annual income
crop loss of over more than 50,000 hectares of paddy fi elds.
per family increased by INR 50,000 (approximately US$1,100).
4.2.2 Improved Fish Catches and Recruitment of Marine
4.2.3 Decrease in Weed Coverage
Species
Improved salinity conditions resulted in a signifi cant decrease
Opening of the new mouth had a dramatically positive effect
in the coverage of invasive freshwater weeds, with the infested
on fi sh catches and, therefore, on fi sherfolk's incomes. Figure
area declining from 523.01 km2 in October 2000 (just before
3 shows how fi sh, prawn and crab catches declined, but then
opening of the new mouth), to 351.01 km2 by May 2001. The
made a dramatic comeback after the hydrological intervention
Table 9. Declining Weed Cover in Chilika.
of 2000. The main reasons for this occurrence have been
the restoration of salinity regime improved autorecruitment
Weed Category
October 2000
May 2001
from the ocean and free breeding migration. More than 75%
(Area in km2)
(Area in km2)
economic species of the lagoon maintain a phased life cycle
Emergent weeds

86.07

71.62
The fi sh landing data reached an all-time low at the most
Free fl oating weeds

110.74
51.81
degraded lagoon condition in 1997­1998 (1,600 metric tons
(Eichhornia, Salvinia,
(Mt)); after the intervention, a record yield of 11,878 Mt was
Nymphea)
attained in 2001-2002. The crab landing data also showed a
Submerged weeds

170.76
122.24
10-fold increase, from 10 Mt to 111.07 Mt.
(Potamogeton, Hydilla)
Other submerged weeds
155.44
105.34
The recruitment of marine species, especially Mugil cephalus
(Najas, Hydrilla)
and Liza macrolepes, which became increasingly rare during
Weed-free
area
333.82
505.82
the lagoon's degraded period, has markedly increased.
Total
856.83
856.83
About 40% of the typical fi sh catch originally had depended
on seawater migration; this proportion has been reportedly
Source:
CDA database -- www.chilika.com.
restored after the intervention. Recruitment during February to
May became highest, because of the opening of the outlet. The
reason is because the freshwater macrophytes have diffi culty
seaward migration of prawn and lakeward migration of mullet
existing in the higher-salinity water (details provided in Table
fi ngerlings are now ensured through the Muggermukh area
9).
because of dredging and de-siltation. The fi sh and crab landing
data further indicate a signifi cant level of increase in auto-
4.2.4 Improved Biodiversity and Return of Threatened
recruitment from the sea into the lagoon after intervention.
Species
The shrimp species (Paenaus indicus) alone showed a record
The lagoon system hosts over 160 species of birds in the peak
yield of 438 Mt, higher than any other fi gure in the previous
migratory season, with at least 97 being inter-continental
decade.
migrants (Ram et al., 1994). The Bombay Natural History
Society has been conducting a study since December 2001,
Important for the local economy, the total fi nancial return using birds as a bioindicator. After implementation of the
due to enhanced fi sh, prawn and crab yield, based on restoration program, the Society's team recorded nesting
average weighted price, increased by nearly INR 680 million
colonies of Gull-billed Tern in Nalabana, establishing its
southern breeding range extension. During
the same period (2002), the Indian River
160
Tern, a lesser-studied group, was found
12000
to nest on Nalabana Island (540 nest
Fish and Prawn
140
To
records). These records further established
10000
Crab
tal Cr
120
the signifi cant positive changes in the
ab Landing (metric tons)
lagoon's environment, illustrating that
8000
100
the management program's component
on Nalabana Bird Sanctuary Habitat
80
6000
Improvement Program yielded some
r
awn Landing (metric tons)
60
positive results within a short period of
4000
time.
40
2000
20
In addition to the return of fl agship mullet
species, a shrimp species (Paenaeus
T
otal Fish and P
0
indicus) reappeared in the lagoon system
0
1984
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
because of environmental improvement,
constituting nearly 50% of the total shrimp
Year
landing. The crustacean species, which
Figure 3. Changes in Fish, Prawn and Crab Landings.
were rare during the period of degradation,
126 Chilika
Lagoon

---

comprised 2,486 Mt (20.51%) of the total catch of 11,989 Mt
funding for treating wastewater of the capital city, although
in 2001. The crustacean landings further increased to 2,629
only on a limited scale.
Mt during 2002-2003, accounting for 24.13% of the total
landings. It also is noteworthy that six other fi sh species once
The Orissa Water Supply and Sewage Board, Government of
considered threatened have reappeared in the lagoon during
Orissa, has formulated a proposal for the Integrated Sewage
the post-intervention period, including Hilsa (Tenuealosa) and Waste Disposal scheme for abatement of pollution in the
ilisha, Chanos chanos, Megalops cyprinoids, Elops machnata,
River Kuakhai and Daya, draining into Chilika at Bhubaneswar
Rhabdosargus berda and Rhinomugil corsula.
City, at a cost of US$108 million.
The restoration process helped improve seagrass meadows
4.3.2 Runoff from Upstream Lands
and their species diversity, with improved water level variations
Despite plans within the Agricultural Intensifi cation Program
during tidal cycle turning the lagoon into a pulsating mode.
(AIP) and OWRCP, fertilizer-laden runoff water still fl ows into
Finally, Irrawady dolphins have again become well distributed
the lagoon from the basin, as pointed out in Chilika Report
in the central and southern sectors of the lagoon, while they
under OWRCP (1998; 1999). The interest of drainage basin
were previously mainly reported only in the outer channel.
inhabitants in the delta, especially agricultural farmers, is
apparently not high because it is diffi cult to highlight their
4.2.5 Reduction in Silt Loading from Catchment
linkage to lagoon-related resource management. The current
The lagoon environment is also directly linked with the land-
efforts to involve NGOs (e.g., "Campaign for Conservation of
use patterns and agricultural practices in the basin area. The
Chilika Lagoon" and Pallishree), however, may help motivate
drainage basin is delineated into micro-watershed based on the
upstream people to adopt sustainable agricultural practices.
latest satellite imagery. The most degraded micro-watershed
are treated based on the experience from a participatory 4.3.3 Palur Canal restoration
micro-watershed management which was initiated on a pilot
The OWRCP plan not only recommended dredging of the
basis in three villages, covering 640.45 ha, with the objective
mouth, but also 17 km Palur Canal, a connecting link from the
of capacity-building at the community level through a series
Ganjam side (see Figure 1), which is now under control of the
of training programs directed toward integrated and holistic
Minor Port and Harbour Department. The canal provides an
management of micro-watersheds. This model is already extra inlet both for saline water intrusion into the lagoon and
providing encouraging results, in terms of effective training
recruitment of marine species. Due to siltation of the canal bed
for income generation activities through proper water resource
and extensive interventions along the entire canal length, the
management. In conjunction with trapping of signifi cant silt
dynamics of the system had reached a moribund condition. The
loads at the Naraj Barrage, this will likely reduce the annual silt
Palur Canal was renovated in 2004 which is likely to improve
fl ow into the lagoon.
the fi shery resources of the southern sector of the lagoon.
4.3 Remaining
Problems
4.3.4 Eco-tourism
The present tourism activity at Chilika is focused around
While the above story clearly shows that the management Rambha, Barkul and Satpada. During the OWRCP study, a
interventions at Chilika have had much success, resulting tourism growth rate of nearly 30% was recorded between
in direct improvements in the lagoon environment and local
1987­1997. Introduction of motorized boats in the lagoon
economy, it is incorrect to assume that all problems have been
(in contrast to conventional sail boats), and lack of a
successfully addressed. Some remaining issues are discussed
specifi cally-demarcated channel to Nalabana Island, has
below.
led to uncontrolled tourist activity. A report on tourism
development, prepared by Tata Consultancy Services (TCS)
4.3.1 Wastewater Treatment and Pollution Control
in 1993, focused on eco-tourism. Wetland International also
An important area requiring attention is the prevention of subsequently prepared a document on ecotourism in Chilika.
infl ow of untreated domestic wastewater from each of the 5
More meaningful dialogue must be established between the
sewage discharge zones of the capital city, Bhubaneshwar CDA and the State Tourism Department, in order to implement
(approximately 25 million gallons/day), as well as untreated
a community-based ecotourism program at Chilika (Lenka
domestic wastewater from the 141 villages around the lagoon.
2002). The Tourism Department of the Government of Orissa
A positive suggestion in this regard was given in OWRCP commissioned the services of a consultant for developing an
plan; namely, a possible linkage with the Bhubaneshwar ecotourism master plan, and an orientation/training program
Development Authority and Orissa State Pollution Control for boatmen transporting tourists in the lagoon has been
Board. Analysis of the capital city's wastewater indicates started.
suspended solids (SS) concentrations of roughly 275 mg/L,
well over the permissible limit of 30 mg/L; the BOD likewise
4.3.5 Environmental Flows
shows an average value of 110 mg/L, well over the permissible
The total impact of the projected 49 irrigation projects, involving
limit of 20 mg/L (OSPCB 1998). "Project Water" is currently
dams and barrage constructions in the Mahanadi basin of
being launched with Indo Canadian Environment Facility (ICEF)
Chilika, has not been linked with the Chilika Management Plan,

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
127

---

even though it was mentioned in the 2nd Technical Report on
These federal acts and policies, along with the State Marine
Chilika Lagoon under OWRCP (Ghosh 1999a).
Fisheries Act and Fishing in the 2002 Chilika Bill, provide a
strong foundation for implementing a process of conservation
In particular, the construction of the Naraj barrage upstream
and sustainable use.
has the defi nite potential to affect the hydrology of the
lagoon. To determine the optimum fl ow allocations and other
4.5
Stakeholder Involvement, Awareness and Access
key ecological functions, an environmental fl ow assessment
to Information
supported by the World Bank has been initiated and is currently
underway (as of September 2005). For arriving at different After the hydrological intervention there has been a steady
fl ow scenarios due to the construction of the Naraj barrage,
increase in the fi sh landing which facilitated self initiated
hydrological, hydrodynamic, biological, and socioeconomic good practices (e.g., regulation of mesh size, discouraging
modeling as well as stakeholder consultation was carried juvenile catches) propagated by the fi sher community using a
out involving the Water Resource Department, Wetlands public address system. A better linkage has been established
International South Asia, Central Water and Power Research
between CDA and the fi sherfolk following implementation of
Station, Department of Fishery Resources, World Bank, Center
the action plan.
for Water Resources Development and Management (CWRDM),
a number of NGOs, CBOs and an expert from CSIRO Australia
A network of the NGOs and CBOs working in and around
(William Young), with extensive stakeholder consultation.
Chilika has been developed, and an outreach program is
carried out through this network. The work of `Pallishree', a
4.4
The Critical Policy and Institutional Framework for
grassroots-level NGO working with the support of the Japan
Management
Fund for Global Environment, Ramsar Center Japan­Asia and
Chilika Development Authority, can be cited as a good example
The institutional framework for Chilika is based on a principle
of creating public awareness. The NGO has established 10
of multi-sectoral collaboration, with the CDA playing the small centers, one for four villages in and around the Chilika
role of central coordinating authority. The earlier problem area. These centers (called "Center for Environment Awareness
of overlapping areas of authority, and the confl icts arising and Education"; CEAE) provide both non-formal education
thereof, will be further addressed with the newly-proposed
through trained facilitators and formal education through
bill of Government of Orissa, "The Orissa Fishing in Chilika
school-level textbooks in the local language on the Chilika
(Regulation) Bill". While acknowledging the right of the Lagoon environment, Birds of Chilika, Fishes of Chilika and
District Collector to grant leases to the Orissa State Fishermen
Plants of Chilika. Each center has a small museum and library,
Cooperative Federation Ltd. in regard to the entire leasable
audio-visual material, facilities for environmental games, etc.
area, the bill also made it mandatory to communicate the A quarterly newsletter in the local language also is published
details of such leases or sub-leases to the CDA. The bill regularly, with most of the articles contributed by the local
identifi ed the CDA as the central authority for all other matters,
stakeholders.
empowering it to make regular inspections, demolish illegal
structures, search and seize any article of objection, and The launch of Chilika website (www.chilika.com) provided a new
seek the help of the police wherever needed. The present CDA
source for detailed information on wetland studies sponsored
activities show a clear perception about the importance of by the CDA; restoration history, ecological characteristics,
functioning with civil society organizations, both in the basin
socioeconomic features, forests and agriculture in the basin
and the lagoon area, ensuring a positive role of the CDA as an
area, physical characteristics, and a special focus on birds
institution.
and dolphins. The website www.chilika.com could be used
as a vehicle to keep other organizations and the public aware
The policies and laws that can be correlated with the of progress with Chilika restoration and protection. A visitor's
administration of Chilika include:
center has been established at Satapada, a major entry point
to the lagoon. The entire Chilika ecosystem is showcased
·
Indian Wildlife Protection Act, 1972;
at the center, via interactive exhibits. Wetland education
programs also are presented in the center for school children
·
Water Act, 1974;
and stakeholders.
·
Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980;
4.6
Linkages with Other Programs
·
Coastal Zone Regulation Rules, 1991;
Management of Chilika Lagoon is dependent on a successful
partnership between at least 8 government departments.
·
National Water Policy, 2002;
Thus, while coordination by the CDA for acceptance by each
stakeholder may appear time consuming, it is nevertheless
·
Biological Diversity Act, 2003.
essential.
128 Chilika
Lagoon

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4.7
Past and Ongoing Financial Investments
a mechanism of equitable benefi t sharing. The decision of
the Supreme Court to change the fi shing rights led to the
The largest investment to date has been the Special Problem
loss of some rights held by traditional fi sherfolk. The opinion
Grants of the National Government's 10th and 11th Finance of the traditional communities was ignored, with the Fishery
Commissions, as described in Tables 6 and 7. The total Department of the State Government forced to play a minor
amount of money was approximately INR 570 million (or side role as well. The earlier reports showed the involvement of
US$12.7 million). Furthermore, the Orissa Water Resource the Fishery Department in lagoon management had a positive
Consolidation Project (OWRCP) made INR 10 million (US$0.22
effect on fi sh yields.
million) available to the CDA for the hydrobiological monitoring
of the lagoon.
5.2
Vital Role of Science
A major key to achieving complete success of the planned
One of the most signifi cant lessons learned from the Chilika
activities is the timely fl ow of funds and availability of experience was the vital role scientifi c information can
resources. Thus, while the success of many of the management
play toward achieving the goal. The data generated on the
plan components can be lauded, failure to implement some
freshwater fl ow, silt load, nature and characteristics of weed
vital components indicates the need for more concerted infestation, salinity and nutrients, depth and possible impacts
efforts, with the failure likely due more to lack of fi nancial
of dredging constitute a vital research output. For effective
resources, rather than lack of concept and willingness by management of the drainage basin, delineation of the most
the executing agency. To this end, it would be worthwhile to
degraded micro-watershed was done based on the satellite
determine the feasibility of undertaking work through self-
imagery. The application of remote sensing and GIS has been
fi nancing from fi sheries and eco-tourism.
used as an important management and monitoring tool.
Scientifi c results obtained from the targeted studies and the
The CDA itself is supported by funding from both the State and
modeling provide vital clues for restoring the salinity gradient.
Central Government. The human resource and institutional The prediction of a rapid salinity return was then put to test,
development aspect can be judged from the existing staff demonstrating the connection between research and the
component of the CDA at the capital city of Bhubaneshwar,
management initiative.
which does not exceed 10 at any given time. The linkages
with more than 40 national and regional institutions is a The post-operative phase already has resulted in signifi cant
clear example of an integrated collaborative approach. The changes in the lagoon environment, increasing prawn and fi sh
emerging results are encouraging. This process of multi-
yields, and the active participation of stakeholders. The lesson
institutional involvement can be sustained only through a learned from this exercise illustrates how scientifi c research
well-planned program and funding support. However, since can lead to better management of wetland ecosystems.
each department has its own agenda and annual work plan,
Amelioration of the ecosystem, both in the lagoon and in the
the expectations from these agencies for carrying out work
basin, resulted in enhancement of lagoon productivity, thereby
relevant to lake management can only be realized through leading to poverty alleviation as well.
annual budgetary allocations for outsourcing work.
5.3
Importance of Coordination and Diverse Funding
5. Lessons
Learned
Despite the ineffectiveness of the CDA in the early-1990s,
5.1
Danger of Unilateral Decisions on Established
attempts to establish sustainable institutions to address
Rights of Stakeholders
multi-sectoral issues and multi-stakeholder interests fi nally
seemed to succeed during the post-1997 period. That lack
Unless the government is well-informed about the existing of coordination can create more chaos is a positive lesson
lagoon management, and takes account of the interests of learned. Thus, strong linkages and scheduled monitoring are
local communities and their informal management methods,
most welcome.
it can cause biophysical and social destruction. The history
of management of Chilika Lagoon clearly shows that clear It is worthwhile to mention here that the Chilika Lagoon is
perception and strong political will ensure better management
located in a province of a developing country with a severe
results. Effective and strong coordination could be possible
resource crunch. With appropriate entrepreneurial skill and
because of the governing body headed by the Chief Minister.
strategic partnership, the huge restoration task could be
Some of the bold decisions like the ban on shrimp farming and
accomplished with the limited resource available. It will not be
strong commitment of the state government for sustainable
out of place to mention here that this could be achieved without
management of the lagoon resources is possible because of
any overseas funding or loan from any fi nancial institutions.
strong political commitment.
With the strategic planning and sound fi nancial management
and the very limited available resources available in from of
The fi sher community traditionally had a positive role in grant from the government of India, the entire restoration task
managing the lagoon, through indigenous and sustainable could be accomplished.
fi shing systems. The fi shermen co-operatives further ensured

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
129

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5.4
Need for Long-term Policies
increasing lagoon productivity. However, no quantifi ed data is
available, and an investigation regarding this topic would be
No comprehensive "lagoon management policy" for Chilika worthwhile.
has yet been publicly announced. That the absence of a lagoon
management policy can create a crisis, even in the future, Although the process of good management for the Chilika
should be a lesson learned from the immediate past. Thus, it is
Lagoon has been started, it still has "miles to go." Much
essential to formulate a long-term policy on Chilika to ensure
remains to be done, particularly in the area of basin
its sustainable management. The management program since
management, ecotourism and installing mechanisms of self-
1999­2000 emphasized stakeholder participation in major fi nancing. Nevertheless, the Chilika story shows how effective
decision-making. Indeed, a key lesson from the confl ict in 1999
the application of scientifi c and technological methods can be
was that unilateral decision can create serious problems for
in the context of a well-fi nanced management intervention
both people and the lagoon. The changed policy emphasizing
process, especially when they are supported by local
stakeholder involvement and agreement led to recovery of participation.
the lagoon, thereby ensuring benefi ts to the stakeholders.
The "Chilika Fishery Regulation Act" is now under the active
6. Acknowledgements
consideration of select committees of the Orissa Legislative
Assembly. The Act prohibits culture fi sheries in Chilika and, if
The authors are grateful to Dr. Masahisa Nakamura, Project
approved, will further reinforce the executive instruction by the
Manager, and Dr. Thomas Ballatore of ILEC for providing this
Revenue Authority of Orissa banning shrimp culture, in effect
opportunity to share experiences on Chilika Lagoon. Thanks
from the year 2000.
also are due to the Chilika Development Authority for readily
supplying data on recent developments and other courtesies.
5.5
Stakeholder Participation Can Lead to Self-
The authors also are thankful to all the participants at the
Initiated Good Practices
Asian Regional Experience Sharing and Review Workshop held
at Manila (September 2003) for their valuable comments.
The network of the NGOs and CBOs, widespread stakeholder
consultation, and watershed associations are some of 7.
References and Further Reading
the positive elements in the participatory management
approach adopted by the CDA. Due to very good rapport Annandale, N. (ed.). 1915-1924. "The fauna of Chilika lake."
with the local communities and the community-based Mem. Ind. Mus. 5(1-13): 1-1003.
organizations, the restoration activities carried out by CDA
were strongly supported and endorsed by the community as
Asthana, V. 1979. Limnological studies on Chilika Lake: Final
they are consulted and taken in to confi dence at all stages.
Project Report. MAB-India, Project No. 112, Department of
Communication, education and public awareness were used
Science and Technology: New Delhi.
as tools for enhancing the knowledge and thereby empowering
them. To achieve community participation, exchange of Bandyopadhyay, S. and B. Gopal. 1991. "Ecosystem studies and
information, mutual enhanced understanding, and facilitation
management problem of a coastal lagoon, the lake Chilika." In
of cooperation between different users groups were ensured
B. Gopal and V. Asthana (eds). Aquatic Sciences in India. Indian
through the outreach program. The self-initiated good Association for Limnology and Oceanography.
practices (e.g., mesh-size restrictions) are indications of the
confi dence stakeholders have regained regarding the lagoon
Das, N.K. and R.C. Das. 1998. "Environmental Survey of
ecosystem.
Chilika." In S.N. Patro (ed.). Chilika, The Pride of our Wetland
Heritage. Orissa Environmental Society: Bhubaneshwar.
5.6
Links between Poverty Alleviation and Ecosystem
Restoration
Ghosh, A.K. (ed.). 1995. "Fauna of Chilika Lake." Wetland
Ecosystem Services, Zoological Survey of India 1: 1-672.
Investments for the restoration of the Chilika ecosystem
also provide a lesson of positive return, in terms of fi shery
Ghosh, A.K. 1998. Interim Technical Report on Chilika Lake
productivity and poverty alleviation. In addition to the benefi ts
under Orissa Water Resources Consolidation Project, 30
from the fi shery sector, tourism for Chilika Lagoon is expected
November 1998. Water Resource Department, Government of
to exhibit an upwardly mobile trend from 3 different streams
Orissa.
of visitors; namely, winter tourism in the Nalabana Sanctuary
for viewing migratory birds, tourists coming from other states
Ghosh, A.K. 1999a. Second Technical Report on Chilika Lake
round the year for aesthetic and recreational purposes, and
under OWRCP, April 1999. Water Resource Department,
local pilgrims visiting Kaliaji Temple and other places of Government of Orissa.
worship. Investments for promoting eco-tourism, by training
local boatmen, would be a worthwhile venture. Investments
Ghosh, A.K. 1999b. Integrated Management Action Plan
from the private sector on boats, nets, ice factories and for Chilika Lake under World Bank aided Orissa Water
transportation of produce is likely to increase with the
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Lagoon

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Disclaimer
Roy, A. 2001. Ecological Investigations on the plant resources
The fi ndings, interpretations and conclusions expressed
of the Lake Chilika, Orissa, India. Ph.D. Thesis, Botanical in this report are the views of the authors and do not
Survey of India, University of Calcutta.
necessarily represent the views of The World Bank and its
Board of Directors, or the countries they represent, nor do
Unpublished Reports
they necessarily represent the view of the organizations,
agencies or governments to which any of the authors are
CDA. 1991. Sustainable Development of Chilika Lake, Orissa.
associated. Also, the colors, boundaries, denominations, and
classifi cations in this report do not imply, on the part of The
CDA. 2005. Monitoring Reports.
World Bank and its Board of Directors, or the countries they
represent, and the organizations, agencies or governments to

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
131

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Figure 4. The Mahanadi River Basin.
132 Chilika
Lagoon

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